Part 4
Climate: severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing
Terrain: about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to about 5,000 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: Vinson Massif 5,140 m
Natural resources: none presently exploited; iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small, uncommercial quantities
Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% meadows and pastures: 0% forest and woodland: 0% other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)
Irrigated land: 0 sq km
Environment: current issues: in October 1991 it was reported that the ozone shield, which protects the Earth's surface from harmful ultraviolet radiation, had dwindled to the lowest level recorded over Antarctica since 1975 when measurements were first taken natural hazards: katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak international agreements: NA
Geographic note: the coldest, windiest, highest, and driest continent; during summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable
People ------
Population: no indigenous inhabitants; note - there are seasonally staffed research stations Summer (January) population: over 4,115 total; Argentina 207, Australia 268, Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Chile 256, China NA, Ecuador NA, Finland 11, France 78, Germany 32, Greenpeace 12, India 60, Italy 210, Japan 59, South Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 264, Norway 23, Peru 39, Poland NA, South Africa 79, Spain 43, Sweden 10, UK 116, Uruguay NA, US 1,666, former USSR 565 (1989-90) Winter (July) population: over 1,046 total; Argentina 150, Australia 71, Brazil 12, Chile 73, China NA, France 33, Germany 19, Greenpeace 5, India 1, Japan 38, South Korea 14, NZ 11, Poland NA, South Africa 12, UK 69, Uruguay NA, US 225, former USSR 313 (1989-90) Year-round stations: 42 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile 3, China 2, Finland 1, France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 2, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Poland 1, South Africa 3, UK 5, Uruguay 1, US 3, former USSR 6 (1990-91) Summer-only stations: over 38 total; Argentina 7, Australia 3, Chile 5, Germany 3, India 1, Italy 1, Japan 4, NZ 2, Norway 1, Peru 1, South Africa 1, Spain 1, Sweden 2, UK 1, US numerous, former USSR 5 (1989-90); note - the disintegration of the former USSR has placed the status and future of its Antarctic facilities in doubt; stations may be subject to closings at any time because of ongoing economic difficulties
Government ----------
Name of country: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Antarctica
Data code: AY
Type of government: Antarctic Treaty Summary: The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica. Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings - the 18th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was in Japan in April 1993. Currently, there are 42 treaty member nations: 26 consultative and 16 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 19 nonclaimant nations. The US and some other nations that have made no claims have reserved the right to do so. The US does not recognize the claims of others. The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), China (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), the US, and Russia. Acceding (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Bulgaria (1978), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), and Ukraine (1992). Article 1: area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose Article 2: freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue Article 3: free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the UN and other international agencies Article 4: does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force Article 5: prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes Article 6: includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south Article 7: treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given Article 8: allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states Article 9: frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations Article 10: treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty Article 11: disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ Articles 12 13 14: deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations Other agreements: more than 170 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964); Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but was subsequently rejected; in 1991 the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed and awaits ratification; this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas; it also prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research; 21 parties have ratified Protocol as of April 1996
Legal system: US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. Some US laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute: The taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially protected or scientific areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica. Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and 1 year in prison. The Departments of Treasury, Commerce, Transportation, and Interior share enforcement responsibilities. Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs, Room 5801, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. For more information contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230 (703) 306-1031.
Economy -------
Economic overview: No economic activity at present except for fishing off the coast and small-scale tourism, both based abroad.
Transportation --------------
Ports: none; offshore anchorage
Airports: 50 landing facilities at different locations operated by 16 national governments party to the Treaty; one additional air facility operated by commercial (nongovernmental) tourist organization; helicopter pads at 25 of these locations; runways at 13 locations are gravel, sea ice, glacier ice, or compacted snow surface suitable for wheeled fixed-wing aircraft; no paved runways; 12 locations have snow-surface skiways limited to use by ski-equipped planes - 8 runways/skiways greater than 3,000 m,10 runways/skiways 1,000 to 3,000 m, 3 runways/skiways less than 1,000 m, and 4 of unspecified or variable length; airports generally subject to severe restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; airports do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from the respective governmental or non-governmental operating organization required for landing (1995 est.)
