Part 15

At the opening of 1901 the country was chiefly interested in the forthcoming presidential election, for which the candidates were Don Pedro Montt (Conservative and Clerical) and Señor German Riesco (Liberal). The relations between President Errázuriz and congress became rather strained, owing to the former's inclination to retain in office a ministry on which congress had passed a vote of censure; but Errázuriz had been in ill-health for more than a year, and on the 1st of May he resigned, and died in July. At the ensuing election Riesco was elected president. The attitude of Chile towards the Pan-American Congress at Mexico became a matter of interest in the autumn, particularly in connexion with the proposal for compulsory arbitration between all American governments. The Chilean government made it quite clear that they would withdraw from the congress if this proposal was meant to be retroactive; and their unyielding attitude testified to the apprehensions felt by Chile concerning United States interference. In October the Chilean government announced that the contemplated conversion scheme, for which gold had been accumulated, would be postponed for two years (till October 1903), the gold being held as a reserve fund pending the result of the arbitration over the Argentine frontier. This was generally considered to be a reasonable and statesmanlike course. Unfortunately, a recrudescence of the excitement over the boundary dispute was occasioned by the irritation created in Argentina by the fact that, pending a decision, Chile was constructing roads in the disputed territory. During December 1901 relations were exceedingly strained, and troops were called out on both sides. But at the end of the month it was agreed to leave the question to the British arbitrators, and the latter decided to send one of their number, Sir T.H. Holdich, to examine the territory.

Argentine boundary award.

The survey occupied some eight months, and it was not until the autumn that Sir T.H. Holdich returned to England to make his report. The difficulty of ascertaining the true line watershed had been very great, but the result was eminently successful. The award of King Edward was signed on the 20th of November 1902, and both parties to the litigation were satisfied. In order that future disputes might be amicably settled, a treaty was signed by which it was agreed that any question that might arise should be submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain or in default of that power to the Swiss Confederation. The removal of this source of irritation and the restoration of friendly relations between the two republics was a great relief to the finance of Chile. Had it not been for the political instability of the country, the effects of the diminution of expenditure on military and naval preparations would have effected a rapid improvement in its financial position. The constant change of ministry (there being no stable majority in the congress) prevented during 1903 any settled policy, or that confidence in the government which is the basis of commercial prosperity. In 1904, however, both trade and revenue showed signs of improvement, and the sale of the warships "Esmeralda" and "Chambuco" for £1,000,000 furnished a surplus, which was devoted to the improvement of the port of Valparaiso. This was the beginning of a period of steady industrial growth and development. The settlement of the long outstanding dispute with Bolivia in a treaty of peace signed on the 17th of October 1905 was very advantageous to both countries. By this treaty Bolivia ceded all claims to a seaport and strip of the coast, on condition that Chile constructed at her own charges a railway to Lapaz from the port of Arica, giving at the same time to Bolivia free transit across Chilean territory to the sea. A cash indemnity of £300,000 was also paid, and certain stipulations were made with regard to the construction of other railways giving access from Chile to the Bolivian interior.

Valparaiso earthquake

The prosperity of Chile was to suffer a rude shock. On the 17th of August 1906 a terrible earthquake visited Valparaiso and the surrounding district. The town of Valparaiso was almost entirely destroyed, while Santiago and other towns were severely shaken and suffered much damage. It was estimated that about 3000 persons were killed, a still larger number injured, and at least 100,000 rendered homeless. The loss of property was enormous. The fire which broke out after the earthquake shock had subsided added to the horror of the catastrophe. Measures were, however, promptly taken for succouring the people, who had been driven from their homes, and the task of restoration was vigorously taken in hand. Before the end of the year the rebuilding of the city was rapidly progressing.

President Pedro Montt.

