IV.

NICOTINE yields half its nitrogen as Ammonia 10.49

IV. Dr Guy, as well as others, have made researches, having for their object the determination of the exact temperature at which the poisonous alkaloids melt and sublime. A very minute speck of the substance is placed on a porcelain plate or copper disc, and a square or oval of microscope-covering glass is placed over it, supported by a thin ring of glass or any other convenient substance.

Heat is then applied to the plate or copper, and the temperature, as indicated by a thermometer at which the substance fuses or volatilises, is carefully noted.

CANTHARIDINE sublimes as a white Fahr. Cent. vapour without change of form or colour. 212 deg. 100 deg.

Sublime. Melt. /----------\ /----------\ Sublime, melt and Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. MORPHINE } yield carbonaceous { 330 deg. 165 deg. 340 deg. 171 deg. STRYCHNINE} residue. { 345 deg. 174 deg. 430 deg. 224 deg.

Melt. Sublime. /----------\ /----------\ Fahr. Cent. Fahr. Cent. ACONITINE } { 140 deg. 60 deg. 400 deg. 204 deg. ATROPINE } Melt, change { 150 deg. 66 deg. 280 deg. 138 deg. VERATRINE } colour, sublime, { 200 deg. 93 deg. 360 deg. 182 deg. BRUCINE } and { 240 deg. 116 deg. 400 deg. 204 deg. DIGITALIN } deposit carbon. { 310 deg. 154 deg. 310 deg. 154 deg. PICROTOXIN} { 320 deg. 160 deg. 320 deg. 160 deg. SOLANINE } { 420 deg. 215 deg. 420 deg. 216 deg.

_Selmi's method of extracting poisonous alkaloids in forensic investigations._ The alcoholic extract of the viscera, acidified and filtered, is evaporated at 65 deg. C., the residue taken up with water, filtered to separate fatty matters, and decoloured by means of basic acetate of lead, leaving the solution in contact with the air for 24 hours. It is then filtered, the lead precipitated by means of sulphuretted hydrogen, and the solution after concentration repeatedly extracted with ether. The ethereal solution is then saturated with dry carbonic anhydride, which generally causes a precipitate of minute drops adhering to the sides of the vessel, and containing some of the alkaloids. The ethereal solution is then poured into a clean vessel, mixed with about half its volume of water, and a current of carbonic anhydride passed for about twenty minutes, which may cause the precipitation of other alkaloids not precipitated by dry carbonic anhydride. Usually the whole of the alkaloids present in the ether are thrown down by these means, but if not, the solution is dehydrated by agitation with Barium oxide, and then a solution of tartaric acid in ether added to the clear liquid, taking great care not to employ excess of acid. This throws down any alkaloid that may remain. In order to extract any alkaloids that may still remain in the viscera, they are mixed with Barium hydrate and a little water, and then agitated with purified amylic alcohol; the alkaloids may subsequently be extracted from the alcohol by agitation with very dilute sulphuric acid.

A knowledge of the different solubilities of the alkaloids will be found an important auxiliary in their analysis. The following is a summary of the relative solubility of the most important of them. The figures denote the number of parts of the liquid required for their solution:--

_Absolute alcohol._--Strychnine insoluble; brucine soluble.

_Amylic alcohol._--Solanine (1061); digitalin sparingly soluble; morphine (133); strychnine (122); veratrine, brucine, atropine, aconitine, and picrotoxin, freely soluble.

_Benzol._--All the poisonous alkaloids, except solanine, are soluble in benzol.

_Chloroform._--Solanine (50,000); morphine (6550); strychnine (8); the rest freely soluble.

_Ether._--Solanine (9000); morphine (7725); strychnine (1400); aconitine (777); brucine (440); veratrine (108); atropine, picrotoxin,[26] and digitalin, very soluble.

[Footnote 26: Digitalin and picrotoxin, although not alkaloids, are inserted in the above list, because they have a general similarity in chemical properties to them; and for the convenience of the toxicologist.]

_Water_ (_cold_).--Strychnine (8333); veratrine (7860); morphine (4166); aconitine (1783); solanine (1750); brucine (900); atropine (414); picrotoxin (150); digitalin very soluble.

The principal Alkaloids and their Salts, in the state of powder, or with 'conia' and 'nicotia,' in the state of an oily looking liquid, may be thus distinguished:--

1. _a._ The powder is treated with nitric acid:--It is coloured red; probable presence of Brucia, Delphia, Morphia, or commercial Strychnia. If the reddened acid becomes violet on the addition of 'protochloride of tin,' it is BRUCIA; if it becomes black and carbonaceous, it is DELPHIA. If the powder is fusible without decomposition, and strongly decomposes iodic acid, it is MORPHIA; if it is not fusible without decomposition, and does not decompose iodic acid, it is STRYCHNIA.

_b._ If instead of a red, the powder strikes a green colour with nitric acid, it is SOLANIA; if it is insoluble in 'ether,' and not reddened by 'nitric acid,' it is EMETIA; if soluble in ether, not reddened by 'nitric acid,' but melts and volatilises when heated, it is ATROPIA; if it is thus affected by ether or nitric acid, but does not volatilise, it is VERATRIA. (See 2, _below_.)

2. _a._ The powder, or (with 'conia and nicotia') concentrated liquor, is treated with a drop or two of concentrated sulphuric acid:--A red colour is produced; probable presence of Brucia, Nicotina, Salicine, or Veratria. If the reddened mixture has at first a roseate hue, turning deep red on the addition of nitric acid, it is BRUCIA; if the original substance moistened with solution of potassa evolves the odour of tobacco, it contains NICOTINE; if the red colour produced by the acid is permanent and of an intense blood-hue, and the powder agglutinates into lumps like resin, it is SALICINE; if the colour is at first yellowish, changing to blood-red, and ultimately to crimson and violet, it is VERATRIA.

_b._ If instead of the substance being 'reddened' by strong sulphuric acid, no particular action ensues in the cold, it contains either Conia or Strychnia; if a small fragment of bichromate of potassa being now dropped in, produces a rich violet colour, it is STRYCHNIA; if the original matter on being heated, or treated with solution of potassa, evolves a penetrating, disagreeable odour, somewhat analogous to that from 'hemlock,' or to a mixture of those from tobacco and mice, it is CONIA.

"_Reactions with ceroso-ceric oxide._ This oxide exhibits characteristic colours with several alkaloids, especially with STRYCHNINE. When strong sulphuric acid is poured upon strychnine, and then a small quantity of ceroso-ceric oxide added, a fine blue colour is produced, similar to that which strychnine exhibits with potassium bichromate, but much more permanent. The blue colour gradually changes to cherry-red, and then remains unaltered for several days. This reaction is capable of detecting one part of strychnine in a million parts of liquid. BRUCINE similarly treated acquires an orange-colour, gradually changing to yellow; MORPHINE, olive-brown, finally brown; NARCOTINE, brown cherry red, finally wine-red; CODEINE, olive-green, finally brown; QUININE, pale-yellow; CINCHONINE and THEINE remain colourless; VERATRINE becomes reddish-brown; ATROPINE, dingy yellowish-brown; SOLANINE, yellow at first, finally brownish; EMETINE, brown; COLCHICINE, first green, then dirty brown; ANILINE, after a long time, acquires a blue colour extending from the edges inwards; CONINE becomes light-yellow. PIPERINE colours the sulphuric acid blood-red, and is turned dark-brown, almost black by the cerium oxide" (Sonnenschein).

"_Reactions with picric acid._ This acid is a very good precipitant for alkaloids, affording a very delicate test for many of them, and may perhaps also serve for separating them one from another. The precipitation takes place even in solutions containing a large excess of sulphuric acid, and is sometimes complete. _Precipitated_ are, BRUCINE, STRYCHNINE, VERATRINE, QUINIDINE, CINCHONINE, and most of the opium alkaloids; _not precipitated_, MORPHINE, ATROPINE (English), PSEUDO-MORPHINE, CAFFEINE, and all glucosides" (Hager).

The presence of one or more of the alkaloids being shown by any of the preceding methods, a portion of the original clear solution or powder, or of the precipitates or filtrates above referred to, must be treated with their characteristic tests, as given under the individual notices of these articles, so as to set at rest all doubt as to their identity. No single test must ever be relied on as a positive proof. The presence of Brucia, Morphia and Strychnia may be determined in substances which after being mixed with the salts of these alkaloids have undergone the acetous, vinous, or putrefactive fermentation, as shown by Orfila, MM. Larocque and Thibierge, and many other eminent chemists and toxicologists, and confirmed, in numerous cases, by our own experiments. Opium and morphia may thus be readily detected in beer, wine, soup, and milk. A paper by Professor DRAGENDORF in the 'American Chemist' for April, 1876, may be consulted with advantage.

_Concluding Remarks._ It is a singular fact that none of the organic bases found in plants have yet been formed artificially, although several analogous substances have been thus produced. Closely allied to the alkaloids there also exists an extensive series of neutral proximate principles, which differ from those substances chiefly in the absence of basic properties, and in most of them being destitute of nitrogen. They are usually bitter, and, like the alkaloids, generally represent the active properties of the plants in which they are found; whilst some of them possess considerable medicinal energy. Of this kind are asparagin, elaterin, gentianin, picrotoxin, salicin, &c. These two classes of bodies, though actually distinct, are frequently confounded. See ALKALI, ORGANIC BASES, POISONS, PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES, VEGETABLES, NOMENCLATURE, &c.; also the individual alkaloids under their respective heads.

=ALKALOIDS OF ACONITE=. The nature of the active principle of aconite root does not appear to have been satisfactorily determined. Messrs Groves, Wright, and Williams contend that the _Aconitum napellus_ yields an active crystalline alkaloid, which they distinguish as _Aconitine_, and to which they assign the formula C_{33}H_{43}NO_{12}; they add that additionally the root contains more or less of another active alkaloid, which they term _Pseudaconitine_, and which is represented by the formula C_{36}H_{49}NO_{11}; they also assert that the extract of the roots contains varying quantities of certain decomposition products resulting from the saponification of the above bases by the acids, which are produced by the breaking up of part of the aconitine. The name of these decomposition products is _Aconine_ and _Pseudaconine_. Of _Aconitum ferox_ they report that it yields a comparatively large quantity of _Pseudaconitine_ and a small quantity of _Aconitine_. They further affirm that the so-called aconitine of commerce is a mixture of true aconitine and pseudaconitine with variable quantities of their alteration products, aconine and pseudaconine, and of certain amorphous unnamed alkaloids.

Messrs Paul and Kingzett contest the accuracy of these deductions, and dispute the correctness of the formula given to aconitine. Dr Paul doubts whether the alkaloid to which the active properties of the root are ascribed has ever yet been obtained in an isolated condition. He thinks it probable that the substance obtained from aconite root was to a great extent a salt of an acid, like aconitic acid. For further information the reader is referred to the 'Pharmaceutical Year Book' for 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, and 1877.

=AL'KANET.= _Syn._ ANCHU'SA, L.; ORCANETTE, Fr.; ORKANET, Ger.; OR'CHANET*, DYER'S AL'KANET, D. BU'GLOSS*. The _anchu'sa tincto''ria_ (Willd.; _lithosper'mum tincto''rium_--Linn.), a deciduous herbaceous plant, with a perennial, dark blood-red root. _Hab._ Asia Minor, Greece, Hungary, &c. It is also largely cultivated in the neighbourhood of Montpellier. The dried root (ALKANET ROOT; RADIX ANCHUSAE, R. A. TINCTORIAE) is chiefly imported from the Levant. It contains a beautiful blood-red colour, which it freely gives out to oils, fats, wax, spirits, essences, and similar substances, by simply infusing it in them, and is consequently much employed to colour these articles. Wax tinged with it, and applied on warm marble, stains it of a rich flesh-colour, which sinks deep into the stone, and possesses considerable durability. Its spirituous tincture also imparts a deep red to marble.

_Prop._, _&c._ The colouring matter of alkanet was regarded by Pelletier as a fatty acid (ANCHUSIC ACID); but it has since been shown to be a species of resin (ANCHUSINE, PSEUDO-ALKANNINE, P.-ALKANIUM). According to Dr John, good alkanet root contains 5-1/2 per cent. of this substance. Anchusine melts at 140 deg. Fahr.; is scarcely soluble in water, to which it only imparts a dirty red colour, but is very soluble in alcohol, oils, and acetic acid. Alkalies turn it blue. It is found wholly in the root-bark. In selecting this article, the smaller roots should therefore be chosen, as they possess more bark than the larger ones, in proportion to their weight. Exposure to ammoniacal fumes, or even handling it much with the fingers, changes its red to a crimson or purplish hue.

_Uses_, _&c._ It is much employed by druggists and perfumers to colour oils, lip-salves, plasters, pomatums, &c.; by varnish-makers, to tinge their varnishes and lacquers; by statuaries to stain marble; by dairy-farmers, to colour cheese; by wine-merchants and bottlers (in the form of tincture), to stain beforehand the corks of their port-wine bottles, in order to imitate the effects of age, and as colouring and flavouring for factitious port wine; and by dyers, and others. A species of crimson rouge was formerly prepared from it (hence its name).

=ALLANTO'IC ACID.= See ALLANTOIN.

=ALLAN'TOIN.= C_{8}H_{6}O_{6}N_{4}. _Syn._ ALLANTO'IC ACID*, AMNIOT'IC A.[dagger] AM'NIC A.[dagger]; ALLANTOI'NA, L. A substance discovered by Vauquelin and Buniva in what they imagined to be the liquor amnii of the cow, and hence named by them amniotic acid. It was afterwards shown by Dzondi and Lassaigne to exist in the fluid of the allantois, and not of the amnios. It has since been produced artificially by Woehler and Liebig.

_Prep._ 1. The allantoic fluid of the f[oe]tal calf is evaporated to 1-4th or 1-5th of its volume, and then set aside for some time. The crystals thus obtained are purified by re-solution, digestion with animal charcoal, and re-crystallisation.

2. (Woehler and Liebig.) Uric acid, 1 part; is dissolved in water, 20 parts; and freshly precipitated and well-washed binoxide of lead is added to the solution until the colour ceases to change; the liquid is next filtered while hot, evaporated until a pellicle forms on the surface, and then set aside to crystallise; the crystals being purified as before.

_Prop., &c._ Small, but very brilliant prismatic, transparent, colourless crystals; tasteless; neutral; soluble in 160 parts of cold water, and in much less at 212 deg.; nitric acid converts it into ALLANTURIC ACID; oil of vitriol resolves it into ammonia, carbonic acid, and carbonic oxide; hot concentrated solutions of the caustic alkalies change it into ammonia and oxalic acid.

=ALLANTOX'ICUM.= [L.] _Syn._ ALLANTOX'ICUM, L. (prim., Gr.). The poison developed, during putrefaction, in sausages made of blood, liver, &c. "It often proves speedily fatal." (Kraus.)

=ALLGEMEINE FLUSSTINCTUR= (Sulzberger, Salzungen). For the relief of a number of diseases, among which are cholera and sea-sickness. Aloes, 1 part; spirit of wine, 2 parts. (Spau.)

=ALLIA'CEOUS= (-sh'us). _Syn._ ALLIA'CEUS, L.; ALLIACE, AILIACE, Fr.; KNOBLAUCHARTIG, &c., Ger. Garlick-like; an epithet applied to substances having the odour or properties of garlic or onions.

=Alliaceous Plants.= Chives, garlic, leeks, onions, rocambole, shallots, &c.

=ALLIGA'TION.= _Syn._ ALLIGA'TIO, L. In _commercial arithmetic_, a rule for ascertaining the price or value of mixtures, and for determining the proportions of the ingredients that must be taken to produce mixtures of any given price, value, or strength. The first is called ALLIGATION ME'DIAL; the second, ALLIGATION ALTERN'ATE. Its principles and applications are explained under MIXTURES (Arithmetic of).

=ALLOP'ATHY.= _Syn._ ALLOPA'THIA, L. (from [Greek: allos], _other_, _different_, and [Greek: pathos], _affection_ or _disease_, Gr.); ALLOPATHIE, Fr. In _medicine_, the method of curing disease by the use of remedies which tend to produce a condition of the system, either differing from, opposed to, or incompatible with the condition believed to be essential to the disease it is sought to cure. It is commonly employed to distinguish the ordinary system of medical practice from hom[oe]opathy (which see). Hence (an) ALLOP'ATHIST, and the corresponding adjective ALLOPATH'IC (_allopath'icus_, L.).

=ALLOT'ROPY.= _Syn._ ALLOT'ROPISM; ALLOTRO'PIA, ALLOTROPIS'MUS, L. Literally, a difference in character; another form of the same substance. In _chemistry_, a term invented, by Berzelius, to express the state or condition, or the change of character, assumed by certain substances at different temperatures, or under different treatment, whilst their nature and composition continue the same. It more particularly relates to colour, hardness, solubility, texture, &c. Boron, carbon, silicon, iron, sulphur, and phosphorus, afford striking examples of the changes here referred to.

=ALLOX'ANTIN.= C_{8}H_{4}N_{4}O_{7}.3H_{2}O. A crystallisable substance, first obtained by Dr Prout from uric acid.

_Prep._ 1. Uric acid, 1 part; is boiled in water, 32 parts; dilute nitric acid being added until solution is complete; the resulting liquid is evaporated to 2/3rds its volume, and then set aside for 10 or 12 hours; the crystals, which are deposited, are purified by re-solution and crystallisation.

2. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed, in a full stream, through a moderately strong aqueous solution of alloxan, in the cold. The alloxantin, which is deposited as a crystalline mass, is purified by draining, cautious washing with cold water, re-solution in boiling water, and re-crystallisation. The impure mother-liquor from which crystals of alloxan have separated, if diluted with water, may be used for this purpose.

_Prop., &c._ Crystals, small colourless, transparent, four-sided, oblique rhombic prisms; scarcely soluble in cold water; solution reddens litmus; with baryta water it gives a characteristic violet-coloured precipitate, which disappears on heating; and with nitrate of silver a black precipitate of that metal; the crystals are reddened by ammoniacal vapours.

=ALLOY'.= _Syn._ ALLIAGE, Fr.; LEGIRUNG, VERMISCHUNG DURCH SCHMELZEN, Ger. In _coinage_, a compound of the precious metals with another, or others, of less value; also the least valuable metal, or metals, in such compounds. In _chemistry_ and _metallurgy_, combinations of the metals with each other usually obtained by fusion. When mercury is one of the component metals, the compound is termed an AMALGAM.

_Prep., &c._ No General rules can be given for this purpose. Alloys of metals differing greatly in fusibility, are commonly made by adding the more fusible one, either in the melted state, or in small portions at a time, to the other melted, or heated to the lowest possible temperature at which a perfect union will take place between them. The mixture is usually affected under a flux, or some material that will promote liquefaction, and prevent volatilisation and unnecessary exposure to the air. Thus, in melting lead and tin together, for solder, resin, or tallow is thrown upon the surface; in tinning copper, the surface is rubbed with sal ammoniac; and in combining some metals, powdered charcoal is used for the same purpose. Quicksilver combines with many metals in the cold, forming AMALGAMS.

_Comp._ The following _Table_ exhibits the composition of the more important compounds of this class:--

_Table of the principal Alloys._[27]

NAMES. COMBINING METALS.

ALBATA See German Silver. AMALGAMS Mercury and other metals. BATH-METAL Copper and zinc. BELL-METAL Copper and tin. BRASS Copper and zinc. BRITANNIA METAL Tin with antimony, copper, and bismuth. BRONZE Tin and copper. BRONZE ALUMINIUM Copper and aluminium. CANNON-METAL Tin and copper. DUTCH GOLD Copper and zinc. FUSIBLE METAL Bismuth, lead, and tin. GERMAN SILVER Copper, nickel, and zinc, with, sometimes, a little iron and tin. GOLD (_standard_) Gold with copper. GOLD (_old standard_) Gold with copper and silver. GUN-METAL See Cannon-metal. MOSAIC GOLD Copper and zinc. OR-MOLU Copper and zinc. PEWTER (_common_) Tin and lead. PEWTER (_best_) Tin with antimony, bismuth and copper. POT-METAL, COCK-METAL Copper and lead, with, sometimes, a little zinc. QUEEN'S METAL Tin with antimony, bismuth, and copper. SHOT-METAL Lead with a little arsenic. SILVER (_standard_) Silver and copper. SOLDER Tin and lead. SPECULUM-METAL Tin and copper, and arsenic. STEREOTYPE-METAL Lead, antimony, and bismuth. TOMBAC, RED TOMBAC Copper and zinc. TUTANIA See Britannia metal. TYPE-METAL Lead and antimony. WHITE COPPER (_Packfong_; Copper and arsenic. _Whitetombac_)

[Footnote 27: For the proportions of the component metals, refer to the alloys under their respective heads.]

_Prop., &c._ Alloys generally possess characteristics unshared by their component metals. Thus, copper and zinc form brass, which has a different density, hardness, and colour to either of its constituents. Whether the metals tend to unite in atomic proportions, or in any definite ratio, is still undetermined. The evidence afforded by the natural alloys of gold and silver, and by the phenomena accompanying the cooling of several alloys from the state of fusion, goes far to prove that such is the case. (Rudberg.) The subject is, however, one of considerable difficulty, as metals and metallic compounds are generally soluble in each other, and unite by a simple fusion and contact. That they do not combine indifferently with each other, but exercise a species of elective affinity not dissimilar to other bodies, is clearly shown by the homogeneity and superior quality of many alloys in which the constituent metals are in atomic proportions. The variation of the specific gravity and melting-points of alloys from the mean of those of their component metals, also affords strong evidence of a chemical change having taken place. Thus, alloys generally melt at lower temperatures than those required for their separate metals. They also usually possess more tenacity and hardness than the mean of their constituents.

Matthiessen found that when weights are suspend to spirals of hard-drawn wire made of copper, silver, gold, or platinum, they become nearly straightened when stretched by a moderate weight; but wires of equal dimensions composed of copper-tin (12% of tin), silver-platinum (36% of platinum), and gold-copper (84% of copper), scarcely undergo any permanent change in form when subjected to tension by the same weight.

The same chemist gives the following approximative results upon the tenacity of certain metals and wires hard drawn through the same gauge (No. 23):

Breaking strain for:

lbs. Copper 25-30 Tin under 7 Lead " 7 Tin-lead (20% lead) about 7 Tin-copper (12% copper) " 7 Copper-tin (12% tin) " 80-90 Gold 20-25 Gold-copper (8.4% copper) 70-75 Silver 45-50 Platinum 45-50 Silver-platinum (30% platinum) 75-80

On the other hand, their malleability, ductility, and power of resisting oxygen is generally diminished. The alloy formed of two brittle metals is always brittle; that of a brittle and a ductile metal, generally so; and even two ductile metals sometimes unite to form a brittle compound. The alloys formed of metals having different fusing-points are usually malleable whilst cold, and brittle whilst hot. The action of the air on alloys is generally less than on their simple metals, unless the former are heated. A mixture of 1 part of tin and 3 parts of lead is scarcely acted on at common temperatures; but at a red heat it readily takes fire, and continues to burn for some time like a piece of bad turf. In like manner, a mixture of tin and zinc, when strongly heated, decomposes both moist air and steam with almost fearful rapidity.

The specific gravity of alloys is never the arithmetical mean of that of their constituents, as commonly taught; and in many cases considerable condensation or expansion occurs. When there is a strong affinity between two metals, the density of their alloy is generally greater than the calculated mean; and _vice versa_, as may be seen in the following Table:--

_Alloys having a density_--

Greater than the mean of Less than the mean their constituents:-- of their constituents:--

Copper and bismuth, Gold and copper, " palladium, " iridium, " tin, " iron, " zinc, " lead, Gold and antimony, " nickel, " bismuth, " silver, " cobalt, Iron and antimony, " tin, " bismuth, " zinc, " lead, Lead and antimony, Nickel and arsenic, Palladium and bismuth, Silver and copper, Platinum and molybdenum, Tin and antimony, Silver and antimony, " lead, " bismuth, " palladium, " lead, Zinc and antimony. " tin, " zinc.

"Every alloy," says Dr Ure, "is, in reference to the arts and manufactures, a new metal, on account of its chemical and physical properties. A vast field here remains to be explored. Not above sixty alloys have been studied by chemists, out of many hundreds which may be made, and of these very few have yet been practically employed. Very slight modifications often constitute very valuable improvements upon metallic bodies." See ANALYSIS, ASSAYING, BRASS, BRONZE, ELECTROTYPE, GERMAN SILVER, GOLD, METALS, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, &c.

=ALL'SPICE.= See PIMENTO.

=ALLU''VIAL.= (-l'[=o][=o]v'-y[)a]l). _Syn._ ALLU''VIOUS*; ALLU''VIUS, L.; D'ALLUVION, Fr. In _geology_, applied to partial deposits of mud, sand, gravel, &c., left by rivers and floods upon land not permanently submerged beneath water; in _agriculture_, applied to soils so formed or deposited.

=ALLU''VIUM.= [L., Eng.] _Syn._ ALLUVION, Fr.; ANFLOeSSUNG, ANSCHWEMMUNG, Ger. In _geol._ and _agr._, alluvial deposit or soil. See SOILS, &c.

=AL'LYL= (-l[)i]l). C_{3}H_{5}. In _chemistry_, the radical of the essential oils containing sulphur, as those of assaf[oe]tida, garlic, horseradish, mustard, onions, &c., which are either sulphides or sulphocyanides of allyl. Its probable existence was first shown by Captain Reynolds, who succeeded in producing several of its derivatives. It has since been obtained, in a separate state, by the action of sodium upon iodide of allyl. It is an oily substance with a high boiling point.

=Allyl, Sulphide of=, (C_{3}H_{5})_{2}S; obtained (artificially) by acting on sulphocyanide of allyl with sulphide of potassium. See OIL OF GARLICK.

=Allyl, Sulphocy'anide of=, C_{3}H_{5}CNS; obtained by submitting iodide of allyl to the action of sulphocyanide of potassium; or by gently heating a mixed alcoholic solution of sulphide of allyl and bichloride of mercury, with sulphocyanide of potassium. See OIL OF MUSTARD (VOLATILE).

=AL'MOND= (ah'-m[)u]nd). _Syn._ AMYG'DALA (also -US, -UM*), L.; AMANDE, Fr.; MANDEL, Ger., Dut., Dan., Swed. The 'almond-tree' (_amyg'dalus commu'nis_--Linn.; Ph. L., E., and D.; _Amandier_--Fr.), a tree of the nat. ord. Rosaceae, indigenous to Persia, Syria, and the north of Africa; but also extensively cultivated in southern Europe. The almond-tree is about the size of the peach-tree, which it much resembles in appearance. It is incapable of ripening its fruit in this country, and is, therefore, only grown here for the sake of its beautiful vernal flowers. There are several varieties, of which the most important are the sweet and the bitter, so named from the flavour of the seed or kernel. These, for the most part, resemble each other in appearance. De Candolle ('Prodromus,' ii, 530) gives five varieties of this species:--A. AMA''RA (_bitter-almond_); A. DUL'CIS (_sweet-a._); A. FRAGILIS (_tender-shelled a._); A. MACROCAR'PA (_large-fruited a._, _pista'chio a._, _sultana a._); A. PERSICO'IDES (_peach a._).

=Almond, Per'sian.= The peach.

=AL'MONDS=. _Syn._ AMYG'DALAE, L.; AMANDES, Fr.; MANDELN, Ger. The seed or kernels of the almond-tree. They are met with in commerce both in the shell (AMYG'DALAE CUM PUTAM'INE, -[)i]n-e, L.), and shelled (AMYGDALAE, L.). In the retail shops, most commonly in the latter form. Those rancid, broken, or worm-eaten should be rejected.

=Almonds, Bitt'er.= _Syn._ AMYG'DALAE AMA''RAE, L.; AMYGDALA AMARA, Ph. E.; AMANDES AMERES, Fr.; BITTERE MANDELN, Ger. A variety imported from Mogadore, chiefly characterised by possessing the bitter flavour, and when rubbed with water, the odour of peach-kernels. They are also smaller and thicker than the sweet almond.

_Uses, &c._ Bitter almonds are used to relieve the flavour of sweet almonds, to clear muddy water, and to flavour confectionery, liqueurs, &c. By pressure, they yield their bland oil (OIL OF ALMONDS; O'LEUM AMYG'DALAE, L.); the resulting cake (BITTER-A. CAKE; PLACEN'TA A. AMARAE, L.) is distilled for the volatile oil (ESSENTIAL OIL OF A.; O. A. A., L.), and is afterwards again pressed into cakes (A.-CAKE), and used to fatten pigs, and for other purposes. Bitter almonds are now seldom employed in medicines, although it is said that they have cured 'intermittents' when bark had failed (Bergius), and that their emulsion has been found useful in pulmonary and dyspeptic affections, hooping-cough, and asthma; and externally as a lotion in acne. (Thomson.) In large quantities they are poisonous, and even in the smallest quantities have been known to produce nettle-rash (_urticaria_) and other unpleasant symptoms. They have long been in repute as an antidote to intoxication. The ancient bacchanals chewed them at their orgies, to lessen the effects of wine, and to enable them to take it in larger quantities with impunity.

=Almonds, Blanched'= (bl[)a]ncht'-). _Syn._ AMYG'DALAE DECORTICA'TAE, L. Almonds from which the husk or seed-coat has been removed. This is effected by soaking them for a short time in warm water, until the skin can be easily removed by pressure between the thumb and forefinger. They are then peeled, rinsed in cold water, drained, and dried. When intended for the table, the last is effected by wiping them with a soft towel; but when they are intended to be powdered, or kept, they are dried by a very gentle heat in a stove, or in the sun.

=Almonds, Burnt'.= _Syn._ ROASTED ALMONDS; ALMOND COFFEE. Used to colour and flavour liqueurs and confectionery; and formerly, as a substitute for coffee.

=Almonds, Guia'na.= (g_h_e-[=a]_h_'-n[)a]; _g_ hard). Brazil-nuts.

=Al'monds, In'dian.= The fruit of _terminalia catappa_ (Linn.). They are oleaginous, and nutritious; and are used as a substitute for almonds.

=Almonds, Ja'va= (j[=a]_h_'-). The nuts or kernels of _canarium commune_ (Linn.). They are eaten, made into bread, and pressed for their oil.

=Almonds, Sweet'.= _Syn._ ALMONDS; AMYG'DALAE, L.; A. DULCES, Ph. D.; AMYGDALA, A. JORDAN'ICA, Ph. L.; A. DULCIS, Ph. E., & Ph. L. 1836; AMANDES, AMANDES DOUCES, Fr.; SUeSSE MANDELN, Ger. These are the well-known dessert or table fruit of the name, and are the kind always referred to when 'almonds' (simply) are spoken of or ordered.

_Comm. var._--1. JOR'DAN ALMONDS, which are the finest, and are imported from Malaga. Of these there are two kinds; the one, above an inch in length, flat, and with a clear brown cuticle, sweet, mucilaginous, and rather tough; the other, more plump, and pointed at one end, brittle, but equally sweet with the former.--2. VALEN'TIA A. (which come next in quality) are about 3/8ths of an inch broad, not quite an inch long, round at one end, and obtusely pointed at the other, flat, of a dingy brown colour, with a dusty cuticle.--3. BAR'BARY and ITAL'IAN A., which resemble the latter, but are generally smaller and less flattened.--4. A variety, of medium quality, imported in baskets from Spain.

_Uses, &c._ Sweet almonds are nutritive, emollient, and demulcent; but frequently disagree with weak stomachs. The husk is apt to occasion indigestion and nausea. Owing to a peculiar idiosyncrasy of some habits, dyspepsia, diarrh[oe]a, [oe]dematous swelling of the face, and urticaria (_nettle-rash_), sometimes, though seldom, follow the use of unblanched almonds. Blanched almonds do not produce these inconveniences, and, therefore, should be preferred for the table. In _medicine_, almonds are employed chiefly under the form of emulsion, confection, &c., and to suspend oily substances in water. Their uses for dietetical purposes are well known. Preparations of them are also employed as cosmetics. The cake left after expressing the oil (ALMOND-CAKE) is used for washing the skin, which it is said to render beautifully soft and clear. See ALMOND PASTE, &c.

=AL'NIGHT=[dagger] (awl'-). A cake of wax with a wick in the midst. The forerunner of, and a rude form of the modern dumpy night-lights called MORTARS.

=AL'OE= ([)a]l'-o). _Syn._ AL'OE (-o-[=e]), L., Fr. (or ALOES), Ger., Ital., Sp., Belg., Dan., Dut., Swed. The aloe-tree. In _botany_, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Liliaceae (DC). The species, of which there are several, are succulent plants or small trees with endogenous stems, and stiff, fleshy, hard, pointed leaves, abounding in a purgative principle (ALOES), which is obtained from them by either evaporating the expressed juice or the decoction. They are all natives of warm climates, and most of them are indigenous to southern Africa.

_Hist._ [Hebrew: a-enx], _aehleem_ (aloe-trees), were known to the sacred historians; and both the plant and the inspissated juice are described by Dioscorides[28] and Pliny.[29]

[Footnote 28: Lib. iii, c. xxv.]

[Footnote 29: 'Hist. Nat.,' lib. xxvii, c. v.]

_Uses, &c._ In Africa, the leaves of the Guinea aloe are made into ropes, fishing-lines, bow-strings, stockings, hammocks, &c. The leaves of another species are used to catch and hold rain-water. The expressed juice and decoction are also used by the natives as a distaff. (Vide _infra_.) Comparative trials, made in Paris, of the strength of cordage and cables formed of hemp, and of the aloe from Algiers, are said to have shown the great superiority of the latter. Fabroni obtained a fine violet colour from the recent juice of the aloe, which has been proposed as a dye for silk.[30]

[Footnote 30: 'Annales de Chimie,' xxv, 305.]

=American Aloe.= The _agave Americana_ (Linn.) is a plant unconnected with the preceding, and belonging to the nat. ord. Bromeliaceae. It is found in all parts of tropical America, and is largely cultivated on the shores of the Mediterranean; and less frequently, as an exotic plant in this country. It grows to the height of about 20 feet, and takes many years to produce its gigantic and magnificent pyramid of flowers; shortly after which it perishes, exhausted, as it were, by its efforts in bestowing its rare beauty on the floral world. The vulgar belief is that it blossoms only once in a century; but, as stated by the late Mr Loudon, it flowers sooner or later according to the culture bestowed on it. Its sap yields a kind of honey (AGAVE HONEY), and by fermentation an intoxicating liquor (PULQUE); desiccated juice, mixed with wood ashes, is used as soap, and lathers either with sea or fresh water; leaf-fibre, used as hemp to make thread and twine.

=AL'OE-RESIN.= _Syn._ RESI'NA AL'OES, L. The resinous matter deposited by a decoction of aloes as it cools.

_Prep._ (Ph. L. 1746.) Boil aloes, 1 part, in water, 8 parts, and allow the decoction, strained whilst hot, to repose until the next day; then wash the deposited RESIN, and dry it by a gentle heat. It is probably a mixture of aloine and oxidised extractive.

=AL'OES= (-[=o]ze). _Syn._ BITT'ER ALOES[double-dagger]; AL'OE (-o-[=e]), L.; ALOES, SUC D'ALOES, Fr.; ALOE, GLAUSINDE ALOE, Ger.[31] The inspissated juice or extract of several species of aloe.

[Footnote 31: Also see ALOE, (above).]

_Comp., Prep., &c._ Aloes is a complex resinous substance containing a body called aloin, which is its active or purgative principle. It is completely soluble in boiling water, and in alcohol or rectified spirit. The decoction deposits an impure resin or resinoid on cooling.

_Phys. eff., Uses, &c._ Aloes is a warm stimulating purgative, in doses of 3 to 10 gr.; whilst even 1 or 2 gr. seldom fail to produce one motion without pain or inconvenience. It is considered highly serviceable in hypochondriacal, hysterical, and dyspeptic affections, particularly in phlegmatic habits, and in cases arising from deficiency of bile. As an emmenagogue, and a vermifuge, few medicines are more valuable. It acts on the large intestines, and principally on the rectum; and, therefore, should be administered with caution, or only in small doses, where there is a tendency to prolapsus or piles, and in cases where uterine stimulants (as in pregnancy, &c.) would be improper. "It is remarkable with regard to it, that it operates almost to as good a purpose in a small as in a large dose; and one or two grains will produce one considerable dejection, and twenty grains will do no more, except it be that in the last dose (case) the operation will be attended with griping, &c. It is one of the best cures for habitual costiveness." (Cullen.) Many of the effects complained of arise from its slow solubility in the primae viae, and may be obviated by administering it in a liquid form, or in a solid form combined with soap, which renders it freely soluble in the juices of the stomach.

Aloes is more frequently taken than, perhaps, any known purgative. It enters into the composition of a majority of the aperient medicines prescribed by the faculty, and forms the principal ingredient of nearly all the advertised purgative, antibilious, and universal pills of the nostrum-mongers. The fact of aloetic pills not acting until about 8 to 10 hours after being swallowed--so that if taken on retiring to rest at night they do not generally disturb the patient before the usual time of rising in the morning--has contributed more than anything else to make such remedies popular with parties whose habits or business avocations would be otherwise interfered with.

Aloes is also extensively used in veterinary practice. It is the most valuable and reliable purgative for the horse of the whole materia medica; but is less to be depended on for cattle, sheep, and hogs. Barbadoes aloes is the best for this purpose. Cape aloes are, however, often employed, when 1-4th more must be given.--_Dose_ (of the former), for a HORSE, 4 to 8 dr.;[32]--CATTLE, 3 to 6 dr. (followed by a purging drench);--HOGS, 5 to 15 gr.;--SHEEP, 15 to 30 gr.;[33]--DOGS (small ones), 10 to 30 gr., (middle-sized) 20 to 44, or even 60 gr., (large) 3/4 to 1 dr., or even 2 dr.

[Footnote 32: Aloes takes from 18 to 30, or even 36 hours, to operate on a horse.]

[Footnote 33: Aloes, however large the dose, often fails to purge sheep. In very large quantities it is poisonous to them.]

Aloes is also used in dyeing; and as a colouring matter in stains, lacquers, and varnishes. Aloes, and several of its preparations, are likewise extensively employed to adulterate porter.

_Var._ These, arranged in the order of their reputed medicinal value, are--Socotrine, Hepatic, Barbadoes, Cape, &c.; and alphabetically, as given below:--

=Aloes, Barba'does.= _Syn._ ALOES IN GOURDS; AL'OE BARBADEN'SIS, L., Ph. L. & E. Imported from Barbadoes and Jamaica, usually in gourds; sometimes in boxes. The best is the inspissated juice of the cut leaf of _aloe vulga''ris_; an inferior quality is prepared from the decoction.--_Char., &c._ Opaque, lustreless, of a liver colour, a little tending to black, with a bitter nauseous taste, and a very disagreeable odour, especially when breathed on; powder a dull olive-yellow. It is the 'hepatic' aloes of most continental writers, and said to be the [Greek: Aloe] of Dioscorides. It is more active than the other varieties of aloes; but is also more apt to occasion haemorrhoids, and to gripe, than any of them.

=Aloes, Cab'alline= (-l[=i]ne.) _Syn._ F[OE]T'ID ALOES, HORSE A.; ALOE CABALLI'NA, A. GUINIEN'SIS, L.; ALOES CABALLIN, Fr. From _aloe In'dica_ (O'Shaughnessy); or from _aloe spica'ta_ by long and careful boiling. (Lindley.) Used only by farriers. Scarcely known in English commerce.

=Aloes, Cape.= _Syn._ ALOE CAPEN'SIS, A. LU'CIDA (_Geiger_), L. Imported from the Cape of Good Hope, and obtained from _aloe spica'ta_, and other Cape species. Odour stronger and even more disagreeable than that of Barbadoes aloes; colour deep greenish-brown; appearance shining and resinous; fracture generally glassy; powder a lively greenish-yellow; almost completely soluble in boiling water, decoction paler than that of other kinds. It is weaker than Barbadoes or even hepatic aloes, and is more apt to gripe, &c., than the latter. A finer kind, known as '_Bethelsdorp aloes_,' imported from Algoa Bay, is more of a liver colour, and softer than the preceding, and hence often called CAPE HEPATIC-ALOES.

=Aloes, Hepat'ic.= _Syn._ BOMBAY' ALOES*, EAST-INDIA A.*, LIVER-COLOURED SOCOTRINE A.*; ALOE HEPAT'ICA, Ph. L. & D.; A. IN'DICA, Ph. E. Imported from Bombay and Madras. It is usually said to be obtained from "uncertain species of aloes;" but it is almost certain that it is "the juice of the Socotrine aloes plant which has been solidified without the aid of artificial heat."[34]--_Char., &c._ "Opaque, of a liver colour, bitter taste, and an unpleasant odour." (Ph. L.) It is less odorous, darker coloured, and more opaque than Socotrine aloes; its powder has also a duller colour, and weak spirit leaves much undissolved matter. Its decoction on cooling frequently deposits a yellow powder. The finer and brighter varieties of hepatic aloes are commonly sold for 'Socotrines,' and their medicinal virtues are nearly similar. (See _below._)

[Footnote 34: Pereira, 'Elem. Mat. Med. and Therap.,' vol. ii, 188, 4th Ed.; 'Pharm. Journ.,' vol. xi.]

=Aloes, In'dian= (various);--1. Deep brown or black, very opaque, and less soluble than ordinary aloes. Scarcely known in commerce.--2. Several varieties ranging in character from 'Cape aloes' to 'hepatics,' and occasionally to 'Barbadoes,' obtained from several species.

=Aloes, Mo'cha= (-k[)a]h). _Syn._ ALOE DE MOCHA, L. Imported from Muscat. An inferior kind of Indian aloes. (Christison.) It is obtained from the same plant as produces genuine hepatic aloes. (Lindley.) It holds an intermediate position between 'Cape' and 'hepatics,' but contains much impurity; the latter often amounting to upwards of 25%. Some specimens are, however, of excellent quality. When melted and 'doctored,' it is sold for Barbadoes, hepatic, and even Socotrine aloes.

=Aloes, Soc'otrine= (-tr[)i]n; s[)u]k'-[double-dagger]). _Syn._ SOC'OTORINE ALOES, SMYR'NA A., TUR'KEY A.; ALOE SOCOTRI'NA, Ph. L.; ALOE, Ph. L. 1836; A. SOCOTRI'NA, Ph. E. "The juice of the cut leaf of uncertain species hardened by the air." (Ph. L.) Genuine Socotrine aloes is generally supposed to be obtained from _aloe spica'ta_; but is referred by De Candolle to a distinct species, A. SOCOTRI'NA; and by Martius, also to _a. purpuras'cens_. Formerly this variety was brought from the Island of Socotra or Zocotora (hence the name), by way of Smyrna and Malta; but it is now chiefly obtained from Bombay and Madras.--_Char., &c._ Colour garnet red to golden red; smell peculiar and aromatic, not unlike a decaying russet apple, especially when fresh-broken, or breathed on, or warmed; taste permanently and intensely bitter; fracture conchoidal; softens in the hand, and becomes adhesive, yet retains considerable brittleness; powder bright golden-yellow colour; central portions of the lumps often soft, especially when first imported. "It is brittle, bitter, of a reddish-brown colour, and an aromatic odour. Light permeates thin recently broken laminae." (Ph. L.) "In thin pieces, translucent and garnet red; almost entirely soluble in spirit of the strength of sherry. Very rare." (Ph. E.)

Socotrine aloes are always preferred for medicinal purposes, and are the only variety used in perfumery, varnishes, and other nice purposes in the arts.

=Aloes, Strained.= _Syn._ MELTED ALOES; ALOE COLA'TA, L. _Proc._ 1. The aloes are melted in a copper pan, by the heat of steam or a water bath, and are then pressed through a strong hair or wire sieve, and allowed to cool.

2. As above, but with the addition of about twice its weight of water; the decoction being strained and evaporated.

_Obs._ Mocha, Indian, and other common aloes, treated in this way and coloured, are frequently sold for melted or strained 'Socotrines' and 'hepatics.' The colouring matter usually employed is the precipitated carbonate of iron (sesquioxide), or Venetian red, in very fine powder, with, sometimes, a little annatto. This fraud is not readily detected by mere inspection, by those unaccustomed to these matters; and hence the impunity with which it is perpetrated.

The object in melting aloes is to deprive it of the foreign matters, as sand, leaves, pieces of wood, &c., which the commoner kinds generally contain in large quantities. The action of the heat drives off much of their nauseous smell, at the same time that it deepens their colour, and renders their appearance more translucent and resinous, to the disguise of their original nature. The operation, on the large scale, is usually carried on at night, in consequence of the horribly nauseous fumes evolved, which may be smelt at a great distance, and contaminate the clothes of those engaged in it for a long time afterwards.