Communications --------------
Telephones: NA
Telephone system: domestic: NA international: NA
Radio broadcast stations: AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
Radios: NA
Television broadcast stations: NA
Televisions: NA
Defense -------
Defense note: the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes
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@Antigua and Barbuda -------------------
Map ---
Location: 17 03 N, 61 48 W -- Caribbean, islands between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east-southeast of Puerto Rico
Flag ----
Description: red with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white with a yellow rising sun in the black band
Geography ---------
Location: Caribbean, islands between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east-southeast of Puerto Rico
Geographic coordinates: 17 03 N, 61 48 W
Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total area: 440 sq km land area: 440 sq km comparative area: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC note: includes Redonda
Land boundaries: 0 km
Coastline: 153 km
Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
International disputes: none
Climate: tropical marine; little seasonal temperature variation
Terrain: mostly low-lying limestone and coral islands with some higher volcanic areas lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m highest point: Boggy Peak 402 m
Natural resources: negligible; pleasant climate fosters tourism
Land use: arable land: 18% permanent crops: 0% meadows and pastures: 7% forest and woodland: 16% other: 59%
Irrigated land: NA sq km
Environment: current issues: water management - a major concern because of limited natural fresh water resources - is further hampered by the clearing of trees to increase crop production, causing rainfall to run off quickly natural hazards: hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October); periodic droughts international agreements: party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling; signed, but not ratified - Desertification
People ------
Population: 65,647 (July 1996 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 25% (male 8,386; female 8,043) 15-64 years: 69% (male 22,589; female 22,548) 65 years and over: 6% (male 1,820; female 2,261) (July 1996 est.)
Population growth rate: 0.76% (1996 est.)
Birth rate: 16.83 births/1,000 population (1996 est.)
Death rate: 5.32 deaths/1,000 population (1996 est.)
Net migration rate: -3.9 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1996 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.8 male(s)/female all ages: 1 male(s)/female (1996 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 17.2 deaths/1,000 live births (1996 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 73.64 years male: 71.55 years female: 75.84 years (1996 est.)
Total fertility rate: 1.68 children born/woman (1996 est.)
Nationality: noun: Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s) adjective: Antiguan, Barbudan
Ethnic divisions: black, British, Portuguese, Lebanese, Syrian
Religions: Anglican (predominant), other Protestant sects, some Roman Catholic
Languages: English (official), local dialects
Literacy: age 15 and over has completed five or more years of schooling (1960 est.) total population: 89% male: 90% female: 88%
Government ----------
Name of country: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Antigua and Barbuda
Data code: AC
Type of government: parliamentary democracy
Capital: Saint John's
Administrative divisions: 6 parishes and 2 dependencies*; Barbuda*, Redonda*, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mary, Saint Paul, Saint Peter, Saint Philip
Independence: 1 November 1981 (from UK)
National holiday: Independence Day, 1 November (1981)
Constitution: 1 November 1981
Legal system: based on English common law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952) is a hereditary monarch, represented by Governor General James B. CARLISLE (since NA 1993) who was chosen by the queen on advice from the prime minister head of government: Prime Minister Lester Bryant BIRD (since 8 March 1994) was appointed by the governor general cabinet: Council of Ministers was appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister
Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament Senate: 17- member body appointed by the governor general House of Representatives: elections last held 8 March 1994 (next to be held NA 1999); results - percent of vote by party NA; seats - (17 total) ALP 11, UPP 5, independent 1
Judicial branch: Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (based in Saint Lucia), one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction
Political parties and leaders: Antigua Labor Party (ALP), Lester Bryant BIRD; United Progressive Party (UPP), headed by Baldwin SPENCER, a coalition of three opposition political parties-the United National Democratic Party (UNDP); the Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement (ACLM); and the Progressive Labor Movement (PLM)
Other political or pressure groups: Antigua Trades and Labor Union (ATLU), William ROBINSON; People's Democratic Movement (PDM), Hugh MARSHALL
International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM (observer), OAS, OECS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WTrO
Diplomatic representation in US: chief of mission: Ambassador Lionel Alexander HURST chancery: 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016 telephone: [1] (202) 362-5211, 5166, 5122 FAX: [1] (202) 362-5225 consulate(s) general: Miami
US diplomatic representation: the US does not have an embassy in Antigua and Barbuda (embassy closed 30 June 1994); the US Ambassador to Barbados is accredited to Antigua and Barbuda
Flag: red with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white with a yellow rising sun in the black band
Economy -------
Economic overview: Tourism continues to be by far the dominant activity in the economy but the combined share in GDP of transport and communications, trade, and public utilities has increased markedly in recent years. Tourism's direct contribution to output in 1994 was about 20%. In addition, increased tourist arrivals helped spur growth in the construction and transport sectors. The dual island nation's agricultural production is mainly directed to the domestic market; the sector is constrained by the limited water supply and labor shortages that reflect the pull of higher wages in tourism and construction. Manufacturing - which accounts for 3.5% of GDP - comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialized world, especially in the US, which accounts for about half of all tourist arrivals.