In 1906 Señor Pedro Montt was elected president and entered upon his office on the 17th of September. The personality of the president, however, had become of much less importance in modern Chile than in earlier days. Up to 1870 the government was in the hands of a small oligarchy of Santiago families, but the president enjoyed large powers of initiative. Nowadays the congress has virtually absorbed the executive power, with the result that the cabinet is often changed many times in one year. This prevents indeed any continuity of policy, for the majority in congress is perpetually fluctuating, and ministerial crises rapidly follow one another. Chile, however, except in the Balmacedist civil war, is happily distinguished by its freedom from revolution and serious political unrest. Its history in this respect is in marked contrast to that of the neighbouring South American states. The completion of the Trans-Andean railway between Valparaiso and Buenos Aires was bound to be of immense commercial and industrial value; and eventually the making of a longitudinal railway route uniting the nitrate province of the north with Santiago, and Santiago with Puerto Montt in the distant south, opened up further important prospects. Such a line of through communication, binding together the different provinces forming the long narrow strip of territory stretching along more than 2000 m. of the Pacific littoral, could only be looked forward to, both politically and economically, as an inestimable benefit to the country.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_General History_.--The most valuable authority is D. Barros Arana's _Historia jeneral de Chile_ (15 vols., Santiago, 1884), from the earliest days up to 1830. Smaller handbooks covering the whole period are: A.U. Hancock, a _History of Chile_ (Chicago, 1893), the only general history in English, and containing a bibliography; Gaspar Toro, _Compendio de la historia de Chile_ (Santiago, 1879), a good clear abstract of Chilean history; and F. Valdes Vergara, _Historia de Chile_ (Valparaiso, 1898), written primarily for schools, but containing useful sketches of leading figures in Chilean history.

_Works on Special Periods_.--Colonial Period: M.L. Amunátequi, _Descubri miento y conquista de Chile_ (Santiago, 1885), a valuable detailed account of the Spanish conquest; by same author, _Los Precursores de la independencia de Chile_ (Santiago, 1870), a clear useful description of the evils of the Spanish colonial system; Horacio Lara, _Cronica de la Araucania_ (Santiago, 1889), a history of the Araucanian Indians right up to recent dates; Abbé Eyzaguirre, _Histoire du Chili_ (Lille, 1855), mainly dealing with the position of the Church during the colonial period. Perez Garcia's _Historia del reino de Chile_ (Santiago, 1900), an old history by a Spanish officer written about 1780, and Molina's _History of Chili_ in the English translation (London, 1809), will also be found useful. Useful material for research exists in J.T. Medina's _Coleccion de documentos para la historia de Chile_ (Santiago, 1888), a collection of despatches and official documents; his _Cosas de la colonia_ (Santiago, 1889), an accumulation of undigested information about life in the colonial period; and _Historiadores de Chile_ (21 vols., Santiago, 1861), a collection of ancient chronicles and official documents up to the early part of the 17th century.

_Revolutionary Period_.--A. Roldan, _Las Primeras Asambleas nacionales_ (Santiago, 1890), an account of the struggles in the first national assemblies; A. Valdes, _Revolucion Chilena y campañas de la independencia_ (Santiago, 1888), an account of the early fighting and rivalry of the revolutionary leaders; W. Pilling, _Emancipation of South America_ (London, 1893), a translation of B. Mitre's life of San Martin, describing the fighting in the wars of independence; Lord Cochrane, _Narrative of Services in Chile, Peru and Brazil_ (London, 1859), an autobiography describing the naval exploits that helped to secure the expulsion of the Spaniards; B. Vicuña Machenna, _Vida de O'Higgins_ (Santiago, 1882), giving a useful account of the revolutionary struggle and the main actors; and the same author's _Historia jeneral de la republica de Chile_, a collection of essays on the early republican history by various writers.