=AL'OES HEMP.= A plant growing in Peru, the East and West Indies, and Mexico (_A. Americana_, _A. vivapara_, _A. f[oe]tida, &c._), where the leaf is cultivated for its fibre, which is generally of a yellowish-white colour, and used for rope-making.

=AL'OES WOOD.= _Syn._ AL'OE-WOOD; EAGLEWOOD; AGAL'LOCHUM (-k[)u]m), LIG'NUM AL'OES, L. AGAL'LOCHI, L. A. VE''RI, L. AQ'UILAE, L. ASPAL'ATHI, L.; AGALLOCHE, BOIS D'ALOES, Fr.; ALOEHOLZ, Ger.; CALAM'BAC, CALAM'BOUC, Ind.; XYLO-AL'OES[dagger]. A name applied to the wood of _aloeex'ylon agal'lochum_ (Lam.), a leguminous tree of Cochin China; and, though apparently less correctly, to that of _aquila''ria agallochum_ and _a. ova'ta_ (Lour.), trees of tropical Asia, belonging to a different nat. order. Both are highly fragrant and aromatic; used in fumigations and pastilles, and occasionally by cabinet makers and inlayers. The essential oil of the wood, dissolved in spirit, was regarded by Hoffmann as one of the best cordials and invigorants known. The same has also been said of a tincture of its resin.

The same name and synonyms are popularly applied to the resin of the above woods (ALOES-WOOD RESIN), of which there are two varieties:--the one, light and porous, and filled with a highly fragrant resinous substance; the other, denser and less resinous. It is an oily concretion in the centre of the tree, the result of disease, which gradually hardens, and, in time, kills it. It is highly fragrant, and is said to be nervine, cephalic, cardiac, and stimulant. The powder is regarded as tonic and astringent. Of all perfumes this is said to be the one most esteemed by oriental nations.

=ALOE'TIC.= _Syn._ ALOET'ICUS, L.; ALOETIQUE, Fr. Of or belonging to aloes. In _medicine_, _pharmacy_, &c., applied to any preparation containing aloes as a characteristic ingredient; made or obtained from aloes. Substantively, an aloetic medicine.

=AL'OIN= (-o-[)i]n). C_{17}H_{18}O_{7}. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AL'OeIN; ALOI'NA, L. The Messrs T. & H. Smith, of Edinburgh, have applied this name to a crystalline substance, which they assert to be the pure cathartic principle of aloes. Their process is to evaporate to the consistence of a syrup, in vacuo, a solution obtained by exhausting a mixture of aloes and sand, with cold water, and then to set it aside for a few days. The resulting dark crystalline mass is purified by pressure between folds of bibulous paper, and repeated crystallisation from hot water. Barbadoes aloes are commonly used for the purpose; but soft or semi-liquid Socotrine aloes, or the unevaporated Socotrine-aloes juice, is probably its best source. Tilden gives the following process for the preparation of aloin:--The aloes crushed small is to be dissolved in nine or ten times its weight of boiling water acidified with sulphuric acid. After cooling and standing for a few hours, the clear liquid is decanted from the resin, and evaporated. The concentrated solution deposits a mass of yellow crystals, which can be purified by washing, pressure, and recrystallisation from hot spirit. After several recrystallisations the aloin is obtained in the form of beautiful yellow needles, which are pretty soluble in water and in alcohol, but soluble with difficulty in ether.--_Dose_, 1 to 2 gr.

=ALOPE'CIA= (-sh'[)a]). [L.] _Syn._ AL'OPECY, FOX'-EVIL; ALOPECIE, Fr.; FUCHSRAUDE, Ger. In _pathology_, baldness from disease, often extending to the beard and eyebrows; as distinguished from 'calvities,' or ordinary baldness arising from attenuation of the scalp or defective nutrition. See BALDNESS.

=ALPAC'A.= A species of Llama, popularly known as the PERUVIAN SHEEP, an animal intermediate between the camel and sheep, having long silky hair, nearly as fine as that of the Cashmere goat. It was introduced to the British manufacturers in 1834, when only 5700 lbs. of it was imported; but it soon became an important article of commerce, the quantity imported having gradually risen to above 2-1/4 millions of lbs. in 1853; whilst the price has risen from about 9d. to 2s. 7d. the lb., in the same time. The name is also given to fabrics woven from the wool of this animal; and to others in fine wool, made in imitation of them. The gigantic factory, &c., erected at Saltaire, Yorkshire, in 1852, for this manufacture, covers about 12 acres of land. See LLAMA.

=ALPENKRAUTER-BRUST-TEIG= (Grablowitz, Gras). Pectoral cakes of Alpine herbs. Gum arabic, 100 parts; sugar, 200 parts; extract liquorice, 1 part; saffron, 1/8th part. Each box contains 48 lozenge-shaped yellowish cakes. Made into a mass with decoction of marsh mallow. (Hager.)

=ALPENKRAUTER GESUNDHEIT'S LIQUEUR= (Rudolph Bohl). Medicinal liqueur of Alpine herbs. A bottle containing 350 grammes of a liqueur which is an extract of star anise, cassia, frangula bark, centaury, chicory, gentian, and a little aloes. (Hager.)

=ALPENKRAUTER-MAGENBITTER= (Hauber). Stomachic bitters of Alpine herbs. A brown liqueur of bitter, spirituous, and slightly aromatic flavour, containing in 100 parts: oil of anise, 0.5; oil of cloves, 0.5; aloes, 1.5; alcohol, 40; water, 50. 157 grammes in each bottle. (Wittstein.)

=ALPHA-ORSELL'IC ACID.= See ORSELLIC ACID.

=ALPINE ROSE SOAP, SWISS.= A preservative against syphilitic infection (G. A. Sarpe, Zurich). A glass cylinder corked and sealed, about 2 inches long, and containing a hard brownish-grey mass weighing 12 grammes, prepared thus:--Ammonia, 1 part; sublimate, 3 parts; tannin, 2 parts; chloride of lime, 24 parts; Castile soap, 190 parts; oil of cloves, 1 part; spirit of wine, q. s. (Hager.)

=AL'QUIFOU= (-ke-f[=o][=o]). _Syn._ BLACK LEAD-ORE, POTTER'S ORE. A native sulphide of lead used by potters to give a green glaze to coarse wares.

=ALSTONIA SCHOLARIS.= (Ind. Ph.) _Habitat._ Common in forests throughout India.--_Officinal part._ The bark (_Alstoniae cortex_). It occurs in thick, irregular, more or less contorted pieces, easily broken. It consists of a rough greyish epidermis, investing a buff or pale cinnamon-coloured bark; internally, still lighter in colour, and of a spongy texture, having a very bitter taste, but devoid of odour.--_Properties._ Astringent, tonic, anthelmintic, antiperiodic--_Therapeutic uses._ In chronic diarrh[oe]a and the advanced stages of dysentery; also as a tonic in debility after fevers, and other exhausting diseases.--_Dose._ 3 to 5 grains, either alone or combined, in bowel affections, with small doses of ipecacuanha and extract of gentian.--_Preparations._ TINCTURE OF ALSTONIA (_Tinctura Alstoniae_). Take of alstonia bark, bruised, 2-1/2 ounces; proof spirit, 1 pint. Macerate for seven days in a closed vessel, with occasional agitation; filter, and add sufficient proof spirit to make 1 pint. Or prepare by percolation, as Tincture of Calumba.--_Dose_, 1 to 2 fluid drachms.

=Alstonia, Infusion of.= (_Infusum Alstoniae._) Take of alstonia bark, bruised, 1/2 an ounce; boiling water, 10 fluid ounces. Infuse in a covered vessel for an hour and strain.--_Dose._ From 1 to 2 fluid ounces twice or thrice daily. A good serviceable tonic.

=AL'TERATIVE= (awl'-t[)e]r-[)a]-t[)i]v). _Syn._ AL'TERANT*; AL'TERANS ([)a]l'-), L.; ALTERANT, ALTERATIF, Fr. In _medicine_, having power to alter; applied to substances and agents which occasion a change in the habit or constitution, and thus re-establish the healthy functions of the body, or any part of it, without producing any sensible evacuation or other obvious effect.

=ALTERATIVE EXTRACT=, or =GOLDEN MEDICAL DISCOVERY= (Dr Pierce, Buffalo), for the cure of all severe, acute, chronic, or long-standing coughs, inflammations, hoarseness, scrofulous, and syphilitic diseases. A clear light-brown fluid, 220 grms., composed of 15 grms. purified honey, 1 grm. extract of lettuce, 2 grms. laudanum, 100 grms. of proof spirit tasting of fusel oil and wood spirit, and 105 grms. water. (Hager.)

=AL'TERATIVES= (-t[)i]vz). _Syn._ ALTERAN'TIA, L.; ALTERATIFS, &c., Fr. Alterative medicines or agents. The preparations of mercury and iodine, when properly administered, are the most useful members of this class; and are those which are now the most generally employed.

=ALTHE'IN= ([)a]l-th[=e]'-[)i]n). _Syn._ ALTHAE'INA, L. The name given by Braconnot to a substance identical with asparagin, which he discovered in the 'marsh-mallow' (_althae'a officina'lis_, Linn.).

=ALTHOFF WATER= (aqua mirabilis), for torpid ulcers. Wine vinegar, 750 parts; sulphate of copper, 100 parts; potash, 25 parts; ammonia, 30 parts; salt of sorrel, 8 parts; French brandy, 375 parts. Digest for a few days in a glass vessel and distil to dryness from a glass retort. (Wittstein.)

=AL'UDEL= (-[=u]-). In _chemistry_, a pear-shaped glass or earthen pot open at both ends, formerly much used for connecting other vessels in the process of sublimation. A number of them joined together are still employed for the distillation of quicksilver, in Spain.

=AL'UM= K_{2}SO_{4}.Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}.24Aq. _Syn._ POT'ASH-ALUM, SUL'PHATE OF ALUMINUM AND POTASSIUM, COMMON ALUM; ALU'MEN, A. POTAS'SICUM, L.; ALUN, SULFATE D'ALUMINE ET DE POTASSE, Fr.; ALAUN, Ger.; ALUME, Ital.

The principal alum-works in England, until recently, were those of Lord Glasgow, at Hurlett and Campsie, near Glasgow, and those of Lords Dundas and Mulgrave, at Whitby, Yorkshire (est. 1600); but those of Mr Spence, at Manchester, and at Goole (Yorkshire), and of Mr Pochin, at Manchester, are now among the largest, if they be not actually the largest in the world. There are also extensive alum-works at and near Newcastle-on-Tyne; but none of importance, that we know of, in any other part of these realms.

_Nat. hist._ Alum is found native in some places (NATIVE ALUM), either effloresced on the surface of bituminous alum-schist (Goettwigg, Austria); or united with the soil in the neighbourhood of volcanoes (Solfatara, Naples); when it may be obtained by simple lixiviation and evaporation, a little potash being commonly added to convert the excess of sulphate of alumina present into alum. It is also found in certain mineral waters (East Indies).

_Sources._ The alum of commerce is usually obtained from schistose pyritic clays, commonly termed alum-ores, aluminous shale, a.-schist, &c.; and from alum-rock, a.-stone, or alunite. At La Tolfa, Civita Vecchia, where the best Roman-alum is produced, the source is stratified alum-stone. On the Continent, and in Great Britain, it is generally pyritaceous clays, volcanic aluminous ores, aluminous shale, or alum-slate. These minerals contain sulphide of iron, alumina, bitumen or carbon, and frequently a salt of potassium. Of late years large quantities of alum have been prepared on the banks of the Tyne from aluminous clay.

_Prep._ The manufacture of alum is technically said to be conducted according to the natural process when prepared from alum-schist or alum-ore; and according to the artificial process when made by acting on clay with sulphuric acid, and adding a potassium salt to the resulting lixivium. The manufacture of alum and of sulphate of alumina from such materials as contain only alumina, to which consequently sulphuric acid and alkaline salts have to be added, has come largely into practice in England. The materials employed are, in addition to clay, cryolite or Greenland spar, a fluoride of aluminum and soda; bauxite, a hydrate of alumina, of more or less purity; and slag. The following are the details of these processes:--

_a._ From ALUM-ORE, ALUMINOUS SCHIST, or SHALE, &c.:--

[Illustration]

1. The mineral (alum-ore, a.-schist, &c.) is placed in heaps, and moistened from time to time with water, when it becomes gradually hot, and falls into a pulverulent state. This decomposition commonly occurs either wholly, or partially, on the floor of the mine. If the ore does not possess this property on mere exposure to air and moisture, it is broken into pieces and laid upon a bed of brushwood and small coal, to the depth of about four feet, when the pile is fired and fresh lumps of the alum-mineral thrown on, until the mass becomes of considerable height and size. The combustion, as soon as established, is conducted with a smothered fire, until the calcination is complete; care being taken to prevent fusion, or the disengagement of either sulphurous or sulphuric acid, from contact between the ignited stones and the carbonaceous fuel.[35] To promote these ends the pile, at the proper time, is 'mantled' (as the workmen call it) or covered with a layer of already calcined and exhausted ore, in order to protect it from high winds and heavy rains; as also to moderate the heat, and let it proceed gradually, so that the sulphur present may not be lost or wasted by volatilisation. The roasting is finally checked by a thicker 'mantling,' and the whole allowed to cool. By this time the pile has usually lost about one half its bulk, and become open and porous in the interior, so that the air can circulate freely through the mass; the latter, in dry weather, as the heap cools, being usually promoted by sprinkling a little water on it, which, by carrying down some of the saline matter, renders the interior still more open to the atmosphere. The whole, when cold, or nearly cold, is, if necessary, still further exposed to the action of air and moisture. The time required to calcine the heap properly, including that taken by the burned ore to cool, varies, according to its size and the state of the weather, from three to nine, or even twelve months. The residuum of the calcination is next placed in large stone or brick cisterns, and edulcorated with water, until all the soluble portion is dissolved out; the solution is then concentrated in another stone cistern, so made that the flame and heated air of its reverberatory furnace sweep the whole surface of the liquor. (See _engr._) The evaporation is continued until it just barely reaches the point at which crystals are deposited on cooling; when it is run off into coolers. After the sulphate of iron, always present, has been deposited in crystals, the mother-liquor, containing the sulphate of aluminum, is run into other cisterns, and a saturated solution of chloride of potassium, or of sulphate of potassium, or (sometimes) impure sulphate or carbonate of ammonium, or a mixture of them,[36] is added until a cloud or milkiness ceases to be produced on addition of more.[37] It is next allowed to settle and get thoroughly cold, and the supernatant 'mother-liquor' being drawn off with a pump or syphon, the precipitate, which is alum in the form of minute crystals (technically termed 'flour'), is well drained, and subsequently washed by stirring it up with a little very cold water, which is then drained off, and the operation repeated a second time with fresh water. A saturated solution of the pulverulent alum ('flour') is next formed in a leaden boiler, and the clear portion is run or pumped off, while boiling hot, into crystallising vessels, called roaching casks (see _engr._), the staves of which are lined with lead, and nicely adjusted to each other. After the lapse of a week or ten days, the hoops and staves of these 'casks' are removed, when a thick crust of crystallised alum is found, which exactly corresponds in form and size to the interior of the cask. A few holes are then made in the sides of this mass, near the bottom, to allow the contained mother-liquor to drain off, after which the whole is broken up and packed in casks for sale. Sometimes the alum thus obtained, or the lower portion of it, is washed with a little very cold water, and, if discoloured, or small or slimy, is purified by a second crystallisation.

[Footnote 35: The generality of alum-minerals require roasting; and their own bituminous matter is, in many cases, sufficient to produce the heat required, which need not necessarily exceed 600 to 650 deg. Fahr., provided it be continued for a sufficient period. It is only when they are less bituminous or carbonaceous that slack or saw-dust, &c., is employed.]

[Footnote 36: For pure POTASH-ALUM a salt of potash only must be employed. When ammonia (usually in the form of gas-liquor or gas-sulphate) is used as the precipitant, the product is AMMONIA-ALUM. The ordinary alums of commerce are now generally mixtures of the two.]

[Footnote 37: The respective quantities required to produce 100 parts of alum from the sulphate of alumina liquor are--

Chloride of potassium 15.7 Sulphate of " 18.4 " ammonium 13.9

In practice, the exact quantity required may be found by a previous trial of a little of the aluminous liquor; but the indications mentioned in the text will always show the operator when a sufficient dose is added.]

[Illustration]

2. As ammonia-alum (Spence's process; see _below_), but using a potash-salt as the precipitant, either wholly or in part, instead of ammonia; and, in the latter case, supplementing the deficiency of potash with ammonia, as there explained.

_b._ From ALUMINOUS CLAY and OIL OF VITRIOL:--

1. Clay, free or nearly free from carbonate of lime and oxide of iron, is chosen for this purpose. It is moderately calcined (in lumps) in a reverberatory furnace, until it becomes friable; great care being taken that the heat be not sufficient to indurate it, which would destroy its subsequent solubility. It is next reduced to powder, sifted, and mixed with about 45% of its weight of sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1.45), the operation being conducted in a large stone or brick basin arched over with brickwork. Heat is then applied, the flame and hot air of a reverberatory furnace being made to sweep over the surface of the liquor. The heat and agitation are continued for 2 or 3 days, when the mass is raked out and set aside in a warm place for a few weeks (6 to 8), to allow the acid the more perfectly to combine with the clay. At the end of this time the newly-formed sulphate of alumina is washed out, the solution evaporated until of a sp. gr. of about 1.38 (1.24 for 'ammonia-alum'), and the salt of potash added. The remaining operations resemble those above described. Good alum may be produced by this process at about two thirds the cost of rock or mine alum.

2. (Process of Mr Pochin.) Fine China clay is heated in a furnace, and mixed with a suitable proportion of sulphuric acid; the latter being considerably diluted with water, in order to moderate its action, which would otherwise be far too violent. The mixture is then passed into cisterns furnished with movable sides, where, in a few minutes, it heats violently and boils. The thick liquid gradually becomes thicker, until it is converted into a solid porous mass; the pores being produced by the bubbles of steam which are driven through it, owing to the heat resulting from the reaction of the ingredients on each other. This porous mass (ALUM-CAKE; CONCENTRATED ALUM) appears perfectly dry, although retaining a large amount of combined water. It also contains all the silica of the original clay, but in such a state of fine division, that the whole appears homogeneous; whilst it imparts a dryness to the touch which can scarcely be given to pure sulphate of alumina. From this substance a solution of pure sulphate of alumina is easily obtainable by lixiviation, and allowing the resulting solution to deposit its silica before using it, but for many purposes the presence of the finely divided silica is not objectionable. The sulphate of alumina solution so obtained is adapted to all the purposes in dyeing for which alum is now employed; the sulphate of potash or of ammonia in the latter being an unnecessary constituent, and one merely added to facilitate the purification and subsequent crystallisation of the salt. To obtain ALUM from the porous alum-cake, the proper proportion of acid having been used in its preparation, or subsequently added, it is only necessary to precipitate its concentrated solution with a strong solution of a salt of potash, or of ammonia, or a mixture of them, and to otherwise proceed as before.

_Ratio._ In the above process the sulphide of iron of the shale or schist is converted by atmospheric oxygen into sulphate of iron and sulphuric acid; the sulphuric acid decomposes the clay, setting silica free, and producing sulphate of aluminum. The sulphate of iron is mostly got rid of by concentrating the solution of the mixed sulphates, and the mother-liquors are converted into alum by the addition of the salt of potassium. When chloride of potassium is used, it yields chloride of iron and sulphate of potassium, the latter combining with the sulphate of aluminum, and the former remaining behind in the mother-liquor. See ALUMS (in Chemistry).

_Comp._ Potassium alum has the formula K_{2}SO_{4}.Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}.24Aq.

_c._ From CRYOLITE.

1. (Thomson's method.) Decomposition of cryolite by ignition with carbonate of lime. From the ignited mass the aluminate of soda is obtained by lixiviation with water, and into the solution carbonic acid gas is passed, when there result precipitated hydrated gelatinous alumina and carbonate of soda, which remains in solution. If it be desired to obtain the alumina as an earthy compact precipitate, bicarbonate of soda is used instead of carbonic acid. While the clear liquor is boiled down for the purpose of obtaining carbonate of soda, the precipitated alumina is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid; this solution is evaporated for the purpose of obtaining sulphate of alumina (the so-called concentrated alum), or the solution after having been treated with a potassa or an ammonia salt is converted into alum.

2. (Sauerwein's method.) Decomposition of cryolite by caustic lime by the wet way. Very finely ground cryolite is boiled with water and lime, the purer the better, and as free from iron as possible, in a leaden pan. The result is the formation of a solution of aluminate of soda, and insoluble fluoride of calcium (lime). When the fluoride of calcium has deposited, the clear liquid is decanted, and the sediment washed, the first wash-water being added to the decanted liquor, and the second and third wash-waters being used instead of pure water at a subsequent operation. In order to separate the alumina from the solution of aluminate of soda, there is added to the liquid while being continuously stirred very finely pulverised cryolite in excess, the result of the decomposition being alumina and fluoride of sodium, (soda). When no more caustic soda can be detected in the liquid, it is left to stand for the purpose of becoming clear. The clarified solution of fluoride of sodium is then drawn off, and the alumina treated as above described. The solution of fluoride of sodium having been boiled with caustic lime yields a caustic soda solution, which having been decanted from the sediment of fluoride of calcium is evaporated to dryness. Recently the fluoride of calcium occurring as a by-product has been used in glass-making.

3. The decomposition of cryolite by sulphuric acid yields sulphate of soda convertible into carbonate by Leblanc's process, and sulphate of alumina free from iron. This method of decomposing cryolite is, however, by no means to be recommended, as owing to the liberation of hydrofluoric acid, peculiarly constructed apparatus are required, whilst the sulphate of soda has to be converted into carbonate.

_d._ From Bauxite. This mineral, occurring in some parts of Southern France, in Calabria, near Belfast, and in other parts of Europe, consists essentially (viz. 60 per cent.) of hydrate of alumina, more or less pure. In order to prepare alums and sulphate of alumina from it, the mineral is first disintegrated by being ignited with carbonate of soda, or with a mixture of sulphate of soda and charcoal; in each case the lixiviation of the ignited mass yields aluminate of soda, from which, by the processes already described under "Cryolite," alum, or sulphate of alumina, and soda are prepared.

_e._ From blast-furnace slag. Luermann recommends the slag to be decomposed by means of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid. From the resulting solution of chloride of aluminum the alumina is precipitated by carbonate of lime, any dissolved silica being precipitated at the same time. The alumina is dissolved in sulphuric acid, leaving the silica.

[Illustration]

_Prop._ Alum crystallises in regular octahedrons, often with truncated edges and angles; (see _engr._); and sometimes in cubes, but only when there is a deficiency of acid in its composition, with the alkali in slight excess of the proper quantity. (Loewel.)[38] It is slightly efflorescent in dry air: soluble in 18 parts of cold water, and in rather less than its own weight of boiling water; tastes sweet, acidulous, and very astringent; is styptic; and reddens litmus. When heated it melts, loses its water of crystallisation, and becomes white and spongy (DRIED ALUM); a strong heat, short of whiteness, decomposes it, with the evolution of oxygen and a mixture of sulphuric and sulphurous anhydride; calcined with carbonaceous matter it suffers decomposition, and furnishes a pyrophoric residuum (HOMBERG'S PYRO'PHORUS). Ignited with alkaline chlorides, hydrochloric acid is liberated; which also occurs when their concentrated solutions are boiled together. Ammonia precipitates pure hydrate of aluminum from potassium alum; but only a subsulphate from the simple sulphate of alumina. Sp. gr. 1.724; but, when containing ammonia, often so low as 1.710.

[Footnote 38: The ordinary alum, of commerce, consisting of large crystalline masses, which do not present any regular geometrical form; but by immersion in water for a few days, octahedral and rectangular forms are developed on its surface. (Daniell.)]

_Tests, &c._ It is easily recognised by its crystalline form, its taste, and by its complete solubility in water. Its aqueous solution gives a white gelatinous precipitate soluble in excess; a platinum wire moistened with the solution imparts a violet colour to the blowpipe flame; and chloride of barium gives a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid.

_Pur._ When pure, its solution is not darkened by tincture of galls, sulphuretted hydrogen or ferrocyanide of potassium; neither does it give any precipitate with solution of nitrate of silver. Heated with caustic potassa, or quick-lime, it does not evolve fumes of ammonia.

_Adult., &c._ The principal impurity, and one which renders alum unfit for the use of the dyer, is iron. This may be readily detected by the blue precipitate it gives with ferrocyanide of potassium, or the black precipitate with sulphide of ammonium, which are very delicate tests.[39] Lime, another very injurious contamination, may be detected by precipitating the alumina and iron (if any) with ammonia, and then adding oxalate of ammonia to the boiled and filtered liquid. The liquid filtered from the last precipitate (oxalate of lime) may still contain magnesia, which may be detected by the white precipitate caused on the addition of an alkaline phosphate. Common alum frequently contains ammonia, from urine, or the crude sulphate of the gas-works, having been employed in its manufacture. Powdered alum is frequently adulterated with common salt, in which case it gives a white curdy precipitate with nitrate of silver, turning black by exposure to the light.

[Footnote 39: Good English alum contains less than 0.1% of iron. The best Roman or Italian alums seldom contain more than .005% of iron-alum, notwithstanding their exterior colour.]

_Phys. eff. &c._ In small quantities alum acts as an astringent; in larger doses as an irritant. It acts chemically on the animal tissues and fluids, is absorbed, and has been discovered in the liver, spleen, and urine (Orfila), the last often becoming acid (Kraus). Externally, it is astringent. The almost general use of alum by the English bakers is one of the most fertile sources of dyspepsia and liver and bowel complaints in adults; and of debility and rickets in children. Bad teeth and their early decay is another consequence of the daily use of alum in our food. The bone matter (phosphate of lime) of bread, instead of being assimilated by the system, is either wholly, or in part, converted into a salt of alumina, which is useless and incapable of appropriation. When alum has been taken in poisonous doses an emetic should be given, followed by warm diluents and demulcents, containing a little carbonate of soda; and subsequently by a purgative.

_Uses, &c._ The applications of alum in the arts and manufactures are numerous and important. It is used to harden tallow and fats; to render wood and paper incombustible; to remove greasiness from printers' blocks and rollers; to prepare a paper for whitening silver and silvering brass in the cold; to help the separation of the butter from milk; to purify turbid water; to dress skins; to fix and brighten the colours in dyeing; to make lake and pyrophorus, &c., &c. It is also extensively used for clarifying liquors, and for many other purposes connected with the arts and everyday life. In _medicine_, alum is used as a tonic and astringent, in doses of 5 to 20 gr.; as a gargle (1 dr. to 1/2 pint of water); and as a collyrium and injection (10 to 15 gr. to 6 oz. of water). In lead colic, 1/2 to 1 dr. of alum (dissolved in gum-water), every 3 or 4 hours, is said to be infallible. Powdered alum is frequently applied with the tips of the fingers, in cases of sore throat and ulcerations of the mouth, &c. A teaspoonful of it is said to be one of the very best emetics in croup. (Dr Meigs.) Alkalies, alkaline carbonates, lime, magnesia, acetate of lead, astringent vegetables, &c., are incompatible with it.

_Gen. commentary._ In addition to the particulars of its manufacture given above, we may add, that the plan of getting rid of the ferric salts there referred to has to some considerable extent been successfully replaced by that of precipitating the alum, instead of the sulphate of iron, by adding alkaline matter to the lixivium. The crystalline precipitate is purified by draining, re-solution, and re-crystallisation; whilst the sulphate of iron and Epsom-salts contained in the mother liquor are obtained by subsequent evaporation and crystallisation; after which a fresh crop of alum may be got from it, by the use of an alkaline precipitant, as before.

In estimating the strength of his solution the alum-maker takes as a standard a measure or sp. gr. bottle capable of holding exactly 80 pennyweights of distilled water. The excess of the weight of liquor, in pennyweights, over 80, or that of water, is called so many 'pennyweights strong.' Thus one of 90 pennyweights (90 dwt.) is said to be '10 dwt. strong,' or simply, 'one of 90 dwt.' These numbers correspond to 2-1/2 degrees of Twaddle's hydrometer, and may easily be found by dividing Twaddle's degrees by 2.5 or 2-1/2; or by multiplying them by 4, and pointing off the right-hand figure of the product for a decimal. The result is in alum-makers' pennyweights.

By a patent now expired (Weisman's, 1839) the ferric salts are precipitated by the addition of a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium (prussiate of potash); after which the supernatant clear liquor, which is now a solution of nearly pure sulphate of alumina, is decanted, and evaporated for future operations, until it either forms, on cooling, a concrete mass, which is moulded into bricks or lumps, for the convenience of 'packing,' or until it is sufficiently concentrated to be converted into ALUM by the addition of a salt of potash or of ammonia in the usual manner. The product, in each case, is perfectly free from iron. By a like addition of the ferrocyanide to a solution of ordinary sulphate of aluminia or alum, the dyer may himself easily render them free from iron, or iron-alum; when, as mordants for even the most delicate colours, they are equal to the very best Roman alum.

Another process has been patented (Barlow & Gore, 1851) for the manufacture of alum from the ash or residue of the combustion of Boghead-coal, which, though hitherto regarded as almost valueless, actually contains about 30% of alumina. It has not, however, been found a convenient material for the purpose.

By the latest and most approved processes the least possible quantity of boiling water or liquor is employed for making the solutions, so that they may crystallise without evaporation, and thus economise fuel; and the mother-liquors of previous operations are constantly employed for this purpose, when possible. Nor is anything which is convertible to use, from the drainage of the heaps, to the liquor and slime of the roaching casks, allowed to be wasted.

By whatever process, or from whatever materials alum is obtained, it is absolutely necessary for the successful and economical conduct of its manufacture, that the precise composition of the mineral or minerals employed should be exactly known. This can only be determined by actual analysis, which should be extended to several parts of the same bed, and particularly to the upper and lower strata, which frequently differ in composition from each other, and thus require different treatment, or may be most advantageously employed in combinations with each other. The necessity of this will be seen by reference to the composition of the following minerals, of which the top contains a larger proportion of iron-pyrites than the bottom, and the two require to be mixed, to equally diffuse the sulphuric acid generated by the calcination, &c., to which they are subjected.

The following is the per-centage composition of certain alum shales:--

+------------------+-------------------+ | | Whitby, Yorkshire.| | | (_Richardson._) | | +--------+----------+ | | Top | Bottom | | | rock. | rock. | +------------------+--------+----------+ |Sulphide of iron | 4.20 | 8.50 | | (_pyrites_) | | | |Silica | 52.25 | 15.16 | |Protoxide of iron | 8.49 | 6.11 | |Alumina | 18.75 | 18.30 | |Lime | 1.25 | 2.15 | |Magnesia | .91 | .90 | |Oxide of manganese| traces | traces | |Sulphuric acid | 1.37 | 2.50 | | (SO_{3}) | | | |Potassa | .13 | traces | |Soda | .20 | traces | |Chlorine | traces | traces | |Coal | 4.97 | 8.29 | |Water | 2.88 | .00 | |Loss | 4.60 | (?) | | | | | +------------------+--------+----------+ | | 100. | 100. | +------------------+--------+----------+

+---------------------+------------------------------+ | | Campsie, near Glasgow. | | | (_Ronalds._) | +---------------------+---------+----------+---------+ | | Top | Top | Bottom | | | rock. | rock. | rock. | |---------------------+---------+----------+---------+ |Sulphide of iron | 40.52 | 38.48 | 9.63(?)| | (_pyrites_) | | | | |Silica | 15.40 | 15.41 | 20.47(?)| |Protoxide of iron | ... | ... | 2.18 | |Alumina | 11.35 | 11.64 | 18.91(?)| |Lime | 1.40 | 2.22 | .40 | |Magnesia | .50 | .32 | 2.17 | |Oxide of manganese | .15 | ... | .55 | |Sulphuric acid | ... | ... | .05 | |Potassa | .90 | ... | 1.26 | |Soda | ... | ... | .21 | |Carbon or | 27.65(?)| 28.80 | (?) | | bituminous matter | | | | |Coal | ... | ... | 8.51 | |Water | ... | ... | 8.54 | |Loss | 2.13(?)| 3.13 | 1.59(?)| +---------------------+---------+----------+---------+ | | 100. | 100. | 100. | +---------------------+---------+----------+---------+

Alum-rock, or alum-stone, is a species of impure alunite, and is not of very common occurrence. That of Tolfa, near Civita Vecchia, according to Klaproth, consists of--

Silica 56.5 Alumina 19. Sulphuric acid (SO_{3}) 16.5 Potassa 4. Water 3. Loss 1. ------ 100.

which exhibits an excess of about 3% of sulphuric acid, and about 14% of alumina, more than are requisite to form alum with the 4% of potassa; proportions which, therefore, require to be supplemented with a potassium salt during the process of manufacture. The alum-stone of Mont d'Or contains, according to Cordier, 1.4% of oxide of iron.

The presence of lime in alum-ore is most prejudicial, owing to its affinity for sulphuric acid being greater than that of either alumina or iron. Ores containing it in any quantity are, therefore, unfitted for the manufacture of alum. Magnesia is also prejudicial; but in this case the sulphate of magnesia left in the mother-liquors is not wholly valueless, as it may be crystallised and sold as 'Epsom-salt,'--a thing which is actually done in some English alum-works.

The potash-salt employed by the alum-makers is either the sulphate or the chloride--chiefly the latter; its sources being the waste liquor of soap-works, saltpetre refineries, and glass-houses. Wood-ashes, although rich in potash, do not answer well unless freed by lixiviation from the large amount of carbonate of lime which is always present in them.

The ammonia-salt used in making alum is generally the crude sulphate prepared from the ammoniacal liquor of gas-works, or that from the manufacture of sal-ammoniac by the destructive distillation of animal matter. Both these liquors may be used without previous conversion into sulphate of ammonia whenever there is an excess of sulphuric acid in the aluminous solution.

Soda-salts are seldom, if ever, used as precipitants in the manufacture of alum, on account of the easy solubility of the resulting SODA-ALUM--a property which unfits them for this purpose. See ALUMS, AMMONIA, DYEING, MORDANTS, POTASH, SULPHURIC ACID, &c. (also _below_).

=Alum, Ammonia.= (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4} . Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3} . 24 Aq. _Syn_. (ALUMEN; ALUM; B. P.), ALU'MEN AMMONIA'TUM, L.; ALUN D'AMMONIAQUE, A. AMMONIACAL, Fr. This is an alum in which the sulphate of potassium is replaced by an equivalent of sulphate of ammonium. It is prepared by adding crude sulphate of ammonium to solution of sulphate of aluminum; or gas-liquor, putrid urine, &c., to the acid-sulphate.

Much of the common alum, especially that prepared on the Continent, contains both potassium and ammonium; and recently enormous works for its manufacture have been established in England. As an astringent, and as a source of alumina in dyeing, it resembles potash-alum (_i. e._ ordinary alum). It may, however, be readily distinguished from the latter by the fumes of ammonia which are evolved when it is moistened and triturated, or heated, with caustic potassa or quick-lime; and by the residuum of its exposure to a white heat being pure alumina. See ALUM (_ante_).

=Alum, Basic.= A variety of alum found native at Tolfa. On calcination and subsequent lixiviation it yields ordinary alum. A like substance falls as a white powder, when newly precipitated alumina is boiled in a solution of alum.

=Alum, Baume's.= Alum-white. See WHITE PIGMENTS.

=Alum, Dried; Alum, Burnt.= _Syn_. ALU'MEN US'TUM, A. EXSICCA'TUM (B. P.); ALUN SEC, Fr.; GEBRANNTER ALAUN, Ger.; ALUME CALCINATO, Ital. Alum deprived of its water of crystallisation by heat.

_Prep._ Take of alum, 4 oz. Heat the alum in a porcelain dish or other suitable vessel, till it liquefies, then raise and continue the heat, not allowing it to exceed 400 deg., till aqueous vapour ceases to be disengaged, and the salt has lost 47 per cent. of its weight. Reduce the residue to powder, and preserve it in a well-stopped bottle.

_Prop., &c._ Similar to those of common alum, but it is rather more astringent, and is less soluble. When moistened, or placed in contact with water, it resumes its water of crystallisation with evolution of heat.--_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.; in colic (especially painters' colic), haemoptysis, &c. It is chiefly used as an escharotic, to destroy 'proud flesh,' &c. It must be kept in a stoppered bottle.

=Alum, Chrome.= See ALUMS (in Chemistry).

=Alum, I'ron= (-[)u]rn). _Syn_. ALU'MEN FER'RICUM, SUL'PHAS FER'RI ET POTAS'SAE, FER'RI PEROX'IDI POTASSIO-SUL'PHAS, &c., L.

_Comp._ K_{2}SO_{4} . Fe_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}.24Aq.

_Prep._ Take of peroxide of iron, 9 lbs.; sulphuric acid 14 lbs.; dissolve, dilute the mixture with water, q. s., and add of potassium sulphate, 10 lbs.; evaporate, and crystallise.

_Prop., &c._ Crystals, beautiful octahedrons of a pinkish or pale violet colour. It is strongly recommended, by Dr Tyler Smith, as a chalybeate tonic, and has been used by him, at St. Mary's Hospital with marked success. It has also been used as a mordant, in dyeing black.--_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 5 gr.

=Alum, Ro'man.= _Syn_. RED ALUM*, ROACH A., ROCHE A., ROCK A.*; ALU'MEN ROMA'NUM, A. RU'BRUM, A. RU'PEUM, &c., L.; ALUN ROMAIN, A. DE ROCHE, Fr.; ALUME DI ROCCA, It. In small fragments, covered with a reddish powder (ALUMEN RUBRUM VE''RUM); originally imported from Civita Vecchia, where it occurs native. It is much esteemed by dyers from being nearly free from iron-alum. That now sold for it in England is ordinary alum coloured with Venetian red, Armenian bole, or rose-pink (ALUMEN RUBRUM SPU''RIUM). This is done by shaking the fragments in a sieve over a vessel of hot water, and then stirring them up with the colour, until the surface is uniformly tinged with it. In genuine roach-alum the colour not only covers the surface, but also partially pervades the substance of the crystals. The name was formerly also applied to a pure white variety of alum, prepared at Tolfa; but it is now, in English commerce, exclusively given to common alum artificially coloured.

=Alum, Saccharated.= Alum, 6 oz., white lead 6 drms., sulphate of zinc 3 drms., sugar 1-1/2 oz. Mix the ingredients reduced to powder into a paste, with vinegar and white of egg. Used in eye waters and cosmetic washes.

=Alum, So'da.= _Syn_. SULPHAS ALUMINAE ET SODAE, L. _Comp._ Na_{2}SO_{4} . Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3} . 24Aq. An alum in which the potassium sulphate of common alum is replaced by a like salt of sodium. It does not occur in commerce. (Vide _supra_ et _infra_.)

=ALUM-EARTH.= Alumina.

=ALUM MOR'DANTS.= In _dyeing_, mordants having for their basis either common alum or the acetate or sulphate of aluminum. See ALUMS and MORDANTS.

=AL'UM-ROOT.= _Syn._ AMER'ICAN SAN'ICLE; HEU'CHERA (Ph. U. S.), L. The root of _heuchera America'na_ (Linn.), a plant of North America. It is powerfully styptic and astringent; and is used chiefly as an external application in cancer.

=ALUM-WHITE.= See WHITE PIGMENTS.

=AL'UMS.= _Syn._ ALU'MINA (pl. of _alu'men_), L. In _chemistry_, a term applied to a series or group of salts having potassium alum for their type, which they resemble in crystalline form and constitution.

It is found that the aluminum of common alum may be replaced by any other metal having a like nature, without affecting the leading characteristics of the salt; and further, that in the newly formed compound, as in potassium-alum, the second sulphate may also be replaced under the like conditions. All the alums crystallise in octahedrons or cubes, and they all contain the same number of molecules of water. The alums of commerce (or alums proper) all contain aluminum sulphate and an alkaline sulphate.

_Prep._ All the alums may be made by mixing together solutions of the respective sulphates in equivalent proportions, when crystals may be obtained by evaporation in the usual manner. The presence of sulphuric acid, in slight excess, assists their crystallisation.

=AL'UMED= (al'[)u]md). Mixed or impregnated with alum. In _dyeing_, mordanted with alum.

=ALU'MEN= (-l'[=o][=o]-). [L.] Alum; the pharmacop[oe]ial name of alum. (See _above_.)

=ALUMINIUM.= _Syn._ ALUMINUM (which _see_).

=ALUMINOUS.= In _mineralogy_, of, resembling, or containing aluminum. In _chemistry_, containing or obtained from alum.

=ALUMINUM.= [Eng., Fr., L.] _Syn._ ALUMINIUM, Eng., Fr., L.; ALUMIUM, Ger. A metallic radical or element very abundantly distributed, united with silica. Discovered by M. Woehler, who succeeded in obtaining it as a grey metallic powder (A.D. 1827); and later (1845), under the form of globules exhibiting the leading characteristics of the metal. In 1854, M. Dumas announced to the 'Academy of Sciences,' that M. St. Clair Deville had procured pure aluminum from clay, and exhibited several specimens of considerable size and beauty. The result was a general impression that it might be easily obtained in any quantity, and ultimately at a reasonable price; expectations which have been only partly, though to a great extent fulfilled, owing to the expense and trouble of the process, notwithstanding recent improvements.

_Prep._ (M. Deville; A.D. 1854-59.)--A quantity of chloride of aluminum, varying from 200 to 300 grammes (say from 6 to 10 oz.), is introduced into a wide glass or porcelain tube, between two plugs of asbestos to retain it in position, and a current of hydrogen (thoroughly dried by passing first through concentrated sulphuric acid, and then through a tube containing fused chloride of calcium) passed over it; a gentle heat being at the same time applied to the part of the tube containing the chloride, to drive off any free hydrochloric acid which might have been formed by the action of the air upon it. A small porcelain boat, containing sodium, is now introduced at the other extremity of the glass tube, which is then again closed; and when the sodium is fused, the chloride is sufficiently heated to cause its vapour to come into free contact with it. A powerful reaction ensues, with the evolution of much heat, and this continues as long as any undecomposed sodium remains to act on the passing vapour. The mass in the boat, which is now a mixture of the double chloride of aluminum and sodium, in which small globules of the newly reduced metal are suspended, is allowed to cool in the hydrogen; after which it is treated with water, to remove the soluble double chloride. The residuum, consisting of small globules of aluminum, is, lastly, reduced to a solid button or mass, by fusion, at a strong heat, under a layer of the fused double chloride of aluminum and sodium.

On a large scale two cast-iron cylinders are employed, instead of the glass or porcelain tube just referred to; the anterior one of which contains the chloride of aluminum, and the posterior one a tray holding the sodium, of which 10 or 12 lbs. are commonly operated on at once. These cylinders are united by means of a smaller intermediate one, filled with clean scraps of iron, which serve to separate iron, free hydrochloric acid, and chloride of sulphur, from the vapour of the chloride of aluminum, as it passes through them. During the passage of the vapour of the chloride this smaller cylinder, or tube, is kept heated to from 400 deg. to 600 deg. Fahr.; but the two other cylinders are only very gently heated, since the chloride is volatilised at a comparatively low temperature, and the reaction between it and the fused sodium, when once commenced, usually generates sufficient heat for the completion of the process.

Occasionally a mixture of the double chloride of aluminum and sodium, 40 parts; chloride of sodium 20 parts; fluor spar, 20 parts; each separately dried, powdered, and then blended together; sodium, in small pieces, 7-1/2 to 8 parts, are used instead of the last.

It is likewise made from a mixture of cryolite and fused chloride of potassium, of each, in powder, 5 parts; sodium, 2 parts; a cast-iron crucible being employed; the resulting minute globules being collected and fused to a button under a layer of the double chloride of aluminum and sodium.

_Prop., &c._ Aluminum, when quite pure, closely approaches silver in appearance, except in being rather less white and lustrous than that metal. Ordinary specimens, called pure, have a slight bluish tint or tin-white colour, with a perfect lustre, but far inferior to that of pure silver. Sp. gr. 2.56, which by hammering may be raised to 2.67. It is both ductile and malleable; fuses at a temperature between the melting-points of zinc and silver; is not affected by either damp or dry air, or by oxygen at ordinary temperatures, or by water whether cold or boiling; even steam, at a red heat, is only slowly decomposed by it. It is not acted on by nitric acid, however concentrated, unless boiling, and then very slowly; nor by dilute sulphuric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and the sulphides, or even the fused hydrates of the alkalies. It is, however, readily dissolved by hydrochloric acid, with the evolution of hydrogen, even in the cold; and by a concentrated mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid. It is feebly magnetic, conducts electricity about eight times better than iron, and is more electro-negative than zinc. Commercial specimens, owing to the presence of iron and silicon, and often zinc, usually slowly tarnish in damp air, and possess the other properties described above in a somewhat diminished degree.