GDP: purchasing power parity - $425 million (1994 est.)
GDP real growth rate: 4.2% (1994 est.)
GDP per capita: $6,600 (1994 est.)
GDP composition by sector: agriculture: 3.5% industry: 19.3% services: 77.2% (1994 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3.5% (1994)
Labor force: 30,000 by occupation: commerce and services 82%, agriculture 11%, industry 7% (1983)
Unemployment rate: 5%-10%(1995 est.)
Budget: revenues: $134 million expenditures: $135.4 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1995)
Industries: tourism, construction, light manufacturing (clothing, alcohol, household appliances)
Industrial production growth rate: -4.9% (1993 est.)
Electricity: capacity: 52,100 kW production: 95 million kWh consumption per capita: 1,242 kWh (1993)
Agriculture: cotton, fruits, vegetables, bananas, coconuts, cucumbers, mangoes, sugarcane; livestock
Illicit drugs: a long-time but relatively minor transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe and recent transshipment point for heroin from Europe to the US; more significant as a drug money laundering center
Exports: $40.9 million (f.o.b., 1994 est.) commodities: petroleum products 48%, manufactures 23%, food and live animals 4%, machinery and transport equipment 17% partners: OECS 26%, Barbados 15%, Guyana 4%, Trinidad and Tobago 2%, US 0.3%
Imports: $443.8 million (f.o.b., 1994 est.) commodities: food and live animals, machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, oil partners: US 27%, UK 16%, Canada 4%, OECS 3%, other 50%
External debt: $377 million (1995 est.)
Economic aid: $NA
Currency: 1 EC dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
Exchange rates: East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.70 (fixed rate since 1976)
Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
Transportation --------------
Railways: total: 77 km narrow gauge: 64 km 0.760-m gauge; 13 km 0.610-m gauge (used almost exclusively for handling sugarcane)
Highways: total: 240 km paved: NA km unpaved: NA km
Ports: Saint John's
Merchant marine: total: 367 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,573,063 GRT/2,147,243 DWT ships by type: bulk 6, cargo 247, chemical tanker 6, combination bulk 1, container 72, liquefied gas tanker 2, oil tanker 3, refrigerated cargo 14, roll-on/roll-off cargo 16 note: a flag of convenience registry: Germany owns 12 ships, Slovenia 3, Croatia 2, Cyprus 1, and US 1 (1995 est.)
Airports: total: 3 with paved runways 2 438 to 3 047 m: 1 with paved runways under 914 m: 2 (1995 est.)
Communications --------------
Telephones: 6,700
Telephone system: domestic: good automatic telephone system international: 1 coaxial submarine cable; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter to Saba (Netherlands Antilles) and Guadeloupe
Radio broadcast stations: AM 4, FM 2, shortwave 2
Radios: NA
Television broadcast stations: 2
Televisions: 28,000 (1993 est.)