_Later History_.--R. Sotomayor Valdes, _Historia de Chili, 1831-1871_, a detailed account of the period (Santiago, 1875); the same author's _Campaña del ejercito Chileno en 1837_ (Santiago, 1896), describing the fighting of the first Peruvian War; B. Vicuña Machenna, _D. Diego Portales_ (Valparaiso, 1863), a good account of the life and time of Portales, the famous minister of the Conservative party; P.B. Fiqueroa, _Historia de la revolution constituyente 1858-59_ (Santiago, 1889), an account of the revolution at the end of Montt's presidency; F. Fonch, _Chile in der Gegenwart_ (Berlin, 1870), a description of Chile at the time; _Statement on Behalf of Chile_ (in the Chilean-Argentine Boundary Arbitration) (6 vols., London, 1901-1902); Sir Thomas Holdich, _Countries of the King's Award_ (1904); Beltran y Rospido, _Los Pueblos hispano-americanos en el siglo XX._ (Madrid, 1904); P.F. Martin, _Through Five Republics of South America_ (London, 1906); Wright, _The Republic of Chile_ (London, 1905); G.F. Scott Elliot, _Chilé_ (London, 1907); Sir W.M. Conway, _Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego_ (London, 1902); "Chile-Argentine Arbitration" in the _Geog. Journal_ (January 1903); C.M. Pepper, _Panama to Patagonia_ (London, 1907); C.E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854-1904_ (London, 1904); M. Hume, _Lecture on the Republic of Chile_ (London, 1902). (E. G. J. M.; C. E. A.; G. E.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See A. Pissis, "Sur la constitution géologique de la chaîne des Andes entre le 16° et le 55° degré de latitude sud," _Ann. des mines_, ser. 7, vol. iii. (Mém.), 1873, pp. 402-426, pils. ix., x.; R.A. Philippi, _Die tertiären und quartären Versteinerungen Chiles_ (Leipzig, 1887), (includes also descriptions of some Cretaceous fossils), and _Los Fósiles secondarios de Chile_ (Santiago, 1899); Karl Burckhardt, "Profils géologiques transversaux de la Cordillère argentino-chilienne. Stratigraphie et tectonique," _Anales Mus. La Plata_, 1900, and "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Jura- und Kreide-formation der Cordillere," _Palaeontographica_, vol. 1. (1903-1904) pp. 1-144, pls. i.-xvi.; see also a series of papers on South American geology by G. Steinmann and his collaborators in _Neues Jahrb, für Min._ Beil.-band viii. et seq.

[2] _Notes of a Naturalist in South America_, p. 134.

[3] Also classified as _Nothofagus_ (Mirb.).

[4] A. Gallenga, _South America_ (London, 1880), p. 181.

[5] The expenditures of 1902 are also given as 25,882,702 pesos gold, and 108,844,693 pesos currency.

CHILEAN CIVIL WAR (1891). The Chilean civil war grew out of political dissensions between the president of Chile, J.M. Balmaceda, and his congress (see CHILE: _History_), and began in January 1891. On the 6th, at Valparaiso, the political leaders of the Congressional party went on board the ironclad "Blanco Encalada," and Captain Jorje Montt of that vessel hoisted a broad pennant as commodore of the Congressional fleet. Preparations had long been made for the naval _pronunciamento_, and in the end but few vessels of the Chilean navy adhered to the cause of the "dictator" Balmaceda. But amongst these were two new and fast torpedo gunboats, "Almirante Condell" and "Almirante Lynch," and in European dockyards (incomplete) lay the most powerful vessel of the navy, the "Arturo Prat," and two fast cruisers. If these were secured by the Balmacedists the naval supremacy of the congress would be seriously challenged. For the present, and without prejudice to the future, command of the sea was held by Montt's squadron (January). The rank and file of the army remained faithful to the executive, and thus in the early part of the war the "Gobernistas," speaking broadly, possessed an army without a fleet, the congress a fleet without an army. Balmaceda hoped to create a navy; the congress took steps to recruit an army by taking its sympathizers on board the fleet. The first shot was fired, on the 16th of January, by the "Blanco" at the Valparaiso batteries, and landing parties from the warships engaged small parties of government troops at various places during January and February. The dictator's principal forces were stationed in and about Iquique, Coquirabo, Valparaiso, Santiago and Concepción. The troops at Iquique and Coquimbo were necessarily isolated from the rest and from each other, and military operations began, as in the campaign of 1879 in this quarter, with a naval descent upon Pisagua followed by an advance inland to Dolores. The Congressional forces failed at first to make good their footing (16th-23rd of January), but, though defeated in two or three actions, they brought off many recruits and a quantity of munitions of war. On the 26th they retook Pisagua, and on the 15th of February the Balmacedist commander, Eulojio Robles, who offered battle in the expectation of receiving reinforcements from Tacna, was completely defeated on the old battlefield of San Francisco. Robles fell back along the railway, called up troops from Iquique, and beat the invaders at Haura on the 17th, but Iquique in the meanwhile fell to the Congressional fleet on the 16th. The Pisagua line of operations was at once abandoned, and the military forces of the congress were moved by sea to Iquique, whence, under the command of Colonel Estanislao Del Canto, they started inland. The battle of Pozo Almonte, fought on the 7th of March, was desperately contested, but Del Canto was superior in numbers, and Robles was himself killed and his army dispersed. After this the other Balmacedist troops in the north gave up the struggle. Some were driven into Peru, others into Bolivia, and one column made a laborious retreat from Calama to Santiago, in the course of which it twice crossed the main chain of the Andes.