In a finely divided state, particularly in the state of powder or minute scales in which it was originally obtained, when heated to redness, it catches fire and burns with great rapidity in the air, and in oxygen gas with intense brilliancy, the product in each case being alumina.

Aluminum unites with the other metals, forming ALLOYS, of which some promise to be of great value in the arts. An alloy of 100 parts of aluminum with 5 parts of silver may be worked like the pure metal, but is harder and susceptible of a finer polish, whilst its property of not being affected by sulphuretted hydrogen and acids remains unimpaired; even 3% of silver is said to be sufficient to impart to it the full brilliance and colour of pure silver. An alloy containing 10% of gold is softer and scarcely so malleable as the pure metal. With 8% of iron, or 10% of copper, it still remains tough and malleable; but a larger proportion of either of these metals renders it brittle.

The presence of 2 or 3% of zinc destroys its ductility and malleability, and also impairs its colour and lustre; whilst less than even 1/4% of bismuth renders it brittle in a high degree. Small quantities of aluminum added to other metals change their properties in a very remarkable manner. Thus, copper alloyed with 10%; of aluminum has the colour and brilliancy of gold, is harder than bronze, very malleable, and may be worked at high temperatures easier than the best varieties of iron; and with 20% is quite white, and closely resembles silver. With more than 12% of aluminum the alloy is harder, but brittle. The alloy formed of 100 parts of silver with 5 parts of aluminum is as hard as the silver of our coinage, whilst the other properties of the latter metal remain unaltered.

_Uses._ The valuable properties of aluminum adapt it to numerous applications in the arts and everyday life. Hitherto these have been very limited, owing to its comparatively high price; which, notwithstanding it has fallen considerably, is still sufficient to prevent its general or even extensive application. The 'eagles' of the French army have been made of it, as well as certain articles of jewelry, plate, &c., as brooches, bracelets, chains, spoons, and other ornamental and useful objects. Owing to its low sp. gr., it has been used as a suitable material for the minute decimal weights of chemists, for military helmets, trumpets, &c. A few cornet-a-pistons, for which its lightness and sonorousness admirably adapt it, have actually been made of it. Its power of resisting oxygen, sulphuretted hydrogen, moisture, &c., would render it invaluable as a coating to metals, particularly iron and lead, to protect them from rust or corrosion, did not its price intervene. As an internal coating for water-pipes, cisterns, &c., no other substance, except gold and platinum, is so well adapted. In _chemistry_, capsules, tubes, &c., either made of or coated with it, may be often advantageously substituted for those of platinum.

In addition to what has been said above, it may be observed that, in preparing aluminum, the chief care should be to avoid accidents or failure by the employment of too high a temperature, and to avoid the product being contaminated with other metals or with carbon. To ensure the purity of the metal is a matter of the greatest difficulty, owing to the facility with which foreign matters are taken up, during the process, from the materials of which the apparatus is composed; and from the substances from which it is prepared being seldom absolutely pure. Indeed, it is not too much to assert that chemically pure aluminum has not yet been obtained; and that even a very close approximation to it is of very rare occurrence. Whenever a copper boat is used to hold the sodium, the product is always contaminated with copper. Chloride of aluminum always contains some of the chlorides of iron and silicon, both of which are volatile, and probably takes up a further portion from the porcelain or earthenware used to form the apparatus. Sodium also is seldom uncontaminated with carbon or some compound of it; in which case, and likewise when it is not carefully freed from the naphtha in which it has been preserved, the product always contains carbon. The crucible, whether of porcelain or iron, in which the final fusion is made, also contributes to contaminate the metal. Hence the inferior whiteness and brilliancy of commercial specimens of aluminum; a metal which, in its absolutely pure state, may be reasonably inferred to be as superior in the above respects to silver as silver is to tin. Commercial aluminum contains from 88 to 94 per cent. only of pure aluminum, and from 1 to 4 per cent. of iron, 1/2 to 3 per cent. of silicon, and from 1 to 6 per cent. of copper.

Aluminum salts are generally colourless, soluble, and crystallise with difficulty, and are distinguished as follows:--

_Tests._--1. Ammonia and the alkaline carbonates throw down a bulky white precipitate (hydrate of aluminum) from solutions of its salts, which is insoluble in excess of the precipitant.--2. Pure potassa and soda throw down white gelatinous precipitates, freely soluble in excess of the precipitant; from which the hydrate of aluminum is reprecipitated by chloride of ammonium, even in the cold:--3. Phosphate of ammonium gives a white precipitate--4. Iodide of potassium produces a white precipitate, passing into a permanent yellow:--5. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives no precipitate:--6. Sulphydrate of ammonium precipitates alumina from these solutions:--7. Bisulphate of potassium, added to concentrated solutions, gives a precipitate of octahedral crystals of alum:--8. At a red heat its salts part with some of their acid; at a white heat, most of it, if not all:--9. Aluminum compounds, ignited on charcoal before the blowpipe, and afterwards moistened with a solution of nitrate of cobalt and again strongly ignited, give an unfused mass, which, on cooling, appears blue by day, and violet by candlelight; a test, however, which is inapplicable to fusible compounds of aluminum, and such as are not free, or nearly free, from other oxides.

=Aluminum, Acetate of.= _Syn._ ACETATE OF ALUMINA. _Prep._ Pure hydrate of aluminum is digested, to saturation, in strong acetic acid, in the cold; and the resulting solution, after being filtered or decanted, is either evaporated by a very gentle heat to a gelatinous, semi-solid consistence (its usual form), or is preserved in the liquid state. By spontaneous evaporation it may be obtained in long, transparent crystals.

_Red liquor._ From alum, in powder, 4 parts; warm water, q. s. to dissolve; acetate of lead, in powder, 3 parts; the solution and mixture being effected by lengthened agitation in a tub or other wooden vessels, and the clear liquid, after repose for a sufficient time, decanted or drawn off from the sediment.

From alum, 2 parts; (dissolved in) warm water, q. s.; solution of pyrolignite of lime (20 deg. Baume), 3 parts; as before, but allowing a longer time for the subsidence of the precipitate, and taking more care in the decantation than when acetate of lead is employed.

By decomposing a solution of crude sulphate of alumina with neutral or monobasic acetate of lead.

_Prop._ Its characteristic property is the feeble affinity existing between its acid and base, which, when it is used as a mordant, is counterbalanced by that of the fibres of the cloth or yarn to which it is applied. In other respects it resembles the other simple salts of alumina.

_Uses, &c._ In _dyeing_ and _calico printing_, as a mordant. In _medicine_, properly diluted, in chronic diarrh[oe]a; and, mixed with syrup of poppies, in slight cases of haemoptysis (spitting of blood). It has been employed by M. Gannal as an injection to preserve animal bodies, which it will do for years.--_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr. daily, in divided portions, taken in thin mucilage or syrup, or in barley-water; as an injection, 10 to 20 gr., to water, 4 to 6 fl. oz., in gonorrh[oe]a, leucorrh[oe]a, &c.

=Aluminum, Chloride of.= Al_{2}Cl_{6}. _Syn._ SESQUICHLO''RIDE OF ALUMINUM; ALUMIN'II CHLORI'DI, &c., L. _Prep._ A thick paste made of dry precipitated alumina, lampblack, and oil, is strongly heated in a covered crucible until all the organic matter is carbonised. The residuum is transferred to a porcelain tube fixed across a furnace, one end of which is connected with another tube containing dry chloride of calcium, and the other end with a small tubulated receiver. The porcelain tube is then heated to redness, whilst chlorine, dried by passing through the chloride-of-calcium tube, is transmitted through the apparatus. In one or two hours, or as soon as the tube is choked, the whole is allowed to cool, and the newly-formed SESQUICHLORIDE collected and preserved in mineral naphtha for use.

On the large scale:--Chlorine, dried as before, is passed over a mixture of pure clay, lamp-black, and coal-tar, contained in an iron retort, similar to that used in the manufacture of coal-gas (previously ignited by means of a suitable furnace), and connected with a cool chamber accurately lined with tiles of earthenware. The vapours of the SESQUICHLORIDE condense in this chamber, as a yellowish crystalline mass, which is collected and preserved as before.

_Prop., &c._ It is volatile at a dull red heat; excessively greedy of moisture; and very soluble, with decomposition, hydrochloric acid and alumina being formed. Once dissolved, it cannot be again recovered. Its chief use is in the preparation of aluminum.

_Obs._ Although alumina, like magnesia, is freely soluble in hydrochloric acid, the sesquichloride of aluminum contained in this solution cannot be obtained in the anhydrous state, or even the solid form, by its evaporation; the chloride suffering decomposition, with the formation of hydrochloric acid, which is volatilised, and alumina, which is left behind.

=Aluminum, Ni'trate of.= Al_{2}(NO_{3})_{6}. _Syn._ NITRATE OF ALUMINA; ALU'MINAE NI'TRAS, L. _Prep._ Similar to that of the acetate and citrate. Its concentrated acid solution deposits rhombic crystals, containing 18 equiv. of water.

=Aluminum, Oxide of= (Al_{2}O_{3}), and =Hydrate of= (Al_{2}(HO)_{6}). _Syn._ ALUMINA.

_Prep._ Aluminum is precipitated as a hydrate from solutions of aluminum salts on the addition of an alkali or alkaline carbonate; and this precipitate, after being thoroughly washed and dried, on ignition loses its water and becomes anhydrous. The following are the best formulae for the purpose:--

Alum is dissolved in about 20 times its weight of distilled water, and the solution is dropped slowly into pure solution of ammonia, until the latter is nearly but not entirely saturated, when the whole is set aside for some time. The clear supernatant liquid is then decanted, and the precipitate is carefully and thoroughly washed three or four times with tepid distilled water; after which it is collected on a filter, again well washed with water, and, lastly, pressed and dried between bibulous paper, either without heat, or at a temperature not higher than 120 deg. Fahr. The product is pure hydrate of ammonium, and is converted into anhydrous alumina by exposure to a white heat in a covered crucible. The residuum, after ignition, is pure ANHY'DROUS ALUMINA, or SESQUIOX'IDE OF ALUMIN'UM.

A solution of alum is slowly added to a solution of carbonate of ammonia, avoiding excess; and the resulting precipitate, after being washed and pressed, is dried at a heat of from 120 deg. to 180 deg. Fahr.

_Prop., &c._ A soft white powder. The hydrate is freely soluble in the acids and in solution of caustic potassa and soda (from which it is precipitable by sal ammoniac); when anhydrous (as after ignition), it is scarcely acted on by acids, and when perfectly indurated, or crystallised, it is wholly insoluble; but on ignition with alkalies, alkaline ALU'MINATES are formed, and the alumina is then readily dissolved by acids, forming salts, which are mostly colourless, non-volatile, and soluble; they have a very astringent and somewhat sweetish taste, redden litmus paper, and lose their acids by ignition. Its most remarkable, or rather useful property, is its strong affinity for the fibres of organic bodies, as cotton, flax, silk, wool, &c., which are capable of taking it from its salts; and also for organic colouring matters. Hence its great use in dyeing, and in bleaching liquids and the preparation of lakes. Hydrate of aluminum agitated or digested with liquids containing vegetable colouring matter, combines with the latter, and either entirely, or to a great extent, removes it from the solution.

Moist precipitated alumina, dried at a heat between 70 deg. and 80 deg., contains above 58% of water; dried at 212 deg. Fahr., about 32% of water.

_Estim._ Aluminum is weighed as oxide, after ignition. The solubility of the moist or recently precipitated hydrate in solution of ammonia enable us to separate it from the ALKALINE EARTHS which, when present, are thrown down with it.

_Uses, &c._ The moist hydrate is used in several processes in the arts. It is the base of cobalt-blue, the lake-pigments, &c. In _medicine_, it is employed as an antacid and astringent, in acidity of the stomach, cholera, diarrh[oe]a, and dysentery; in which it is said to be superior to the other absorbent remedies. (Ficinus.) It has also been highly recommended in the vomiting and diarrh[oe]a of infancy. (Durr; Neumann; Weese; &c.)--_Dose._ Children 3 to 10 gr.; adults, 5 or 6 to 20 or even 30 gr., three to six times daily, suspended in water, by mucilage or simple syrup.

=Aluminum, Sil'icate of.= Al_{2}(SiO_{2})_{3}. _Syn._ SIL'ICATE OF ALUMINA. A substance which, in its hydrous form, is the chief and characteristic ingredient of common clay; and which also occurs, in combination, in several other important and abundant minerals.

=Aluminum, Sul'phate of.= Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}. _Syn._ SESQUISUL'PHATE OF ALUMINA, NEUTRAL S. OF A., ALU'MINAE SUL'PHAS, A. SESQUISUL'PHAS, L. _Prep._ 1. Saturate dilute sulphuric acid with hydrate of aluminum, gently evaporate, and crystallise.

2. (Crude, commercial.) By mixing clay and oil of vitriol, in the way described under ALUM. The product is the 'CONCENTRATED ALUM' of the dyers.

_Prop._ Its crystals are needles and thin pearly plates; soluble in 2 parts of water; taste astringent, and somewhat sweetish; reaction acid; a full red heat expels its acid, leaving a residuum of pure alumina; with the sulphates of potassium, sodium, and ammonium, it forms alum.

_Uses, &c._ In the _arts_, chiefly as a substitute for alum; the sulphate of potassium in the latter, being found to be an unnecessary and costly ingredient, only useful to purify the salt from iron, by forming a compound of easy crystallisation; an object that may be effected with greater certainty by cheaper methods. In _medicine_, as a wash for foul and ill-conditioned ulcers; and as an astringent and antiseptic injection. M. Gannal has successfully employed a solution of this salt to preserve animal bodies, by throwing it into the arteries. Even an enema of 1 quart of it, or an injection of a like quantity into the [oe]sophagus, will suffice to preserve a body for several weeks. The mineral called AL'UNITE or ALU'MINITE, found near Newhaven (Sussex), is a native subsulphate or basic sulphate (DISUL'PHATE) of alumina.

=Aluminum, Sulphide of.= Al_{2}S_{3}. _Syn._ SUL'PHIDE OF ALUMINIUM, &c. A substance best obtained by passing the vapour of bisulphide of carbon over pure alumina, at a bright red heat. It is instantly decomposed by water, with the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen. See ALUMINUM (_above_).

=Aluminum Tann'ate.= _Syn._ TANNATE OF ALUMINA, Eng.; ALU'MINAE TANN'AS, L. _Prep._ Take of pure hydrate of aluminum (dried at 90 deg. Fahr.), 1 part; tannic acid (dried at 212 deg.), 2 parts; triturate them together for some time, adding just sufficient water to bring them to the consistence of a syrup, and carefully evaporate to dryness at a heat not higher than 120 deg. Fahr.; lastly, reduce the residuum to powder.

_Uses, &c._ A combination of certain constitution, which is said to have been found very useful in obstinate vomiting and diarrh[oe]a, in dysentery, and particularly in haemoptysis, haemorrhage, &c.--_Dose_, 3 to 12 or 15 gr.

=Aluminium Bronze.= See BRONZE ALUMINIUM.

=AL'VINE= (-v[)i]n). _Syn._ ALVI'NUS, L.: ALVIN, Fr. Of or from the belly or intestines; relating to the intestinal secretions.

=AMABELE.= Consists of crushed millets. See MILLET.

=AM'ADOU= (-[)a]h-d[=o][=o]). _Syn._ GERMAN TINDER, TOUCH'WOOD, PYROTECH'NIC SPONGE, SPUNK[double-dagger]Sec., SURGEON'S AG'ARIC, A. OF THE OAK, &c.; AGAR'ICUS QUER'CUS, A. QUER'NUS, A. CHIRURGO''RUM, FUN'GUS QUER'CUS, &c., L.; AMADOU, AGARIC AMADOUVIER, Fr.; ZUNDERSCHWAMM. Ger. A soft, spongy, combustible substance, being the prepared flesh of _bole'tus fomenta''rius_ (Linn.), an indigenous species of fungus found on the oak, birch, and a few other trees (REAL AMADOU or OAK-AGARIC); for which _b. ignia''rius_ (Linn.), a like fungus, found on the willow, cherry, plum, and other trees, is frequently substituted.

_Collec., Prep., &c._ The outer bark of the fungus (collected in Aug. or Sept.) having been removed with a knife, the inner spongy substance is carefully separated from the woody portion lying below, and after being cut into slices, is well beaten with a mallet until sufficiently soft and pliable. Sometimes it is first boiled in water, in order to separate the epidermis and porous parts, and to free it from soluble matter; after which it is beaten as before. In this state it is used in _surgery_, &c. To complete its manufacture for TINDER, it is soaked once, or oftener, in a strong solution of saltpetre (RED AMADOU; BROWN A.); or in a thin paste made of gunpowder and water, which is thoroughly forced into the pores (BLACK A.); after which it is dried, and well rubbed to free it from loose matter. The first is the more cleanly; the last the more combustible.

_Uses, &c._ A light brown or reddish-brown substance. In _surgery_, _pharmacy_, &c., it is used to stop local bleeding, to spread plasters on, as a compress, and for other like purposes. When covered with resin-plaster it forms an excellent article for the protection of abraded surfaces. A small piece thus prepared, of a circular shape, having a round hole cut in the middle, the size of the apex of the corn, is one of the very best corn-plasters known; as from its great softness it at once protects the part from pressure, and removes the cause. As a material for shoe-socks it is superior to all other substances. The amadou for surgical purposes must not contain nitre.

=AMAL'GAM.= [Eng., Ger.] _Syn._ AMAL'GAMA, L.; AMALGAME, Fr. In _chemistry_ and _metallurgy_, an alloy containing quicksilver; more particularly one in which that metal plays a conspicuous part. Medallists improperly apply this term to all soft alloys.

Mercury unites with many of the metals by mere contact; and with some of them, as gold, silver, tin, and lead, in certain proportions, without losing its fluidity. In a few cases, as with potassium, this union is attended with considerable violence, and with the production of light and heat.

_Prep._ Most of these compounds may be formed by agitating or rubbing the mercury with the other metal, or metals, in the state of filings or small fragments, either with or without heat; or with the easily fusible metals, by adding it to them in the melted state; care been taken, in both cases, that the heat be not sufficient to volatilise the mercury.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Some amalgams are solid, and not unfrequently crystalline; others are fluid. Of the latter several crystallise after a time, becoming solid; being, probably, merely solutions of the solid amalgams in excess of mercury. The amalgams of gold, silver, tin, zinc, &c., are extensively employed in gilding, silvering and dentistry, and in other useful arts and manufactures.

=Amalgam, Ammonium.= An unstable compound produced when a globule of mercury is placed in a small cavity formed in a piece of sal ammoniac, and the negative pole of a powerful galvanic battery is brought into contact with the metal, and the positive pole, with the ammoniacal salt. In a few seconds the new compound (ammonium amalgam) of the consistence of butter is formed. On withdrawing the influence of the battery, the whole returns to its former condition. By putting an amalgam of sodium into the moistened cavity of the sal ammoniac, similar results are obtained. The phenomena attending the formation of this new substance have been urged as evidence of the existence of the theoretical basic radicle AMMONIUM.

=Amalgam, Elec'trical.= _Prep._ 1. Take zinc and grain-tin, of each, 1 _oz._; melt them in an iron ladle, remove it from the fire, and add of mercury (hot), 3 _oz._; stir the whole well together with an iron rod, pour it into a well-chalked wooden box, and agitate it violently until cold; or, instead of this, it may be briskly stirred until cold, and then powdered. It should be preserved in a corked glass bottle.

2. (La Baume.) Zinc, 2 _oz._; grain-tin, 1 _oz._; bees' wax, 1/2 _oz._; melt, add of mercury, 6 _oz._, and otherwise proceed as before. Preferred by some to all other mixtures.

3. Zinc, 2 _oz._; mercury, 5 _oz._

_Use._ To cover the cushions of electrical machines. A little of the powder is poured on a piece of paper, crushed smooth with a flat knife, and then spread thinly on the surface of the cushion or rubber, previously slightly smeared with tallow; or the powder may be rubbed down with a little tallow, prior to the application of it.

=Amalgam, Gild'ing.= _Syn._ AMALGAM OF GOLD.

_Prep._ Take of grain-gold, 1 part; mercury, 8 parts; put them into a small iron saucepan, or ladle, and apply a gentle heat, using a smooth piece of iron as a stirrer; when the solution or combination is complete, pour it out on a clean plate or smooth stone slab.

_Use._ To gild brass, copper, &c., in the common process of wash or fire-gilding. A less proportion of gold than the above is used when a thin and cheap gilding is required; as by increasing the quantity of the mercury the same weight of the precious metal may be extended over a much larger surface.

=Amalgam, Sil'vering.=--_a._ For METALS. _Syn._ AMALGAM OF SILVER. _Prep._, _Uses_, &c. As the last, but substituting silver for gold.

_b._ For GLASS. _Prep._ 1. Lead, tin, and bismuth, of each, 1 _oz._; bees' wax or resin 1/4 _oz._; melt, skim off the dross, cool to the lowest point at which the mixture will remain liquid, and add of quicksilver 10 _oz._; mix well with an iron rod.

2. Lead and tin, of each, 1 _oz._; bismuth, 2 _oz._; quicksilver, 4 _oz._; as the last.

_Uses, &c._ For silvering the insides of hollow glass vessels, globes, convex mirrors, &c. The glass being thoroughly cleaned and dried, is carefully warmed, and the amalgam, rendered fluid by a gentle heat, is poured in, and the vessel turned round and round, so as to bring the metal into contact with every part which it is desired to cover. At a certain temperature it will be found to readily adhere to the glass. The excess is then poured out, and the vessel set aside to cool.

=Amalgams, Tooth.= See DENTISTRY and TOOTH-CEMENTS.

=Amalgam, Var'nisher's.= _Prep._ Melt grain-tin, 4 _oz._, with bismuth, 1 _oz._; add quicksilver, 1 _oz._, and stir till cold; then grind it very fine with white-of-egg or with varnish, and apply the mixture to the figure or surface with a soft brush. It is used in several of the ornamental trades.

=Amalgamating Salts.= Boil a solution of pernitrate of mercury with excess of equal parts of powdered persulphate and perchloride of mercury, and decant the liquid portion of the result for use. Chiefly used for amalgamating the zinc plates of galvanic batteries, also as a substitute for mercury in gilding by the amalgam process.

=AMAL'GAMATED.= _Syn._ AMALGAMA'TUS, L.; AMALGAME, Fr. Compounded or blended with quicksilver; formed into an amalgam.

=AMALGAMA'TION.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AMALGAMA'TIO, L.; VERQUICKEN, Ger. The act or process by which an amalgam is formed; hence loosely, the mixing or blending of different things. In the art of the refiner, the operation of separating gold and silver from their ores by means of mercury.

=AM'ANDINE= (-d[=e]ne). _Prep._ 1. (Transparent.)--_a._ Fine new white or pale honey, 4 _oz._; white soft-soap (prepared from lard and potassa), 2 _oz._; mix thoroughly in a marble mortar, adding 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls (if necessary) of solution of potassa, until a perfectly homogeneous paste or cream is produced; then rub in, by degrees, and very gradually, of oil of almonds, 7 _lbs._ (or q. s.), previously mixed with essential oil of almonds, 1 _oz._; essence (oil) of bergamot, 3/4 _oz._; oil of cloves, 1/2 _oz._; and balsam of Peru, 3 _dr._ The product, which should have a rich, transparent, jelly-like appearance and behaviour, is, lastly, put into pots for use or sale.

_b._ (G. W. S. Piesse.) Simple syrup, 4 oz.; white soft-soap (see _above_), 1 oz.; oil of almonds, 7 _lbs._ (previously scented with--); essential oil of almonds and bergamot, of each 1 _oz._; oil of cloves, 1/2 _oz._; the whole being mixed, &c., as before. Both the above are of very fine quality. Glycerin, in the proportion of about 1/2 _oz._ to each _lb._ of the products, added with the soap, improves their softening quality.

2. (Opaque.)--_a._ From white potash-soap and gum-mucilage (thick), of each 3 _oz._; new white honey, 6 _oz._; and the yelks of 5 large eggs; well mixed together, and afterwards intimately blended first, with oil of almonds (scented as before, or at will), 2 _lbs._; and afterwards, with thick pistachio-milk (made of the fresh-peeled nuts and rose-water), 5 _fl. oz._

_b._ From almond-paste, honey, white potash-soap, and glycerin, of each. 1 _oz._; yelk of 1 egg; oil of almonds, 1/2 pint (holding in solution--); essential oil of almonds, 1 _dr._; balsam of Peru, 1/2 _dr._

_Uses, &c._ To whiten and soften the skin, and to prevent it chapping. A small portion, about half the size of a filbert, with a few drops of warm water, produces a very white and rich lather, with which the hands and face are lightly rubbed, and the skin, in a short time, gently wiped with a small napkin, whilst the water on it is still milky.

The manufacture of AMANDINE is a matter of some difficulty and labour. The details essential to success are given under EMULSINES. It is sometimes coloured, which is done by infusing or dissolving in the oil, before using it, a little--spinach-leaves, for GREEN; and palm-oil, or annatto, for YELLOW and ORANGE. A beautiful SCARLET or CRIMSON tinge may be given to it by a little liquid rouge or carmine (ammoniacal), added just before removing it from the mortar. See EMULSINES, OLIVINE, PASTE, &c.

=AMANI'TA MUSCA''RIA.= The fly-agaric or fly-mushroom. See AGARIC.

=AMANITINE.= _Syn._ AMANITINA, L. The name given by Letellier to the poisonous principle of _amani'ta muscaria_, and some other species of fungi. It is brown, uncrystallisable, and soluble.

=AMARA.= [L.] In _medicine_ and _pharmacology_, the bitter tonics.

=AMARANTH.= _Syn._ AMARANTH'US, L.; AMARANTE, Fr. The flower love-lies-bleeding (_amaranthus caudatus_--Linn.). In _poetry_, an imaginary flower that never fades. (Milton.) In _chromatics_, a colour inclining to purple.

=AMARYTH'RINE.= A bitter principle found, in certain lichens, associated with erythrine (which _see_).

=AMASI.= This, the native name given by the natives of Central Africa to sour milk, which they prepare by adding to the new milk, a small quantity of milk previously allowed to become sour. The milk thus acidified is considered by them far more wholesome than new milk.

=AMAUROSIS.= _Syn._ GUTTA SERENA, SUFFUSIO NIGRA. A diminution or total loss of sight, arising from paralysis of the retina or optic nerve.

=AM'BER.= _Syn._ ELEC'TRON, Gr.; ELEC'TRUM, SUC'CINUM (Ph. D.), L.; AMBRE, SUCCIN, Fr.; BERNSTEIN, Ger.; LYNX-STONE[dagger], LA'PIS LYN'CIS[dagger], L. A well-known yellowish, semi-transparent, fossil resin, of which trinkets and the mouth-pieces of pipes are commonly made.

_Nat. hist., &c._ Amber is found in detached pieces on the sea-coast, and is dug up in diluvial soils. That of commerce comes chiefly from the southern coasts of the Baltic, where it is cast ashore between Koenigsberg and Memel; and from Ducal Prussia, Saxony, Poland, Sicily, and Maryland (U.S.), where it is dug out of beds or mines. It has also been found on the shores of Norfolk, and small pieces are occasionally dug up in the gravel pits round London. It is probably an antediluvian resin; and when found on the coast, is supposed to be disengaged, by the action of the sea, from neighbouring beds of lignite or fossil coal. Much diversity of opinion for a long time prevailed amongst naturalists and chemists as to the origin of amber, some referring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some even to the animal kingdom; its natural history and analysis affording something in favour of each. The vegetable origin of amber has, however, been recently shown by various facts, and is now generally admitted. According to Sir David Brewster, its optical properties are those of an indurated vegetable juice. ('Ed. Phil. Journ.,' ii.) Insects and fragments of vegetables are frequently found imbedded in it; and this in a manner which could only have occurred when the resin was a viscid fluid. Microscopical researches have led to the conclusion that it is the production of some species of pine, closely allied to the pinus balsamea. ('Entom. Trans.,' i & ii.)

_Manuf._ Amber is WORKED in a lathe, POLISHED with whiting and water or rottenstone-and-oil, and FINISHED OFF by friction with flannel. During the operation the pieces often become hot and electrical, and fly into fragments; to avoid which they are kept as cool as possible, and only worked for a short period at a time. The workmen are said to often suffer considerably from electrical excitement. Amber is JOINED and MENDED by smearing the surface of the pieces with linseed or boiled oil, and then strongly pressing them together, at the same time holding them over a charcoal fire, or heating them in any other convenient way in which they will not be exposed to injury. The commoner varieties are HARDENED and rendered CLEARER, either by boiling them in rape oil for about 24 hours, or by surrounding the pieces with clean sand in an iron pot, and exposing them to a gradually increasing heat for 30 or 40 hours. During this process small fragments are kept in the sand at the side of the pot, for the purpose of occasional examination, lest the heat be raised too high, or be too long continued.

_Prop., &c._ Hard; brittle; tasteless; glossy; generally translucent, but sometimes opaque, and occasionally, though rarely, transparent; colour generally yellow or orange, but sometimes yellowish-white; becomes negatively electric by friction; smells agreeably when rubbed or heated; fracture conchoidal and vitreous or resinous; soluble in the pure alkalies, and, without decomposition, in oil of vitriol, which then becomes purple; insoluble in the essential and fixed oils without long digestion and heat; soluble in chloroform; melts at about 550 deg. Fahr.; burns with a yellow flame, emitting at the same time a peculiar fragrant odour, and leaving a light and shiny coal. By dry distillation it yields inflammable gases, a small quantity of water, a little acetic acid, a volatile oil (OIL OF AMBER; O'LEUM SUC'CINI, L.) at first pale, afterwards brown, thick, and empyreumatic, and an acid (SUCCIN'IC ACID; ACIDUM SUCCIN'ICUM, L.); with residual charcoal 12 to 13%. Sp. gr. 1.065 to 1.09, but usually about 1.070. It cannot be fused without undergoing more or less chemical change.

_Ident._ Amber may be known from mellite and copal, both of which articles are occasionally substituted for it, by the following characteristics:--1. MELLITE is infusible by heat, and burns white:--2. A piece of COPAL, heated on the point of a knife, catches fire, and runs into drops, which flatten as they fall:--3. AMBER burns with spitting and frothing, and when its liquefied particles drop, they rebound from the plane on which they fall (M. Hauey):--4. Neither mellite nor copal yields succinic acid by distillation; nor the agreeable odour of amber when burnt; nor do they become so readily electric by friction.

_Uses._ It is chiefly made into mouth-pieces for pipes, beads for necklaces, and other ornaments and trinkets. It is also used as the basis of several excellent varnishes. In _medicine_, it was formerly given in chronic coughs, hysteria, &c.--_Dose_ (of the powder), 10 to 60 gr.

_Remarks._ The finer sorts of amber fetch very high prices. A piece 1 _lb._ in weight is said to be worth from 10L to 15L. 5000 dollars a few years since were offered in Prussia for a piece weighing 13 _lbs._, and which, it was stated by the Armenian merchants, would fetch from 30,000 to 40,000 dollars in Constantinople. It is more valued in the East than in England; and chiefly on account of the Turks and other Orientals believing it to be incapable of transmitting infection. In the royal cabinet, Berlin, there is a piece weighing 18 _lbs._, supposed to be the largest ever found. The coarser kinds alone are employed in medicine, chemistry, &c.

=Amber, Ac'id of=* ([)a]s'-). Succinic acid.

=Amber, Bal'sam of.= _Syn._ BAL'SAMUM SUC'CINI, L. The thick matter left in the retort after the rectification of oil of amber; and which it resembles in its properties.

=Amber, Facti''tious= (-t[)i]sh'-). _Syn._ SUC'CINUM FACTI''TIUM, L. Mellite, copal, and anime, have each been substituted for amber, especially for small fragments of it. Recently an imitation has been produced by acting on gutta percha with sulphur, at a high temperature, which, either alone or in combination with copal, is said to have been extensively passed off for genuine amber.

=Amber, Liq'uid=[dagger]. See LIQUID-AMBAR.

=Amber, Oil of.= See OILS.

=Amber, Re'sin of.= See PYRETINE.

=Amber, Salt of.= Succinic Acid.

=Amber, Sol'uble.= _Prep._ Fragments of amber are cautiously heated in an iron pot, and as soon as it becomes semi-liquid, an equal weight of pale boiled linseed-oil, previously made hot, is very gradually stirred in, and the whole thoroughly blended. Used as a cement for glass and earthenware, and thinned with oil of turpentine to make varnishes. It will keep any length of time if preserved from the air.

=AMBER-CAM'PHOR.= See PYRETINE (Crystalline).

=AM'BER DRINK=[dagger]. Amber-coloured malt liquor.

=AM'BER-SEED.= Musk-seed (which _see_).

=AM'BER-TREE.= The popular name of a species of anthospermum, an evergreen shrub, of which the leaves, when bruised, emit an agreeable odour.

=AM'BERGRIS= (-gr[)i]s; gr[=e]se[double-dagger]). _Syn._ GREY AMBER*; AMBRAGRI''SEA (gr[)i]zh'-e-[)a]), L.; AMBREGRIS, Fr.; AMBRA, AMBAR, Ger. An odorous, solid substance, found floating on the sea in tropical climates, and in the caecum of the cachalot or spermaceti whale (physeter macrocephalus). It has been supposed by some to be a morbid secretion of the liver or intestines, analogous to biliary calculi; but according to Mr Beale, it consists of the mere indurated faeces of the animal, perhaps (as suggested by Brande and Pereira) somewhat altered by disease. "Some of the semifluid faeces, dried with the proper precautions, had all the properties of ambergris." (Beale.) It is occasionally found in masses weighing from 60 to 225 _lbs._

_Prop., &c._ Solid, opaque, ash-coloured, streaked or variegated, fatty, inflammable; remarkably light; highly odorous,[40] particularly when warmed, cut, or handled--the odour being peculiar and not easily described or imitated, of a very diffusive and penetrating character, and perceptible in minute quantities; rugged on the surface; does not effervesce with acids; melts at 140 deg. to 150 deg. Fahr. into a yellowish resin-like mass; at 212 deg. flies off as a white vapour; very soluble in alcohol, ether, and the volatile and fixed oils. It appears to be a non-saponifiable fat, analogous to cholesterine. Sp. gr. 0.780 to 0.926.[41]

[Footnote 40: It has a "pleasant musk-like odour, which is supposed to be derived from the squid ('sepia moschata') on which the animal feeds," the "horny beaks" of which "are often found imbedded in the masses." (Pereira.) It has a smell resembling that of dried cow-dung." (Redwood, 'Gray's Supplement,' 1857, p. 606.)]

[Footnote 41: Sp. gr .780 to .896--Brande; .908 to .920--Pereira.]

_Pur._ From the high price of genuine ambergris it is very frequently, if not nearly always, adulterated. When quite pure and of the best quality, it is--1. Nearly wholly soluble in hot alcohol and ether, and yields about 85% of ambreine:--2. It almost wholly volatilises at a moderate heat, and when burnt leaves no notable quantity of ashes; a little of it exposed in a silver spoon melts without bubble or scum; and on the heated point of a knife it is rapidly and entirely dissipated:--3. It is easily punctured with a heated needle, and on withdrawing it, not only should the odour be immediately evolved, but the needle should come out clean, without anything adhering to it (Normandy):--4. The Chinese are said to try its genuineness by scraping it fine upon the top of boiling tea. "It should dissolve (melt) and diffuse itself generally." Black or white is bad. The smooth and uniform is generally factitious.[42]

[Footnote 42: Ure's 'Dict. of A., M. & M.,' 5th Ed., i, 128.]

_Uses, &c._ It is highly prized for its odour, which is found greatly to improve and exalt that of other substances; hence its extensive use in perfumery. In _medicine_ it was formerly given as an aphrodisiac, in doses of 3 to 10 gr. "A grain or two, when rubbed down with sugar, and added to a hogshead of claret, is very perceptible in the wine, and gives it a flavour, by some considered as an improvement." (Brande.)

=Ambergris Facti''tious.= An article of this kind, met with in the shops, is thus made:--Orris-powder, spermaceti, and gum-benzoin, of each, 1 _lb._; asphaltum, 3 or 4 _oz._; ambergris, 6 _oz._; grain-musk, 3 _dr._; oil of cloves, 1 _dr._; oil of rhodium, 1/2 _dr._; liquor of ammonia, 1 _fl. oz._; beaten to a smooth hard mass with mucilage, and made into lumps whilst soft. This fraud is readily detected.

=AM'BREINE= (-bre-[)i]n). _Syn._ AMBREI'NA, L.; AMBREINE, Fr.; AMBARSTOFF, Ger. The fatty, odorous principle of ambergris.

_Prep._ Digest ambergris in hot alcohol (sp. gr. 0.827) until the latter will dissolve no more, then filter. The AMBREINE will be deposited as the solution cools, in an irregular crystalline mass, which may be purified by recrystallisation in alcohol.

_Prop., &c._ Melts at about 90 deg.; volatilises at 212 deg. to 220 deg. Fahr.; nitric acid converts it into AMBREIC ACID. It closely resembles cholesterine.--_Prod._ 85%.

=AMBRETTE'= (-br[)e]t'). [Fr.] Musk-seed.

=AMBROSIA, RING'S VEGETABLE= (Tubbs, Peterborg, U.S.). A liquid with a sediment, containing 1 per cent. of lead. (Chandler.)

=AMEISEN BALSAM.= Von Dr Livingstone (Ahnelt, Charlottenburg). Balsam of ants. Castor oil, 72 grms.; balsam of Peru, 2 grms.; bergamot, 5 drops. (Hager.)

=AMERICAN PILLS= (A. H. Boldt, Lexington). For full-blooded, corpulent persons, and for those of sedentary habits, for irregular menstruation, and against contagious diseases. Made of scammony, rhubarb, and soap. (Schaedler.)

=AMERICAN MEDICINES, Dr SAMPSON'S= (New York). Two kinds of pills of coca:--No. 1. 85 pills composed of coca extract and coca powder, and each pill containing about 0.006 grm. of a morphia salt. No. 2. 50 pills, also of coca, and each containing 0.05 grm. of powdered iron. Both kinds are rolled in lycopodium. (Hager.)

=AMERICAN PILLS FOR ASTHMA.= Gilded pills made of gum ammoniacum.

=AMERICAN SCHAMPOO-FLUID FOR PROMOTING THE GROWTH OF THE HAIR.= Spirit of wine and rum, with some carbonate of ammonia and potash.

=AMERICAN DROPS FOR TOOTHACHE= (Majewsky, Warsaw) have been found of various composition. Some which profess to have taken a prize at the Vienna Exhibition were composed of French brandy, containing common salt, and coloured with cochineal. The first was a spirituous solution of an ethereal oil with some oil of cloves, coloured rather reddish; No. 2 was a similar solution with some oil of peppermint and tincture of rhatany; and No. 3 was merely a diluted solution of No. 2. (Hager.)

=AMERICAN UNIVERSAL BLOOD-PURIFYING HERB TEA= (Dr Kuhr), for women's diseases, hysteria, nervous debility, epilepsy, stomachic complaints, asthma, haemorrhoids, gout, rheumatism, worms, and much besides. White horehound, marsh mallow, liquorice wood, and sassafras, of each, 10 parts; anise, coriander and fennel, of each, 5 parts; red poppy petals, 4 parts; lavender flowers, 2 parts; senna, peppermint, millefoil flowers, and valerian root, of each, 1 part. (Kuhr and Selle.)

=AM'ETHYST= (-th[)i]st). _Syn._ PURPLE ROCK-CRYSTAL; AMETHYSTE, Fr.; AMETHYS'TUS, L. A beautiful sub-species of quartz or rock crystal, of a violet-blue colour of varying intensity, in great request for cutting into seals, brooches, and other like articles of ornament. It was known and prized in the earliest ages of antiquity. Among the ancients, cups and vases were made out of this mineral; and it was an opinion of the Greeks and Persians, that an amethyst bound on the navel would counteract the effects of wine, and that wine drank out of an amethystine vessel would not intoxicate. See GEMS.

=Amethyst.= In _chromation_, _dyeing_, &c., a rich variety of deep violet colour. Hence, AMETHYST'INE ([)i]n), &c.

=Amethyst, Orient'al.= A rich violet-blue variety of transparent, crystallised corundum.

=AM'IANTH= (-e-[)a]nth). _Syn._ AMIANTH'US, AMIAN'TUS, L.; AMIANTE, Fr. The whiter and more delicate varieties of asbestos, particularly those which possess a satiny lustre.

=AM'IDIN= (-e-d[)i]n). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AM'YDINE; AMIDI'NA, L. A substance noticed by Saussure in starch-paste, when long kept. According to Caventou, it is formed at once by the action of boiling water on starch. It forms the interior substance of the starch-grains, and its properties are intermediate between those of starch and gum. It is, indeed, the soluble part of starch, of which a perfect solution can only be obtained by prolonged ebullition in a large quantity of water.

=AMID'OGEN.= NH_{2}. Literally, the generator of amides; in _chemistry_, the name given by Kane to an hypothetical body, composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one of nitrogen. It forms AMIDES by combining with other bodies.

=Amidogen Ba'ses.= In _chemistry_, 'amines' in which only one equiv. of hydrogen is replaced by an organic radical; and hence called PRIMARY MON'AMINES.

=AMMONIA.= NH_{3}. _Syn._ AMMONIA GAS, AMMONIACAL GAS, ANHYDROUS AMMONIA, TERHYDRIDE OF NITROGEN; AMMONIAQUE, Fr.; AMMONIAK, Ger. At the present day the ammonia of commerce is chiefly prepared from the ammoniacal liquor of the gas-works and the manufactories of ivory black, animal charcoal, &c. Lant or stale urine is also an important source of ammonia. In these places a large quantity of crude ammoniacal liquor is produced; to which either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid is added, by which it is converted into a salt, which may be obtained nearly pure by evaporation, and one or more crystallisations, and, in the case of the hydrochlorate and carbonate, subsequent sublimation. Other sources and processes have been sought out and occasionally adopted for the preparation of the principal salts of ammonia (its sulphate, carbonate, and hydrochlorate); some of which have been patented, but few of them have got into general use, or have been carried out on the large scale. For many years the manufacture of ammonia and its compounds has incessantly engaged the attention of European chemists.

Many unsuccessful attempts have been made to directly convert the nitrogen of the atmosphere into ammonia. Of these we may mention one which consisted in passing a mixture of nitrogen, carbonic oxide and steam over red-hot hydrate of lime, whereby ammonia and carbonic acid are formed. A plan for the indirect application of atmospheric nitrogen in the preparation of ammonia was suggested by Margueritte, in which it was proposed that cyanide of barium should be prepared, and its nitrogen converted into ammonia by the aid of a current of superheated steam at 600 deg. C. According to the description of this process in a patent, not, however, in practice, native carbonate of baryta is calcined with about 30% of coal-tar, for the purpose of rendering the mass porous as well as more readily converted into caustic baryta at a lower temperature. The carbonaceous mass is, after cooling, placed in a retort, and kept at a temperature of 300 deg. C., while air and aqueous vapour are forced in, the result being the formation of ammonia in considerable quantity, and carbonate of baryta, which is again used.

Ammonia is evolved from ball soda while cooling; during the formation of cyanogen and cyanide of potassium in blast furnaces; and the formation of sal-ammoniac in the process of iron smelting.

Ammonia, in a state of combination, is found, in variable quantities, among the saline product of volcanoes, in sea and rain water, in bituminous coal, in urine, in guano, and in the atmosphere, especially that of large towns. The minute stellated crystals sometimes found on dirty windows in London, and other populous cities, consist of sulphate of ammonia. It is also found in clayey and peaty soils, and in minute quantity in good air and water. (Brande; Fownes; Letheby.) In the free state it exists in the juices of some plants, and in the living blood of animals, and it is freely developed during the decomposition of azotised vegetable substances, and during the putrefaction of animal matter.

[Illustration]

_Prep._ A mixture of fresh hydrate of lime with an equal weight of sal ammoniac (both dry and in fine powder) is introduced into a glass flask or retort, the beak of which communicates with one end of a U-shaped tube filled with small fragments of recently burnt quick-lime, and from which extends another glass tube, about 18 inches long, having its further end bent up ready to be placed under a gas-jar, on the shelf of a mercurial pneumatic trough. (See _engr._) The joints being all made air-tight by collars of india rubber, heat is applied by means of a spirit-lamp, and as soon as the air contained in the apparatus is expelled, the gas is collected for use. It cannot be dried by means of chloride of calcium. Powdered quick-lime may be substituted for the hydrate in the above process; in which case the evolved gas is anhydrous, but a much greater heat is then required for its liberation.