Defense -------
Branches: Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defense Force, Royal Antigua and Barbuda Police Force (includes the Coast Guard)
Manpower availability: males age 15-49: NA males fit for military service: NA
Defense expenditures: exchange rate conversion - $1.4 million, 1% of GDP (FY90/91)
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@Arctic Ocean ------------
Map ---
Location: 90 00 N, 0 00 E -- body of water mostly north of the Arctic Circle
Geography ---------
Location: body of water mostly north of the Arctic Circle
Geographic coordinates: 90 00 N, 0 00 E
Map references: Arctic Region
Area: total area: 14.056 million sq km comparative area: slightly more than 1.5 times the size of the US; smallest of the world's four oceans (after Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean) note: includes Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, Northwest Passage, and other tributary water bodies
Coastline: 45,389 km
International disputes: some maritime disputes (see littoral states); Svalbard is the focus of a maritime boundary dispute between Norway and Russia
Climate: polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow
Terrain: central surface covered by a perennial drifting polar icepack that averages about 3 meters in thickness, although pressure ridges may be three times that size; clockwise drift pattern in the Beaufort Gyral Stream, but nearly straight line movement from the New Siberian Islands (Russia) to Denmark Strait (between Greenland and Iceland); the icepack is surrounded by open seas during the summer, but more than doubles in size during the winter and extends to the encircling land masses; the ocean floor is about 50% continental shelf (highest percentage of any ocean) with the remainder a central basin interrupted by three submarine ridges (Alpha Cordillera, Nansen Cordillera, and Lomonsov Ridge) lowest point: Fram Basin -4,665 m highest point: sea level 0 m
Natural resources: sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales)
Environment: current issues: endangered marine species include walruses and whales; fragile ecosystem slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage natural hazards: ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada; permafrost in islands; virtually icelocked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May international agreements: NA
Geographic note: major chokepoint is the southern Chukchi Sea (northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait); strategic location between North America and Russia; shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia, floating research stations operated by the US and Russia; maximum snow cover in March or April about 20 to 50 centimeters over the frozen ocean; snow cover lasts about 10 months
Government ----------
Data code: none; the US Government has not approved a standard for hydrographic codes - see the Cross-Reference List of Hydrographic Data Codes appendix
Economy -------
Economic overview: Economic activity is limited to the exploitation of natural resources, including petroleum, natural gas, fish, and seals.
Transportation --------------
Ports: Churchill (Canada), Murmansk (Russia), Prudhoe Bay (US)
Transportation note: sparse network of air, ocean, river, and land routes; the Northwest Passage (North America) and Northern Sea Route (Eurasia) are important seasonal waterways
Communications --------------
Telephone system: international: no submarine cables
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@Argentina ---------
Map ---
Location: 34 00 S, 64 00 W -- Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Chile and Uruguay
Flag ----
Description: three equal horizontal bands of light blue (top), white, and light blue; centered in the white band is a radiant yellow sun with a human face known as the Sun of May
Geography ---------
Location: Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Chile and Uruguay
Geographic coordinates: 34 00 S, 64 00 W
Map references: South America
Area: total area: 2,766,890 sq km land area: 2,736,690 sq km comparative area: slightly less than three-tenths the size of the US
Land boundaries: total: 9,665 km border countries: Bolivia 832 km, Brazil 1,224 km, Chile 5,150 km, Paraguay 1,880 km, Uruguay 579 km
Coastline: 4,989 km
Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
International disputes: short section of the boundary with Uruguay is in dispute; short section of the boundary with Chile is indefinite; claims British-administered Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas); claims British-administered South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; territorial claim in Antarctica
Climate: mostly temperate; arid in southeast; subantarctic in southwest
Terrain: rich plains of the Pampas in northern half, flat to rolling plateau of Patagonia in south, rugged Andes along western border lowest point: Salinas Chicas -40 m highest point: Cerro Aconcagua 6,962 m
Natural resources: fertile plains of the pampas, lead, zinc, tin, copper, iron ore, manganese, petroleum, uranium
Land use: arable land: 9% permanent crops: 4% meadows and pastures: 52% forest and woodland: 22% other: 13%
Irrigated land: 17,600 sq km (1989 est.)