The Congressional _Junta de Gobierno_ now established in Iquique prosecuted the war vigorously, and by the end of April the whole country was in the hands of the "rebels" from the Peruvian border to the outposts of the Balmacedists at Coquimbo and La Serena. The _Junta_ now began the formation of a properly organized army for the next campaign, which, it was believed universally on both sides, would be directed against Coquimbo. But in a few months the arrival of the new ships from Europe would reopen the struggle for command of the sea; the _torpederas_ "Condell" and "Lynch" had already weakened the Congressional squadron severely by sinking the "Blanco Encalada" in Caldera Bay (23rd of April), and the Congressional party could no longer aim at a methodical conquest of successive provinces, but was compelled to attempt to crush the dictator at a blow. Where this blow was to fall was not decided up to the last moment, but the instrument which was to deliver it was prepared with all the care possible under the circumstances. Del Canto was made commander-in-chief, and an ex-Prussian officer, Emil Körner, chief of staff. The army was organized in three brigades of all arms, at Iquique, Caldera and Vallenar. Körner superintended the training of the men, gave instruction in tactics to the officers, caused maps to be prepared, and in general took every precaution that his experience could suggest to ensure success. Del Canto was himself no mere figurehead, but a thoroughly capable leader who had distinguished himself at Tacna (1880) and Miraflores (1881), as well as in the present war. The men were enthusiastic, and the officers unusually numerous. The artillery was fair, the cavalry good, and the train and auxiliary services well organized. About one-third of the infantry were armed with the (Männlicher) magazine rifle, which now made its first appearance in war, the remainder had the Gras and other breech-loaders, which were also the armament of the dictator's infantry. Balmaceda could only wait upon events, but he prepared his forces as best he was able, and his _torpederas_ constantly harried the Congressional navy. By the end of July Del Canto and Körner had done their work as well as time permitted, and early in August the troops prepared to embark, not for Coquimbo, but for Valparaiso itself.

The expedition by sea was admirably managed, and Quinteros, N. of Valparaiso and not many miles out of range of its batteries, was occupied on the 20th of August 1891. Balmaceda was surprised, but acted promptly. The first battle was fought on the Aconcagua at Concon on the 21st. The eager infantry of the Congressional army forced the passage of the river and stormed the heights held by the Gobernistas, capturing 36 guns. The killed and wounded of the Balmacedists numbered 1600, and nearly all the prisoners, about 1500 men, enrolled themselves in the rebel army, which thus more than made good its loss of 1000 killed and wounded. The victors pressed on towards Valparaiso, but were soon brought up by the strong fortified position of the Balmacedist general Barbosa at Viña del Mar, whither Balmaceda hurried up all available troops from Valparaiso and Santiago, and even from Concepción. Del Canto and Körner now resolved on a daring step. Supplies of all kinds were brought up from Quinteros to the front, and on the 24th of August the army abandoned its line of communications and marched inland. The flank march was conducted with great skill, little opposition was encountered, and the rebels finally appeared to the south-east of Valparaiso. Here, on the 28th, took place the decisive battle of La Placilla. Concon had been perhaps little more than the destruction of an isolated corps; the second battle was a fair trial of strength, for Barbosa was well prepared, and had under his command the greater part of the existing forces of the dictator. But the splendid fighting qualities of the Congressional troops and the superior generalship of their leaders prevailed in the end over every obstacle. The government army was practically annihilated, 941 men were killed, including Barbosa and his second in command, and 2402 wounded. The Congressional army lost over 1800 men. Valparaiso was occupied the same evening and Santiago soon afterwards. There was no further fighting, for so great was the effect of the battles of Concon and La Placella that even the Coquimbo troops surrendered without firing a shot.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lieut. Sears and Ensign Wells, U.S.N., _The Chilian Revolution of 1891_ (Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1893); _The Capture of Valparaiso, 1891_ (Intelligence Department, War Office, London, 1892); Hermann Kunz, _Taktische Beispiele aus den Kriegen der neuesten Zeit; der Bürgerkrieg in Chile_ (Berlin, 1901); _Revista militar de Chile_ (February-March 1892); Hugo Kunz, _Der Bürgerkrieg in Chile_ (Vienna, 1892); _Militär Wochenblatt_ (5th supplement, 1892); Sir W. Laird Clowes, _Four Modern Naval Campaigns_ (London, 1902); _Proceedings of U.S. Naval Institute_ (1894) (for La Placilla); and the military and naval periodicals of 1892.

CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR (1879-1882). The proximate cause of this war was the seizure, by the authorities of Bolivia, of the effects of the Chilean Nitrate Company at Antofagasta, then part of the Bolivian province of Atacama. The first act of hostility was the despatch of 500 soldiers to protect Chilean interests at Antofagasta. This force, under Colonel Sotomayor, landed and marched inland; the only resistance encountered was at Calama on the river Loa, where a handful of newly raised militia was routed (23rd March 1879). About the same time Chilean warships occupied Cobija and Tocapilla, and Sotomayor, after his victory at Calama, marched to the latter port. Bolivia had declared war on the 1st of March, but Peru not till the 5th of April: this delay gave the Chileans time to occupy every port on the Bolivian coast. Thus the Chilean admiral was able to proceed at once to the blockade of the southern ports of Peru, and in particular Iquique, where there took place the first naval action of the war. On the 21st of April the Chilean sloop "Esmeralda" and the gunboat "Covadonga"--both small and weak ships--engaged the Peruvian heavy ironclads "Huascar" and "Independencia"; after a hot fight the "Huascar" under Miguel Grau sank the "Esmeralda" under Arturo Piat, who was killed, but Carlos Condell in the "Covadonga" manoeuvred the "Independencia" aground and shelled her into a complete wreck. The Chileans now gave up the blockade and concentrated all their efforts on the destruction of the "Huascar," while the allies organized a field army in the neighbourhood of Tacna and a large Chilean force assembled at Antofagasta.

On the 8th of October 1879 the "Huascar" was brought to action off Angamos by the "Blanco Encalada," and the "Almirante Cochrane." Grau was outmatched as hopelessly and made as brave a fight as Prat at Iquique. Early in the action a shot destroyed the Peruvian's conning tower, killing Grau and his staff, and another entered her turret, killing the flag captain and nearly all the crew of the turret guns. When the "Huascar" finally surrendered she had but one gun left in action, her fourth commander and three-quarters of her crew were killed and wounded, and the steering-gear had been shot away. The Peruvian navy had now ceased to exist. The Chileans resumed the blockade, and more active operations were soon undertaken. The whole force of the allies was about 20,000 men, scattered along the seaboard of Peru. The Chileans on the other hand had a striking force of 16,000 men in the neighbourhood of Antofagasta, and of this nearly half was embarked for Pisagua on the 26th of October. The expeditionary force landed, in the face of considerable opposition, on the 2nd of November, and captured Pisagua. From Pisagua the Peruvians and Bolivians fell back along the railway to their reinforcements, and when some 10,000 men had been collected they moved forward to attack the Chilean position of San Francisco near Dolores station (19th November). In the end the Chileans were victorious, but their only material gain was the possession of Iquique and the retreat of the allies, who fell back inland towards Tarapacá. The tardy pursuit of the Chileans ended in the battle of Tarapacá on the 27th. In this the allies were at first surprised, but, rapidly recovering themselves, took the offensive, and after a murderous fight, in which more men were killed than were wounded, the Chileans suffered a complete defeat. For some inexplicable reason the allies made no use of their victory, continued to retreat and left the Chileans in complete possession of the Tarapacá region. With this the campaign of 1879 ended. Chile had taken possession of the Bolivian seaboard and of the Peruvian province of Tarapacá, and had destroyed the hostile navy.