_Comp._ Ammonia is a compound of 3 volumes of hydrogen, and 1 vol. of nitrogen, condensed into two volumes; and by weight of 82.35 parts of nitrogen, 17.65 parts of hydrogen, or, in other words, of one atomic weight of nitrogen and three of hydrogen, having the formula NH_{3}.

_Prop._ Gaseous, colourless, invisible; highly pungent, acrid, irritating and alkaline; irrespirable, unless very largely diluted with air; extinguishes combustion; burns slowly in oxygen; sp. gr. 0.589; 100 cub. inches weigh 18.26 gr. Under a pressure of 6.5 atmospheres, at 50 deg. Fahr., it forms a transparent, colourless liquid of the sp. gr. 0.731; at 60 deg. Fahr. this liquid expanded into 1009 times its volume of ammoniacal gas; at -40 deg. Fahr., and the ordinary atmospheric pressure, it forms a subtle colourless liquid, which at -103 deg. Fahr. freezes into a white, translucent, crystalline substance. (Faraday.) It is highly basic; all its salts are either volatilised or decomposed at, or under, a red heat--those with a volatile acid sublime unchanged--those with a fixed acid lose their ammonia. It is decomposed into its elements by transmission through a red-hot tube; and when in contact with metallic oxides or spongy platinum, at the same temperature, the newly evolved hydrogen unites with the oxygen of the oxide or of the atmosphere, forming water. Water at 50 deg. Fahr. absorbs 670 times its volume of this gas, and the solution has the sp. gr. 0.875. Its concentrated aqueous solution boils at 130 deg., and freezes at -40 deg. Fahr.

_Tests, &c._ Ammonia is recognised by--1. Its pungent odour:--2. By turning vegetable blues green, and vegetable yellows brown; but which soon regain their previous colours, especially on the application of heat:--3. By producing dense white fumes when brought in contact with those of hydrochloric acid:--4. By the Nessler test (see WATER, QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF):--5. If a saturated solution of arsenious acid is mixed with a solution of nitrate of silver (strength 2%) a trace of ammonia causes the formation of try-argentic arsenite:--6. Boettger says a very delicate test for ammonia is afforded by an aqueous solution of carbolic acid. On adding to a liquid containing the smallest quantity of ammonia, or an ammoniacal salt, a few drops of this solution, and then a small quantity of a filtered solution of chloride of lime, the liquid becomes green, especially when warmed.

_Phys. eff., &c._ Inhaled, undiluted with air, it is an irritant poison, producing spasms of the glottis, convulsions, and death; even when diluted it acts as a powerful acrid, and local irritant; applied to the skin it causes vesication. The use of the pungent odour of common 'smelling salts,' in syncope, headache, &c., is well known. Largely diluted with air, it has been recently highly extolled in chronic hoarseness, asthma, &c.; and as an antidote to the fumes of bromine, chlorine, and hydrocyanic acid. (Smee.)

_Ant., &c._ The vapour of acetic acid or common vinegar, freely inhaled. It may be produced by sprinkling a little on a piece of hot iron, as a heated shovel. If bronchial inflammation follows, it must be treated by purgatives and a low diet; and, if severe, and the patient be plethoric or robust, by venesection or cupping.

_Uses._ Ammonia is employed in numerous processes in _chemistry_ and the _arts_; but chiefly in the form of 'liquor of ammonia,' 'spirits of hartshorn,' &c., and in combination, under the form of salts. In its pure or gaseous state it possesses little practical interest.

=Ammonia, Solution of.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF AMMONIA, LIQUOR AMMONIAE, AMMONIUM HYDRATE, AMMONIA, Eng.; AMMONIAQUE LIQUIDE, DISSOLUTION D'AMMONIAQUE, ESPRIT DE SAL AMMONIAC, Fr.; ATZENDER AMMONIUM-LIQUOR, SALMIAK-GEIST, Ger.; LIQUORE DI AMMONIACO, Ital. Ammonia gas readily dissolves in water, one volume of water absorbing about 670 volumes of ammonia, much heat being liberated, and the solution increases greatly in volume.

This solution is regarded in two very different lights; firstly and most generally as simply a solution of gaseous ammonia, a view rendered most probable by its general physical and by many chemical reactions; by a few, however, it is looked upon as a solution of ammonium hydrate.

[Illustration]

Prepared by distilling, in a tubular retort, equal parts of sal ammoniac, hydrated lime, or slaked lime and water, and passing the gas evolved through a set of Wolff's bottles partially filled with water, as in the figure above.

[Illustration:

_A_, Cylindrical Iron Retort. _B_, Furnace for ditto. _C C C C_, Stoneware Receivers. _D D D D_, Connecting Pipes. _E F_, Waste Pipe and Receiver. _G_, Safety Tube. ]

Commercially this article is prepared on the large scale, from a mixture of about equal parts of fresh-slaked lime and sal-ammoniac or sulphate of ammonia, which is heated in an iron cylinder or retort connected with a set of 'refrigerators,' the latter consisting of a row of stoneware bottles with double necks, containing water, and kept very cold. The general arrangement of the apparatus used in this manufacture is exhibited above, and with the accompanying references, will be easily understood. The 'condensers,' when in use, are surrounded with cloths (not shown in the _engr._) kept wet with very cold water, whilst constant current of cold air is commonly made to pass over them. The pipe (_D_) leading from the retort is also several feet long, and is advantageously passed through a wooden screen in order that the radiated heat of the retort and brickwork of the furnace may be intercepted as much as possible.

Two different methods of proceeding are adopted in this process. In the one the dry pulverulent ingredients are mixed together, and the resulting gas distilled over into the water placed in the receivers. In the other the lime is made into a 'pap' with water, and the ammonia-salt, in coarse powder, being added, the whole is rapidly blended together, before closing the retort, and applying heat. In either case a proportionate quantity of water is put into the condensers, and the operation is nearly similar; but the latter method requires the least heat, and so far as the receivers and refrigerators are concerned, is, perhaps, the one most easily managed. It is that which is always, and necessarily followed, when sulphate of ammonia is employed.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Highly pungent, caustic, and alkaline; lighter than water, and presenting in a liquid form most of the characteristics of pure ammonia. When strongest has a sp. gr. of .875, and contains about 39 per cent. of ammonia, but the usual strong ammonia of commerce has a sp. gr. of but .88. The liquor ammonia fortior, B. P., has a sp. gr. of about .893, and contains 32.5 per cent. of ammonia, while the liquor ammoniae B. P. has a sp. gr. of about .940, and contains about 10 per cent. of ammonia. As a medicine it is antacid, diaphoretic, rubefacient, stimulant, and counter-irritant; and is used in various affections in which these remedies are indicated. As a vesicant it is superior to cantharides, and as a caustic it is used with advantage in the bites of rabid animals, especially those of serpents and insects. Its vapour is a common nasal stimulant in faintings, epilepsy, &c. In its concentrated form it is a corrosive poison.--_Dose_, 5 to 25 drops, in cold water, or milk and water. It enters into the composition of several valuable external remedies, and is in constant employment in the _chemical laboratory_, both as a reagent and for the preparation of other compounds.

_Ant., &c._ When the fumes have been inhaled, the patient should be exposed to a current of fresh air; and when the liquid has been swallowed, vinegar or lemon-juice mixed with water may be administered; followed by an emetic, or, on its failure, by the stomach-pump.

_Estim._ The quantity of gaseous ammonia in pure water of ammonia is easily determined from the specific gravity of the liquid, or from its saturating power. When impure or mixed with other substances, a given weight of the sample is placed in a small retort, the end of which is made to dip into a vessel containing dilute hydrochloric acid. A strong solution of caustic potassa is then poured into the retort, and heat applied by means of a small spirit lamp. When _all_ the ammonia is distilled over, the acid solution is evaporated to dryness, by the heat of a water bath, and the residuum (chloride of ammonium) weighed. Each grain of the chloride thus found represents .31804 gr. of pure ammonia; 53.5 parts of the former being equivalent to 17 of the latter. If the article for examination be a solid substance (as a salt), it may be dissolved in water, or in dilute acid, before being put into the retort.

In accurate experiments in the laboratory, ammonia is usually WEIGHED either as chloride of ammonium (see _above_), or as ammonio-bichloride of platinum (NH_{4}Cl, PtCl_{2}); every gr. of the latter representing .07614 gr. of pure ammonia. Sometimes, though rarely, the quantity of ammonia is determined from the volume of nitrogen eliminated from it, of which 14 gr. represent 17 gr. of ammonia.

_Concluding remarks, Patents, &c._ Whatever form or process may be adopted for the preparation of liquid ammonia, it is absolutely necessary to keep the receivers as cool as possible, by means of snow, ice, or a current of very cold water, for the purpose of promoting the absorption of the gas, and to prevent its loss. On the small scale, the glass receivers or bottles may be most conveniently surrounded with ice, or a freezing mixture, and two, or more of them, should be furnished with safety-tubes, to prevent accidents. On the large scale, a capacious oblong retort, usually of iron (but sometimes, though seldom, of lead), with a large opening or tubulature conveniently situated for inserting the 'charges,' and withdrawing the residuum of the distillation, is employed. The tubulature, or opening, is closed by means of a large and accurately ground iron stopper, or with a door secured by screws, as the case might be. The stopper is well greased before insertion, and is removed by means of a powerful lever. Should it become so firmly fixed that it cannot be displaced in the usual manner, a cloth moistened with cold water, and carefully wrapped round it, without touching the neck of the retort, will generally cause it to contract sufficiently to enable the operator to remove it with facility. Sometimes a large iron kettle, with a moveable and accurately fitting lid secured in its place like that of a 'Papin's digester,' and having a large and long tubulature in its centre, is employed instead of a retort, over which it has the advantage of exposing a larger opening for the removal of the residuum of the process. In either case the distillatory vessel is imbedded in sand supported by fire-brick, and is not exposed directly to the heat of the furnace. Before commencing the distillation the joints are all well luted, to avoid leakage. An excellent plan is to pass the gas, as it leaves the retort, through a silver or pewter 'worm' or 'refrigerator' set in a tub supplied with a stream of very cold water; by which it will be sufficiently cooled before it reaches the 'receivers' to obviate the necessity of any further attention to them than keeping the cloths wrapped round them constantly moistened with cold water. The lower end of the 'worm' should be connected, by means of a balloon-shaped 'adopter,' with the 'still,' and the upper end with the first 'receiver,' the use of the balloon being to intercept any volatilised ammonia-salt that might be accidentally driven over by the heat being too high, or too suddenly raised.

The heat should be gradually applied, and very gradually raised, to prevent any of the sal ammoniac or sulphate being volatilised undecomposed; and even towards the end of the process it should not even approach redness.

The lime is best 'slaked' and 'papped' with about 4 parts of water; as a lower heat is then required to expel the gas, and it passes over more easily and fully than when less water is employed. This is absolutely necessary when the sulphate is the ammonia-salt used; as otherwise the residuum of 'sulphate of lime' would become so hard that it could not be easily removed from the retort.

The gas being wholly expelled from the retort, or other distillatory vessel, it is disconnected from the receivers, and (when sal ammoniac has been employed) the heat is raised sufficiently high to fuse the residual chloride of calcium, which is then at once baled or poured out. Glass retorts often suffer fracture at this point; but if they escape now, it generally happens that they are broken when heat is applied for a second operation. Hence, according to Prof. Muspratt, it is rare to find a retort, even when carefully handled, that will stand two operations.

When crude sulphate of ammonia is employed it is advisable to have only a little water in the first receiver, which is placed there merely to purify the gas which passes through it, and to retain any traces of volatile empyreumatic or oily matter which may be carried over with it.

Pure solution of ammonia is most easily obtained from 'sal ammoniac,' but crystallised sulphate of ammonia, often crude, is more commonly employed, on account of its lower price.

The preparation of pure solution of ammonia admits of no other improvements than such as merely affect the form of the apparatus employed to produce it; and hence, unlike the ammonia-salts of commerce, has been little meddled with by inventors and patentees. Among the plans having for their object the production of an ammoniacal solution, more or less concentrated, fitted for many of the purposes of the arts, and for the preparation of salts, but not for chemical and medical use, besides those of Reece, Spence, Crane and Jullien, &c., already noticed, may be mentioned--

1. That of Watson (Patent dated 1838) in which gas-liquor mixed with a proper quantity of fresh-slaked lime is distilled from a spacious retort or still into a receiver containing cold water, until much steam passes over with the gas, when the strong alkaline liquor forming the distillate, and called the first portion, is drawn off. The distillation is then continued, when a weaker and impurer solution is obtained, called the second portion. The first portion is then reintroduced into a retort or still with a small quantity of fresh lime, and the distillation repeated. The product the patentee calls the first portion of the second distillation. The latter is a strong ammoniacal liquor sufficient for all the purposes of scouring, cleaning, conversion into commercial ammonia-salts, &c. It may be further purified by a third distillation; the second portion of each operation being transferred again to the still with the next fresh charge of gas-liquor.

2. A modification of Coffey's still,[43] patented by Mr W. E. Newton (1841), under the name of the 'AMMONIA STILL,' is now extensively and successfully employed in this manufacture. By its use ammonia may be obtained from 'gas-liquor,' 'bone-spirit,' or any other ammoniacal liquor or solution, and even from solutions of the salts of ammonia, of almost any density, and of considerable purity; and this by a process which is continuous and inexpensive. The body of the apparatus is formed of wood, the chambers are lined with lead, and the diaphragms are of perforated sheet iron. The management of the apparatus varies with the form in which it is desired to obtain the product. When the ammonia is required to leave the upper chamber of the rectifier in the form of gas, either pure or impure, the steam which ascends, and the current of 'ammoniacal liquor' which descends, are regulated in such relative proportions that the latter remains at or near the atmospheric temperature during its passage through some of the upper chambers, becoming successively hotter as it descends, until at length it enters into ebullition; in which state it passes through the lower chambers, either to make its escape, or to enter a cistern provided to receive it. If, on the contrary, the ammonia is required to leave the upper chamber in combination with the vapour of water, the supply of steam entering below must be in such proportion to that of the ammoniacal liquor supplied from above, that the latter may be at or near the boiling temperature in the upper part of the apparatus. Crude liquor and ammonia-salts, before being thus submitted to distillation, are, of course, first treated with a proper quantity of quick-lime--in the one case to remove most of the impurities, and in the other to set the ammonia free by seizing on its acid.[44]

[Footnote 43: An _engr._ and description of this still, as employed for spirit, is given under DISTILLATION (which _see_).]

[Footnote 44: For a full description of the "AMMONIA-STILL," _see_ Newton's 'Patent Journ.,' 'Pharm Journ.,' xiii, 64; &c.]

The water or solution contained in the first bottle or the first receiver is found to be the strongest, provided it has been kept well cooled; and that in the others, of progressively decreasing strength. By mixing the contents of one bottle with another a solution of almost any strength may be made. It is also easy to prepare liquor of ammonia of any required strength, or to ascertain the strength of that in the receivers, by observing the expansion of the liquid. Water, when fully saturated with ammonia, expands from 3 volumes to 5 vols.; and in less, but corresponding proportion, according to the quantity absorbed. All that is necessary in practice is, that each receiver be furnished with a gauge-pipe by which the degree of expansion may be noted. On the small scale, graduated glass receivers may be used.

3. Mallet's Apparatus. This, which is employed in many of the large gas works, is shown in vertical section in the accompanying woodcut. Steam is forced into large receptacles, which are filled with gas water, by which means the carbonate of ammonia is volatilised. When lime, as is sometimes the case, is added, ammonia gas is evolved, and this being conveyed into weak sulphuric acid, sulphate of ammonia is the result.

[Illustration]

The apparatus consists of two cylindrical boiler-plate vessels, A and B. A is heated directly by the fire, and has a leaden tube, _c_, which dips into the liquid contained in B, this vessel being so placed as to catch the waste heat from the fire. _b_ and _e_ are man-holes; _a_ and _a'_ are stirrers. By means of the tube _d_ the fluid from B can be run off into A. Gas-water is poured into both vessels, and lime added; ammonia is liberated, whilst carbonate of lime and sulphide of calcium are formed, and these latter remain in the vessels after the volatilisation of the ammonia. The vessel D is also filled with ammoniacal water, and when the operation is in action this water, already warmed, is run by the aid of the tube _h_ from D into B. E is a gas-water tank, from which D is filled by means of _g_. The ammonia set free in A is, with the steam, conveyed by the pipe _c_ into B, thence through _c'_ into the wash-vessel C, and thence again through _c''_ into the first condenser, D. The partially condensed vapour now passes into the condensing vessel F, the worm of which is surrounded by cold water. The dilute ammonia is collected in G, and forced by means of the pump (R) into C, from whence it is occasionally removed by means of a syphon into either A or B. The non-condensed ammoniacal gas is carried from G through a series of Wolfe's bottles, the first bottle (H) containing olive oil, with the object of retaining any hydrocarbons that may be present in the gas; the bottle J contains caustic soda-ley, in order to purify the ammonia and retain impurities; the bottle K is half filled with distilled water. The ammoniacal gas having passed through K, is conveyed to the large wooden tank (lined with lead) L, filled with diluted sulphuric acid, if it is intended to prepare sulphate of ammonia, or with water, if solution of ammonia be required. The vessel L is placed in a tank of water; _i_ is a small pipe for introducing acid, while the tube leading to M serves to carry off any unabsorbed ammonia, M being likewise filled with acid.

4. By means of Rose's apparatus, the ammoniacal gas-liquor mixed with one third of slaked lime is heated in a boiler to a temperature of from 96 deg. to 100 deg., the ammoniacal gas evolved being passed into hydrochloric acid, and thence through charcoal into vessels containing from 120 to 150 litres of water, which is converted into liquid ammonia of a sp. gr. 0.920.

5. In Lunge's apparatus the gas-water is heated in a boiler, and the liberated ammoniacal gas passed into sulphuric acid.

Solution of ammonia is now seldom made by the druggist, or on the small scale, the large manufacturing chemists supplying it at a very low rate, and of very superior quality. In the shops it is kept of two or three strengths.

The estimation of the strength of ammonia solutions in commerce is known as ammonimetry, and depends upon their specific gravities. The per-centage richness of solutions of ammonia, or of its carbonates, may be most accurately determined, by ALKALIMETRY. For all the ordinary purposes of commerce, and of the laboratory, the strength of pure solutions of ammonia may, however, be inferred, with sufficient correctness, from their density; and to this the term AMMONIOMETRY is usually restricted.

The specific gravity of the sample being found either by the hydrometer[45] or specific gravity bottle, in the usual manner, its per-centage strength may be seen by inspection of the following _Table_ and the _Table_ on p. 127.

[Footnote 45: An hydrometer specially weighted and graduated for this purpose is called an AMMONIM'ETER, AMMONIOM'ETER, or AMMO'NIA-ME'TER (AMMONIM'ETRUM, AMMONIOM'ETRUM, &c., L.)]

TABLE I.--_Showing the per-centage of_ PURE AMMONIA, _and of_ AMMONIA-WATER _of_ .9000, _in Water of Ammonia, of the given specific gravities, at_ 60 deg. Fahr. By Dr URE.

------------+------------+----------------+------------ Sp. Gr. by | Water of | Pure | Water, experiment. | Ammonia | Ammonia, per | per cent. | of 900, | cent. | | per cent.| | ------------+------------+----------------+------------ .9000 | 100 | 26.500 | 73.500 .9045 | 95 | 25.175 | 74.825 .9090 | 90 | 23.850 | 76.150 .9133 | 85 | 22.525 | 77.475 .9177 | 80 | 21.200 | 78.800 .9227 | 75 | 19.875 | 80.125 .9275 | 70 | 18.550 | 81.450 .9320 | 65 | 17.225 | 82.775 .9363 | 60 | 15.900 | 84.100 .9410 | 55 | 14.575 | 85.425 .9455 | 50 | 13.250 | 86.750 .9510 | 45 | 11.925 | 88.075 .9564 | 40 | 10.600 | 89.400 .9614 | 35 | 9.275 | 90.725 .9662 | 30 | 7.950 | 92.050 .9716 | 25 | 6.625 | 93.375 .9768 | 20 | 5.300 | 94.700 .9828 | 15 | 3.975 | 96.025 .9887 | 10 | 2.650 | 97.350 .9945 | 5 | 1.325 | 98.675 ------------+------------+----------------+------------

[asterism] Strengths corresponding to sp. gr. which are not in the above _Tables_ may be found by the 'method of differences' explained under ALCOHOLOMETRY.

[asterism] The sp. gr. of any sample of liquid ammonia, expressed in three integers, deducted from .998, and the remainder divided by 4, gives a number which represents the per-centage strength, nearly. (Ure.) This rule may be sometimes conveniently employed for rough calculations, in the absence of _Tables_.

=Ammonia, Carbonates of.= (B. P.) _Syn._ AMMONIAE CARBONAS. See AMMONIUM, SESQUICARBONATE OF.

TABLE II.--_Exhibiting the relations between the_ SPECIFIC GRAVITY _of Solution of Ammonia and the_ PER-CENTAGE STRENGTH, _for every variation of .00125 sp. gr., from .87500 to 1.00000, at_ 62 deg. Fahr. Abridged from the larger _Table_ of Mr J. J. GRIFFIN.

----------+------------+----------+------------+----------+------------ Sp. Gr. of|Pure Ammonia|Sp. Gr. of|Pure Ammonia|Sp. Gr. of|Pure Ammonia the Liquid| per cent., |the Liquid| per cent. |the Liquid| per cent., Ammonia. |by Weight. | Ammonia. |by weight. | Ammonia. |by weight. ----------+------------+----------+------------+----------+------------ .87500 | 34.694 | .91750 | 21.837 | .96000 | 10.119 .87625 | 34.298 | .91875 | 21.477 | .96125 | 9.790 .87750 | 33.903 | .92000 | 21.118 | .96250 | 9.462 .87875 | 33.509 | .92125 | 20.760 | .96375 | 9.135 .88000 | 33.117 | .92250 | 20.403 | .96500 | 8.808 .88125 | 32.725 | .92375 | 20.046 | .96625 | 8.483 .88250 | 32.335 | .92500 | 19.691 | .96750 | 8.158 .88375 | 31.946 | .92625 | 19.337 | .96875 | 7.834 .88500 | 31.558 | .92750 | 18.983 | .97000 | 7.511 .88625 | 31.172 | .92875 | 18.631 | .97125 | 7.189 .88750 | 30.785 | .93000 | 18.280 | .97250 | 6.867 .88875 | 30.400 | .93125 | 17.929 | .97375 | 6.547 .89000 | 30.016 | .93250 | 17.579 | .97500 | 6.227 .89125 | 29.633 | .93375 | 17.231 | .97625 | 5.908 .89250 | 29.252 | .93500 | 16.883 | .97750 | 5.590 .89375 | 28.871 | .93625 | 16.536 | .97875 | 5.273 .89500 | 28.492 | .93750 | 16.190 | .98000 | 4.956 .89625 | 28.133 | .93875 | 15.846 | .98125 | 4.641 .89750 | 27.736 | .94000 | 15.502 | .98250 | 4.326 .89875 | 27.359 | .94125 | 15.158 | .98375 | 4.011 .90000 | 26.984 | .94250 | 14.816 | .98500 | 3.698 .90125 | 26.610 | .94375 | 14.475 | .98625 | 3.386 .90250 | 26.237 | .94500 | 14.135 | .98750 | 3.074 .90375 | 25.865 | .94625 | 13.795 | .98875 | 2.763 .90500 | 25.493 | .94750 | 13.456 | .99000 | 2.453 .90625 | 25.123 | .94875 | 13.119 | .99125 | 2.144 .90750 | 24.754 | .95000 | 12.782 | .99250 | 1.835 .90875 | 24.386 | .95125 | 12.446 | .99375 | 1.527 .91000 | 24.019 | .95250 | 12.111 | .99500 | 1.220 .91125 | 23.653 | .95375 | 11.777 | .99625 | .914 .91250 | 23.288 | .95500 | 11.444 | .99760 | .609 .91375 | 22.924 | .95625 | 11.111 | .99875 | .304 .91500 | 22.561 | .95750 | 10.780 |1.00000 | { 0 .91625 | 22.198 | .95875 | 10.449 | | {or Water. ----------+------------+----------+------------+----------+------------

[asterism] The specific gravity of mixtures of pure solution of ammonia and pure water is precisely the mean of the specific gravities of their constituents. (Davy; Dalton; Christison.) In all solutions of ammonia, a quantity of anhydrous ammonia, weighing 212-1/2 gr., displaces exactly 300 gr. of water, and reduces the sp. gr. of the liquid to the extent of .00125. (Griffin.) The strongest solution of ammonia which it is possible to prepare at 62 deg. Fahr. has the sp. gr. .87500, and contains 34.694% of pure ammonia, by weight, or 21,251 gr. per gallon. (Griffin.)[46]

[Footnote 46: Mr Griffin, in his 'System of Ammonimetry,' calls every 212-1/2 gr. of anhydrous ammonia a TEST-ATOM; and every 7 water gr. measure, a SEPTEM. Thus, a gallon of water (= 10 _lbs_) contains 100,000 septems. The degrees of his AMMONIA-METER range from 1 to 100, and indicate the number of test-atoms of ammonia in one _gal_. of the liquid.]

=AMMONIUM.= The name given to a group of atoms, which play the part of a compound basic, radical, or metallic element. This substance, whose formula is NH_{4} or (NH_{4})_{2}, has never been isolated, although capable of forming most stable salts with the various acid radicals. Several attempts have been made, however, to obtain this compound radical, or group of elements, in a free state, and with more or less success, but on account of its great instability it invariably decomposes when set free into ammonia and hydrogen.

Ammonium salts are some of the most important chemical agents, and are usually recognised as follows, ammonia solution, however, usually acting in exactly the same manner as a solution of ammonium hydrate:--By imparting a deep blue tint to solutions of salts of copper. By exhalation of ammoniacal gas (recognised by its odour), when triturated or mixed and heated with caustic potassa, soda, or lime. Added to a solution of bichloride of platinum, they produce a heavy yellow, crystalline precipitate, consisting of minute octahedrons easily discernible under the microscope. With protonitrate of mercury, a black precipitate. With bichloride of mercury, a heavy, white precipitate. With a concentrated solution of tartaric acid, a crystalline, white precipitate, nearly similar to that given with salts of potassa. They are nearly all soluble in water, volatile, and crystallisable.

Except the carbonate, they are almost invariably estimated by conversion into ammonia, and estimation by volumetric analyses, as in alkalimetry. In the laboratory, however, for exact purposes, they are converted into the double chloride of ammonium and platinum.

=Ammonium Salts:--=

=Ammonium, Acetate of.= NH_{4}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}. _Syn._ AMMO''NIAE ACE'TAS, L.; ACETATE D'AMMONIAQUE, Fr.; ESSIGSAeURES AMMONIAK, Ger. _Prep._ 1. Take of acetate of lime or of potassa and sal ammoniac, equal parts; mix and distil at a gentle heat. The oily liquid (BINACETATE OF AMMONIUM, HNH_{4}(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}), in the receiver forms a radiated crystalline mass on cooling. Dry gaseous ammonia passed into this salt, melted by a gentle heat, transforms it into the solid and inodorous neutral acetate, NH_{4}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}.

2. Strong acetic acid is saturated with ammonia or carbonate of ammonium, and the solution evaporated over sulphuric acid in vacuo; the resulting crystals, after being carefully drained, are dried by pressure between bibulous paper.

_Prop., &c._ Long, slender crystals, or a crystalline mass, freely soluble in both alcohol and water, and deliquescent in the air; taste sharp and cooling, and somewhat sweetish. Its solutions cannot be evaporated without loss of the ammonia; even the salt passes off in large quantities with the vapour of water. Its aqueous solution becomes alkaline on keeping, from decomposition of the acid. Distilled with anhydrous phosphoric acid, it is converted into ACETONITRILE. An aqueous solution of this salt was introduced into the Materia Medica by Boerhaave, and has since been extensively used as a diaphoretic and febrifuge, under the popular name of MINDERERUS SPIRIT, after Minderer or Mindererus, who extensively employed it and extolled its virtues. When pure, both the salt and its solutions are neutral to test-paper, and are wholly volatilised by heat. See SOLUTIONS.

=Ammonium, Arseniate of.= (NH_{4})_{3}AsO_{4}. _Syn._ AMMONIAE ARSE'NIAS, L. _Prep._ 1. (NEUTRAL.) Saturate a warm concentrated solution of arsenic acid with carbonate of ammonium in slight excess; evaporate by a gentle heat, that crystals may form on cooling.

2. =Ammonium, Binarseniate of.= H(NH_{4})_{2}AsO_{4}. As above, but adding an additional equiv. of the acid, as soon as any excess of ammonia has been expelled by the heat employed to evaporate the solution.--_Dose_ (of either). 1-24th to 1-12th gr.; in phthisis, certain skin diseases, &c. See SOLUTIONS (and _below_).

=Ammonium, Arsenite of.= NH_{4}AsO_{2}. _Syn._ AMMONIAE AR'SENIS, L. _Prep._ From a hot concentrated solution of arsenious acid, and sesquicarbonate of ammonium, as the last.--Used (chiefly) to make arsenite of iron. The properties and physiological effects of the above arsenical preparations are for the most part similar to those of arseniate and arsenate of potassa. They are all poisonous.

=Ammonium, Benzoate of.= _Prep._ 1. Dissolve benzoic acid in ammonia solution to saturation, then further add ammonia in slight excess, and crystallise by refrigeration, or in vacuo.

2. (LIQUID; SOLU'TIO AMMONIAE BENZOA'TIS, L.) As the last, but without evaporating the solution.

_Prop., &c._ Very soluble and very difficult to crystallise. If the solution is boiled for a short time and then abandoned to spontaneous evaporation, crystals of ACID BENZOATE OF AMMONIUM are deposited. It is used chiefly as a chemical test; but has been recently recommended in chronic bronchitis, old coughs, &c.; and to check the formation of chalk-stones and urinary calculi.--_Dose_, 10 to 15 gr.; (of the solution) 15 drops to 1 fl. dr., or more. See BENZOIC ACID.

=Ammonium, Bromide of.= NH_{4}Br. _Syn._ AMMO''NII BROMI'DUM, A. BRO'MIS, L.; HYDROBROMATE D'AMMONIAQUE, BROMURE D'AMMONIUM, Fr. A salt which is obtained from hydrobromic acid, bromide of iron, &c., by similar processes to those adopted for the iodide. The following process for the preparation of bromide of ammonium is from the formula for the new medicaments adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society: "Add bromine very slowly to a solution of ammonia, with continual stirring, until the liquid remains faintly and persistently coloured by a slight excess of bromine." It forms white prismatic crystals; and, in its general properties, resembles bromide of potassium. It is volatile, and easily decomposed.

Used as a nervine in hysterics; especially useful for sleeplessness where there is no organic disease; given in epilepsy when bromide of potassium fails.--_Dose_, 2 to 20 grains.

=Ammonium, Carbonates of=[47]--

[Footnote 47: For complete information respecting the various carbonates of ammonia consult Dr Divers' papers in the 'Journal of the Chemical Society.']

=Ammonium, Carbonate of.= _Syn._ NEUTRAL CARBONATE OF AMMONIUM. Equal parts of dry sal ammoniac and sodium carbonate are heated to form the neutral ammonium carbonate of commerce, which sublimes. Solid crystalline substance, with a strong ammoniacal odour, volatile and soluble.

_Uses, &c._ In the solid form it is not now used in medicine; but it is indirectly employed in several liquid preparations in which the sesquicarbonate is ordered. It is superior to any other preparation of ammonia for filling smelling bottles; as it is not only more pungent, but does not lose its pungency by keeping. It volatilises more quickly than the sesquicarbonate, and the residuum, unlike that of the latter salt, continues as odorous as ever. It is the basis of several of the most popular and esteemed advertised smelling salts of the shops. Spirit of hartshorn is an impure solution of this salt, originally obtained by distilling hartshorn or bones.

=Ammonium, Sesquicarbonate of.= Probably 2NH_{4}HCO_{3} + NH_{4}NH_{2}CO_{3}, _i. e._ a mixture or compound of bicarbonate of ammonium and carbamate of ammonium. _Syn._ (CARBONATE OF AMMONIA, AMMONIAE CARBONAS. B. P.). CARBONATE D'AMMONIAQUE, Fr.; KOHLENSAURES AMMONIAK, Ger. It is prepared on a very large scale commercially as follows:--Sal ammoniac or sulphate of ammonia, and chalk, equal parts, both dry and in powder, are mixed as before, and sublimed from a series of iron retorts or iron pots, into a well-cooled and capacious receiver lined with lead or earthenware; or, more generally, into such a receiver connected, by iron or lead pipes, with a second and similar one containing a stratum of water, to absorb the free ammonia evolved during the process.

The so-called "Volcanic Ammonia" is evolved during the manufacture of borax, from carbonate of soda and boracic acid. It is largely used in pharmacy.

_Prop._ The carbonate of ammonia, of commerce, usually occurs in the form of white, fibrous, translucent, or semi-translucent cakes, generally about two inches thick. It is less volatile and pungent than the neutral carbonate; soluble in 4 parts of water at 55 deg. Fahr., 3.3 parts at 62 deg., 2.5 parts at 96 deg., and 2 parts at 120 deg.; boiling water and alcohol decompose it, with the evolution of carbonic acid gas and ammonia; by age or exposure to air, the surface assumes an opaque white colour, from its carbonate flying off, and the remaining bicarbonate being less volatile. Unlike the carbonate, it can neither be resublimed nor digested or distilled with either alcohol or water, without suffering decomposition. Sp. gr. 0.966.

The exact composition of this salt varies, according to its method of preparation.

_Uses, &c._ It is commonly employed by bakers to give lightness to their fancy goods, and to make extemporaneous bread and pastry; by the chemist and pharmaceutist, for the preparation of other salts of ammonia, and in analysis, &c. In _medicine_ it is used as a stimulant, antispasmodic, antacid, and diaphoretic, in acidity of the stomach, dyspeptic affections, gout, scrofula, hysteria, lowness of spirits, epilepsy, &c.; and in the convulsions attending dentition. It has been recently recommended, by Dr Barlow, in diabetes. It is also employed to make effervescing draughts; and externally as a counter-irritant and stimulant. Its use as a nasal stimulant in headaches, fainting, &c., is well known. In large doses it is emetic; in excessive doses poisonous. Its long-continued use, in quantity, is often productive of very serious consequences--slow fever, debility, emaciation, scurvy, loss of teeth, haemorrhage, general cachexy, and even death. The antidote and restorative treatment are, the free use of lemon-juice, wine or malt-liquors, new milk, and antiscorbutic vegetables, with a generous diet, of which the red meats form a large proportion.--_Dose._ As a stimulant or diaphoretic, 5 to 15 gr., dissolved in cold water; as an emetic, 20 to 30 gr., in tepid water, repeated if necessary; as an effervescing saline draught, 15 to 30 gr. A few grains (8 or 10) dissolved in a tumbler of cold water is an excellent 'refresher' in lowness of spirits, or after fatigue; and is highly esteemed by drunkards; being, in each case, preferable to 'spirit of sal volatile,'--_Doses for Animals._ HORSE: 1 to 2 drachms. CATTLE: 2 to 4 drachms. SHEEP: 20 grains to 1 drachm. PIG: 20 grains to 1 drachm. DOG: 3 to 10 grains; in bolus, pill, or cold gruel.

_Concluding remarks, Patents, &c._ In extension of the above it may be added that, on the large scale, the distillation is usually carried on in cast-iron retorts, similar in size, shape, and character to those employed in the manufacture of coal-gas, and of which five, or more, are commonly set horizontally in the same furnace. (See _engr._) Each retort has its mouth (_a_), through which the 'charge' is introduced, closed with a movable door, which is securely fastened in its place, in the manner shown in the engr.; and is furnished, at the upper part of its further end, with an iron pipe (_c_), to carry off the evolved vapours to the condenser or receiver. The latter consists of two large square wooden chambers (_B, C_), lined with lead, and either fitted with movable covers, secured by water-joints, or with doors in the side, to permit of the easy removal of the sublimed salt. The first receiver communicates with the second by means of a large lead tube (_d_) near its centre, and by another tube (_d'_), somewhat smaller, and nearer the bottom, but above the surface of the stratum of water in the second receiver, before alluded to. These chambers have also a lead pipe (_e, e_), stopped during the process with a plug or cock of lead, to allow of the liquid product of the distillation, &c., to be drawn off, or run into another receiver or cistern, at will. Both chambers are placed on strong wooden supports, or scaffolding, to bring them on a level with the retorts. When the impure sulphate or other ammonia-salt is used in the manufacture of the sesquicarbonate (which is generally the case), the resulting salt being impure and discoloured, is resublimed in iron pots (_f, f, f_), furnished with movable leaden heads, which are kept cool by a current of air passing over them; a little water being introduced into the subliming pots to render the product translucent. The heat is applied either by means of a flue passing from the retort-furnace (_A, b_), or by a water bath heated in the same manner; the latter being the preferable method, as the temperature should not be greater than about 200 deg. Fahr., and need not exceed 150 deg. to 155 deg.. These pots are arranged in sets, as shown at _D_ in the engraving.

[Illustration]

The charge of a retort usually consists of about 70 to 72 _lbs._ of sulphate of ammonia or 57 to 58 _lbs._ of the hydrochlorate to 1 _cwt._ of chalk; or in these proportions. The product is about 40 _lbs._ of the crude salt, which, by careful resublimation, yields about 39 _lbs._ of marketable carbonate of ammonia.

Carbonate of ammonia, like the chloride and sulphate, is now scarcely ever prepared on the small scale, that of commerce being not only cheaper, but sufficiently pure for all the purposes of medicine and the arts.

=Ammonium, Bicarbonate of.= HNH_{4}CO_{3}. _Prep._ By digesting cold water on sesquicarbonate of ammonia in considerable excess, until the whole of the pungent neutral carbonate is dissolved out. If the salt is reduced to powder the operation is facilitated.

To powdered sesquicarbonate of ammonia add boiling water just sufficient to dissolve it, and immediately close the vessel; crystals form as the liquid cools, containing 2-1/2 equiv. of water.

_Prop., &c._ For the most part similar to the sesquicarbonate, except in having a taste and smell which is only faintly ammoniacal, and hence more palatable. Crystallises in oblique prisms, which, as usually obtained, contain about 23% of water. It requires 8 parts of cold water to dissolve it. It is distinguished from the previous carbonates by the almost entire absence of ammoniacal odour, and by its solution giving no immediate precipitate with chloride of barium, but by standing, or on the addition of a little liquor of ammonia, a white earthy precipitate, accompanied with the evolution of carbonic acid gas. A saturated solution of this salt, evaporated by a very gentle heat, or refrigerated, gives small prismatic crystals having neither smell nor taste.

_Uses, &c._ Similar to those of the other carbonates.--_Dose_, 6 or 7 to 20 or 25 gr.

=Ammonium, Chloride of.= NH_{4}Cl. _Syn._ MURIATE OF AMMONIA, SAL AMMONIAC, HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA; CHLOROHYDRATE D'AMMONIAQUE, SEL AMMONIAC, &c., Fr.; SALMIAK, Ger. A substance which, as already noticed, appears to have been originally obtained, by sublimation, from the soot of camels' dung, in Egypt. In this country, at the present day, it is manufactured chiefly from the crude ammoniacal liquors obtained as secondary products in the manufacture of coal-gas and animal charcoal.

_Prep._ 1. From GAS-LIQUOR:--The crude ammoniacal liquor of the gas-works is, either at once, or after distillation,[48] neutralised with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, the choice being given to the one which is the cheaper and more accessible at the place where the works are situated. When hydrochloric acid is employed, the SATURATION is usually effected by allowing the acid to flow from a large wooden vessel or tank lined with lead or gutta percha into a large underground reservoir or tank containing the ammoniacal liquor, and having an exit-tube passing into the chimney or shaft of the steam-engine, to carry off the sulphuretted hydrogen and other offensive gases liberated during the mixture. Sometimes the gas-liquor is accumulated in enormous covered wooden tuns, capable of holding from 10,000 to 20,000 gallons, or more; and the acid is added by raising the gutta-percha carboys containing it by means of cranes, and then thoroughly mixing it with the liquor by means of powerful 'agitators,' whilst the offensive fumes are either passed off as before, or made to traverse the fire of the steam-engine before entering the chimney-shaft. The quantity of acid employed to effect saturation must, of course, depend on the ammoniacal strength of the gas-liquor operated on. The usual proportions are 1-1/2 to 2 _lbs._ of the former, to each gal. of the latter; but in all cases sufficient should be added to impart a very faint acid reaction to the mixture. This last having been effected, the saline solution, now containing hydrochlorate of ammonia, is, after repose, ready to be pumped or run off into the evaporators.

[Footnote 48: This is now generally conducted in a large wrought-iron boiler, connected with a rude modification of Coffey's still; the object being to obtain the liquor freer from tar and more concentrated.]

The EVAPORATION of the crude saline solution is usually carried on in large square or rectangular cast-iron vats, of very moderate depth, and capable of holding from 1000 to 1500 gallons, or more. These are encased in brickwork, and are heated by a furnace, of which the flues pass in a sinuous course beneath the lining of brickwork on which the vats or pans rest. During the concentration of the liquid, the tar, &c., which separates and floats on the surface, and which thus seriously impedes evaporation, is, from time to time, removed by skimming. As soon as the sp. gr. reaches 1.25, any excess of acid in the solution is exactly neutralised with a little fresh ammoniacal liquor; by which any waste of acid is prevented, at the same time that any ferric salt present, and which would contaminate the ultimate product, is precipitated as sesquioxide. After settling for a short time, the hot liquor is ready to be transferred to the crystallisers.

The vessels employed in the CRYSTALLISATION are pans or tubs, usually circular and about 7 or 8 feet wide, by 2-1/2 to 3 feet deep; and are generally set on the ground, or are embedded either partially or wholly in it. The saline liquor being pumped or run into them at a little below the boiling temperature, crystallises as it cools; the only interference being occasional stirring or agitation, to prevent the formation of large crystals, which would be inconvenient in the subsequent part of the process. The time occupied in the crystallisation varies, according to the size of the 'crystallisers,' and the weather, from 3 or 4 to 8 or even 10 days. The 'mother-liquor' of the 'crystallisers' is pumped back into the evaporating pans for further concentration. The crude blackish salt (hydrochlorate) thus obtained is contaminated with tarry and oleaginous matter, free acid, water, &c.; from part of which it is freed by exposing it in a layer about 4 inches deep, on a cast-iron plate gently heated by a zigzag flue of a small furnace, until all the water is expelled; care being taken that the heat never rises high enough to volatilise the salt. This operation is generally performed under a dome, or the expanded throat of a large chimney. The salt will now have become of a greyish-white colour, and is ready for the next operation.

[Illustration]

The crude dried salt of the last process is finally purified by sublimation. For this purpose cast-iron-pots lined with clay, and heated from below and by flues round their sides, are employed. (See _engr._) The crude grey salt is beaten down into these pots until they are about 2-3rds filled, when the heads or capitols are fitted on, and heat applied. The latter are very heavy, being usually made of lead (sometimes of iron), and have the form of a dome, or a hemispherical cup, with a small tube or hole at the apex, in which a plug is loosely placed, to permit the escape of steam. These domes or heads are so made as to fit closely and firmly on the flat rim or flange of the 'sublimers,' and are retained in their places, during use, both by their weight, and by 2 or 3 clamps provided for the purpose. They are also furnished with 3 rings, set at equal distances, to allow of their being lifted off, or moved, by means of a pulley and chains. The due application and regulation of the heat is here of the utmost importance. If the temperature employed be too high, the sublimed salt will be contaminated with empyreumatic matter, while some of it will be carried beyond the dome and lost; and if it be extreme, the head may be altogether blown off, and the contents of the pan scattered about the building; whilst on the other hand, if the heat employed be too low, the resulting cake of sal ammonia will be soft, spongy, and either grey or yellowish. The proper temperature is said to be known by two or three drops of water readily boiling, and being dissipated in vapour, when placed on the head or cover of the sublimer; but it should not 'spit' or 'dance about,' or be raised by the heat out of contact with the metal. The usual practice is to keep the fires "briskly up until the sublimers and their surroundings attain a sufficient degree of heat; they are then slackened, and maintained at a mean temperature." (Muspratt.) The sublimation occupies from 5 to 9 days; but it is customary to raise the heads once, or even twice a week, to ascertain the progress made; the fires having been purposely neglected or checked for some hours previously. The process is finally stopped before the whole of the crude salt in the pots is volatilised; since the heat required for that purpose would lead to the decomposition of the carbonaceous impurities, and cause them to emit volatile hydrocarbons, which would materially lessen the purity and beauty of the product. The unsublimed portion in the pots forms a conical mass, which is technically called the 'yolk.' This is shown in the second engr. (see _below_), in which the latest improvements in the form of the subliming apparatus are also exhibited.

[Illustration]

The sublimation having been carried to a sufficient extent, the fires are allowed to die out. The domes, after cooling, are lifted off, and the attached hemispherical cakes or 'bells' of SAL AMMONIAC or HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA at once removed. These vary from 2 to 5 inches in thickness, and from 45 or 50 _lbs._ to 1000 _lbs._, and upwards, in weight, according to the size of the sublimers in which they have been produced. They are generally nearly pure, except in the outer part which has been in contact with the metal. From the subliming-house they are taken to the store or packing-house, and after having been scraped, to remove the discoloured portion before alluded to, are either preserved entire, or are broken up into convenient pieces, which are then packed in casks or barrels, and in either state are ready for the market.

When sulphuric acid[49] is used to neutralise the ammoniacal liquor, the process is generally, for the most part, the same as when hydrochloric acid is employed; but here the brown salt obtained by the crystallisation, and subsequent desiccation, is crude SULPHATE OF AMMONIA, instead of the hydrochlorate. It is intimately mixed with about an equal weight of chloride of sodium (common salt) before being put into the sublimers.

[Footnote 49: Sp. gr. 1.33 to 1.38.]

In some cases, particularly where the ammoniacal liquor is rich in carbonate of ammonia, gypsum is employed as a source of sulphuric acid. (See _below_.)

Another method is to convert the solution of the crude sulphate into a solution of the hydrochlorate, during the process, by the addition of chloride of sodium. Both these last methods are described below.

2. From BONE-LIQUOR, &c.[50]--The ammoniacal liquor technically called 'bone-liquor' or 'bone-spirit,' and formerly known under the name of 'spirit of hartshorn,' is essentially a solution of carbonate of ammonia more or less contaminated with volatile empyreumatic oil. Its conversion into SAL AMMONIA may be easily effected by saturating it with hydrochloric acid, evaporating the resulting neutral solution in lead or iron boilers until a pellicle begins to form, then pumping or running off the hot liquors into the crystallisers, and, lastly, draining and drying the crystals. The salt thus obtained may be purified either by sublimation or by recrystallisation. The whole series of processes closely resemble those already described, except in being less troublesome, owing to the absence of the tarry and other foreign matters which impede and complicate them when gas-liquor is employed.

[Footnote 50: That employed in England is chiefly obtained, as already mentioned, from the manufacturers of bone-black or animal charcoal; but, on the Continent, the liquor obtained by a like destructive distillation of various animal offals (blood, flesh, horn, hoofs, woollen rags and waste, hair, scrapings of hides, leather cuttings, &c.) is employed for the same purpose. The preparatory process by which this liquor is obtained is essentially the same in each case; except that with animal offal the temperature should not exceed a red-brown heat, in order that the resulting charcoal may afterwards serve to make ferrocyanide of potassium and Prussian blue. These liquors have usually a density ranging between 8 deg. and 9 deg. Baume (Ure; = sp. gr. 1.056 to 1.063).]

Another method adopted, particularly on the Continent, and one equally applicable to any crude ammoniacal liquor rich in free ammonia or its carbonates, is to employ sulphate of lime instead of sulphuric acid to neutralise the alkali. For this purpose the ammoniacal liquor is passed through a series of three or four covered wooden filters lined with lead, each containing a layer of crushed gypsum to the depth of 3 or 4 inches. These filters are usually set on 'stages' one above another, and each communicates with a cistern placed beneath it by means of a leaden pipe furnished with a stop-cock. This last is not opened untill the liquor has remained some little time in the filter; and a pump throws back once, or oftener, upon each filter, what has already passed through it, before it is allowed to run into the next lower one. The 'liquor' in each filter is not allowed to stand higher than from 2 to 3 inches above the surface of the gypsum; and the lowest or last filter is supplied with fresh gypsum at each separate charge of fresh liquor. A little water is lastly passed through the filters to wash out the portion of ammoniacal liquor absorbed or retained by the filtering media. In this way the gypsum of the filters is converted into carbonate of lime at the expense of the carbonate of ammonia in the solution; whilst the ammonia of the latter decomposes the gypsum, and becomes converted into sulphate of ammonia, which, with some free ammonia, is found in the filtrate. Sulphuric acid is next added to the filtered liquor to completely neutralise the free and carbonated alkali still existing in it; after which it is evaporated in a leaden boiler, with frequent skimming to remove floating oil, until of the sp. gr. 1.160. Chloride of sodium (common salt), in sufficient quantity to convert all the sulphate of ammonia in the liquid into hydrochlorate, by double decomposition, is now added, with constant stirring; after which the clear portion is either pumped or syphoned off into a somewhat deep reservoir or tank, where it is allowed to settle. The liquid after sufficient repose is pumped from the reservoir to the boilers, and evaporated, with frequent agitation, so long as the sulphate of soda now existing in it falls to the bottom in granular crystals. These crystals are, at intervals, scraped to the cooler portion of the pan or boiler, whence they are removed by copper rakes and shovels, into draining-hoppers, placed near the edges of the pan. The liquor in the boiler is now a strong solution of sal ammoniac, but still containing a little sulphate of soda, from which it has to be freed by crystallisation. With this object it is further concentrated, and then run or pumped into the crystallisers. In 30 or 40 hours, or longer, the mother-liquor is run or pumped off. The mass of newly-formed crystals is then drained, and slightly washed, first with a little weak solution of sal ammoniac, and next with a very little cold water; after which they are again well drained. The crude HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA, thus obtained, is converted into the pure salts, by desiccation and sublimation, as before.

In France, where this method is very generally employed, the sublimation is commonly conducted in stoneware or earthenware balloons or bottles coated with loam, of about 18 to 20 inches in height in the body, and either surmounted with inverted 'cups' or 'heads' 10 or 12 inches high, or simply covered with a tile, when (in the latter case) the sublimate collects in the upper part or neck of the balloon, which is above the action of the fire. A number of these vessels are set on the dome of a furnace, which is perforated with holes or slits, to allow the heat to pass through; whilst their necks or heads are sheltered from the action of the fire by plates of iron or earthenware, having semi-circular indentations on their edges, so that when placed together they form a level surface, through which the necks of the sublimers protrude, and fit closely. The fire is nicely regulated, so as to cause the salts to condense in the upper and cooler part of the vessels, or in the heads, as the case may be; and great care is taken to occasionally clear the necks with a skewer, to prevent choking, and consequent bursting.

In Scotland, where a similar process is also commonly pursued, the sublimers, according to Dr Ure, are generally "cast-iron pots, lined with fire-proof tiles; the condensation being effected in globular heads of green glass, with which each of the iron pots are capped."[51]

[Footnote 51: Ure's 'Dict. of Arts, M., & M.,' 5th Edn., i, p. 143.]

_Ratio._ Gas-liquor contains carbonate of ammonium (chiefly), with chloride, sulphate, hydrosulphate, cyanide, sulphocyanide, &c., of the same radical. On neutralisation with hydrochloric acid, or sulphuric acid, these are converted into chloride or sulphate of ammonium, according to the acid used. By sublimation with chloride of sodium, the sulphate of ammonium is converted, by double decomposition, into chloride of ammonium, which sublimes; and sulphate of sodium, which remains in the subliming pot. A similar change occurs when the solution of the sulphate, prior to crystallisation, is decomposed by the addition of chloride of sodium, or any other chloride. When the 'gas-liquor' is at once converted into chloride of ammonium by the addition of hydrochloric acid, the sublimation merely purifies the salt. Like changes occur when bone-spirit is employed.

_Comp._ Chemically considered, this salt consists of equal VOLUMES of gaseous ammonia and hydrochloric acid gas condensed into the solid form; or, by WEIGHT, according to the ammonia-theory, of--

Atoms. Equiv. wt. Per cent. Ammonia (NH_{3}) 1 17. 31.78 Hydrochloric acid (HCl) 1 36.5 68.22 --- ----- ------ Hydrochlorate of Ammonia (NH_{3}HCl) 1 53.5 100.

Or, according to the 'ammonium-theory,' of--

Atoms. Equiv. wt. Per cent. Ammonium (NH_{4}) 1 18. 33.65 Chloride (Cl) 1 35.5 66.35 --- ----- ------ Chloride of Ammonium (NH_{4}Cl) 1 53.5 100.

_Prop. &c._ The sal ammoniac of commerce is found under the form of large white hemispherical, cup-like cakes or masses (or in large fragments which are sections of them), possessing a tough, fibrous, semi-crystalline texture, and very difficult to powder. It is odourless, has a saline taste somewhat sharp or acrid, and sublimes without either fusion or decomposition. It slightly reddens litmus; dissolves in rather less than 3 parts of cold water, and in about 1 part of boiling water; is soluble in alcohol; and when crystallised from water, under favorable circumstances, forms distinct octahedra, or cubes, usually small and aggregated together in rays or feathery masses. By slowly evaporating its aqueous solution, it may be sometimes obtained in cakes an inch in thickness. It is anhydrous. Sp. gr. 1.450.

_Pur._ It should give a colourless solution with water; wholly sublime with heat; and neither chloride of barium, nor sulphuretted hydrogen, should affect its solution. A solution, to which a few drops of nitric acid have been added, should not yield a blue precipitate with ferrocyanide of potassium. It often contains sesquichloride of iron, and sometimes lead; both of which may be readily detected by the above tests. Its complete volatility may be easily determined by heating, in the flame of a candle, a small fragment held on the point of a knife.

_Tests._--1. It is known to be a salt of ammonium by its cooling ammoniacal fumes when triturated with lime, or when moistened with caustic potassa or soda:--2. It is shown to be a chloride by its solution yielding, with nitrate of silver, a white curdy precipitate, insoluble in boiling nitric acid, soluble in ammonia.

_Uses, &c._ In the _arts_, chiefly in the coating and soldering of metals, and the preparation of alloys; in dyeing; and in the manufacture of ammonia-alum; also, in large quantities, to give a factitious pungency to snuff. In _chemistry_, as a reagent; and, owing to the cold produced during its solution, to form frigorific mixtures. In _medicine_ it is chiefly used externally, as a stimulant and resolvent or discutient; and occasionally, internally, as a diuretic, stimulant, resolvent, alterative, tonic, &c., particularly in chronic inflammations of the mucous and serous membranes, in chronic glandular and visceral enlargements and indurations, and in amenorrh[oe]a. In rather large doses, frequently repeated, it is said to prove often highly beneficial in chronic enlargement and induration of the prostate gland (M. Rene Vanoye); and also in other like cases.--_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr., 3 or 4 times daily, either in powder or solution, mixed with some demulcent; as a discutient or resolvent lotion, 1 to 1-1/2 oz., to 1/2 pint of water, either with or without 4 or 5 fl. oz. of spirits or strong vinegar (often serviceable in chilblains); as a weak lotion, or a collyrium or injection, 1 to 4 dr., to water, 1 pint. In very large doses it is poisonous; the treatment is emetics and mucilaginous or demulcent drinks.

_Concluding remarks, Patents, &c._ The methods already described are those by which commercial hydrochlorate of ammonia is usually if not almost entirely obtained; the various improvements or modifications, from time to time introduced, affecting chiefly the minor details, and the form or size of the apparatus and machinery employed, and not the general principles on which the processes are based. One of the most important of these has for its object the entire removal of the iron present in the crude salt, some of which, if it be not removed before sublimation, is volatilised and contaminates the ultimate product. To obviate this evil, Mr Brewer passes a few bubbles of chlorine through the hot concentrated solution of the salt, previous to its crystallisation; by which the protochloride of iron is converted into the perchloride, which, being acted on by the ammonia always present in the liquor, is precipitated as ferric hydrate, with the formation of a small additional quantity of sal ammoniac. The only precaution necessary is to avoid employing more chlorine gas than is necessary to peroxidise the iron; as beyond this a portion of the ammonia-salt itself is decomposed, with the evolution of nitrogen. The temperature of the liquor is kept up, after the action of the chlorine, until the whole of the brown flocculent oxide of iron has subsided, when it is at once decanted or filtered into the crystallisers.

Another modification which has been adopted in two or three places is to effect neutralisation of the crude ammoniacal liquor by distilling it, and passing the fumes in at the lower end of a hollow shaft or column filled with coke, down which the acid trickles; the resulting solution of sulphate or chloride of ammonium being received in proper cisterns, conveniently situated near the base of the column.

In Mr Spence's method of obtaining ammonia-salts from gas-liquor or bone-spirit, a series of (usually four) cylindrical boilers, or reservoirs, so placed that the contents of each upper one may be drawn off into the one next below it are employed. Each boiler has an exit-pipe which carries the vapour generated in it to that next above it, whilst that of the highest boiler passes off to a trunk containing the acid necessary to form the salt. The top boiler is connected with the reservoir of gas-liquor (which is already mixed with milk of lime) by a charging pipe furnished with a stop-cock turned by a floating ball, so as to keep the surface of the liquor constantly at the same height. High-pressure steam enters the lower boiler, by which its ammonia is driven through the connecting pipe into the next boiler, and so on in succession, until it leaves the highest boiler in a concentrated state, and thus enters the acid-tank. When this last contains moderately strong hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, the resulting solution of CHLORIDE or SULPHATE OF AMMONIUM (as the case may be) is sufficiently concentrated to be at once run off into the crystallisers. As soon as the liquor in the lowest boiler is exhausted of its ammonia, its contents are drawn off, and replaced by that of the next boiler, which is followed by a like descent throughout the whole series.

Among improvements having for their object the substitution of cheap chlorides[52] for the more expensive commercial acids, may be mentioned those of--

[Footnote 52: Particularly such chlorides as are the 'waste or bye products' of other manufactures.]

1. Mr Laming (Patent dated 1843), who employs a strong solution of CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM for converting the ammonia of gas-liquor into the hydrochlorate.

2. Mr Hills (Patent dated 1846) employs CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM[53] in the same way; and by a subsequent patent proposes to convert the ammonia eliminated in the distillation of coal into the hydrochlorate, by mixing CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM with the coal in the retorts, or by introducing the chloride into a retort appropriated for the purpose. The heat dispels the chlorine of the chloride, in the form of hydrochloric acid, and this, uniting with the ammoniacal vapour, forms hydrochlorate of ammonia, which is retained in the liquor of the condenser. From this liquor the salt is obtained by evaporation, &c., in the usual way.

[Footnote 53: Of the Epsom-salt works, &c.]

3. Mr Croll (Patent dated 1849) converts the crude ammoniacal vapours that issue with the gas from the common retorts into the hydrochlorate, and obtains a solution of it by passing the gas through a solution of crude CHLORIDE OF MANGANESE[54] (1 cwt. of the salt to about 40 galls. of water), contained in one of the ordinary vessels used for purifying coal-gas. The manganic solution absorbs the ammonia and its salts, converting them into the hydrochlorate, whilst a corresponding proportion of oxide of manganese is precipitated. As soon as the liquor in the purifier is fully saturated, it is drawn off, and replaced by a fresh quantity; whilst the saturated liquor containing the hydrochlorate, after subsidence, or filtration, is evaporated, &c., as before. Crude CHLORIDE OF IRON may be substituted for the chloride of manganese, in the above process: as may also SULPHATE OF MANGANESE, but then the product, of course, will be sulphate of ammonia, instead of the hydrochlorate.

[Footnote 54: Obtained from the chloride-of-lime works. The portion of the precipitated oxide of manganese saved from the process may be reconverted into the chloride, by mixing 3 parts of it with 4 parts of common salt, and heating the mixture to low redness, scarcely perceptible in the dark, for 2 to 3 hours. 140 _lbs._ of the calcined mass, with 40 galls. of water, forms a solution that may be again pumped into the purifier.]

4. Mr Laming (Patent dated 1850) also proposes the use of various salts and mixtures for retaining and condensing the ammoniacal vapour of coal-gas as it passes from the retorts through the purifiers. Of these the principal are CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM obtained by decomposing chloride of iron by hydrate of lime; CHLORIDE OF IRON, obtained by decomposing sulphate of iron with chloride of sodium; CHLORIDE OF MAGNESIUM; a mixture of SULPHATE OF LIME and SULPHATE OF IRON; or of moist precipitated oxide of iron with carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, or magnesian limestone; or one containing sulphate of magnesia, or chloride of magnesium or calcium, or one or more of them, in combination with oxide of copper, either with or without lime or magnesia, or with both or either of them or their carbonates. These salts, or compounds, are mingled with sawdust, or some other porous substance not acted on by the gas, before being put into the purifiers; and after they become saturated with the vapour, the newly-formed hydrochlorate or sulphate (according to the salt or mixture employed) is washed out of the mass with water.

Besides the usual sources of SAL AMMONIAC (and the other ammonia-salts of commerce) it has been proposed to obtain it from guano, peat, shale, &c., as noticed under SESQUICARBONATE OF AMMONIA (_supra_); the substance employed to effect the neutralisation or decomposition of the ammoniacal liquor being, in this case either hydrochloric acid or a chloride.

In Young's Patent (1841) for 'obtaining AMMONIA and its SALTS,' a mixture of 2 parts of guano, and 1 part of hydrate of lime, is distilled in a retort placed vertically, at a moderate heat, gradually increased until the bottom of the retort becomes red hot. The ammoniacal portion of the fumes evolved are absorbed by the cold water contained in a suitable condenser; whilst the other gases eliminated by the process pass off uncondensed. By subsequently passing carbonic acid gas into the liquor of the condenser, a solution of CARBONATE, BICARBONATE, or SESQUICARBONATE of AMMONIA is formed. By nearly filling the condenser with diluted hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, instead of with water, a solution of HYDROCHLORATE or of SULPHATE OF AMMONIA is obtained.

Stale urine saturated with hydrochloric acid, or with sulphuric acid diluted with about twice its weight of water, yields SAL AMMONIAC, or SULPHATE OF AMMONIA (according to the acid used) on evaporation.

Hydrochlorate of ammonia is now wholly prepared on the large scale, and never by the dealer or retailer, by whom it is only occasionally refined or purified, in small quantities, for chemical and medical purposes. The sal ammoniac of commerce is found to be sufficiently pure for all its ordinary applications in the arts; but when wanted of greater purity, it is broken into pieces, and resublimed from an earthenware vessel into a large receiver of earthenware or glass. The product (REFINED SAL AMMONIAC, DOUBLE-REFINED S. A.; AMMONIAE HYDROCHLO''RAS PU''RA, SAL AMMONI'ACUS DEPURA'TUS[dagger], L.) is popularly known as FLOWERS OF SAL AMMONIAC (flo'res sa'lis ammoni'aci, L.), from being in a finely divided crystalline state.

The chemically pure chloride of ammonium may be prepared by bringing its gaseous constituents--ammonia and hydrochloric acid--into contact. During the combination much heat, and even light, is generated, and the anhydrous solid salt is precipitated in a minutely divided state, which, under the microscope, is seen to be crystalline. It may be also more easily and conveniently prepared by saturating pure and moderately dilute hydrochloric acid with ammonia or its carbonates, and evaporating the solution until a pellicle forms, when crystals of the chloride separate as the liquid cools. A similar but rather more violent reaction occurs when gaseous chlorine is brought in contact with gaseous ammonia, or is passed into a nearly saturated solution of ammonia or its carbonates; but in this case nitrogen is evolved at the expense of the ammonia; moreover, the process is attended with danger.

The manufacture of sal ammoniac is usually a distinct business, and is carried on to a very great extent in the neighbourhood of London. Indeed, the London makers now supply the chief portion of that used in England. A large quantity is now, however, made at Manchester and Liverpool. A small quantity is imported from Germany. That from Brunswick is in the form of sugar-loaves. An inferior quality is also imported, in chests, from the East Indies.

The red bands frequently seen in the sal ammoniac of commerce are said to arise from the workmen falling asleep, and allowing the fire to go down, and then suddenly raising the heat too high. (Muspratt.) They consist chiefly of ammonio-chloride of iron.

=Ammonium, Citrate of.= (NH_{4})_{2}HC_{6}H_{6}O_{7}. _Syn._ DIAMMONIUM CITRATE, CITRATE OF OXIDE OF AMMONIA; AMMON''NIAE CIT'RAS, L.

_Prep._ A concentrated solution of pure citric acid, gently heated, is saturated with sesquicarbonate of ammonium, in fine powder (about 7 parts to 6), and slightly in excess; and the resulting liquid is crystallised by refrigeration in close vessels, or by evaporation in vacuo. If heat be employed in the evaporation of the solution, an acid citrate will be formed.

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly as a chemical test. An extemporaneous citrate, made with lemon-juice and drunk effervescing, is employed as a saline draught, and a mild aperient and diaphoretic, in fevers, &c.

=Ammonium, Ferrocyanide of.= (NH_{4})_{4} FeC_{6}N_{6} . 3Aq. _Syn._ FERROCYANATE D'AMMONIAQUE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. Saturate a solution of hydroferrocyanic acid with sesquicarbonate of ammonium, in slight excess; evaporate the solution at a heat below ebullition, and crystallise by refrigeration.

2. Digest ferrocyanide of lead or of iron in a solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonium, at a gentle heat, for some time; then filter, evaporate, and crystallise.

_Prop., &c._ It is isomorphous with ferrocyanide of potassium; it is easily crystallisable, very soluble in water, and is decomposed by ebullition.

=Ammonium, Iodide of.= NH_{4}I. _Syn._ HYDRIODATE OF AMMONIA; AMMO''NII IODI'DUM, L.; HYDRIODATE D'AMMONIAQUE, Fr. _Prep._ An aqueous solution of hydriodic acid is neutralised with ammonia, or ammonium sesquicarbonate, in slight excess; and the resulting liquid is either carefully, but rapidly, evaporated to dryness over a water bath, or it is concentrated by the same means, and then caused to deposit crystals by refrigeration; in both cases care is taken to keep a slight excess of ammonia present during the evaporation. The crystals are dried by pressure between folds of bibulous paper; and the product, in either form, preserved in a stoppered bottle.

Pure iodine is triturated with a little distilled water, and solution of ammonium sulphydrate added, in small quantities at a time, with continued trituration, until the red colour of the iodine has entirely disappeared. The solution, after being gently boiled for a few seconds, to expel the sulphuretted hydrogen present, is filtered, slightly alkalised, with ammonia, and evaporated or crystallised, as before.

_Prop., &c._ Colourless; deliquescent; freely soluble in water, and in spirit; air and light turn it yellowish or brownish, with partial decomposition. It closely resembles iodide of potassium, than which it is more active, and thought to be better suited to irritable and relaxed habits.--_Dose_, 1 to 10 or 12 gr.

=Ammonium, Lac'tate of.= _Syn._ AMMO''NIAE LAC'TAS, L. An uncrystallisable salt prepared by saturating ammonia, or its carbonate, with lactic acid. It has been found useful in rickets, and in dyspepsia and worms, when occurring in debilitated habits. For this purpose it is best taken fresh-prepared, as a draught, flavoured with syrup of orange-peel, 3 or 4 times daily. See LACTATE and LACTIC ACID.

=Ammonium, Nitrate of.= NH_{4}NO_{3}. _Syn._ AMMO''NIAE NI'TRAS, L.; NITRATE D'AMMONIAQUE, Fr. _Prep._ Saturate nitric acid (diluted with 3 or 4 times its weight of water) with sesquicarbonate of ammonium, evaporate by a gentle heat, and crystallise. When not required in a crystalline form, it is usually evaporated to dryness at about 212 deg. Fahr.; and the heat being carefully raised to about 250 deg., the fused salt is poured out on a polished slab of iron or stone, and when solidified broken up and put into bottles.

_Prop._ When the evaporation of the solution is conducted at a heat under 100 deg. Fahr., the salt is obtained in beautiful hexagonal prisms; when at 212 deg., in long silky fibres; when by rapid evaporation and fusion, it forms a white, compact, and usually foliated mass. It dissolves in about twice its weight of water; is slightly deliquescent; melts at 230 deg., and is decomposed into nitrous gas and water at 460 deg. Fahr. It deflagrates, like nitre, on contact with heated combustible matter.

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly to prepare nitrous oxide or laughing gas (of which nearly 4-1/2 cubic feet may be procured from every _lb._ avoir.); and with water, to form freezing mixtures, for which purpose it may be used for any number of times by simply evaporating the solution to dryness, when the salt, obtained unaltered, is ready for another operation. Care, however, should be taken not to expose it to too great a heat, as at a certain temperature it deflagrates with violence. It is occasionally employed in the laboratory to promote the combustion of organic bodies during incineration; and sometimes, though seldom, in medicine, as a diuretic and diaphoretic. It is said to reduce the frequency of the pulse, and the animal heat, without affecting the head, chest, or stomach. (Wibmer.)--_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr.

=Ammonium, Nitro-sulphate of.= _Syn._ AMMO''NIAE NITRO-SUL'PHAS, L. Dissolve sulphite of ammonium, 1 part; in solution of ammonia, 5 parts; and pass nitric oxide gas through the solution; rapidly wash the crystals that form with solution of ammonia, dry in bibulous paper, without heat, and preserve them in a well-stopped bottle.--_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.; in typhoid fevers, &c.

=Ammonium, Oxalate of.= (NH_{4})_{2}C_{2}O_{4}. _Syn._ AMMO''NIAE OX'ALIS, L.; OXALATE D'AMMONIAQUE, Fr. Neutralise a hot solution of oxalic acid with sesquicarbonate of ammonia; evaporate and crystallise.

_Prop._ It forms beautiful, colourless, long, rhombic prisms, which effloresce in the air; slightly soluble in cold water; freely soluble in hot water; heated in a retort, it yields ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, cyanogen, and carbonic acid, together with oxamide, which sublimes.

_Uses, &c._ In _chemistry_, chiefly as a test for calcium (with which it produces a white precipitate soluble in nitric acid), and to separate lime from magnesium, solutions of the salt of which it does not precipitate. A BINOX'ALATE may also be formed; but it possesses no practical interest.

=Ammonium, Phosphate of.= (NH_{4})_{3}PO_{4}. _Syn._ AMMO''NIAE PHOS'PHAS, L. _Prep._ Saturate a solution of phosphoric acid with sesquicarbonate of ammonium, in slight excess; gently evaporate and crystallise by refrigeration. Diuretic, discutient, and antilithic.--_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr., or 20 to 30 drops of a saturated solution, 3 or 4 times a day; in gout, rheumatism, and calculus, accompanied with the lithic-acid diathesis; also in rickets and certain forms of dyspepsia.

=Ammonium Suc'cinate.= _Syn._ AMMO''NIAE SUC'CINAS, L. _Prep._ 1. Succinic acid, 1 part; water, 4 parts; dissolve, neutralise with solution of ammonia, or of ammonium carbonate, in slight excess, and evaporate, and crystallise as directed under the 'benzoate' or 'phosphate,'--_Dose_, 2 to 10 gr.

=Ammonium, Sul'phate of.= (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4}. _Syn._ SULPHATE OF OX'IDE OF AMMONIA; AMMO''NIAE SUL'PHAS, L,; SULFATE D'AMMONIAQUE, Fr.; SCHWEFELSAUER AMMONIUM SALZ, Ger.; Glauber's SECRET SALT[dagger], G. SECRET SAL AMMONIAC[dagger], SAL AMMONI'ACUM SECRE'TUM GLAUBE''RI[dagger], &c. Crude sulphate of ammonia exists in considerable quantity in the soot from pit-coal; and it is obtained, as a secondary product, from the ammoniacal liquor of gas-works and animal charcoal manufactories. These last are its chief sources. It is also found native, associated with sal ammoniac, in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, under the name of '_mascagnine_' or '_massagnine_,'

_Prep._ 1. (Medicinal.) Saturate dilute sulphuric acid with sesquicarbonate of ammonia, in slight excess; filter, gently evaporate, and crystallise.

2. (Commercial.) From gas-liquor or bone-spirit, saturated with weak oil of vitriol, and, the clear portion of the liquid, after repose decanted, concentrated by rapid evaporation, and crystallised, in the manner noticed under AMMONIUM, CHLORIDE OF.

_Prop._ Crystals, long, flattened, six-sided prisms; soluble in 2 parts of cold, and 1 of boiling water; fuses, with loss of one atom of water, at about 280 deg. Fahr.; and is volatilised, with entire decomposition, at about 535 deg.. Even its solution, by long boiling, becomes acid from loss of ammonia. The anhydrous salt does not exist.

_Uses, &c._ Pure sulphate of ammonia is diuretic, aperient, resolvent, and stimulant.--_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr. It is now seldom employed in medicine. The crude sulphate is principally used in the preparation of sal ammoniac and sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and for manure. "A mixture of 10% of this sulphate with 20% of bone-dust, some gypsum, and farm-yard manure, forms a very fertilising compost, applicable to a great variety of soils" (Ure); and we may add--greatly superior to a very large portion of what is now so commonly vended under the name of 'guano.'

_Concluding remarks, Patents, &c._ The manufacture of sulphate of ammonia, on the large scale, has been unavoidably explained in treating on the salts of that base already noticed. All that is necessary is to saturate with sulphuric acid the solution of ammonia, crude or otherwise, and obtained in any manner; and then to evaporate the solution until the salt crystallises out. At other times, however, instead of adding the acid to the ammoniacal liquor, the latter, either at once, or after treatment with lime, is submitted to distillation, and the evolved alkaline vapour is passed into the acid (previously somewhat diluted), contained in a large receiver or cistern, or a series of them; the salt being obtained from the resulting solution in the usual manner. By re-solution and a second crystallisation the sulphate is generally obtained sufficiently pure for all commercial purposes; but when the salt is intended for use as manure, or (unless very rough) for conversion into sal ammoniac, this need not be had recourse to.

Among modifications and improvements, not previously noticed, may be mentioned--

1. That of Dr Richardson (Patent dated Jan., 1850), who mixes SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA with the crude ammoniacal liquor, and thus forms a double sulphate of magnesia and ammonia, from which he obtains the SULPHATE OF AMMONIA by sublimation.

2. That of Michiel (Patent dated April, 1850), who prepares sulphate of ammonia by means of OXYSULPHATE OF LEAD obtained by roasting galena (sulphide of lead), by exposing it in a crushed state and thin layers for 2 or 3 hours, to the heat of a reverberatory furnace. The resulting mixture of sulphate and oxide of lead is reduced to the state of coarse powder, and well worked up with the ammoniacal liquor, when SULPHATE OF AMMONIA and sulphide and carbonate of lead are produced by the mutual reaction of the elements present. The first is removed by treatment with water; and the residuum serves for the manufacture of lead compounds, or may be reduced to the metallic state by fusion in the usual manner.

3. That of Mr Laming (Patent dated Aug., 1852), in which a stream of SULPHUROUS ACID GAS is transmitted through the liquor containing the ammonia, either in the free state or as carbonate, by which SULPHITE OF AMMONIA is formed. This salt he oxidises, and thus converts into the SULPHATE OF AMMONIA, by agitation and free exposure to the air.

Sulphate of ammonia, like the hydrochlorate, may also be obtained by saturating stale urine with the acid, and subsequent evaporation and crystallisation. See AMMONIA; AMMONIA, CARBONATES OF; AMMONIUM, CHLORIDE OF, and MANURES, &c.

=Ammonium, Sulphide of (neutral).= (NH_{4})_{2}S. _Prep._ Saturate strong solution of ammonia with pure sulphuretted hydrogen gas; then add a second portion of solution of ammonia, equal to that first used, and preserve it in a well-stoppered bottle.

=Ammonium, Sulphydrate of.= NH_{4}HS. _Syn._ SULPHIDE OF AMMONIUM, HYDROSULPHIDE OF AMMONIUM, HYDROSULPHATE OF AMMONIA. _Prep._ By passing sulphuretted hydrogen gas, to saturation, through a mixture composed of strong solution of ammonia, 1 part, and distilled water, 4 parts.

_Props._ Prepared as above, it has a very f[oe]tid odour. When pure it is wholly volatilised by heat, and does not disturb a solution of sulphate of magnesium. Mineral acids decompose it, with the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen. By keeping, it decomposes and acquires a yellow colour. This yellow coloration does not, however, render it unfit for use as a reagent; but it must be borne in mind that it will now deposit sulphur when mixed with acids. In this state it proves valuable as a reagent to detect hydrocyanic acid, and as a solvent to separate metallic sulphides thrown down by sulphuretted hydrogen.

_Uses, &c._ It is principally employed by chemists as a reagent to precipitate metals, to separate metallic sulphides, &c.; and by the perfumers as a mordant in dyeing hair. In _medicine_ it has been used by Cruickshank, Rollo, and others, to check the morbid appetite, and to increase the action of the stomach and general tone of the system in diabetes mellitus. It has also been used by Brauw, Gruithuisen, and others, in old pulmonary and vesical catarrhs. It is a powerful sedative, lessening the action of the circulatory system, causing nausea, vomiting, vertigo, drowsiness, &c.--_Dose_, 3 to 6 drops, three or four times daily, mixed with pure water, and instantly swallowed. In large doses it is poisonous.

_Ant._ Very dilute solution of chlorine, or of chloride of lime or soda, followed by a powerful emetic, or the stomach-pump. When the vapour has been respired, free exposure to fresh air, with the head a little elevated, and copious affusions of cold water, with moderate draughts of brandy-and-water, and the use of the smelling-bottle (ammoniacal) should be adopted. If need be, artificial respiration should be attempted, and the air around the patient should be slightly impregnated with the fumes of chlorine or chloride of lime.

=Ammonium, Persulphide of.= _Syn._ BOYLE'S FUMING-LIQUOR, HOFFMAN'S VOL'ATILE SPIRIT OF SULPHUR, &c.; AMMO''NIAE PERHYDROSUL'PHAS, A. PERHYDROSULPHURE'TUM, &c. Authorities differ as to the constitution of this liquid, which, since its introduction by Beguin in 1650, has passed under more 'aliases' than perhaps any other preparation. Its precise position amongst the ammonia-compounds is still undecided.

_Prep._ 1. (Beguin.) Sulphur, 1 lb; quick-lime, 1/2 lb; sal ammoniac, 4 oz.; mix and distil.

2. (Boyle.) Sulphur and sal ammoniac, of each, 5 oz.; quick-lime, 6 oz.; as last.

3. (Liebig.) Agitate the common hydrosulphate of ammonia with pure sulphur, until the latter ceases to be dissolved; and, after repose, decant the clear liquid.

_Prop., &c._ An orange-yellow, fuming, f[oe]tid liquid, of an oily consistence, having the characteristics of the common sulphydrate in a remarkable degree. It may prove an excellent medicine. "Useful for wounds and ulcers." (Beguin.) Diluted with three parts of spirit of wine, it formed the LIQUOR ANTIPODAG'RICUS of F. Hoffman; of which we are told that about 30 drops acted as a strong sudorific; and applied externally, mixed with camphor, "it relieved pain like a charm." (Hoffman.) The sulphides of ammonium are now scarcely ever employed as remedies.

=Ammonium, Sul'phite of.= (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{3}.7Aq. _Syn._ AMMONIAE SULPHIS, L. Prepared by passing sulphurous acid gas into a solution of ammonia. It is crystallisable and very soluble in water.

=Ammonium, Sulphocyanide of.= NH_{4}CNS. _Prep._ 1. Neutralise hydrosulphocyanic acid with ammonia, and gently evaporate the solution to dryness, by the heat of a water bath.

2. Digest hydrocyanic acid with yellow sulphydrate of ammonium, and, after a time, evaporate as before.

A deliquescent, white, saline mass, very soluble in water, but seldom employed out of the laboratory in a pure state. Of late it has been obtained in quantity as a crude product of the gas-liquors.

=Ammonium, Tartrates of.= Of these there are two:--

=Ammonium, Neutral Tartrate of.= (NH_{4})_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. _Syn._ AMMO''NIAE TAR'TRAS, L. _Prep._ Saturate a solution of crystallised tartaric acid, 150 grs.; with sesquicarbonate of ammonium, 118 grs.; and either evaporate the solution at a gentle heat, and crystallise; or evaporate to dryness, and powder the residuum.

_Prop., &c._ Prismatic crystals, or a crystalline mass; soluble and efflorescent. Its medicinal properties and doses resemble those of citrate of ammonium.

=Ammonium, Bitartrate of.= NH_{4}HC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. _Syn._ AMMO''NIAE BITAR'TRAS, L. _Prep._ To a strong solution of tartaric acid add another of sesquicarbonate of ammonium, or of tartrate of ammonium, as long as a precipitate falls; which must be collected and dried.

_Prop., &c._ A crystalline powder, only slightly soluble in water, closely resembling ordinary cream of tartar. It is diaphoretic, diuretic, and deobstruent, and is frequently, though improperly, sold for the preceding preparation.

=Ammonium, Valerianate of.= NH_{4}C_{5}H_{9}O_{2}. _Syn._ AMMO''NIAE VALERIA'NAS, L. _Prep._ Saturate valerianic acid with strong solution of ammonia, and evaporate the resulting liquid to a syrupy consistence at a heat under 175 deg. Fahr.; then add twice its volume of alcohol, and, after agitation, allow it to crystallise by spontaneous evaporation.--_Dose_, 2 to 8 or 10 gr.; in neuralgia, epilepsy, hypochondriasis, hysteria, low fevers of an intermittent kind, &c.; also in dyspepsia and debility complicated with these affections.

=AMMONI'ACAL.= [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AMMONIACA'LIS, L. Pertaining to, or possessing the odour or properties of, ammonia. See AMMONIA, &c.

=AMMONI'ACUM.= _Syn._ GUM AMMONIACUM, G. AMMO''NIAC[dagger]; GOMME AMMONIAQUE, Fr.; AMMONIAK, Ger. A gummy-resinous exudation from the stem of _dorema ammoniacum_, in tears and masses, of a pale cinnamon colour, brittle, and when broken has a white and shining surface. Collected in Persia and the Punjaub. (B. P.)

Gum ammoniacum has an unpleasant odour, especially when heated, and a nauseous and slightly bitter taste. It is a mild, stimulating expectorant and emmenagogue; and its effects on the system resemble those of assaf[oe]tida except in being weaker. Externally, it is resolvent.--_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr. in pills or emulsion.

_Doses for Animals._ HORSE, 2 to 4 drachms. CATTLE, 2 to 4 drachms. SHEEP, 1/2 to 1-1/2 drachm. PIG, 1/2 to 1-1/2 drachm. DOG, 10 to 20 grains. Either by bolus or emulsion.

=Ammoniacum, Strained'.= _Syn._ PREPARED AMMONIACUM; AMMONI'ACUM PRAEPARA'TUM (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1851.) Boil ammoniacum in water just sufficient to cover it; strain the mixture through a hair sieve, and constantly stirring, evaporate in a water bath, until, on cooling, it becomes hard. The product, owing to a loss of volatile oil, is much weaker than the unprepared gum-resin. The process is only necessary with rough lump ammoniacum.

=Ammo''niated.= _Syn._ AMMONIA'TUS, L. In _pharmacy_, _perfumery_, &c., applied to preparations containing ammonia.

=AMMO'NIO-, Ammon'ico-.= In _chemistry_, a common prefix to double salts containing ammonia; as ammonio-citrate, a.-chloride, or a.-tartrate of iron, &c. See the respective metals.

=AMONTILLADO.= [Sp.] See SHERRY and WINE.

=AMORPH'OUS= (-morf'-us). _Syn._ AMORPH'US, L.; AMORPHE, INFORME, DIFFORME, Fr.; AMORPHISCH, MISGEBILDET, MISSGESTALTET, Ger. Shapeless. In _chemistry_ and _mineralogy_, applied to substances devoid of regular or crystalline form; as a lump of chalk, the majority of precipitates, &c. The corresponding substantives are AMORPH'ISM, AMORPH'OUSNESS* (_amorphis'mus_, L.; _amorphisme_, Fr.).

=AMPHIB'IA= (f[)i]b'-y'[)a]). [L. pl.; prim. Gr.] _Syn._ AMPHIB'IANS (-y[)a]nz), AMPHIB'IALS (-y'[)a]lz). Animals that possess the faculty of living both in water and on land. In _modern zoology_ it is restricted to those animals which possess both gills and lungs; as the _batrach'ia_ or frog tribe. The term is also often applied, colloquially, to otters, seals, walruses, crocodiles, &c., none of which can breathe under water, although, from the languid nature of their circulation, they are able to remain a long time in it.

=AMPHIB'IOUS= (y'[)u]s). _Syn._ AMPHIB'IUS, L.; AMPHIBIE, Fr.; BEYDLEBIG, Ger. In _botany_ and _zoology_, having the faculty of growing or living both on land and in water. See AMPHIBIA.

=AM'PHITYPE= (-fe-). See PHOTOGRAPHY.

=AMYGDALIN.= C_{20}H_{27}NO_{11}.3Aq. This substance exists in bitter almonds. It crystallises in pearly white plates, which are odourless and almost tasteless. It is nearly insoluble in hot and cold water and in cold alcohol, but soluble in boiling alcohol. To prepare amygdalin, boil well-pressed cake of bitter almonds twice in strong alcohol; strain through linen, and press the residue; remove any oil that may appear, heat the liquid again, and filter. In a few days part of the amygdalin crystallises out. Concentrate the residuary liquor to a sixth part, and add ether, which will throw down the amygdalin. Press it between blotting paper, wash it with ether, and set aside to crystallise.

=AMYG'DALOID= (-loyd). _Syn._ AMYGDALOID'AL; AMYGDALOI'DES (-d[=e]z), L.; AMYGDALOIDE, Fr. Almond-shaped. In _mineralogy_, amygdaloid is 'toadstone.'

=AMYKOS= (Galen, Upsala). A cosmetic and mouth-wash. Claims to be prepared according to an English patent. It is an aqueous extract of 420 grms. cloves, boiled in a gallon of water, in which 420 grms. of pure glycerine are dissolved, and to which 210 grms. of borax are added. (Hager.)

=AMYKOSASEPTIN= is linen saturated with a hot solution of borax. (Nystroem.)

=AMYLA'CEOUS= ([)a]m-e-l[=a]'-sh'[)u]s). _Syn._ AMYLA'CEUS, L.; AMYLACE, Fr. Of or like starch; consisting of or abounding in starch; starchy. See FOOD, NUTRITION, STARCH, &c.

=AM'YL= (-[)i]l). C_{5}H_{11}. The radical of the fusel-oil compounds (AMYL-SERIES).

=Amyl, Acetate of.= C_{5}H_{11}C_{2}H_{3}O_{2}. _Syn._ PEAR-OIL. _Prep._ From fusel-oil, 1 part; acetate of potassa (dry), 2 parts; concentrated sulphuric acid, 1 part; distilled, with the usual precautions, from a glass retort into a cool receiver. The distillate is purified by washing it with very dilute solution of potassa, and redistilling it from fused chloride of calcium. A little litharge added to the liquid in the retort, before rectification, will remove any sulphurous odour, should it be present.

_Prop., &c._ Liquid, limpid, colourless; insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol; boils at 272 deg. Fahr.; alcoholic solution of potassa converts it into an acetate of that base, with reproduction of fusel-oil.

_Obs._ The odour and flavour of this preparation are those of the Jargonelle pear. It is now extensively manufactured, and, after dilution with alcohol, is sold under the name of ESSENCE OF JARGONELLE PEAR, for flavouring liqueurs and confectionery.

=Amyl, Vale'rianate of.= C_{5}H_{11}C_{5}H_{9}O_{2}. _Syn._ APPLE-OIL, A.-ESSENCE, &c. This compound is abundantly formed during the preparation of valerianic acid from potato oil, and is recognised by the offensive odour of rotten apples evolved during the process. By treating the crude product of the distillation with a weak solution of pure potassa, the valerianic acid is removed, and the volatile oil obtained nearly pure. Dissolved in rectified spirit it forms the 'APPLE-ESSENCE' now so much employed as a flavouring ingredient for confectionery and liqueurs. See FRUIT ESSENCES, VALERIANIC ACID, &c.

=AMYL NITRITE.= _Syn._ AMYL NITRIS, B. P. Produced by the action of nitric or nitrous acid on amylic alcohol.--_Dose._ By inhalation, the vapour of 2 to 5 minims. To be used with caution. It may be produced by passing a stream of nitrous acid gas through purified amylic alcohol at a temperature of 132 deg. C.

For other methods of preparing it consult 'Wood and Bache's United States Dispensatory, 1877.' Mr Umney ('Pharm. Journal') says that true nitrite of amyl should be made by passing nitrous acid into amylic alcohol which has been previously submitted to a fractional distillation, until the portion retained for use has a boiling point of 132 deg. C. A nitrate so prepared, when deprived of any excess of acid it may contain by rectification over fused carbonate of potash, will have a boiling point of 98 deg.-99 deg. C.

=AM'YLENE= (-e-l[=e]ne). C_{5}H_{10}. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AM'ILENE*; AMYLE'NA, AMYLE'NUM, L. A peculiar volatile, liquid hydrocarbon, discovered by Cahours.

_Prep._ From fusel-oil repeatedly distilled along with either anhydrous phosphoric acid, or a concentrated solution of chloride of zinc; the product being repeatedly rectified at a low temperature, until the boiling point sinks to 102 deg. Fahr.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ An ethereal liquid, lighter than water, having an aromatic odour, slightly alliaceous. Sp. gr. of vapour, 2.68. Its vapour was several times successfully employed, by the late Dr Snow, as a substitute for ether and chloroform in producing anaesthesia, being, though less agreeable, also less pungent, and consequently easier to breathe, than either of them; but its use has since been given up owing to doubts as to its safety, two or three deaths having followed its inhalation.

=ANADOLI= (Kreller, Nuremburg). An oriental tooth-powder. Powdered soap, 42 parts; starch powder, 44 parts; levantine soapwort, 12 parts; oil of bergamot and lemon to flavour. (Wittstein.)

=ANAEMIA.= Deficiency of blood.

=ANAESTHE'SIA= ([)a]n-[=e]z-the'-zh'[)a]; -sh'[)a]; -th[=e]ze'y'[)a]r). [L.; prim. Gr.] _Syn._ ANESTHESIE, Fr. In _pathology_, diminished or lost sense of feeling.

In _surgery_ and _obstetrics_, the production of temporary anaesthesia, for the purpose of rendering operations painless, relieving the pangs of childbirth, &c., is effected by the use of--

=ANAESTHET'ICS.= _Syn._ ANAESTHET'ICA, L.; ANESTHETIQUES, Fr. In _pharmacology_ and _surgery_, substances or agents which diminish or destroy sensibility, or which relieve pain. In its full extent this term includes both anodynes and narcotics; but it is now more generally confined to those substances which greatly diminish common sensibility, or entirely remove susceptibility to pain. Among the most useful, safe, and powerful of this class are chloroform, ether, nitrous oxide, and intense cold; besides several chlorinated compounds, such as the bichlorides of ethylen, methylen, and carbon.

More than 1500 years ago the Chinese are said to have used a preparation of hemp, or _ma-yo_, to annul the pain attendant upon cauterisation and other surgical operations. Mandragora (mandrake) was employed for a similar purpose by the Greeks and Romans; and we learn that as early as the thirteenth century the vapour from a sponge filled with tinctures of mandragora, opium, and other sedatives was used for a similar purpose.

Baptista Porta, in his work on natural magic printed in 1597, mentions a quintessence extracted from medicines by somniferous menstrua, of the nature of which he leaves us in ignorance. This quintessence was to be preserved in leaden vessels very perfectly closed, lest the aura should escape, for the medicine would vanish away. Furthermore, he adds, "when it is used, the cover being removed, it is applied to the nostrils of the sleeper, who draws in the most subtle power of the vapour by smelling, and so blocks up the fortress of the senses, that he is plunged into the most profound sleep, and cannot be roused without the greatest effort." Dr Iron suggested that the volatile substance was sulphuric ether, which he says had been described more than fifty years before Porta wrote his book. In the year 1800 Sir Humphry Davy suggested the employment of nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, as it was then termed, for minor operations in surgery, and in 1828 Dr Hickman proposed carbonic acid as an anaesthetic. The vapour of sulphuric ether had been used in his practice by Dr Pearson as early as 1795, for the relief of spasmodic asthma. The fact that sulphuric ether was capable of producing insensibility was demonstrated by American physicians; viz. by Godwin in 1822, Mitchell in 1832, Jackson in 1833, and Wood and Bache in 1834; but the first practitioner to employ it to prevent the pain of an operation was Dr Morton, a Boston dentist, who successfully used it for this purpose in 1846. On the 19th of December of the same year Mr Liston, of University Hospital, London, and Mr Robinson, a dentist, operated upon patients who had been rendered insensible by means of the inhalation of the vapour of ether.

Throughout the year 1847 ether was employed as an anaesthetic both in England and France, but towards the end of that year the anaesthetic properties of chloroform were pointed out by Flourens. The first, however, to introduce this agent into surgical and obstetric practice was Dr I. T. Simpson, of Edinburgh. In 1849 a work on the inhalation of ether was published by Dr Snow, who afterwards introduced a new anaesthetic, viz. amylene, which was capable of producing effects similar to those of chloroform; but as two patients out of but a small number who inhaled the vapour of amylene died, this latter soon fell into discredit, and consequent disuse.

Except in dental practice, in which nitrous oxide gas is the anaesthetic invariably employed, chloroform is almost universally used in surgical operations, one advantage it possesses over ether being its much more rapid action, although this latter property must be regarded as one which constitutes the risk which, although very slight (when the exceedingly small per-centage of deaths resulting from its administration is taken into account), undoubtedly attends its inhalation.

Dr Sansom says of chloroform:--"The cause of its danger is its power of paralysing the cardiac and other motor sources of circulation. This property resides in large and sudden doses of its vapour." He strongly recommends its dilution by air and alcohols. He further remarks that all anaesthetics modify the endosmotic condition of the blood discs, and contends that they affect the supply of arterial blood by altering the calibre of the channels which convey it. He advocates the substitution of one anaesthetic for another during the inhalation.

Methylene dichloride, introduced by Dr B. W. Richardson, is said to possess the disadvantage of causing considerable depression.

The mode of administering these agents is by causing the patient to inhale their vapour mixed with air.

Sometimes they are poured on to a sponge or a handkerchief, or piece of lint, either of which is then applied to the mouth and nostrils of the patient in such a manner that the air which passes into his lungs is saturated with the vapour. Except in extemporised cases, however, this method is pretty well abandoned, a proper apparatus having supplanted the sponge or handkerchief, &c. Part of the apparatus consists of a graduated bottle containing the anaesthetic, by means of which the operator is enabled to tell how much of this latter is being consumed, and thus to regulate the quantity inhaled.

The first effect that results from the administration of anaesthetics is a form of intoxication, caused by the action of the anaesthetic agent on the cerebral lobes, and as this action extends to the cerebellum, the patient becomes incapable of directing his movements--an effect like that caused by intoxication from alcohol.

In the next stage the spinal cord is attacked, unconsciousness supervenes, and all powers of motion and sensation are lost. The individual is now said to be in a state of anaesthesia; but the heart continues to beat, respiration is not impeded, and the other essential functions of the body go on as usual.

Should, however, the exhibition of the anaesthetic agent be incautiously continued too long, the bodily temperature falls, the movements of respiration and circulation become impaired, the heart ceases its action, and death finally ensues. The introduction of anaesthetics into surgical practice has been of great and invaluable service to the operator. The patient being motionless and free from pain, the surgeon is enabled to perform the operation at his ease, and consequently more efficiently; moreover, in the reduction of dislocations and of hernia, the muscles being flaccid, the obstacle produced by their contraction is removed. M. Velpeau endeavoured to produce local anaesthesia, or insensibility of the part of the body to be operated upon, by means of a freezing mixture composed of ice and salt; this method, however, was found impracticable, and was soon abandoned. Since then local anaesthesia as introduced by Dr Richardson, when had recourse to, is effected by means of a spray of ether directed on the part, the intense cold produced by the rapid evaporation of the ether entirely depriving the part of sensation. It is said that the pain resulting from the application of this method is a great barrier to its use.

Amongst anaesthetics, nitrous oxide gas occupies an important place, its use, as before stated, being almost wholly confined to operations in dental surgery.[55] As in the case of ether, the American practitioners were the first to employ nitrous oxide as an anaesthetic. Attention was directed to its anaesthetic properties in 1844 by Mr Horace Wells, an American dentist, but little interest seems to have been awakened by his application of it, since it was not until 1863 that Dr Cotton, of New York, drew attention to the subject by performing an operation on a patient under its influence.

[Footnote 55: The 'British Medical Journal' for 1868 states it was used successfully at the Ophthalmic Hospital, Moorfields.]

In March, 1868, Dr Evans, residing in Paris, after a visit from Dr Cotton, directed the attention of medical men in England to the value of nitrous oxide as an anaesthetic in dental surgery, and shortly afterwards it was first employed to produce anaesthesia at the Dental Hospital. Nitrous oxide is obtained from nitrate of ammonia, and the particulars of its preparation may be found by referring to the article NITROUS OXIDE.

Immense quantities of the gas are used in dental operations. It has been computed that in 1870 Messrs Coxeter and Barth could not have prepared much less than 60,000 gallons in London alone. To fit it for transit it is reduced by compression. Fifteen gallons may thus be diminished in volume until it fills an iron bottle holding a quart. Five or six gallons of the gas are, on an average, required for each patient. In the preparation of nitrous oxide for surgical purposes Dr Evans advises it to be made at least 24 hours before it is used, and further recommends its being thoroughly washed. An apparatus for the preparation of the gas was devised by Mr Porter, a description of which will be found in the 'Transactions of the Odontological Society of Great Britain' for 1868, in which also mention is made of a face-piece for its administration, the invention of Mr Clover. By means of this latter instrument the desiderata that the nitrous oxide should be inhaled without admixture with atmospheric air, and contamination arising from the expired air given off by the patient, are accomplished, for it has been found that when excitement and talking attend the inhalation of the gas, these effects are due to the presence of the carbonic acid thrown off by the lungs.

When inhaled in the ordinary way, nitrous oxide gas induces exhilaration and narcotism, without asphyxia. When, however, the atmospheric air is carefully excluded, it produces, as we have just seen, anaesthesia without exhilaration. The time required to produce anaesthesia varies from 25 to 120 seconds, by from 10 to 60 inhalations. A patient has been subjected for 10 minutes to its action without experiencing any unpleasant symptoms or after effects. Mr Randle says it is perfectly safe in all short operations, and possibly in long ones also, provided there is due admission of air at proper intervals. It seems tolerably certain that nitrous oxide is largely absorbed by the blood-corpuscles, and it is probable that its presence in them may temporarily act to the exclusion of oxygen, and thus prevent for a time that combination of oxygen with haemoglobin upon which the red colour of the corpuscles depends. Chemistry, however, has failed to show that nitrous oxide is decomposed in the blood, or that it exerts any of the chemical properties of oxygen on the constituent elements of the blood. Whenever the slightest anaesthetic effect is communicated to the nervous system, a simultaneous effect is produced upon the medulla oblongata, the spinal chord, as well as upon the cerebrum and cerebellum.

The whole available force in the body is undoubtedly due to oxidation. This oxidation is accomplished by means of the blood, and it is therefore evident that a continuous flow of oxygenated blood to the nerve centres is necessary as a source of power and of sensibility, as well as for the reintegration of nerve tissue. Any deficiency of oxygen in the blood is followed by a decreased arterialisation of the whole volume of the blood. Under these conditions the exhalation of carbonic acid is relatively less rapid than its formation, and life cannot continue if the blood in the arteries becomes thoroughly venous, as well in colour as in character. That nitrous oxide, when inhaled, changes the colour of the blood-corpuscles is evidenced by the livid appearance of the face and mucous surfaces; the latter, indeed, is a characteristic accompaniment of its administration, and the darkened colour of the blood may be observed as it flows from the severed vessels. This colour of the blood is probably in part due to uneliminated carbonic acid; but that nitrous oxide possesses in a high degree the property of darkening the blood-corpuscles may be easily demonstrated by directing a jet of the gas for a few seconds upon a little arterial blood in a test tube. Yet, from what has previously been advanced on this point, this latter result may more strictly be due to physical than to chemical causes. An interruption of the circulation in any part of the organism is soon followed by local insensibility in the tissues from which the blood supply may have been withdrawn; and it is beyond dispute that, during the anaesthetic state, the circulation of the blood through the capillary system becomes diminished in velocity. A tendency to stasis begins to appear, accompanied at the same time by a considerable reduction in the supply of arterial blood. These are facts that admit of experimental demonstration, as does also another fact, viz. that during the period of insensibility produced by the inhalation of nitrous oxide the brain itself is in a state of comparative anaemia. In short, it appears most probable that an arrest of the capillary circulation through the brain, to which several writers have attributed a potential influence as the cause of anaesthesia, is simply, so far as it may exist, a result of it.

The anaesthesia produced by the inhalation of nitrous oxide would, therefore, appear to be referable to an altered condition of the blood, whereby the molecular dynamic changes are interfered with, this interruption being probably due either to the retention of carbonic acid, or to the presence of nitrous oxide; or, as the result of both conditions, to the exclusion of oxygen.

For minor operations nitrous oxide possesses many advantages over other anaesthetics. The principal of these is its safety. In America, in 200,000 cases in which it had been administered, there was only one case of death. Furthermore its use is not contra-indicated in patients having any constitutional derangement, nor for women who are either pregnant or suckling.

Nitrogen, coal-gas, and carbonic acid have also been employed as anaesthetics.

The 'British Medical Journal' for June 13th, 1868, contains an account of some experiments performed by Dr Burdon Sanderson, at Middlesex Hospital, with nitrogen. It seems to have been longer in producing insensibility than nitrous oxide, but no lividity of countenance accompanied, nor sickness or headache followed, its administration.

=ANALEP'TIC.= _Syn._ ANALEP'TICUS, L.; ANALEPTIQUE, Fr. Restorative; that recruits the strength lost by sickness.

=Analep'tics.= _Syn._ ANALEP'TICA, L.; ANALEPTIQUES, Fr. In _pharmacology_, &c., restorative medicines and agents.

=ANAL'YSIS= (-e-s[)i]s). [Eng. L., Gr.] _Syn._ ANALYSE, Fr.; AUSLOeSUNG, ZERLEGUNG, Ger. In a gen. sense, the resolution of anything, whether an object of the senses or of the intellect, into its elementary parts. In _chemistry_, the resolution or separation of a compound body into its constituent parts or elements, for the purpose of either determining their nature, or, when this is known, their relative proportions. It is divided into QUAL'ITATIVE ANALYSIS and QUAN'TITATIVE ANALYSIS; and these again into PROX'IMATE ANALYSIS and UL'TIMATE ANALYSIS. The first consists in finding the components of a compound, merely as respects their nature or names; the second, in finding not merely the component parts, but also the proportions of each of them; the third gives the results in the names of the proximate or immediate principles or compounds which, by their union, form the body under examination; whilst the fourth develops the chemical elements of which it is composed.[56] An analysis may also be made to determine whether a certain body is or is not contained in a compound (as lead in wine); or it may be undertaken to ascertain all the constituents present; the extent of an investigation being merely limited by the object in view.

[Footnote 56: Thus, suet consists of olein, palmitin, and stearin. These would form the 'terms' of the PROXIMATE ANALYSIS of this substance. But olein, palmitin, and stearin consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The ULTIMATE ANALYSIS of suet would, therefore, have reference to the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.]

For success in chemical analysis a thorough acquaintance with the various properties of bodies is required, as well as aptitude in applying this knowledge in discriminating them, and separating them from each other. Judgment and expertness in manipulation are, indeed, essential qualifications. The method pursued must likewise be such as to attain the object in view with unerring certainty, and in the most expeditious manner. "The mere knowledge of the reagents, and of the reactions of other bodies with them, will not suffice for the attainment of this end. This requires the additional knowledge of a systematic and progressive course of analysis, or, in other words, the knowledge of the order, and succession, in which solvents, together with general and special reagents, ought to be applied, both to effect the speedy and safe detection of every individual component of a compound or mixture, and to prove with certainty the absence of all other substances. If we do not possess this systematic knowledge, or if in the hope of attaining an object more rapidly, we adhere to no method in our investigations and experiments, analysing becomes (at least in the hands of a novice) mere guesswork, and the results obtained are no longer the fruits of scientific calculation, but mere matters of accident, which sometimes may prove lucky hits, and at others total failures." (Fresenius.)

=ANALYSIS, SPECTRUM.= More than half a century ago Sir John Herschel employed the prism in the analysis of coloured flames, and in 1834 Fox Talbot, by means of the same instrument, distinguished the difference between the spectra given by strontium and lithium, notwithstanding the similarity of the two in colour. But it was reserved for Messrs Kirchkoff and Bunsen, as the inventors of the spectroscope, to devise the only efficient method of analysing flame, and, at the same time, to furnish chemists with a means whereby they may detect with unerring certainty the presence of any known element by observing the spectrum it gives when such element is submitted to a temperature sufficiently high for it to emit a luminous vapour. That certain chemical substances when heated in the flame of the spirit-lamp or the blow-pipe, or any other source of comparatively white light, imparted characteristic colours to the flame, was a fact that had long been known to chemists; for example, when a salt of sodium was so treated, an intense yellow colour was imparted to the flame. A salt of potassium produced under the same circumstances a violet, strontium, a crimson colour, &c. These results could only be produced when the substance under examination contained but one of the salts in question. If more than one were present, this method of qualitative analysis was comparatively, if not wholly, valueless, because the specific colour communicated to the flame by the presence of one element would be masked, and, consequently, destroyed by the colour developed by the vapour of another or other elements. For instance, so much more vivid is the yellow colour given to flame by sodium salts than the violet tint imparted by those of potassium, that a very small trace of sodium prevents the unaided eye from perceiving the violet, even when the potassium compound is present in large quantity.

Very different optical effects, however, follow if the rays from the various-coloured flames are made to pass through a prism. As is well known, if a ray of ordinary white light is made to traverse a prism, when it issues from the prism it has become decomposed or dissected into seven luminous rays of as many different colours, the coloured image thus produced being called a prismatic spectrum, or simply a spectrum.

This phenomenon is owing to the prism refracting or bending out of its course the beam of light sent through it, and to each coloured ray of which the beam is made up being differently refracted.

"If, however, instead of the white flame coloured flames are examined by means of a prism, the light being allowed to fall through a narrow slit upon the prism, it is at once seen that the light thus refracted differs essentially from white light, inasmuch as it consists of only a particular set of rays, each flame giving a spectrum containing a few bright bands. Thus, the spectrum of the yellow soda flame contains only one fine bright yellow line, whilst the purple potash flame exhibits a spectrum in which there are two bright lines, one lying at the extreme red, and the other at the extreme violet end. These peculiar lines are always produced by the same chemical element, and by no other known substance; and the position of these lines always remains unaltered. When the spectrum of a flame tinted by a mixture of sodium and potassium salts is examined, the yellow ray of sodium is found to be confined to its own position, whilst the potassium red and purple lines are as plainly seen as they would have been had no sodium been present."[57]

[Footnote 57: Roscoe.]

Equally characteristic and well-defined spectra, the bands in which have each an invariable and fixed position in the spectrum, are also produced when the coloured flames arising from heating to the requisite point the remaining salts of the alkalies and alkaline earths are examined by the prism. On the opposite page the first spectrum shows some of the fixed dark lines that are always observed when a solar beam is examined by the spectroscope. These lines are compared with the position of some of the more important bright lines furnished by the spectra of the metals of the alkalies and alkaline earths, when their chlorides are heated upon a loop of platinum wire introduced into the flame of a Bunsen gas-burner. The characteristic bright lines given by each metal are denoted by the letters of the Greek alphabet, the earliest letter indicating the most strongly marked lines.

In the potassium spectrum the most characteristic bright lines are the red line K [Greek: a], and violet line K [Greek: b]. In the case of sodium nearly the whole of the light is concentrated on the intense yellow double line Na [Greek: a]. In the lithium spectrum a crimson band, Li [Greek: a], is the prominent line; Li [Greek: b] is seldom visible, but at the elevated temperature of the voltaic arc an additional blue line becomes very intense. In the spectrum of caesium two lines in the blue, Cs [Greek: a] and Cs [Greek: b], are strongly marked. In rubidium the lines Rb [Greek: a] and Rb [Greek: b] in the blue, and Rb [Greek: g] in the red are almost equally specific. Thallium is recognised by the intense green line Il [Greek: a]. The spectra of the metals of the alkaline earths are equally definite, though more complicated.

By means of the spectroscope quantities so inconceivably minute as the 33,000th of a grain of chloride of rubidium, the 170,000th of a grain of chloride of caesium, the 2,500,000th of a grain of sodium, and the 6,000,000th of a grain of lithium, have been detected, and have revealed themselves to the sight by their characteristic bands in the spectrum. Hence it is that in making use of this branch of analysis the chemist has been enabled to show the universality of many elements hitherto regarded as being very sparingly distributed throughout the globe.

Thus lithium, which until lately was supposed to be one of the rare elements, has been found as a constituent of tea, tobacco, milk, blood, and in almost all spring waters. Furthermore, the prodigiously sensitive reactions afforded by the spectroscope have not only revealed the presence of infinitesimal quantities of known elements, but have led to the discovery of new ones which had escaped detection by the older and less delicate processes of analysis. It was by means of spectrum analysis that the two alkali metals, caesium and rubidium, were discovered by Bunsen and Kirchkoff in 1860 in a mineral water at Durkheim, and that Mr Crookes in 1861 discovered the metal thallium in the deposit found in the flue of a pyrites furnace; whilst still more recently Messrs Reich and Richter, in a spectrum examination of a zinc ore from Freiberg, discovered the metal indium.

[Illustration]

The most brilliant spectra are given by those salts which are the most easily volatilised, such as the chlorides, iodides, and bromides of the different metals. But it is only the metals of the alkalies and alkaline earths that give spectra that are characteristic. When it is desired to obtain the spectra of the other metals, they may be raised to the requisite temperature by means of the electric spark, which in passing through the two points of the metal operated upon volatilises a minute quantity of it, and thus enables it to emit its particular light. The electric sparks are best obtained by means of Ruhmkorff's coil. Thus each metal may be made to yield a spectrum which specially belongs to it, and to it alone. When the electric discharge is sent through a compound gas or vapour, owing to the intense temperature generated separation of its constituents must take place, since the spectra produced are those of the elementary components of the gas. The permanent gases give each their peculiar spectrum when they are strongly heated, by which they may be recognised; thus the spectrum of hydrogen is composed of three bands, one being bright red, one green, and the other blue. Nitrogen gives a very complicated spectrum.

The accompanying figure exhibits a very complete form of the spectroscope adapted to a single prism.

[Illustration]

P represents a flint-glass prism supported on the cast-iron tripod F, and retained in its place by the spring _c_. At the end of the tube A nearest the prism is a lens, placed at the distance of its focus for parallel rays from a vertical slit at the other end of the tube. The width of the slit can be regulated by means of the screw _e_. One half of this slit is covered by a small rectangular prism designed to reflect the rays proceeding from the source of light D, down the axis of the tube, whilst the rays from the source of light E pass directly down the tube. By this arrangement the observer stationed at the end of the telescope B is able to compare the spectra of both lights, which are seen one above the other, and he can at once decide whether their lines coincide or differ. _a_ and _b_ are screws for adjusting the axis of the telescope so as to bring any part of the slit at _e_ into the centre of the field of vision.

The telescope as well as the tube C is moveable in a horizontal plane around the axis of the tripod. The tube C contains a lens at the end next to the prism, and at the other end is a scale formed by transparent lines on an opaque ground; it is provided with a levelling screw, _d_. When the telescope has been properly adjusted to the examination of the spectrum, the tube C is moved until it is placed at such an angle with the telescope and the face of the prism, that when a light is transmitted through the scale the image of this scale is reflected into the telescope from the face of the prism nearest the observer. This image is rendered perfectly distinct by pushing in the tube which holds the scale nearer to the lens in C, or withdrawing it to a greater distance, as may be required. The reflected lines of the scale can then be employed for reading off the position of the dark or bright lines of the spectrum, as both will appear simultaneously overlapping each other in the field of the telescope.

By turning the tube C round upon the axis of the tripod any particular line of the scale can be brought to coincidence with any desired line of the spectrum. Stray light is excluded by covering the stand, the prism, and the ends of the tube adjoining it with a loose black cloth. The dispersive power upon the spectrum may be much increased by using several prisms instead of one. Kirchkoff used four prisms in his experiments upon the solar spectrum. Great care must be observed in placing the prisms; the refracting edge of each prism must be exactly vertical, and the position of minimum deviation for the rays to be observed must be obtained.

The preceding remarks have reference to the spectra produced when the vapours of certain elements are evolved in flame derived from artificial sources. When, however, solar light is examined by the spectroscope, results entirely the reverse follow.

If a beam of sunlight be sent through the slit of the spectroscope, the prismatic image is seen to be intersected by a number of fine black lines, varying in thickness and intensity, and invariably occupying the same relative position in the solar spectrum. These lines were first noticed so far back as 1815 by a German optician, Frauenhofer, after whom they were named Frauenhofer's lines; but it was not until the invention of the spectroscope that the origin of these lines could be accounted for. By so arranging the instrument as to cause the spectrum from a solar beam, and that from a metallic element, to fall upon the field of the telescope, so that the solar spectrum shall be above the other, both being perfectly parallel; the bright bands or lines of the metal are all seen to be continued in the dark solar lines, for, as may be seen by consulting the plate of the different spectra, several lines are sometimes produced by one element alone. If, for instance, the sodium and solar spectra are thus compared, the bright yellow sodium line will be found to agree exactly not only in position, but also in intensity and breadth, with one of the dark solar ones. And the same thing occurs when the comparison is made with many of the other metals, the bright lines in the respective spectra furnished by them are each coincident with a particular dark line in the solar spectrum, and from every dark line in the latter a corresponding bright one can be found amongst the spectra of the metals. From what has just been stated, the inference seems irresistible that this coincidence between the dark solar lines and the bright lines of the metals cannot be accidental, but must be due to some intimate connection between them, and that this is the case can be proved beyond refutation by a simple experiment, in which the bright metallic lines can be changed into dark ones, corresponding in every particular with those of the solar spectrum. Thus the bright yellow soda lines coincident with Frauenhofer's lines can be converted into dark ones by allowing the rays from a strong source of white light to pass through a flame coloured with sodium, and then making them fall upon the slit of the spectroscope. If we examine the spectrum obtained by this means, instead of seeing the usual bright double band upon a black ground, there will be presented to our sight a double dark line, corresponding exactly with the position and width of the sodium line, and instead of the black ground there will be a continuous spectrum of white light, as in the solar spectrum.

The explanation of this remarkable phenomenon is due to Kirchkoff, and is as follows:--When any substance is heated sufficiently to render it luminous, rays of a certain and definite degree of refrangibility are given out by it; whilst the same substance has also the power of absorbing rays of this identical refrangibility. In the above experiment, therefore, the yellow flame absorbed the same kind of light as it gave out, a corresponding decrease of intensity in its own particular position in the spectrum occurred, and a dark line showed itself in consequence.

In the same manner and under similar conditions the spectra of many other substances have been reversed.

Reasoning on these facts, Kirchkoff has been able to account for the presence in the solar spectrum of Frauenhofer's dark lines. He supposes that in the luminous atmosphere surrounding the sun the vapours of various metals are present, each of which would give its characteristic system of bright lines; but behind this incandescent atmosphere containing metallic vapour is the still more intensely heated solid or liquid nucleus of the sun, which emits a brilliant continuous spectrum, containing rays of all degrees of refrangibility.

When the light of this intensely heated nucleus is transmitted through the incandescent photosphere of the sun, the bright lines which would be produced by the photosphere are reversed, and Frauenhofer's dark lines are only the reversed bright lines which would be visible if the intensely heated nucleus were no longer there.

The correctness of this theory has been rigorously tested by Kirchkoff himself, who submitted the solar spectrum to a most minute and searching examination.

As a result of the knowledge thus obtained, the presence of certain metals in the sun's atmosphere was an inevitable deduction. The metals hitherto detected in the solar photosphere are--iron, sodium, magnesium, calcium, chromium, nickel, barium, copper, zinc, strontium, cadmium, cobalt, manganese, aluminium, and titanium. Hydrogen also exists in large quantity as an incandescent gas, and gives rise to the red protuberances that may be observed during a total eclipse.

During the total eclipse of 1869, M. Janssen, a French astronomer, was enabled to obtain and figure the specimen of these red protuberances, which, taken exclusively from that source of light, gave not dark lines, but bright ones, corresponding in position with those of hydrogen, magnesium, and sodium.

The fixed stars, unlike the moon and planets, which shine only by reflected light, are not merely illuminated by self luminous bodies, and yield spectra, which show them to contain many elements known to us; their spectra are crossed by dark lines similar to, but not identical with those given by the sun's light. The spectrum yielded by the star Aldebaran shows it to contain hydrogen, sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, tellurium, antimony, bismuth, and mercury; in the spectrum of Sirius only sodium, magnesium, and hydrogen have been found; whilst in that of Orionis there is an absence of hydrogen. Most of the nebulae and comets give spectra in which there are only bright lines. It is hence inferred that these celestial bodies are composed of masses of glowing gas, and, unlike the sun and stars, do not consist of a solid or liquid mass surrounded by a gaseous atmosphere. In the nebulae hydrogen and nitrogen only have been found; and in comets, principally carbon.

=ANANAS HEMP= (_Ananassa sativa_, _S. Brumelia ananas_, as well as other species). This hemp comes from the West Indies and Central and South America, where the common ananas is cultivated. It is rather inferior to some varieties for spinning.

=ANASTATIC PRINTING.= See PRINTING and ZINCOGRAPHY.

=ANATHERIN BALSAM.= The following formula is published by the Netherlands Society:--Tincture of myrrh, 160 grms.; tincture of catechu, 80 grms.; tincture of guaiacum, 40 grms.; tincture of rhatany, 40 grms.; tincture of cloves, 30 grms.; spirit of cochlearia, 20 grms.; oil of cassia, 20 drops; otto of roses, 1 drop; proof spirit, 630 grms.

=ANATHERIN BALSAM= (J. G. Popp, Vienna). A mouth-wash. Red sandal wood, 20 parts; guaiacum wood, 10 parts; myrrh, 25 parts; cloves, 15 parts; cinnamon, 5 parts; oils of cloves and cinnamon, of each, 2/3 part; spirit, 90 per cent., 1450 parts; rose water, 725 parts. Digest and filter.

Dr Hager, who gives the above, says that on the expiration of the patent the following formula was published, but that a preparation made from that process had only a distant resemblance to the actual compound. Myrrh, 1 part; guaiacum wood, 4 parts; saltpetre, 1 part; to be macerated for a night with corn brandy, 120 parts; spirit of cochlearia, 180 parts. Then distil of this 240 parts, in which are to be digested for 14 days garden rue, cochlearia, rose leaves, black mustard, horseradish, pellitory root, cinchona bark, club-moss, sage-vetiver, and alkanet root, of each 1 part. Strain and filter, and to each 120 parts of the filtrate add 1 part of spirit of nitrous ether. (Hager.)

=ANATOM'ICAL.= _Syn._ ANATOM'ICUS, L.; ANATOMIQUE, Fr.; ANATOMISCH, Ger. Belonging to anatomy or dissection.

=Anatomical Prepara'tions.= Objects of interest in both surgical and pathological anatomy, and specimens in natural history, preserved by subjecting them to antiseptic processes, to which is also frequently added injection with coloured fluids (which subsequently harden), amalgams, or fusible metal, in order to display more fully the minute vessels, or the microscopic anatomy of the several parts. See FUSIBLE ALLOY, INJECTIONS, PREPARATIONS, PUTREFACTION, SKELETONS, SOLUTIONS, &c.

=ANCH'OVY= (-ch[=o]'-). _Syn._ ANCHOIS, Fr.; ANCHOVE, ANSCHOVE, Ger.; ACCIUGHE, ANCHIOVE. It.; ANCHOVA, Port., Sp. The _clu'pea encrasic'olus_ (Linn.), a small fish of the herring tribe, closely resembling the English sprat. It is common in the Mediterranean, and occurs in the greatest abundance and of the finest quality about the island of Gorgona, near Leghorn. It is taken in the night, during May, June, and July.

Anchovies are prepared for sale or exportation by salting or pickling them--the heads, intestines and pectoral fins having been first removed, but not the scales, and afterwards packing them, along with rock-salt, in the small kegs in which they are imported into this country. The small fish are valued more than the larger ones. For the table they are often fried to a pale amber colour, in oil or butter; having previously been scraped clean, soaked for an hour or two in water, wiped dry, opened (without dividing the fish), and had the back-bones removed. Before being put into the pan they are usually highly seasoned with cayenne; and after being again closed, are dipped into a rich light batter. They are also divided into fillets, and served as sandwiches, or in curried toasts. Anchovies are also extensively potted (POTTED ANCHOVIES), and made into butter (A.-BUTTER), and into sauce (A.-SAUCE), particularly the last.

The anchovy has a fine and peculiar flavour, and is eaten as a delicacy all over Europe. It was known to the Greeks and Romans, who prepared from it a kind of garum for the table. It is said to be aperitive, stimulant, and stomachic.

The high price of genuine Gorgona anchovies has led the fraudulent dealer to either substitute for them, or mix with them, fish of a less expensive kind. The most frequent SUBSTITUTIONS are Dutch, French, and Sicilian fish of allied species or varieties, sardines and even the common sprat. The genuine Gorgona fish is about the length of one's finger; and may be known by its silvery appearance; by the greater thickness of its head, which is sharp-pointed, with the upper jaw considerably the longest, and the mouth deeply divided; the dusky brown colour of its back,[58] and the pink salmon colour of its flesh. When only 3 months old, its flesh is pale; when of 6 months, rather pink; when of 10 to 12 months (or in its prime), a beautiful deep pink colour; and when much older, darker, but less lively. The fin-rays, varying in number with the age of the fish, are--

Yarrell. Hassall.[59] Dorsal 14, 16 (?). Pectoral 15, -- Ventral 7, -- Anal 18, 19 (?). Caudal 19, 26 (?).

These fins are delicate in structure and greenish-white; and the membranes connecting the rays almost transparent. "The length of the head, compared with the length of the body alone, is as 1 to 3; the depth of the body but 2-3rds of the length of the head, and compared to the length of the whole fish is as 1 to 7;" the tail is deeply forked, the gill covers are elongated, and the scales of the body large and deciduous." "The breadth of the eye is 1-5th of the length of the whole head."[60] Dutch fish may be generally known by being deprived of the scales, and the French fish by their larger size; and both by the paler or whiter colour of their flesh; and sardines and sprats by the flesh being white. The genuine fish may also be known by the pickle, after repose or filtration, being of a clear pinkish colour, without any red sediment; whilst that from spurious kinds is turbid and red only when agitated, and deposits a heavy red sediment (Armenian bole, Venetian red, or red ochre) on repose. See BUTTER, POTTING, POWDERS, SAUCES, &c.

[Footnote 58: The colour of the top of the head and back is, in the recent fish, blue, with a tinge of green. (Yarrell.)]

[Footnote 59: Counted, by Dr A. H. Hassall, in fish in the preserved state.]

[Footnote 60: Yarrell's 'British Fishes'.]

=Anchovies, Brit'ish.= See SPRATS.

=ANCHU'SIC ACID= (-k[=u]'z[)i]k). See ANCHUSINE.

=ANCHU'SINE.= (-k[=u]'z[)i]n). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ANCHU'SIC ACID*, PSEU'DO-ALKANN'INE*, PSEUDO-ALKA''NIUM*; ANCHUSI'NA, L. The resinoid constituting the colouring matter of alkanet-root (which _see_).

=ANCHYLO'SIS= ([)a]ngk-e-). [L.; prim. Gr.] _Syn._ ANKYLO'SIS, ANCYLO'SIS ([)a]n-se-), L.; ANKYLOSE, Fr., Ger. In _pathology_, stiffness or immobility of a joint naturally moveable. Anchylosis is either true or complete, as when the extremities of the bones forming a joint are reunited and immovable; or false, or incomplete, where the affection depends upon a contraction of the tendons and ligaments surrounding the joints, which nevertheless admit of a small degree of motion. For the first there is no available remedy; for the second gentle and progressive flexion and extension of the part daily (carefully avoiding violence), friction with oleaginous and stimulating liniments, and the use of the hot bath, vapour bath, or hot-air or Turkish bath, and electricity, have been strongly recommended, and have frequently proved successful.

=ANCYLO'SIS.= See ANCHYLOSIS.

=ANDITROPFEN= (Kirchner and Menge Arolsen), for weak digestion. Senna, 20 parts; rhubarb, 3 parts; jalap, 6 parts; zedoary root, 2 parts; ginger, 2 parts; galangal, 3 parts; soda, bicarbonate, 5 parts; sugar, 15 parts; water, 300 parts; spirit, 65 parts. After digestion this is to be strained and mixed with an infusion of 30 parts of yarrow (with the flowers) in 300 parts of hot water. After standing some time filter. (Hager.)

=ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA.= (Ind. Ph.) _Syn._ KARIYAT. _Habitat._ Commonly in shady places all over India.--_Officinal part._ The dried stalks and root (Andrographis Caules et Radix, Kariyat, Creyat). The stem, which is usually met with, with the root attached, occurs in pieces of about a foot or more in length, quadrangular, of a lightish-brown colour, and persistent bitter taste.--_Properties._ Bitter tonic and stomachic, very analogous to quassia in its action.--_Therapeutic uses._ In general debility, in convalescence after fevers, and in the advanced stages of dysentery.

_Preparations_:--

=Compound Infusion of Kariyat= (Infusum Andrographis compositum). Take of Kariyat, bruised, 1/2 an ounce; orange-peel and coriander fruit, bruised, of each, 60 grains; boiling water, 10 fluid ounces. Infuse in a covered vessel for an hour and strain.--_Dose._ From 1-1/2 to 2 fluid ounces, twice or thrice daily.

=Compound Tincture of Kariyat= (Tinctura Andrographis composita). Take of kariyat root, cut small, 6 ounces; myrrh and aloes, in coarse powder, of each 1 ounce; brandy, 2 pints. Macerate for seven days in a closed vessel, with occasional agitation; strain, press, filter, and add sufficient brandy to make two pints.--_Dose._ From 1 to 4 fluid drachms. Said to be tonic, stimulant, and gently aperient, and to prove valuable in several forms of dyspepsia, and in torpidity of the bowels.

=ANDROPOGON (CYMBOPOGON) CITRATUM.= Lemon Grass. (Ind. Ph.) _Habitat._ Commonly cultivated in gardens in India; also in Ceylon, upon a large scale, for the sake of its volatile oil.--_Officinal part._ The volatile oil (Oleum Andropogi Citrati, Lemon Grass Oil, Oil of Verbena), obtained by distillation from the fresh plant; of a pale sherry colour, transparent, extremely pungent taste, and a peculiar fragrant lemon-like odour.--_Properties._ Stimulant, carminative, antispasmodic, and diaphoretic; locally applied, rubefacient.--_Therapeutic use._ In flatulent and spasmodic affections of the bowels, and in gastric irritability. In cholera it proves serviceable by aiding the process of reaction. Externally, as an embrocation in chronic rheumatism, neuralgia, sprains, and other painful affections.

_Dose._ From 3 to 6 drops, on sugar or in emulsion. For external application it should be diluted with twice its bulk of soap liniment or any bland oil.

=ANDROPOGON (CYMBOPOGON) NARDUS.= CITRONELLE. (Ind. Ph.) _Habitat._ Madras Peninsula and Ceylon. The volatile oil of this plant has similar properties to _A. citratum_. and is used for the same purposes.

=ANDROPOGON PACHNODES.= (Ind. Ph.) The volatile oil of this plant possesses similar properties to that of _A. citratum_, and is used for the same purposes.

=ANELEC'TRIC= ([)a]n-e-). Non-electric; a non-electric.

=ANEMOM'ETER= ([)a]n-e-). _Syn._ ANEMOM'ETRUM, L.; ANEMOMETRE, Fr.; WINDMESSER, Ger. An instrument or apparatus for measuring the force or velocity of the wind, or of a current of air. Various contrivances have been adopted for this purpose. The anemometer of Dr Lind being also applicable to the determination of the draught of a chimney, and the strength of air-current, in ventilation, may be usefully described here:--

[Illustration]

_Uses and Appl._ The open end (_a_) is kept, by means of a vane, presented to the wind, which acting on the surface of the water, or other liquid in _b_, raises the level of the fluid in the arm (_c_). The difference of the level of the fluid in the two arms of the instrument is the measure of the force of the wind. To estimate the draught of a flue or chimney, the arm (_c_) is placed in the chimney, and the orifice (_a_) in the apartment.[61]

[Footnote 61: The anemometers now generally used in meteorological observations are those of Mr Follet Osler, Dr Robinson, and Dr Whewell. For a description of these instruments, see Phillip's 'Report on Anemometry,' the 'Trans. of the Brit. Assoc.,' 1846, 'Trans. Royal Irish Acad.,' &c.]

=ANEMOM'ETRY.= _Syn._ ANEMOME'TRIA, L.; ANEMOMETRIE, Fr.; WINDMESSEN, Ger. In _meteorology_, _physics_, &c., the art or act of measuring the velocity or force of the wind, or of ascertaining its direction.

=ANEM'ONE= ([)a]-n[)e]m'-o-ne). _Syn._ ANEM'ONY; ANEM'ONE, L., Gr.; ANEMONE, Fr. The wind-flower. In _botany_, a genus of beautiful flowering herbaceous plants, of the nat. ord. Ranunculaceae. The double flowers of some of the species are among the most elegant ornaments of our gardens. Others are used in medicine. They are all acrid and stimulating.

=Anem'ones, Sea.= (-o-n[=e]z). _Syn._ AN'IMAL-FLOWERS[double-dagger], SEA SUN'FLOWERS[double-dagger]. Animals of the genus _actin'ia_, so called from the resemblance of their claws or tentacles, when expanded, to the petals of a flower. They are of various colours, are generally fixed by one end to rocks or stones in the sand, and are very voracious, being accused of occasionally swallowing a mussel or a crab as large as a hen's egg for a meal. They belong to the highly organised polypes of Cuvier.

=ANEMON'IC ACID.= See ANEMONINE.

=ANEMONIN.= A crystalline substance found in the leaves of several species of anemone, viz. _A. pulsatilla_, _A. pretensis_, _A. nemorosa_. Water distilled from these leaves, after some weeks, deposits a colourless inodorous substance, which softens at 150 deg. C, giving off water and acrid vapours. It is purified by repeated crystallisation from boiling alcohol. Anemonin is a poisonous body. It causes slight irritation when applied to the skin. By the action of alkalies anemonin is transferred into anemonic acid.

=ANEM'OSCOPE= ([)a]n'-e--Brande, Mayne). _Syn._ ANEMOSCO'PIUM, L.; ANEMOSCOPE, Fr.; ANEMOSKOP, Ger. An instrument to measure the force and velocity of the wind. See ANEMOMETER.

=AN'EROID= (-royd)[62]. In _physics_, &c., not fluid, or not depending on water or a fluid for its action; applied to a certain form of barometer (which _see_)

[Footnote 62: That is--[Greek: a], _without_, [Greek: neros], (the) _watery_, [Greek: eidos], _form_, as correctly given by Brande. By some strange mistake, Dr Mayne, in his new 'Expository Lexicon,' gives "[Greek: a], priv., [Greek: aer], air, terminal _-ides_," as the derivation of this word; and marks it '_ane'roid_,']

=ANEURISM.= A tumour on an artery, produced by the rupture of the inner coat of the vessel, and the blood getting between it and the outer coat.

=ANGEL'ICA= (-j[)e]l'-). [L., Port., Sp.; Ph. E. & D.] _Syn._ GARDEN ANGELICA; ANGELIQUE, Fr.; ANGELIKA, A.-WURZEL, ANGELKRAUT, Ger. The _angelica archangel'ica_ of Linnaeus, an aromatic herbaceous plant with a biennial, fleshy root, indigenous to the north of Europe, but frequently found wild in England, and largely cultivated in our gardens. Dried root (ANGELICA, Ph. E.), aperient, carminative, diaphoretic, and tonic; much esteemed by the Laplanders, both as food and medicine;--fruit or seed (ANGELICA, Ph. D.) resembles the root, but is weaker. The whole plant has been extolled as an aromatic tonic. As a masticatory, it leaves an agreeable glowing heat in the mouth. The aromatic properties of this plant depend on a peculiar volatile oil and resin.

_Uses, &c._ It has been recommended in diarrh[oe]a, dyspepsia, debility, and some fevers; but is now seldom used in medicine. _Dose_, 30 gr. to 1 dr. The dried root and seeds are used by rectifiers to flavour gin and liqueurs; and the fresh root, tender stems, stalks, &c., are made by the confectioners into an aromatic candy. See CANDYING, LIQUEURS, &c.

=Angelica Atropurpu''rea.= [Linn.] _Syn._ AMER'ICAN ANGELICA; ANGELICA, Ph. U. S. _Hab._ North America. Resembles garden angelica, but placed by some botanists in a separate, though allied genus. It is a popular remedy for flatulent colic, indigestion, and cardialgia, in the United States; and is there regarded as tonic, cordial, and aphrodisiac.

=ANGEL'IC ACID. HC_{5}H_{7}O_{2}.= A volatile substance, noticed by L. A. Buchner, jun., in angelica-root. It has a pungent sour smell, and a biting acid taste; is sometimes fluid and oleaginous, and sometimes crystallised in striated prisms.[63]

[Footnote 63: Schmidt's 'Jahrb.,' 1842.]

=ANGO'LA= _Syn._ ANGO'LA-WOOL, ANGO''RA-W., ANGO'NA-W., &c.; POIL DE CHEVRON D'ANGORA, Fr.; (Engoor', Engour', or Engu'ri) TIFTIC, Tur. The wool of 'ca'pra Angoren'sis' or the Angora-goat, of which the shawls of Cashmere are made, and others in imitation of them. It is also used to make plush, light cloths for paletots which are repellent of wet, &c.; and is extensively employed in France in the manufacture of lace more brilliant than that of Valenciennes and Chantilly, and at half the price. See ALPACA, SHAWLS, WOOL, &c.

=ANGOSTU'RA, Angustu'ra.= (-t[=u]re'-[)a]). See CUSPARIA.

=Angostura, False.= See BRUCEA, CUSPARIA and STRYCHNOS.

=ANGOSTU''RINE=, =Angustu'rine= (-[)i]n). See CUSPARIN.

=ANHYDRIDE.= Most, if not all modern chemists, adopting GERHARDT'S practice of limiting the title of acid to a particular class of substances which contain hydrogen, now regard all true acids as salts of hydrogen. Formerly many bodies, such as silica or white arsenic, were looked upon as acids, though if we adopt the foregoing definition they are not really so until they have combined with water. Such bodies, because they contain no hydrogen, are now distinguished as anhydrides; the substances, for example, familiarly known as carbonic, sulphurous, and phosphoric acids, must, upon the above principle, be designated carbonic, sulphurous, and phosphoric anhydrides. We may also define an anhydride to be an oxide which forms an acid on treatment with water.

=ANHY'DROUS= (-dr[)u]s; _an'hydrous_, as marked by Brande, is less usual). _Syn._ AN'HYDRUS, L.; ANHYDRE, Fr.; WASSERFREI, Ger. Free from water; dry. In _chemistry_ and _mineralogy_, a term frequently applied to substances, as acids, alcohol, gases, salts, minerals, &c., which do not contain either free or combined water. GASES may generally be rendered anhydrous by passing them through a tube containing fused chloride of calcium, or (_e.g._ AMMONIA and two or three others) quick-lime, in coarse powder; and some of them, by passing them through concentrated sulphuric acid. SALTS may generally be dried by cautiously submitting them to the action of heat, or by exposure to a very dry atmosphere; and alcohol, and many other volatile fluids, by careful distillation from chloride of calcium, or some other highly hygrometric substance.

=AN'IL.= [Fr., Sp., L.] The indigof'era anil of botanists--one of the plants yielding 'indigo'--a native of America, but now largely cultivated in the East Indies. See INDIGO (and _below_).

=AN'ILINE=[64] (-een). [Eng., Fr.] C_{6}H_{7}N. _Syn._ PHENYL'AMINE; ANILI'NA, ANILI'NUM, &c., L. A peculiar volatile organic base first noticed by Unverdorben in empyreumatic bone-oil, and afterwards obtained by Runge from coal-tar, and by Fritzsche, Zinin, A. W. Hofmann, and others, as a product of various reactions, processes, and decompositions, particularly those attending the destructive distillation of organic bodies.

[Footnote 64: For a detailed account of the methods of preparing aniline commercially, and of the dyes obtained therefrom, _see_ 'Dictionnaire de Chimie,' par A. Wurtz.]

PREP. Aniline is now almost invariably obtained, on the large scale, either directly or indirectly from coal-tar or indigo; and chiefly from the basic oil or naphtha, or the nitrobenzol, of which the former is the principal source. The following are the leading commercial and experimental processes:

1. From COAL-TAR or COAL-TAR NAPHTHA:--The basic oil or basic portion of coal-tar or coal-tar naphtha, forming the latter, denser, and least volatile products of the distillation or rectification of these substances, is strongly agitated, for some time, along with hydrochloric acid in slight excess, a glass globe, or, on the large scale, a suitable vessel of lead, or of enamelled iron, being employed for the purpose; the clear portion of the liquid (containing the hydrochlorates of the bases present) is then decanted and carefully evaporated over an open fire until acrid fumes begin to be disengaged, when it is again decanted or filtered; the clear liquor, or filtrate is next treated with potash or milk of lime in excess, by which the bases--chiefly aniline and chinoline--are liberated under the form of a brownish oil; the whole of the resulting mixture is now submitted to distillation, the portion which passes over at or about 360 deg. Fahr., and which consists chiefly of crude aniline, being collected separately; the product is purified by rectification and recollection, once or oftener, at the same temperature, and, lastly, by fresh treatment with hydrochloric acid and careful distillation with excess of potash, or milk of lime, as before.

2. From NITROBENZOL:--_a._ (Zinin.) An alcoholic solution of nitrobenzol, after saturation with ammonia, is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, until, after some hours, a precipitation of sulphur takes place; the brown liquid is then repeatedly saturated with fresh sulphuretted hydrogen, until no more sulphur separates, the reaction being aided by occasionally heating or distilling the mixture; an excess of acid is next added, and, after filtering the liquid, and the removal of the alcohol and unaltered nitrobenzol by ebullition or distillation, the residuum is lastly distilled with caustic potash, in excess. The ANILINE found in the receiver may be rendered quite pure by forming it into oxalate of aniline, repeatedly crystallising the salt from alcohol, and finally distilling it with excess of caustic potassa, as before.

The following is a cheaper and more convenient process; and probably the best, or one of the best, that has yet been invented for obtaining aniline:--

_b._ (M. Bechamps.) From nitrobenzol distilled along with basic protacetate of iron; or, what is better, by distilling a mixture of iron-filings, 2 parts, and acetic acid, 1 part, with about an equal volume of nitrobenzol, the reaction being assisted, whenever the effervescence flags, by the application of a gentle heat. The liquor found in the receiver consists of aniline and water, from which the first, forming the lower portion, is obtained, after sufficient repose in a separator; or more easily, by adding a very little ether, which by dissolving in the aniline, causes it to rise to the surface, when it is at once decanted. A very spacious glass or earthenware retort must be employed in the process, as the mass swells up violently; and it must be connected with the receiver, on the small scale, by means of a Liebig's condenser, and, on the large scale, by an ordinary worm-pipe and tub, kept in good action by a sufficient flow of cold water.

The apparatus for carrying out Bechamp's method was devised by Nicholson, and is exhibited in the subjoined plate.

"It consists essentially of a cast-iron cylinder (A) of 10 hectolitres (220 cubic gallons) capacity. A stout iron tube is fitted to this vessel, reaching nearly to the bottom of the cylinder. The upper part of this tube is connected with the machinery (G), while the surface of the tube is fitted with steel projections. The tube serves to admit steam, as well as acting as a stirring apparatus. Sometimes, instead of this tube, a solid iron axle is employed, and in this case there is a separate steampipe (D). Through the opening at K the materials for making aniline are put into the apparatus, while the volatile products are carried off through E. H serves for emptying and cleaning the apparatus. The S-shaped tube connected with the vessel B acts as a safety valve. When it is intended to work with this apparatus there is poured into it through K 10 parts of acetic acid at 8 deg. B. (sp. gr. 1.060), previously diluted with six times its weight of water; next there are added 30 parts of iron filings, or cast-iron borings, and 125 parts of nitrobenzol, and immediately after the stirring apparatus is set in motion. The reaction ensues directly, and is attended by a considerable evolution of heat and vapours. Gradually more iron is added until the quantity amounts to 180 parts. The escaping vapours are condensed in F, and the liquid condensed in R is from time to time poured back into the cylinder A. The reduction is finished after a few hours."

[Illustration]

3. From INDIGO:--Powdered indigo is added to a boiling and highly concentrated solution of caustic potash, as long as it dissolves and hydrogen gas is liberated; the resulting brownish-red liquid is evaporated to dryness, and the residuum is submitted to destructive distillation in a retort, which, owing to the intumesence of the mass, should be strong and spacious. The ANILINE is found in the receiver under the form of a brownish oil mixed with ammoniacal liquor, and by separation from the latter, and subsequent rectification, is obtained nearly colourless. It may be further purified, as in the preceding processes.--_Prod._ 18 to 20% of the indigo employed.

4. By fusing, with proper precautions, a mixture of isatine and hydrate of potassium (both in powder); a retort connected with a well-cooled receiver, being employed as the apparatus. Said by Profs A. W. Hofmann and Muspratt to be "the most eligible process for isolating" aniline.[65]

[Footnote 65: Muspratt's 'Chemistry,' i, 599.]

5. From anthranilic acid mixed with powdered glass or sand, and rapidly heated in a retort.

6. By treating an alcoholic solution of benzine with a little zinc and hydrochloric acid.

7. By heating phenyl-alcohol with ammonia in sealed tubes.

In Zinin's process the nitrobenzol is dissolved in alcohol, and the solution, after the addition of ammonia, is saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen. After standing some time the solution deposits a large quantity of sulphur, and the liquid yields aniline.

Many other reducing agents have been proposed for the conversion of nitrobenzol into aniline, such as arsenite of sodium, powdered zinc, &c., but on the large scale they have all been found inferior to the process of Bechamp. Kremer's process consists in heating one part of nitrobenzol in a proper apparatus with five of water and two and a half of zinc dust. When the reaction is completed the aniline, amounting to about 65% of the weight of the benzol, is distilled off in a current of steam.

_Prop., &c._ A thin, oily, colourless liquid, with a faintly vinous odour, and a hot and aromatic taste; very volatile in the air; miscible in all proportions with alcohol and ether; very slightly soluble in water; neutral to ordinary test-paper, but exhibiting an alkaline reaction to dahlia-petal infusion and paper; dissolves camphor, sulphur, and phosphorus, and coagulates albumen; possesses a high refractive power; and precipitates the oxides of iron, zinc, and alumina, from solutions of their salts, and neutralises the acids, like ammonia. With the acids it forms numerous crystallisable compounds of great beauty, and which are easily formed, and are precisely analogous to the corresponding salts of ammonia. These, on exposure to the air, acquired a rose colour, in many cases gradually passing into brown. Its boiling-point is 359 deg. to 360 deg. Fahr.; sp. gr. 1.028.

_Tests._--1. Chromic acid gives a deep greenish or bluish-black precipitate with aniline and its salts:--2. Hypochlorite of lime strikes an extremely beautiful violet colour, which is soon destroyed:--3. The addition of two or three drops of nitric acid to anhydrous aniline produces a fine blue colour, which, on the application of heat, passes into yellow, and a violent reaction ensues, sometimes followed by explosion:--4. With bichloride of platinum it yields a double salt (platino-chloride of aniline) analogous to the like salt of ammonia. These reactions distinguish it from all other substances.

Commercial aniline is a mixture consisting in great part of aniline, paratoluidine (solid), and orthotoluidine in variable proportions. In addition it contains small amounts of metatoluidine, nitrobenzol, odorine, &c., but for all practical purposes it may be regarded as a mixture of aniline and toluidine. These anilines are obtained from a portion of the light coal-tar naphtha boiling between certain temperatures, by treating it first with nitric acid to convert it into the nitro-compounds, and then reducing these with iron and acetic acid, as already described under Bechamp's process. It is very plain that as the coal-tar naphtha contains variable proportions of benzol and toluidine, the resulting product must also vary in the quantities of aniline and toluidine it will contain. In order to distinguish between various samples of commercial aniline, Reimann submits them to fractional distillation and compares the results. He places 100 c. c. of the sample to be tested in a retort fitted with a thermometer and heated by means of an oil bath. The liquid as it distils is received in a narrow graduated cylinder, and the amount that passes over between every 5 deg. C. (9 deg. F.) is noted.

In order to obtain standards for comparison he first distilled a sample of light aniline, or kuphaniline, as he terms it, then one of heavy aniline or baraniline; afterwards mixtures of the two in varying proportions. In the accompanying table the results are given.

-------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------ Centigrade {|K. 100 90 85 80 75 60 50 25 0 {|B. 0 10 15 20 25 40 50 75 100 -------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------ Below 180 deg. | 8-1/2 7 2-1/2 5-1/2 7 ... 7 5-1/2 ... 180 deg.--185 deg. | 54 50 29-1/2 22 5-1/2 7 4-1/2 2-1/2 2 185 deg.--190 deg. | 34 34 56-1/2 55-1/2 55-1/2 37 7-1/2 4-1/2 1-1/2 190 deg.--195 deg. | ... 5 7-1/2 8-1/2 15 33 42 17 8 195 deg.--200 deg. | ... ... ... ... 9 ... 19 36 18 200 deg.--205 deg. | ... ... ... ... 4-1/2 16 10 16 39 205 deg.--210 deg. | ... ... ... ... ... ... 3-1/2 8 19 210 deg.--215 deg. | ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4-1/2 7 Residue | 3-1/2 4 4 8-1/2 3-1/2 7 6-1/2 5 5-1/2 -------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------

To ascertain the quality of any sample it is only necessary to distil it in the manner already described, and compare the results with those in the above table.

(For further information consult Wagner's 'Chemical Technology,' Calvert's 'Dyeing and Calico Printing,' edited by Stenhouse and Groves; Crooke's 'Practical Handbook of Dyeing and Calico Printing,' Ure's Dictionary, edited by Hunt.)

_Uses_, _&c_. Chiefly in dyeing, for the production of colouring matter of various rich shades of purple and violet, some approaching pink, by the action of chromic acid; and of a splendid crimson, by the action of various oxidising agents. It forms the basis of the celebrated new dyes for silks lately patented by Mr W. H. Perkin, and others, and which are not only more delicate and gorgeous in tint, but also more permanent, than any produced by other substances.

Besides numerous salts, various substitution compounds of aniline have been formed, all of which possess vast scientific interest, and several are likely to prove of importance in the arts. See DYEING, INDIGO, TAR COLOURS, &c. (also _below_.)

=Aniline, Chro'mates of=. _Prep_. 1. (NEUTRAL CHROMATE.) From sulphate or oxalate of aniline and chromate of potash, by double decomposition.

2. (BICHRO'MATE:--Mr W. H. Perkin.) Sulphate of aniline and bichromate of potash, in equivalent quantities, are separately dissolved in water, and the solutions, after being mixed, are allowed to stand for several hours. The whole is then thrown upon a filter, and the black precipitate which forms is washed and dried. It is next digested in coal-tar naphtha (--? benzol), to extract a brown resinous substance; after which it is digested in alcohol, to dissolve out the colouring matter (BICHROMATE OF ANILINE), which is left behind on distilling off the spirit, as a coppery friable mass. Patented.

=Aniline, Cy'anide of=. Benzonitrile.

=Aniline, Ox'alate of=. (C_{6}H_{7}N)_{2}C_{2}O_{4}. Obtained by saturating an alcoholic solution of oxalic acid with aniline; the salt separating as a crystalline mass. It is very soluble in hot water; much less so in cold water; only slightly soluble in alcohol; and insoluble in ether. It may be crystallised from hot water or boiling alcohol. Used chiefly to form other salts.

=Aniline, Sul'phate of=. (C_{6}H_{7}N)_{2}SO_{4}. Prepared by saturating aniline with dilute sulphuric acid, and gently evaporating the liquid until the salt separates. By re-solution in boiling alcohol, it crystallises out, as the liquor cools, under the form of very beautiful colourless plates, of a silvery lustre. It is freely soluble in water, and in hot alcohol; scarcely soluble in cold alcohol; and insoluble in ether. It is chiefly employed in the preparation of the new aniline dyes.

=ANIMAL'CULE= (-k[=u]le). [Eng., Fr.; pl. animal'cules.] _Syn._ ANIMAL'CULUM (pl., animal'cula[66]), L.; THIERCHEN, Ger. In _zoology_ and _physiology_, a microscopic animal, or one so extremely small, that it is either invisible, or not distinctly discernible, without the aid of a lens or microscope; more especially one that is not perceptible to the naked eye. "A mite was anciently thought the limit of littleness; but there are animals 27,000,000 of times smaller than a mite." A thousand millions of some of the animalcula found in common water are said to be collectively of less bulk than a single grain of sand; yet their numbers are so prodigious as sometimes to give the fluid they inhabit a pale red or yellow tinge. The milt of a single codfish is said to contain more of these minute animals than there are people in the whole earth. Animalcula were first scientifically observed by Leuwenhoek about the year 1677. Assisted by the microscope he unveiled, as it were, he created a new world for future naturalists and microscopists to explore.

[Footnote 66: Animalculae for the plural, sometimes heard and met with, is a barbarism; yet one not wholly confined to the vulgar, for we find it in Vincent's edition of Haydn's admirable 'Dict. of Dates,' not merely twice, or oftener, in the text, but as a 'title-word,' and also in some other works where we might least expect it.]

"Take any drop of water," says Professor Rymer Jones, "from our rivers, from our lakes, or from the vast ocean itself, and place it under the microscope; you will find therein countless living beings moving therein in all directions with considerable swiftness, apparently gifted with sagacity, for they readily elude each other in the active dance they keep up.... Increase the power of your glasses, and you will soon perceive inhabiting the same drop, other animals compared to which the former were elephantine in their dimensions, equally vivacious and equally gifted. Exhaust the art of the optician, strain your eyes to the utmost, until the aching sense refuses to perceive the little quivering movement that indicates the presence of life, and you will find that you have not exhausted nature in the descending scale."

Amongst the most remarkable discoveries of modern science must be reckoned that of fossil animalcules in such abundance as to form the principal part of extensive strata. This discovery is due to Ehrenberg, who found the Polierschiefer (the polishing slate or tripoli) of Bilin to be almost entirely made up of the siliceous shields of a minute fossil animalcule, the length of one of which is about 1/288th of a line, so that about 23,000,000 of animalcules must have gone to form a cubic line, and 41,000,000,000 to form a cubic inch of the rock. Ehrenberg succeeded in discovering the formation of similar strata in deposits of mud at the bottom of lakes and marshes, the mud swarming with living animalcules, probably in their turn to be fossilised. The bergmehl, or mountain meal of Sweden and other parts of Europe, which is sometimes used as an article of food, is entirely composed of the remains of animalcules; not merely, however, of their siliceous shields, for it contains a considerable per-centage of dry animal matter. Some animalcules prefer waters impregnated with iron, and their death gives rise to an ochreous substance in which iron is a principal ingredient.

=AN'IME= ([)a]n'-[)i]m-e). [Eng., L., Sp.] _Syn._ GUM-AN'IME, A.-RES'IN; ANIME, Fr.; ANIMEHARZ, KOURBARILLHARZ, Ger.; COURBARIL, JUTAIBA, Nat. A pale brownish-yellow, transparent, brittle resin, which exudes from the _hymenaea courbaril_ (Linn.) or locust-tree, the _h. martiana_, and other species of hymenaea growing in tropical America. It contains about .2% of volatile oil, which gives it an agreeable odour; melts without decomposition; is (nearly) insoluble in alcohol and in caoutchoucine, but forms a gelatinous mass in a mixture of the two. (Ure.) It burns readily, emitting a very fragrant smell. Sp. gr. 1.054 to 1.057.

_Uses, &c._ As a fumigation in spasmodic asthma; in solution as an embrocation; and in powder as a substitute for gum guaiacum. In this country it is chiefly employed to make varnishes and pastilles (which _see_).

=AN'ION= (-y'[)u]n--Br., We.; [)a]-n[=i]'-[)u]n--Smart). Literally, 'upward going,' in _electro-chemistry_, a substance which is evolved from the surface where the electrical current is supposed to enter the electrolyte; an electro-negative body, or one which passes to the positive pole, or anode, in electrolysis, as opposed to a CATION. See ANODE, IONS, &c.

=AN'ISATED.= _Syn._ ANISA'TUS, L.; ANISE, Fr. In _pharmacy_, the art of the liqueuriste, confectioner, &c., applied to articles or preparations impregnated or flavoured with aniseed.

=AN'ISE= (-[)i]s). _Syn._ ANI'SUM, PIMPINEL'LA A. (Linn.), A. OFFICINA'LE, L.; ANIS, Fr.; ANIS, GEMEINER ANIS, Ger. An annual plant of the nat. ord. Umbelliferae (DC.). _Hab._, Egypt, Scio, and the Levant; but largely cultivated in Malta, Spain, Germany, and various other parts of Asia and Europe. "A considerable quantity is cultivated at Mitcham, in Surrey, chiefly for the use of the rectifiers of British spirits." (Stephenson.) Fruit, aniseed. (See _below_.)

=AN'ISEED.= _Syn._ AN'ISE, AN'ISE-SEED; SEM'INA ANI'SI, FRUC'TUS A., L.; ANIS, A. VRAI, GRAINES D'ANIS, SEMENCE D'ANIS, Fr.; ANIS, ANISAMEN, Ger.; ANIS, Sp.; ANICE, It. The aromatic fruit or seed of the _pimpinella anisum_ just noticed.

_Prop., Uses, &c._ Its aromatic properties depend on the presence of volatile oil. The seed and oil, and a spirit and a water prepared from them, are officinal in the pharmacop[oe]ias. Both the seed and its preparations are reputed stimulant, stomachic, carminative, pectoral, diuretic, and emmenagogue. They are commonly used to relieve flatulence and colicky pains, and to prevent the griping effects of certain cathartics; and they have long been popular remedies for coughs, colds, and other breath ailments. They are esteemed especially useful in warming the stomach and expelling wind, particularly during infancy and childhood; the distilled or flavoured water being usually employed. Nurses also take the latter to promote the secretion of milk, to which it at length imparts its peculiar odour and flavour. In _veterinary practice_ the powdered seed is used as a carminative, pectoral, and corroborant. The essential oil is said to be poisonous to pigeons. (Vogel; Hillefield.) Aniseed is principally used to flavour liqueurs, sweetmeats, and confectionery.--_Dose_ (of the powder), 10 gr. to 1 or 2 dr.; for a horse, 1/2 to 1 oz.; cattle, 3/4 to 2 oz.

_Pur., &c._ Powdered aniseed is nearly always adulterated, the adulterant being generally linseed meal. Sometimes, as for the horse, the latter is entirely substituted for it, a few drops of oil of aniseed being added to give it smell. The adulteration is not readily detected by the uninitiated, owing to the strong odour of aniseed; but readily by the microscope. The fruit of _myrrhis odorata_ (sweet cicily), and of _illicium anisatum_ (star-anise), also possess the odour and flavour of common aniseed; indeed, most of the essential oil now sold as 'oil of aniseed' is star-anise oil. See LIQUEURS, OILS, SPIRITS, WATERS, &c.

=Anise, Star'.= The fruit or seed of _illi''cium anisa'tum_ (Linn.), an evergreen tree growing in Japan and China. The odour and properties of both the seed and oil greatly resemble those of common anise. They are both employed by the liqueuriste. See ANISEED (_above_), &c.

=ANISETTE'= ([)a]n-[)i]z-[)e]t'). [Fr.] Aniseed cordial. See LIQUEURS.

=ANISOCHILUS CARNOSUM.= Nat. order LABIATAE. An Indian plant. It is stimulant, diaphoretic, and expectorant; is used in quinsy, and by the native doctors of Travancore in catarrhal affections. Dr Bidie, an Indian practitioner, characterises it as a mild stimulating expectorant, and as such particularly useful in the coughs of childhood. Its properties depend upon a volatile oil.

=ANISOMELES MALABARICA.= An Indian plant. Nat. order Labiatae. Few plants are held in higher esteem, or more frequently employed in native practice in Southern India, than this. An infusion made of the leaves is very generally used in affections of the stomach and bowels, catarrhal complaints, and intermittent fevers.

Dr Wright says that in addition to its internal use in the case of fevers, patients are made to inhale the vapour of a hot infusion, so as to induce copious diaphoresis. An infusion of the leaves is reported to be powerfully diaphoretic, and to have been found very useful in the low continuous fevers of the natives. An oil obtained by distillation from the leaves is likewise stated to be an effectual external application in rheumatism.

=ANI'SUM.= Aniseed.

=ANNEAL'ING.= _Syn._ NEALING[dagger]Sec.; LE RECUIT, Fr.; DAS ANLASSEN, Ger. The art of tempering by heat: appropriately, the process by which glass, porcelain, &c., are rendered less frangible, and metals which have become brittle by fusion, or long-continued hammering, again rendered tough and malleable.

Glass vessels, and other articles of glass, are annealed by being placed in an oven or apartment near the furnaces at which they are formed, called the 'leer,' where they are allowed to cool very slowly, the process being prolonged in proportion to their bulk.

Steel, iron, and other metals are annealed by heating them and allowing them to cool slowly on the hearth of the furnace, or in any other suitable place, unexposed to the cold. Steel is also annealed by being made red-hot, and in that state is placed in a heap of dry saw-dust till cold, when it will be found quite soft.

Cast-iron is rendered tough and malleable, without 'puddling,' by embedding it in ground charcoal or haematite, and thus protected, keeping it exposed at a high temperature for several hours, after which the whole is allowed to cool very slowly.

Prince Rupert's drop may be mentioned as an example of unannealed glass, and common cast-iron of unannealed metals, to which heads the reader is referred.

=ANNOT'TA.= _Syn._ ANOT'TO, ANNAT'TO, ANNAT'TA; ARNAT'TO, ARNOT'TO, &C.; ORLEA'NA, TER'RA O.*, &c., L.; ROUCOL, ROCOU, ROUCOU, Fr.; ORLEANS, Ger. A colouring matter forming the outer pellicle of the seeds of the _bix'a orella'na_ (Linn.), an exogenous evergreen tree, common in Cayenne and some other parts of tropical America, and now extensively cultivated in both the E. and W. Indies. It is usually obtained by macerating the crushed seeds or seed-pods in water for several weeks, ultimately allowing the pulp to subside, which is then boiled in coppers to a stiff paste, and dried in the shade. Sometimes a little oil is added in making it up into cakes or lumps. A better method is that proposed by Leblond, in which the crushed seeds are simply exhausted by washing them in water (--? alkalised), from which the colouring matter is then precipitated by means of vinegar or lemon-juice; the precipitate being subsequently collected, and either boiled up in the ordinary manner, or drained in bags and dried, as is practised with indigo. Annotta so prepared is said to be four times as valuable as made by the old process.

_Prop._ Good annotta is of a brilliant red colour; brighter in the middle than on the outside; feels soft and smooth to the touch; has a good consistence, and a strongly characteristic but not a putrid smell. It is scarcely soluble in water; freely soluble in alcohol, ether, oils, and fats, to each of which it imparts a beautiful orange colour, and in alkaline solutions which darken it; acids precipitate it of an orange red hue; strong sulphuric acid turns it blue. Its most important property is the affinity of its colouring matter for the fibres of silk, wool, and cotton.

_Pur._ Annotta is very frequently adulterated; indeed, nearly always so. To what extent the sophistication of annotta is carried may be judged from the statement of Mr Blyth, who says that on examination of thirty-four samples of various kinds, as imported and obtained from English makers and as purchased from dealers, he found only two that were genuine. As annotta is often used to give colour to different articles of diet, it is important that it should be as pure as possible; otherwise injurious effects detrimental to health may be caused by partaking of any food to which it is added. Now, amongst the list of adulterants given below are three, at least, unmistakeable poisons, viz. red lead, orange chrome, and sulphate of copper. It is but right to state of the first of these substances (red lead) that Mr Blyth says it is extremely doubtful whether it is now employed to the extent it formerly was. He also ascribes its presence in annotta to the impure Venetian red which is used, the employment of this colour being a necessity because of the large quantities of flour and lime which are mixed with the annotta, which thereby becomes so reduced in colour that it is essential to have recourse to salt, alkalies, and the red earths to restore it to its original standard. The adulterants are generally meal, flour, or farina, and often chalk or gypsum, with some pearlash and oil, or even soap, to give it an unctuous character; turmeric, Venetian red, red ochre, orange chrome, or even red lead, to give it 'colour,' and common salt, and sometimes even sulphate of copper, to prevent decomposition--the last two being poisonous. Sometimes a little carbonate of ammonia is also added to it to improve the colour. When quite pure it contains about 28% of resinous colouring matter, and 20% of colouring extractive matter (Dr John), and should leave only a small quantity of insoluble residuum after digestion in alcohol, whilst the ash resulting from its incineration should not exceed 1-1/2 to 2%. The quantity, colour, &c., of the ash will give an easy clue to the inorganic adulterants, if any are present, which may be then followed up by a chemical examination. The presence of red lead may be detected by heating it on a piece of charcoal in the reducing flame of the blowpipe, by which a small bead of metallic lead will be obtained. If it contains chalk, ochre, gypsum, &c., the undissolved residuum of the washed ash gives the amount of the adulteration (nearly).

_Microscopical Examination of Annotta._--When annotta is subjected to a microscopical examination the outer red portion will be found to present an almost homogeneous appearance, whilst the surface of the seed proper will be seen to consist of narrow or elongated cells or fibres disposed in a vertical direction, while the inner white portion will be seen to be made up of cells filled with starch corpuscles, well defined, of medium size, and resembling in the elongated and stellate hilum the starch granules of the pea and bean.

When the annotta is manufactured, and an unadulterated sample is examined, but little structure is met with. Portions of the outer cells may be seen; and in those samples which in the course of their preparation have not been subjected to the action of boiling water, a few starch granules may be observed.

Since annotta, when manufactured, presents so few evidences of structure, we are easily able, with the microscope at our command, to detect the presence of most foreign vegetable substances. These consist of turmeric powder, wheat, rye and barley starch, and sago flours. The salt and alkali present in the fraudulent annotta generally greatly alter the appearance of the turmeric. Most of the colouring matter of the cells is discharged, so that the starch corpuscles contained within them become visible. Loose starch granules of turmeric may also be frequently seen, and in a much enlarged condition, owing to the action of the alkali upon them.

The following process for conducting the assay of annotta is given by Mr Blyth:--

"In order to estimate the commercial value and detect adulteration in a sample, the quickest and best way is the following: Weigh accurately a gramme in a small platinum dish; dry in the water-bath for a couple of hours, then weigh; the loss is the water. Finely powder, and digest it for some hours in alcohol; then boil, filter and treat with successive portions of alcohol until all the colouring-matter is dissolved; filter, evaporate the filtrate down and weigh; the result is the resin. The insoluble portion will in a good commercial specimen consist of woody matter, extractive, gluten, &c. For the ash weigh another gramme in a platinum dish; dry for a short time over the water-bath; then powder and burn until it ceases to lose weight. It is prudent to fuse a little on charcoal with carbonate of soda before the blow-pipe before burning it in a platinum vessel, as there may be lead in the annotta. The ash should then be submitted to the various reagents in order to detect lime, alumina, &c. A correct determination of ash and resin is all that is required to definitely pronounce upon the purity or impurity of the samples."

The following is the analysis of a fair commercial sample:--

The sample was in the form of a paste, colour deep red, odour peculiar, but not disagreeable.

Water 24.2 Resinous colouring matter 28.8 Ash 22.5 Starch and extractive matter 24.5 ---- 100.0

The following is an analysis of an adulterated specimen. The sample was in a hard cake of a brown colour, with the maker's name stamped upon it, and marked "patent;" texture hard and leathery, odour disagreeable:

Water 13.4 Resin 11.0 Ash, consisting of iron, chalk, salt, alumina, silica 48.3 Extractive matter 27.3 ---- 100.0

Thus, in the one the resin was 28%, the ash 22; in the other the resin was only 11%, the ash no less than 48%.

_Uses, &c._ To colour varnishes and lacquers; as a pigment for painting velvet and transparencies; as a colouring matter for cheese (1 _oz._ to 1 _cwt._ of curd), for which purpose it is not injurious, if pure; and as a dye-stuff for cotton, silk, and wool, particularly the second, to which it imparts a beautiful orange-yellow hue, the shade of which may be varied from 'aurora' to deep orange by using different proportions of pearlash with the water it is dissolved in, and by applying different mordants before putting it into the dye-bath, or different rinsing liquids afterwards. The hues thus imparted are, however, all more or less fugitive.

=Annotta Cake.= _Syn._ FLAG ANNOTTA; ORLEA'NA IN FO'LIIS, L. From Cayenne; bright yellow, firm and soft to the touch; in square cakes, weighing 2 or 3 _lbs._ each.

=Annotta Egg.= _Syn._ LUMP ANNOTTA; ORLEA'NA IN O'VULIS, L. Generally inferior.

=Annotta, Eng'lish.= _Syn._ TRADE A., REDUCED' A.; ORLEA'NA REDUC'TA, L. A fraudulent mess commonly prepared from egg or flag annotta, gum tragacanth, flour, or farina, chalk, soap, train-oil, Venetian red, or bole, common salt, water, mixed by heat in a copper pan, and formed into rolls. Sold for genuine annotta, from which it is readily distinguished by its inferior quality and its partial solubility in alcohol.

=Annotta, Liq'uid.= See SOLUTION OF ANNOTTA (_below_).

=Annotta, Pu''rified.= See ORELLINE.

=Annotta Roll.= _Syn._ Orlea'na in rot'ulis, O. IN BAC'ULIS, L. From the Brazils; hard, dry, brown outside, yellow within. When pure, this is the variety most esteemed, and the one preferred for colouring cheese.

=Annotta, Solu'tion of.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF ANNOTTA, EXTRACT OF A., ANNOTTA-DYE, &c.; SOLU'TIO ORLEA'NAE, EXTRAC'TUM O., &c., L. A strong aqueous solution of equal parts of annotta and pearlash, the whole being heated or boiled together until the ingredients are dissolved. Sold in bottles. See ANNOTTA (_above_), NANKEEN DYE, &c.

=ANNUALS.= Plants which bear flowers and fruit in the same year when raised from seed.

=AN'O-.= [Gr.] In _composition_, upwards, &c.; as in anocathar'tic (emetic).

=AN'ODE.= Literally, 'upward way,' in _electro-chemistry_, the 'way in,' or that by which the electric current is supposed to enter substances through which it passes, as opposed to the CATHODE, or that by which it goes out; the positive pole of a voltaic battery.

=AN'ODYNE= (-d[=i]ne). _Syn._ ANO'DYNUS (-d[)i]n[)u]s-), L.; ANODIN, Fr.; SCHMERZSTILLEND, Ger. That allays pain; soothing; atalgic.

=Anodynes.= _Syn._ ANO'DYNA (sing., ano'd[)y]num), L.; Anodins, REMEDES A., Fr. In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_, substances and agents which allay pain. Some (as the PAREGORICS) act by actually assuaging pain; others (HYPNOTICS) by inducing sleep; whilst a third class (NARCOTICS) give ease by stupefying the senses, or by lessening the susceptibility to pain. Among the principal anodynes are opium, morphia, henbane, camphor ether, chloroform, chloral hydrate, and other medicines of the like kind; to which must be added spirituous liquors, wines, and the stronger varieties of malt liquor. "The frequent use of anodynes begets the necessity of their continuance." (W. Cooley.)

=Anodyne, In'fantile= (-[=i]le). _Syn._ ANO'DYNUM INFAN'TILE (-t[)i]l-e), L. _Prep._ Take of syrup of poppies, 1 _oz._; aniseed-water, 3 _oz._; French brandy, 3/4 _oz._ (or rectified spirit, 1/2 _oz._); calcined magnesia, 1/4 _oz._; mix. An excellent anodyne and antacid for infants.--_Dose._ A small teaspoonful as required.

=ANODYN= (Mueller, Berlin.) Chiefly for rheumatic pains, toothache, &c. Oil of rosemary, 30 drops; oil of thyme, 10 drops; camphor, 5 grms.; spirit of ammonia, 12 grms.; spirit, 60 grms. (Hager.)

=ANODYN'IA= (-d[)i]n'-y'[)a]). Freedom from pain; anaesthesia.

=AN'OREXY=. _Syn._ ANOREX'IA, L.; ANOREXIE, Fr., Ger. In _pathology_, want of, or morbidly diminished appetite, without loathing of food. It is usually symptomatic of other affections. See APPETITE, DYSPEPSIA, &c.

=ANOSMIN FOOT POWDER= (Dr Oscar Bernar, Vienna). "An unfailing remedy for sweaty feet and bad odour of the feet." Powdered alum, 21 parts; maize meal, 1 part. (Hager.)

=ANOSMIN FOOT WATER= (Koch), for a similar purpose. An aqueous solution of tartaric acid.

=ANO ZABAGLIONE= (-b[)a]l-y'[=o]'-n[=a]). _Prep._ Put 2 eggs, 3 teaspoonfuls of sugar, and 2 small glassfuls of sherry or marsala, into a chocolate cup, placed in boiling water, or over the fire, and keep the mixture rapidly stirred until it begins to rise and thicken a little; then add 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls of orange-flower water or rose water, and serve it up in wine-glasses. A pleasant Italian domestic remedy for a cold.

=ANT= ([)a]nt). _Syn._ EMM'ET, PIS'MIRE*[double-dagger] (p[)i]z'-); FORMI'CA, L.; FOURMI, Fr.; AMEISE, Ger.; AEMET, Sax. This well-known little insect belongs to the family formic''idae, and the order hymenop'tera. Like the bee, it is a social animal, lives in communities which may be compared to well-regulated republics, and is of three sexes--male, female, neuter. Those belonging to the last alone labour and take care of the ova and young. The red ant contains FORMIC ACID (acid of ants), and a peculiar RESINOUS OIL. Both of these may be obtained by maceration in rectified spirit. A tincture so prepared, and flavoured with aromatics, constitutes Hoffman's EAU DE MAGNANIMITE, once greatly esteemed as an aphrodisiac. See FORMICA, FORMIC ACID, FORMYLE, &c.

=ANTAC'ID= (-t[)a]s'-[)i]d). _Syn._ ANTAC'IDUS, L.; ANTACIDE, &c., Fr.; SAeURETILGEND, &c., Ger. An agent which neutralises acids or removes acidity. (See _below._)

=ANTAC'IDS= (-t[)a]s'-[)i]dz). _Syn._ ANTAC'IDA, L.; ANTACIDES, &c., Fr. Antacid substances. In _medicine_, &c., substances which remove or prevent acidity of the stomach, and thus tend to relieve heartburn, dyspepsia, and diarrh[oe]a.

The principal antacids are potassa, soda, ammonia, lime, and magnesia, with their carbonates and bicarbonates. AMMONIA is one of the most powerful, and when the acidity is conjoined with nausea and faintness, or is accompanied with symptoms of nervous derangement or hysteria, is undoubtedly the best; when great irritability of the coats of the stomach exist, POTASH is to be preferred; when the acidity is accompanied with diarrh[oe]a, carbonate of lime (prepared chalk), lime-water, or Carara-water; and when with costiveness, MAGNESIA. They may be advantageously combined with some simple aromatic, as ginger, cinnamon, or peppermint. Their preparation, doses, administration, &c., will be found under each in its alphabetical place; and formulae containing them, under DRAUGHTS, LOZENGES, MIXTURES, &c.

=ANTAL'GICS= (-t[)a]l'-). _Syn._ ANTAL'GICA, L. Medicines which relieve pain; anodynes.

=ANTAL'KALINES= ([)a]nt-[)a]l'-k[)a]-l[)i]nz). _Syn._ ANTALKALI'NA, L. Agents or medicines which correct alkalinity. All the acids except the carbonic are antalkaline.

=AN'TE-.= In _composition_, before, contrary, opposite; generally in the first sense. See ANTI-.

=ANTEPIDEMICUM UNIVERSALE= (H. Mueller, Copenhagen). "A valuable universal remedy for all sorts of contagious diseases in man or domestic animals." A fluid like water, with a weak, almost imperceptible, odour of acetic ether. Is composed of spring water, in which perhaps two or three drops of pure carbolic acid are dissolved, and a few drops of acetic ether added to disguise it. (Hager.)

=ANTHELMIN'TICS, Anthelmin'thics= (-th[)e]l-). See VERMIFUGES and WORMS.

=AN'THIARINE= (-[)i]n). See ANTHIRINE.

=ANTHOK'YAN=. _Syn._ SUCC'US VI'OLAE PREPARA'TUS, L. The expressed juice of the sweet or purple violet (vi'ola odora'ta--Linn.), defecated, gently heated in glass or earthenware to 192 deg. Fahr., then skimmed, cooled, and filtered; a little rectified spirit is next added, and the following day the whole is again filtered. It must be kept well corked, and in a cool situation.

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly to make syrup of violets, to colour and flavour liqueurs, and as a chemical test. The London druggists obtain it principally from Lincolnshire.

=AN'THONY'S FIRE=, Saint (-to-n[)i]z). See ERYSIPELAS.

=ANTHOSENZ= (Dr Hess, Berlin). General tonic and anodyne balsam. Oil of cloves, 4 parts; oil of geranium, 2 parts; pine-apple essence, 1 part; spirit, 50 parts; coloured with alkanet root. (Hager.)

=AN'THOTYPE.= See PHOTOGRAPHY.

=ANTHRACENE.= C_{14}H_{10}. Anthracene is one of the last products passing over in the dry distillation of coal-tar. Dr Calvert says it is "found most abundantly in the ten or fifteen per cent. which comes over between the temperature at which soft pitch is produced and that at which hard pitch is formed."

Coal-tar contains very variable quantities of anthracene, those tars procured from coals which are richest in naphtha yielding it most abundantly. The coals of South Staffordshire give the largest yield, whilst the Newcastle coals give very little. In consequence of the solubility of anthracene in the oily hydrocarbons which accompany it, owing to "slight elevation of temperature, its extraction can only be carried on advantageously in cold weather."

Gessert prepares anthracene from coal-tar as follows: He places the last pasty portions (the 'green grease') of the coal-tar distillation (which must not be carried beyond the point at which white pitch is formed) first in a centrifugal machine, and then in a hydraulic press at 40 deg., or subjects the mass heated to 30 deg.-40 deg. directly to pressure in a filter press. The pressed mass consists of about 60% of anthracene; for further purification it is boiled with light tar-oil or petroleum naphtha, and finally heated till it melts. The residue contains 95% of anthracene.

The following method for the purification of crude anthracene contaminated with oily matters is by Schuller:--The crude anthracene is carefully heated to commencing ebullition in a capacious retort connected with a tubulated receiver of glass or earthenware, the lower aperture of which is closed with a fine wire sieve. A strong current of air is then blown into the retort with a pair of bellows, whereby the anthracene is driven over in a very short time nearly pure and dry, and condenses in the receiver as a faintly yellowish showy mass. By this method a quantity of anthracene, the purification of which by re-crystallisation or sublimation would take several days, may be purified in as many hours; moreover it is obtained in a pulverulent form, in which it is very readily acted on by oxidising agents. Anthraquinone prepared from crude anthracene may also be obtained by this method in the form of a light yellow powder, resembling flowers of sulphur.

Fritzsche obtained anthracene in crystals exhibiting a beautiful violet colour by exposing a solution of anthracene in coal-tar naphtha to sunshine, until the solution became colourless.

Pure anthracene assumes the form of fluorescent transparent crystals, consisting of four- or six-sided plates, which when seen by transmitted light are of a very pale blue colour, but of a pale violet by reflected light.

The process for obtaining pure anthracene is a very troublesome one. Mr Crookes says:--"A trustworthy method for determining the amount of pure anthracene either in commercial anthracene or in crude green grease is the following:--The melting-point of the sample in question is first determined. 5 to 10 grammes are sufficient for the operation. It is put between thick folds of blotting paper, and placed under a press, between plates which have been previously warmed. The anthracene remaining upon the paper after pressure is weighed. The residue after it has been boiled with a certain quantity of alcohol, filtered, washed with cold alcohol and dried, is weighed as pure anthracene. It is now advisable to determine the melting-point of the purified product, which will generally be 210 deg. C." Anthracene is only slightly soluble in alcohol, but rather more so in ether and bisulphide of carbon. It is more soluble in hot, but less so in cold benzene. Petroleum boiling between 160 deg. and 195 deg. F. dissolves less than benzene.

"Anthracene dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a green colour, and forms conjugated monsulpho or bisulpho-anthracene acid, according to the temperature employed. Chlorine and bromine give rise to substitution products. Nitric acid acts on it with great violence, with formation of anthraquinone, nitro-anthraquinone, and other compounds according to the temperature and proportion of the substances taken. With picric acid anthracene forms a compound crystallising in very bright ruby-red needles, which by the aid of the microscope are seen to be prisms. To prepare it a saturated solution of picric acid in water at 80 deg. F. is mixed with a saturated solution of anthracene in boiling alcohol; on cooling the compound is deposited in the crystalline state. It is rapidly decomposed by an excess of alcohol into picric acid and anthracene, the solution assuming a yellow tint. This reaction can be employed to distinguish anthracene from naphthalene and other hydrocarbons, naphthalin under similar circumstances forming a compound which crystallises in fine golden yellow needles, whilst chrysene gives rise to clusters of very small yellow needles." (Calvert's 'Dyeing and Calico Printing,' edited by Stenhouse and Groves). Another characteristic of anthracene, noticed by Fritzsche, is its deportment under the microscope with a solution of binitro-anthraquinone in benzene. In this reaction fine rhomboidal scales of a beautiful pink colour are formed, the purity and brilliancy of the colour depending on the purity of the anthracene.

In the 'Bul. Soc. Chim.,' vii, 274, several reactions by which anthracene is formed are described by Berthelot, as by the action of heat on other hydrocarbons, or by passing the vapours of ethylene, styrolene, and benzene through a porcelain tube heated to bright redness.

A great number of products are procured from anthracene, by far the most important of these being artificial alizarin.

See ALIZARIN, ARTIFICIAL.

=AN'THRACITE= (s[=i]te). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ANTHRAC'OLITE, GLANCE'-COAL, STONE'-COAL[double-dagger], MINERAL CHAR'COAL*; ANTHRACI'TES, L.; GLANZKOHLE, Ger. A species of coal found in the transition-rock formation, consisting chiefly of dense carbon. It has a conchoidal fracture, a semi-metallic lustre, and a sp. gr. usually varying from 1.4 to 1.6. It burns without either flame or smoke, emits an intense heat, and leaves scarcely any ash; but it is difficult to kindle, and requires a lively draught for its combustion. It is the common fuel in the United States of America, although, until recently, scarcely employed in Europe, and that chiefly in a few iron works and steam furnaces. Its adoption in this country would not merely at once remove the smoke nuisance, but would produce a vast annual saving to the community. By contracting the throat of the chimney a little, and avoiding the use of the poker, it may be burnt in a common grate. The Americans use a little charcoal as kindle, and seldom supply fresh coal to the fire oftener than once or twice a day.

The inferior varieties of anthracite are technically and provincially called culm; as is also the small and waste of the better kinds.

For the analysis, geology, calorific value, &c., of anthracite, see COAL, CULM, EVAPORATION, FUEL, HEAT, &c.

De la Beche describes Anthracite as "a variety of coal containing a larger proportion of carbon, and less bituminous matter, than common coal."

In the 'Memoirs of the Geological Survey' we read:--"We see the same series of coal beds becoming so altered in their horizontal range that a set of beds _bituminous_ in one locality is observed gradually to change into anthracitic in another. Taking the coal measures of South Wales and Monmouthshire, we have a series of accumulations in which the coal-beds become not only more anthracitic toward the west, but also exhibit this change in a plane which may be considered as dipping south-south-east, at a moderate angle, the amount of which is not yet clearly ascertained, so that in the natural sections afforded, we have bituminous coals in the high grounds and anthracite coals beneath. This fact is readily observed either in the Neath or Swansea valleys, where we have bituminous coals on the south and anthracite on the north; and more bituminous coal-beds on the heights than beneath, some distance up these valleys, those of the Nedd and Tawe. Though the terms bituminous coal and anthracite, have been applied to marked differences, the changes are that there is no sudden modification to be seen. To some of the intermediate kinds the term "free burning" has been given, and thus three chief differences have been recognised."

The term _Culm_ is applied both to an inferior kind of anthracite only worked for lime-making and mixing with clay and to the small pieces of anthracite obtained in working the beds of true anthracite. It is also known under the names of _Blind-coal_, _Glance-coal_, and _Kilkenny-coal_.

There are three distinct trades in anthracite. The first one is that where the coal is sold just as it is brought from the pit. This is termed _Through Culm_, and is used for lime-burning. This coal is inferior in quality to that from which the large coal has been removed, and is sometimes called _Bastard Stone-coal_. The trade in the Neath district is exclusively of this kind. In Swansea and Llanelly it is partly of this kind and partly of the kind where the large coal is picked out and sold as _stone-coal_ for the various purposes to which that coal is put, the small pieces being left for shipment to places where it is required for lime-burning, under the name of _stone-coal culm_. No "through culm" is shipped from Pembrokeshire. Four thousand tons almost in the condition of dust are annually shipped from Swansea, under the name of _Lambskin_, being sent to Cardiganshire, where it is used solely for mixing with clay. This mixture, which is known under the name of _Fireballs_, is used for household purposes. This mixture, made of the ordinary _stone-coal culm_, is also in very general use throughout parts of Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire.

Anthracite coal is found in this country at Bideford in Devonshire, at Walsall in Staffordshire, in the western divisions of the South Wales coalfield, in Ireland, and near Edinburgh. It is very abundant in America. In the 'Transactions of the American Geologists' it is stated by Professor Roger that in the great Apalachian coal-field, 720 miles in extent, with a chief breadth of 180 miles, the coal is bituminous towards the western limit, where it is level and unbroken, becoming anthracite towards the south-west, where it becomes disturbed. Anthracite coal is also found in the coal-measures of France, more particularly in the departments of Isere, the high Alps, Gard, Mayenne, and of Sarth. About 42,271,000 kilogrammes (of 22,046 avoirdupois pounds each) form the annual yield. Anthracite is also obtained in Belgium. "Anthracite is not an original variety of coal, but a modification of the same beds which remain bituminous in other parts of the region. Anthracite beds, therefore, are not separate deposits in another sea, nor coal-measures in another area, nor interpolations among bituminous coal; but the bituminous beds themselves altered into a natural coke, from which the volatile bituminous oils and gases have been driven off."--_Lesley on Coal_.

------------------------+-------------------+-------+--------+------ Locality. | Name of Coal. |Carbon.|Volatile|Ashes. | | |matter. | ------------------------+-------------------+-------+--------+------ | _Bituminous_. | | | | | | | Birtley Works, | | | | Newcastle-on-Tyne | | 60.50 | 35.50 | 4.00 Alfreton, Derbyshire | | 52.46 | 42.50 | 2.04 | | | | | _Anthracite_. | | | | | | | Neath Abbey |Pwlferon Vein, | 91.08 | 8.00 | 0.92 | 5th bed | | | Swansea |Peacock Coal | 89.00 | 7.50 | 3.50 Ystalyfera |Brass Vein | 92.46 | 6.04 | 1.50 Cwm Neath |Nine-feet Vein | 93.12 | 5.22 | 1.50 France |Anthracite, common | 79.15 | 7.35 |13.25 " |Cote-d'Or | 82.60 | 8.60 | 8.80 " |Mais Saize | 83.80 | 7.50 | 9.50 Pennsylvania |Beaver Meadow | 92.30 | 6.42 | 1.28 " |Shenoweth Vein | 94.10 | 1.40 | 4.50 " |Black Spring Gap | 80.57 | 7.15 | 3.28 " |Nealey's Tunnel | 89.20 | 5.40 | 5.40 Massachusetts |Mansfield Mine | 97.00 | 10.50 | 3.00 Rhode Island |Portsmouth Mine | 85.84 | 10.50 | 3.66 Westphalia |Shafberg, | 82.02 | 8.69 | 9.29 | Alexander Seam | | | ------------------------+-------------------+-------+--------+------

Anthracite, the exclusive employment of which is for iron-making, steam engines, and for domestic uses in the United States, was some 60 years since regarded as incombustible refuse, and as such looked upon as rubbish and thrown away.

The foregoing analyses of bituminous and anthracite coals will sufficiently show the difference between the two.

_Principal Localities of Anthracite and Anthracitous Coal._ Weight Specific of a EUROPE. Gravity. cubic yard in lbs. South Wales--Swansea 1.263 2131 Cyfarthfa 1.337 2256 Ynscedwin 1.354 2284 Average 1.445 2278 Ireland--Mean 1.445 2376 France--Allier 1.380 2207 Tantal 1.390 2283 Brassac 1.430 2413 Belgium--Mons 1.307 2105 Westphalia 1.305 2278 Prussian Saxony 1.466 2474 Saxony 1.300 2193

Average of Europe 2281

AMERICA.

Pennsylvania-- Lyken's Valley 1.327 2240 Lebanon Co., Grey Vein 1.379 2327 Schuylkin Co., Lorberry Creek 1.472 2484 Pottsville, Sharp Mount 1.412 2382 Peach 1.446 2440 Salem Vein 1.574 2649 Tamaqua, North Vein 1.600 2700 Maunch Chunk 1.550 2615 Nesquehoning 1.558 2646 Wilkesbarre, best 1.472 2884 West Mahoney 1.371 2313 Beaver Meadow 1.600 2700 Girardville 1.600 2700 Hazelton 1.550 2615 Broad Mountain 1.700 2869 Lackawanna 1.609 2715 Massachusetts--Mansfield 1.710 2882 Rhode Island--Portsmouth 1.810 3054

Average in United States 2601

The calorific value of anthracite coal is well shown by the following results from Dr Fyfe's experiments, to compare Scotch and English bituminous coals with anthracite, in regard to their evaporative power, in a high-pressure boiler of a 4-horse engine having a grate with 8.15 square feet of surface; also in a waggon-shaped copper boiler, open to the air, surface 18 feet, grate 1.55:--

KEY: A - Pounds burnt per hour on the Grate. B - Duration of the Trial in hours. C - Temperature of the Water. D - Pounds of Water evaporated from the initial Temperature by 1 lb. of coal. E - Pounds of Water at 212 deg. from a lb. of Coal. F - Coal per hour on one sq. ft. of Grate. G - Time in seconds of consuming 1 lb. of Coal. H - Pounds evaporated per hour from each sq. ft. of surface.

-------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+--------+------+---------------- Kind of Fuel | | | | | | | | | employed. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | Remarks. -------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+--------+------+---------------- Middlerig Scotch | 81.33 | 9 | 45 deg. | 6.66 | 7.74 | 10.00 | 44.27 | ... |Pressure 17 lbs. coal | | | | | | | | | per square in. Scotch coal, | 108 | 5 | 170 deg. | 6.62 | 6.89 | 13.25 | 33.33 | ... |Ditto. different variety | | | | | | | | | from preceding | | | | | | | | | ANTHRACITE | 47.94 | 8-1/2 | 45 deg. | 8.73 | 10.10 | 5.88 | 75.09 | ... |Ditto. Scotch coal, from | 8.24 | 8-1/2 | 50 deg. | 5.38 | 6.90 | 5.31 | 436.89 | 3.15 |Lower pressure, near Edinburgh | | | | | | | | | open copper | | | | | | | | | boiler. English bituminous | 6.07 | 8.4 | 50 deg. | 7.84 | 9.07 | 3.91 | 503.08 | 3.06 |Ditto. coal | | | | | | | | | -------------------+--------+-------+------+------+-------+-------+--------+------+---------------

Space will not admit of our entering fully into the question of the evaporative power of anthracite, but its advantages under certain conditions are fully established.

=AN'THRACOKA'LI=. [Eng., L.] _Syn_. ANTHRAKOKA'LI, ANTHRAK'ALI; AN'THRACOKA'LI, Hamb. C. 1845. _Prep_. 1. (Polya.) Carbonate of potassa, 6 oz.; quick-lime, 3-1/2 oz.; water, 4 pints; proceed as directed for solution of potassa, then evaporate the clear liquid, in an iron capsule, to about 6 fl. oz., add of finely powdered mineral coal 5 oz., boil, with constant stirring, to dryness, and continue the stirring at a reduced heat, until the whole is converted into a homogeneous black powder, which must be at once placed in small, dry, and well-stoppered phials.

2. (Hamb. C. 1845; Ph. Baden, 1841.) Hydrate of potassa, 7 dr.; melt, add of cannel coal, 5 dr., and then proceed as before.

_Prop. &c._ A deliquescent black powder, with a caustic taste, and empyreumatic smell; 10 gr. with 1 fl. oz. of water, after filtration, forms a clear, dark brown solution, giving a precipitate with acids, without effervescence.--_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr., twice or thrice daily; and externally, made into a pomade or ointment (1/2 to 1 dr., to lard, 1 oz.); in skin diseases (particularly herpetic eruptions), scrofula, chronic rheumatism, &c. It has been highly extolled by Dr Gilbert, and by its inventor, Dr Polya; but apparently undeservedly.

=Anthracokali Sulphuretted.= _Syn._ ANTHRACOKALI SULPHURETUM, L. _Prep._ (Polya.) As formula 1 (_above_), but adding sulphur, 4 dr., immediately after stirring in the powdered coal.--_Dose_, _use_, &c., as the last. See FULIGOKALI.

=ANTHRACOM'ETER.= _Syn._ ANTRACOM'ETRUM, L.; ANTHRACOMETRE, Fr.; KOHLENSAeUREMESSER, Ger. An apparatus used to determine the heating power or commercial value of coal, or other fuel; also an instrument for finding the proportion of carbonic acid in any gaseous mixture.

=ANTHRAPURPURIN.= C_{14}H_{8}O_{5}.--A colouring matter obtained as a secondary product in the preparation of alizarin from anthracen. It may be prepared by dissolving the crude colouring matter in a dilute solution of carbonate of soda, and shaking up the resulting solution with freshly precipitated alumina, which combines with the alizarin, leaving the anthrapurpurin in solution. This is filtered off from the alizarin lake, heated to boiling, and acidified with hydrochloric acid. The colouring matter which is precipitated is thrown on to a filter, washed and dried.

Anthrapurpurin has about the same affinity for mordants as alizarin. It forms red with alumina, and purple and black with iron mordants. The reds are much purer and less blue in colour than those of the alizarin, whilst the purples are bluer and the blacks more intense. The anthrapurpurin colours resist soap and light quite as effectively as those produced with alizarin. When employed to dye Turkey-red, anthrapurpurin gives a very brilliant scarlet shade of colour, which is of remarkable durability.

=ANTHYPNOTICS= (-th[)i]p-). _Syn._ ANTIHYPNOT'ICS (-h[)i]p-), &c. See AGRIPNOTICS.

=AN'TI-.= [Gr., [Greek: anti], against.] In _composition_, before, against, contrary to, corrective of, &c., more especially representing antagonism or opposition; whilst the Latin _ante-_ is generally used in the sense of before, having reference to precedence either of place or time.

_Anti-_ is a common prefix in English words derived from the Greek and Latin, especially those connected with pharmacology and medicine, the final _i_ being either dropped or retained (but generally the first) before a, e, and h; as in antacid, antibilious, anti-emetic, anthelmintic, anti-corbutic, antiseptic, &c., whether used as adjectives or substantives. These compounds, which are very numerous, are in general self-explanatory.

=AN'TIARINE= (-[)i]n; -ti'--Brande). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ AN'THIARINE, Eng., Fr.; ANTIARI'NA, ANTHIARI'NA, ANTIA''RIA, UPA'SIA (-zh'[)a]), L. The active principle of the upas poison of Java. It is extracted from the partially inspissated juice (upas poison) of the upas tree by alcohol, and may be obtained under the form of small pearly crystalline scales by careful evaporation.--_Prod._ About 3-1/2% (Mulder).

_Prop., &c._ Soluble in 27 parts of boiling water; freely soluble in alcohol; scarcely so in ether; heat decomposes it. It is a frightful poison, to which no antidote is known. Even a minute quantity introduced into a wound rapidly brings on vomiting, convulsions, and death. "It renders the heart insensible to the stimulus of the blood." (Sir B. Brodie.)

=ANTI-ATTRI''TION= (-tr[)i]sh'-) [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ANTIFRICTION GREASE, AXLE-GREASE, FRICTION COMPO', LU'BRICATING COMPOUND, &c. _Prep._ 1. Good plumbago (black lead), finely powdered and sifted, so as to be perfectly free from grit, is gradually added, through a sieve, to 5 times its weight of good lard contained in an iron pan and rendered semi-fluid, but _not_ liquid, by a gentle heat; the mass being vigorously stirred with a strong wooden spatula, after each addition, until the mixture is complete, and the composition smooth and uniform. The heat is then gradually raised until the whole liquefies, when the vessel is removed from the fire to a cool situation, and the stirring, which should have been unremitted, continued until the mixture is quite cold. It is applied in the cold state, with a brush, about once a day, according to the velocity of the parts; and is said to be fully 3-4ths cheaper in use than oil, tallow, tar, or any of the ordinary compo's. When intended for uses in which it will be exposed to warmth, and consequent waste by dripping, a part, or even the whole of the lard is replaced by hard strained grease or tallow, or a little bees' wax is added during its manufacture.

2. Black lead, 1 part; tallow or grease, 4 parts; ground together until perfectly smooth, either with or without camphor, 3 to 5 _lbs._ per cwt. Expired patent.

3. Scotch soda, 60 _lbs._; water, 30 _galls._; dissolve in a capacious boiler, and palm oil and hard tallow, of each 1-1/4 _cwt._, and having withdrawn the heat, stir vigorously as before, until the mass is homogeneous and nearly solidified. In hot weather the proportion of tallow is increased, and that of the palm oil diminished; in winter, the reverse. Used for the axles of railway carriages and other coarse purposes. For express trains all tallow is usually employed, irrespective of the weather or season.

4. Melt, but avoid boiling, 16 _lbs._ tallow, and dissolve in it 2-1/4 _lbs._ of sugar of lead; then add 3 _lbs._ of black antimony. The mixture must be constantly stirred till cold. This composition is for cooling the necks of shafts, and may be of service where the shafts are not of the proper length, or the bearings are at fault.

5. Lard, 2-1/2 _lbs._; camphor, 1 _oz._; black lead, 1/2 _lb._ Rub the camphor in a mortar, into a paste with a small portion of the lard; then add the remainder of the lard and the black lead, and thoroughly mix.

6. (_Railway Grease._)--For summer use, tallow, 1 _cwt._ 3 _qrs._; palm oil, 1 _cwt._ 1 _qr._ For autumn or spring, tallow, 1 _cwt._ 2 _qrs._; palm oil, 1 _cwt._ 2 _qrs._ For winter, tallow, 1 _cwt._ 1 _qr._; palm oil, 1 _cwt._ 3 _qrs._ Melt the tallow in a boiler, then add to it the palm oil as soon as the mixture boils, and put out the fire. When the mixture, which should now be frequently stirred, has cooled down to blood heat (98 deg. to 100 deg. F.), it should be run through a sieve into a solution of from 56 to 60 _lbs._ of soda in about 3 _galls._ of water. Thoroughly mix by stirring.

7. Bean or rye flour, 1 _cwt._; water, 6 _cwt._; mix to a smooth paste, raise the heat until the mixture boils, and stir in first of milk of lime (of about the consistence of cream), 7 _cwt._; resin-oil, 10 _cwt._; and stir vigorously until cold. Inferior.

8. (Booth's.)--_a._ From Scotch soda, 1/2 _lb._; boiling water, 1 _gall._; palm oil or tallow, or any mixture of them, 10 _lbs._; as before, observing to continue the stirring until the mixture has cooled down to 60 deg. or 70 deg. Fahr.

_b._ Soda, 1/2 _lb._; water and rape-oil, of each 1 _gall._; tallow or palm-oil, 1/2 _lb._; as last. Expired patent.

9. (Mankettrick's.) From caoutchouc (dissolved in oil of turpentine), 4 _lbs._; Scotch soda, 10 _lbs._; glue, 1 _lb._; (dissolved in) water, 10 _galls._; oil, 10 _galls._; thoroughly incorporated by assiduous stirring, adding the caoutchouc last.

10. (LIARD, Fr.). Finest rape-oil, 1 _gall._; caoutchouc (cut small), 3 _oz._; dissolve with heat.

_Uses, &c._ To lessen friction in machinery, prevent the bearings rusting, &c. The simplest are perhaps the best. Of late years several different liquid hydrocarbons obtained from coal, and particularly paraffin oil, have been extensively employed in this way. See FRICTION, LUBRICATION, &c.

=ANTIBIL'IOUS= (-y[)u]s). _Syn._ ANTIBILIO'SUS, L.; ANTIBILIEUX, Fr. An epithet of medicines that are supposed to remove ailments depending on disordered action of the liver. Aperients, mercurials, and aloetic purgatives generally, belong to this class. See ABERNETHY MEDICINES, BILE, PILLS, &c.

=ANTICAR'DIUM.= See REVIVER (Black).

=ANTI-CHOLERA ACID= (H. Ludwig, Vienna; also an American preparation). "A proved cure and preventive of cholera." Diluted sulphuric acid, 1 part; wine, 5 parts; water, 10 parts. (Hager, Buchner, and Wittstein.)

=ANTI-CHOLERA WATER= (Eau Anticholerique de Duboc, Paris), for lead colic and a preventive of cholera. Composed of water with some brandy and 1/2 per cent. of sulphuric acid. (Gmelin.)

=AN'TICHLORE= (-kl[=o]re). Among _bleachers_, any substance, agent, or means, by which the pernicious after-affects of chlorine are prevented. Washing with a weak solution of sulphite of soda (which converts any adhering 'bleaching salt' into sulphate, sulphide, or chloride) is commonly adopted for this purpose. Recently chloride of tin, used in the same way, has been recommended. A cheap sulphite of lime, prepared by agitating milk of lime with the fumes of burning sulphur, and draining and air-drying the product, has been lately patented in England and America, by Prof. Horsford, under the name of 'ANTICHLORIDE OF LIME,' See BLEACHING, &c.

=AN'TIDOTE= (-d[=o]te). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ANTID'OTUM, ANTID'OTUS, L.; ANTIDOT, GEGENGIFT, Ger. In _medicine_, _toxicology_, &c., a substance administered to counteract or lessen the effects of poison.

The principal poisons, with their antidotes, are noticed under their respective heads. Also see POISONS, TOXICOLOGY, &c.

=ANTI-EPILEPTICUM= (Wepler, Berlin), known as Wepler's Krampfpulver. Magnesia alba, 5 parts; rad. dictamni, 15 parts; rad. zedoar, 12 parts; rad. artemis, 8 parts; soot, 1/2 part; ol. valerian, 1/2 part; ol. cajeputi, 1/4 part.

Dr Hager is the authority for the above, and he adds that formerly the same proprietor sold a remedy which consisted of a black powder made by carbonising hempen thread.

=ANTIFER'MENT= (pop. and more us., in this sense, _an'tiferment'_). [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ANTIFERMEN'TUM, L. Any substance which prevents or arrests fermentation. Several nostrums are sold under this name in the cider-districts. The following are tried and useful formulae:--

_Prep._ 1. Sulphite (not sulph_ate_) of lime, in fine powder, 1 part; marble-dust, ground oyster-shells, or chalk, 7 parts; mix, and pack tight, so as to exclude the air.

2. Sulphite (not sulph_ate_) of potassa, 1 part; new black-mustard seed (ground in a pepper-mill), 7 parts; mix, and pack so as to perfectly exclude air and moisture. _Dose_ (of either), 1/2 _oz._ to 1-1/2 _oz._ per _hhd._

3. Mustard-seed, 14 _lbs._; cloves and capsicum, of each 1-1/4 _lb._; mix, and grind them to powder in a pepper-mill. _Dose_, 1/4 to 1/2 _lb._ per _hhd._

_Uses, &c._ The above formulae are infinitely superior to those commonly met with in trade; and are quite harmless. A portion of any one of them added to cider, or perry, soon allays fermentation, when excessive, or when it has been renewed. The first formula is preferred when there is a tendency to acidity. The second and third may be advantageously used for wine and beer, as well as for cider. That of the third formula greatly improves the flavour and the apparent strength of the liquor, and also improves its keeping qualities. See CELLAR-MANAGEMENT, FERMENTATION, &c.

=ANTI-FRIC'TION METAL.= _Prep._ 1. From tin, 16 to 20 parts; antimony, 2 parts; lead, 1 part; fused together, and then blended with copper, 80 parts. Used where there is much friction or high velocity.

2. Zinc, 6 parts; tin, 1 part; copper, 20 parts. Used when the metal is exposed to violent shocks.

3. Lead, 1 part; tin, 2 parts; zinc, 4 parts; copper, 68 parts. Used when the metal is exposed to heat.

4. (Babbet's.) Tin, 48 to 50 parts; antimony, 5 parts; copper, 1 part.

5. (Fenton's.) Tin with some zinc, and a little copper.

6. (Ordinary.) Tin, or hard pewter, with or without a small portion of antimony or copper. Without the last it is apt to spread out under the weight of heavy machinery. Used for the bearings of locomotive engines, &c.

_Obs._ These alloys are usually supported by bearings of brass, into which it is poured after they have been tinned, and heated and put together with an exact model of the axle, or other working piece, plastic clay being previously applied, in the usual manner, as a lute or outer mould. Soft gun-metal is also excellent, and is much used for bearings. They all become less heated in working than the harder metals, and less grease or oil is consequently required when they are used. See ALLOYS, FRICTION, &c.

=ANTIGUG'GLER.= A small bent tube of glass or metal inserted into casks and carboys, to admit air over the liquor whilst it is being poured out or drawn off, so that the sediment may not be disturbed.

=ANTIHECTICUM POTERII.= Fuse together 4 parts of regulus of antimony, and 5-1/2 of fine tin; pour it on a metal plate, reduce it to powder, and deflagrate it in a red-hot crucible with 15 parts of nitre; keep it hot for some time, then wash it, and dry it with a gentle heat.--_Dose_, two to ten grains in hectic fevers.

=ANTILITHIC.= See LITHONTRYPTICS.

=ANTIMO''NIAL= (-m[=o]ne'y-'[)a]l).[67] [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ ANTIMONIA'LIS, L. Pertaining to, composed of, or containing antimony. In _medicine_ and _pharmacy_, applied to preparations or remedies (ANTIMO''NIALS; ANTIMONIA''LIA, L.) in which antimony, or one of its compounds, is the leading or characteristic ingredient.

[Footnote 67: Antimon'ial (--Mayne) is a barbarism.]

=ANTIMO'NIATED.= _Syn._ ANTIMONIA'TUS, L. Mixed or impregnated with antimony; antimonial.

=ANTIMON'IC ACID.= _Syn._ ACIDUM ANTIMON'ICUM, L.; ACIDE ANTIMONIQUE, Fr.; ANTIMONSAeURE, Ger.

_Prep._ 1. Pure metallic antimony, in coarse powder, or small fragments, is digested in excess of concentrated nitric acid, until the oxidation and conversion is complete; the excess of nitric acid is then removed by evaporation nearly to dryness, and the residuum thrown into cold distilled water; after which the powder (ANTIMONIC ACID) is collected on a calico filter, washed with distilled water, and dried by a gentle heat. Pure.

2. Metallic antimony (in powder), 1 part; powdered nitre, 6 or 8 parts; are mixed and ignited or deflagrated in a silver crucible; the mass, when cold, is powdered; the excess of alkali washed out with hot water, and the residuum (ANTIMONIATE OF POTASSIUM) decomposed with hydrochloric acid; lastly, the precipitate (ANTIMONIC ACID) is washed and dried as before.

That obtained by the first process is dibasic, and has the formula H_{2}Sb_{2}O_{6}, while that produced by the second process is tetrabasic, and has the formula H_{4}Sb_{2}O_{7}; the former is called simply antimonic acid, the latter metantimonic acid.

_Prop._ Antimonic acid is a soft white powder, sparingly soluble in water, reddens litmus, and is dissolved, even in the cold, by strong hydrochloric acid and by potash. The hydrochloric solution, mixed with a small quantity

of water, yields, after a while, a precipitate of antimonic acid; but if diluted with a large quantity of water, it remains clear. Ammonia does not dissolve it in the cold. By heating with a large excess of caustic potash it is converted into metantimonic acid.

Metantimonic acid is more readily dissolved by acids than antimonic acid, and is dissolved by ammonia, after a while, even at ordinary temperatures. It is also perfectly soluble in a large quantity of water, and is precipitated therefrom by acids. It is very unstable, and easily changes into antimonic acid, even in water.

=ANTIMONIC ANHYDRIDE= (Sb_{2}O_{5}). _Syn._ ANTIMONIC OXIDE, ANHYDROUS ANTIMONIC ACID, PENTOXIDE OF ANTIMONY. Antimonic or metantimonic acid, heated to a temperature below redness, loses water and yields the anhydride, Sb_{2}O_{5}. Antimonic anhydride is a yellowish-white powder, tasteless and insoluble in water and acids. Boiled with a solution of caustic potash, it is dissolved. If fused with carbonate of potassium, carbonic anhydride is expelled, and a salt is produced from which antimonic acid is precipitated by acids.

=ANTIMONIOUS ACID.= See ANTIMONY, TETROXIDE of.

=AN'TIMONETTED.= _Syn._ ANTIMO''NIURETTED; ANTIMONIA'TUS, L. Combined with or containing antimony. See HYDROGEN, &c.

=AN'TIMONY= (-te-m[)u]n-e). _Syn._ METAL'LIC ANTIMONY*, REG'ULUS OF A.[dagger]; ANTIMO''NIUM, A. METAL'LICUM, STIB'IUM, METAL'LUM ANTIMO''NII[dagger], A. REG'ULUS[dagger], &c., L.; ANTIMOINE, Fr.; ANTIMON, SPIESSGLANZ, SPIESSGLAS, SPIESSGLANZMETALL, Ger.; ANTIMONIO, It., Sp. The term formerly applied to the native sulphide or greyish-black semi-crystalline ore of antimony; but now solely appropriated to the pure metal.

_Sources._ Metallic antimony, in combination with silver and iron (NATIVE ANTIMONY), with sulphur (GREY SULPHIDE OF A.), or with nickel (NICKELIF'EROUS SULPHIDE OF A.) is found in Bohemia, Hungary, Germany, Sweden, France, England, Borneo, and America; and oxidised, combined with oxide of iron, &c. (ANTIMO''NIAL, O'CHRE, RED ANTIMONY, WHITE A.[68]), forming ores, either small in quantity or of little value, in various parts of the world. Of these the only one in sufficient abundance for smelting is the common sulphide known as 'grey antimony' or 'stibnite.'

[Footnote 68: White A. occurs in considerable quantities in Borneo, and is used after roasting as a white pigment for iron and other surfaces.]

[Illustration:

_a_, _b_, Grate and fire-place. _c_, Bridge. _d_, Air-channel. _e_, Concave space for ore, resting on a solid bed _f_, formed of sand and clay. _g_, Door for introducing the ore, and abstracting residuary slag. _h_, Pipe to convey away the liquid metal. _i_, Chimney.]

_Prep._ Native antimony is freed from impurities by fusion. The sulphide, after being melted from the gangue, is commonly oxidised by exposure on the concave hearth of a reverberatory furnace, and is then reduced to the metallic state by fusion in crucibles with coal-dust, crude tartar, or some other deoxidising agent. To free the product from iron, it is generally fused, or re-fused, with a little antimonic oxide; and when the ore contains arsenic, iron, or its oxide, and an alkaline carbonate or sulphate, are used in the same way. It is seldom prepared on the small scale. The following formulae are in use, or are recommended:--

1. On the SMALL SCALE:--

_a._ From tersulphide of antimony, in coarse powder, 2 parts; iron filings, 1 part; fused together in a covered crucible, at a heat gradually raised to dull redness.

_b._ From the teroxide or the oxychloride of antimony, fused together, as before, with twice its weight of crude tartar.

_c._ (Ph. Castr. Ru. 1840.) Sulphide of antimony, 16 parts; cream of tartar, 6 parts; both in powder; throw the mixture, in small quantities at a time, into a vessel (an earthen crucible) heated to redness; when the reaction is over (having closely covered the vessel), fuse the mass, and after a quarter of an hour pour it out, and separate the metal from the slag.

_d._ From sulphide of antimony, 8 parts; crude tartar, 6 parts; nitre, 3 parts; as last.

_e._ (Woehler.) Sulphide of antimony, 10 parts; nitre, 12 parts; dry carbonate of soda, 15 parts; deflagrate together; powder the resulting mass, and wash it thoroughly with boiling water; lastly, smelt the dried residuum with black flux. All the preceding are nearly pure; the impurity, if any, being traces of copper, lead, or iron.

_f._ (Berzelius.) From metallic antimony, in fine powder, 2 parts; teroxide of antimony, 1 part; fused together. The product will be pure provided the antimony employed is free from lead.

_g._ (Muspratt.) From antimony, 9 parts; peroxide of manganese, 1 part; fused together; the resulting metal being re-fused with 1-10th of its weight of carbonate of soda.

2. On the LARGE SCALE--commercial:--

_a._ See _above_ (before 1 _a_.).

_b._ From sulphide of antimony, 100 parts; iron (in very small scraps), 40 parts; dry crude sulphate of soda, 10 parts; powdered charcoal, 2-1/2 parts; fused together.--_Prod._ 60 to 65 parts of antimony, besides the scoriae or ash, which is also valuable.

_c._ (Berthier.) Sulphide of antimony, 100 parts; hammerschlag (rough oxide or iron from the shingling or rolling mills), 60 parts; crude carbonate or sulphate of soda, 45 to 50 parts; charcoal powder, 10 parts; as last.--_Prod._ 65 to 70 parts.

_Prop., &c._ Bluish-white, lustrous, with a lamellar texture, and a crystalline or semi-crystalline fracture, with fern-leaf markings on the surface, when pure (star antimony); extremely brittle (may be powdered); imparts brittleness to its alloys (even 1-1000th part added to gold renders it unfit for the purposes of coinage and the arts); melts at 809-810 deg. Fahr., or just under redness; fumes, boils, and volatilises at a white heat, and, when suddenly exposed to the air, inflames with conversion into the teroxide, which is deposited in beautiful flowers or crystals; when perfectly pure and fused without contact with air or foreign matter, it bears an intense heat without subliming (Thenard); allowed to cool slowly from a state of perfect fusion, it crystallises in octahedrons or dodecahedrons; tarnishes, but does not rust by exposure to air or moisture at common temperatures; hot hydrochloric acid dissolves it, with the formation of TRICHLORIDE OF ANTIMONY; nitric acid, when concentrated, converts it into ANTIMONIC ACID; and when dilute, into TRIOXIDE OF ANTIMONY. Sp. gr. 6.7 to 6.8.[69]

[Footnote 69: When perfectly pure, 6715--Ure.]

_Tests._ Metallic antimony may be recognised by the above properties; its oxide, salts, &c., by the following reactions:--1. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives, with acid solutions, an orange-red precipitate, which is sparingly soluble in ammonia,[70] and insoluble in dilute acids; but readily soluble in pure potassa and alkaline sulphides, and in hot hydrochloric acid with the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen gas:--2. Sulphydrate of ammonium gives an orange-red precipitate, readily soluble in excess of the precipitant, if this latter contains sulphur in excess; and the liquor containing the re-dissolved precipitate gives a yellow or orange-yellow precipitate on the addition of an acid:--3. Ammonia and potassa, and their carbonates, give (except in solutions of tartar emetic) a bulky white precipitate; that with ammonia and its carbonate being insoluble in excess of the precipitant; that with potassa, readily so; whilst that with carbonate of potassium is only soluble on the application of heat:--4. A rod of zinc throws down metallic antimony, as a black powder, from all its solutions not containing free nitric acid. If the experiment be made with a few drops of a solution of antimony containing a little free hydrochloric acid, and a small platinum dish or capsule be employed, the part covered by the liquid is soon stained brown or blackish, and the stain is irremovable by cold hydrochloric acid, but may be easily removed by warm nitric acid:--5. By ebullition of the acidulated liquid along with copper gauze, foil, or wire, as noticed under 'Reinsch's Test.'[71] The peculiar violet-grey of the deposit is characteristic, and may easily be distinguished from that given by arsenical solutions:--6. Mixed with dilute sulphuric acid and poured on some metallic zinc in a gas-generating flask, provided with a small bent tube (see _engr._), it yields ANTIMONETTED HYDROGEN (Marsh's test), recognised by burning with a bluish-green flame, and furnishing dense white fumes which adhere readily to any cold substance (as a porcelain plate) held over it; or, if the plate be depressed upon the flame, a deep black, and almost lustreless spot of metallic antimony; the fumes and spots in both cases being insoluble in water, and in dilute solution of chloride (crude hypochlorite) of soda. On heating the centre of the tube to redness with a spirit lamp, the bluish-green colour of the flame lessens in intensity, and a mirror of metallic antimony, of silvery lustre, forms inside the tube at the ignited part. On passing dry sulphuretted hydrogen through the tube, still heated by a spirit lamp, this mirror assumes a reddish-yellow colour, approaching black in its thicker parts; and by exposure to a feeble stream of hydrochloric acid gas, almost immediately, or in a few seconds, disappears, being carried off by the gas, which, if passed into a little distilled water, yields a solution of chloride of antimony, which may be further submitted to any of the usual tests.[71] If the substance be in the solid state, it must be reduced to powder and dissolved in water; or if insoluble in that menstruum, a solution must be obtained by digestion in either hot hydrochloric or nitrohydrochloric acid, before proceeding to examine it by this method.

[Footnote 70: The like precipitate from a solution of antimonic acid in hydrochloric acid, dissolves readily in ammonia, particularly when heated.]

[Footnote 71: See ARSENIOUS ACID.]

[Illustration:

_a_, Flask containing the suspected fluid, dilute sulphuric acid, and zinc. _b_, Small tube, at the one end having an almost capillary orifice, where the gas is inflamed. _c_, Spirit-lamp. _d_, Support.]

_Estim._ Antimony is generally WEIGHED under the form of tersulphide; but sometimes as antimonious anhydride, and--though more seldom--as pure metal:--

1. A solution being obtained as above, if necessary, it is strongly acidulated with tartaric acid, and the antimony thrown down as a sulphide by a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen. After warming the solution and allowing it to cool, the precipitate (TERSULPHIDE) is collected on a filter, dried, and weighed. A small portion digested in strong hydrochloric acid will completely dissolve if it be the pure sulphide; in which case the quantity of ANTIMONY sought will be equal to 71-1/2% (71.5%) of the weight of the sulphide found (very nearly).[72] Should only part of the precipitate be soluble, a known weight of it may be introduced into a flask, and a considerable quantity of fuming nitric acid added, drop by drop, and afterwards, a little hydrochloric acid, the mixture being digested, at a gentle heat, until the reaction is complete, and the whole of the sulphur is dissolved. The resulting solution diluted with water, strongly acidulated with tartaric acid, and solution of chloride of barium added as long as it disturbs the liquid, yields a precipitate, of which the weight, after it has been thoroughly washed, dried, and gently ignited, multiplied by 136, gives the quantity of SULPHUR in the sample; and which, deducted from the weight of the sulphide first found, gives the quantity of pure ANTIMONY, as before.

[Footnote 72: Tersulphide of antimony dried at 212 deg. Fahr. still retains traces of water, which is not wholly expelled until the heat reaches 390-392 deg., when it acquires a black colour and a crystalline appearance.]

2. The quantity of PURE ANTIMONY in commercial samples may be determined by treating them (in powder) with nitric acid, which oxidises the antimony and leaves it in an insoluble state, whilst it dissolves the other metals. The resulting oxide is collected on a filter, washed, dried, ignited in an open porcelain crucible, and weighed--its weight multiplied by .7898 gives the quantity of pure metal sought.

3. Dissolve a known weight of the sample in hydrochloric acid, immerse a blade of pure metallic tin in the solution, and keep the liquor acidulous, and in a state of gentle ebullition by the heat of a sand bath, when the whole of the ANTIMONY will be precipitated under the form of a black powder, and may be collected, washed, dried, and weighed. This is particularly adapted to alloys of antimony and tin. See _Tests_ (above) and _Pur._ (below).

_Pur._ The antimony of commerce generally contains a little arsenic, with variable quantities of iron, lead, sulphur, and tin. These impurities may be thus detected:--

1. (Arsenic.) By fusing the sample, in powder, mixed with about an equal weight of tartrate or bitartrate of potassium, in a covered crucible, for 2 or 3 hours, and placing the resulting button, which is an alloy of antimony and potassium, in a 'Marsh's apparatus' along with a little water, when the disengagement of hydrogen gas will commence, and may be tested in the usual manner. See ARSENIC.

2. (Iron.) Dissolve the powdered sample in nitrohydrochloric acid, dilute the solution with a large quantity of cold water, filter, and pass a current of sulphuretted hydrogen through the filtrate as long as it produces a precipitate; again filter, boil the filtered liquor for a few minutes to drive off the sulphuretted hydrogen, and then test it with ferrocyanide of potassium, which will give a blue precipitate if iron be present; or supersaturate the last filtrate with ammonia, and then add hydrosulphydrate of ammonium, when, under like conditions, a black precipitate will be formed.

3. (Lead.) Digest the powdered sample in hot nitric acid, which will dissolve out the LEAD but leave the antimony behind. The whitish powdery residuum may be washed, dried, ignited, and weighed, as above; the clear decanted liquor may now be mixed with the first washings, evaporated to dryness, the residuum re-dissolved in water, and the solution submitted to reagents (see LEAD). If lead is found to be present, a solution of sulphate of sodium may be added until it ceases to disturb the liquid, and the resulting precipitate (sulphate of lead) washed, dried, and gently ignited (alone) in a porcelain crucible; the weight of the ignited residuum furnishes a number which, multiplied by .683, gives the weight of the LEAD sought.

4. (Sulphur.) The solution in nitrohydrochloric acid, when tested with either nitrate or chloride of barium, gives a white precipitate of sulphate of barium, insoluble in both water and acids, which when dried, ignited, and weighed, and the weight multiplied by .136, gives the quantity of SULPHUR as before. In this case, as with the sulphides (see _above_), free sulphur maybe removed by digesting and washing the powdered sample in bisulphide of carbon, previous to its solution in the acid, by which the violence of the subsequent reaction will be lessened.

5. (Tin.) Two samples of equal weight are taken; the one is tested for ANTIMONY, as described above; the other is dissolved in a mixture of equal parts of hydrochloric and nitrohydrochloric acid, and a blade of zinc immersed in the solution (see _above_); the mixed precipitate of tin and antimony which forms is collected on a weighed filter, washed, dried, and weighed. The weight of antimony in the first sample subtracted from that now obtained, leaves a remainder which indicates the quantity of TIN in the original sample.

_Phys. eff., &c._ Nearly all the salts and preparations of antimony are emetic and cathartic, and in large doses poisonous--occasioning vomiting, profuse alvine dejections, acute colic, and inflammation of the stomach and bowels, often serious, though rarely resulting in death. TARTAR EMETIC and BUTTER OF ANTIMONY are those from which accidents have principally occurred.--_Ant., &c._ Copious vomiting, if it has not already occurred, should be promoted, and the recently prepared hydrated sulphide of iron administered in considerable doses, followed or accompanied by mucilaginous drinks and diuretics. If much prostration follows, wine and stimulants may be had recourse to. In the absence of hydrated sulphide of iron, a solution of tannin, or decoction of galls; cinchona, or oak bark, or even powdered cinchona, mixed with tepid water, may be administered.

_Uses._ In the _arts_, antimony enters into the composition of several useful alloys, as TYPE-METAL, PEWTER, BRITANNIA-METAL, MUSIC-PLATE METAL, &c. It is added to the alloy for concave mirrors, to give them a finer texture; to bell metal, to render it more sonorous; and to various other metals to increase their hardness and fusibility; for the latter purpose it is employed in the casting of cannon balls.

_Concluding Remarks._ In 'roasting' or oxidising the native sulphide of antimony on the bed of the reverberatory furnace, as in the common method before referred to, care must be taken to regulate and gradually raise the heat, which, until towards the end of the process, need not be extreme, and then only should it approach dull redness. Without this precaution much of the undecomposed sulphide will be lost by volatilisation. During the whole time the 'charge' should also be well stirred with an iron spatula, to ensure the constant exposure of every part of it to the atmosphere. The process is complete when the whole mass assumes a greyish-white appearance. Earthen crucibles are commonly employed for the subsequent reduction, and after being charged and covered over with ground charcoal, are heated in a reverberatory furnace. The product is the crude metallic antimony of commerce. It is generally REFINED by smelting it with about 1-8th of its weight of the refined sulphide, and about 1-4th of its weight of carbonate or sulphate of soda; but if there be much iron present, more of the sulphide--even 1-4th--may be required; for unless there be sufficient sulphur to combine with the whole of the iron, the arsenic will not be oxidised, but remain as a contamination. When cold, the metal is carefully separated from the slag, and is frequently re-fused with a little fresh carbonate of soda (1 to 1-1/2 part); after which it is cast into pigs, lumps, or ingots. The crude metal, thus treated, commonly yields 94% of REFINED METAL of tolerable purity.

Should lead have been present in the sulphide or ore, it remains after a second, or even a third fusion, although proportionately reduced in quantity; and it can only be completely separated in the humid way. It is, therefore, always desirable to select an ore free from lead.

=Antimony, Ash of.= _Syn._ ANTIMONY-ASH, CALCINED' ANTIMONY*; CI'NIS ANTIMO''NII, ANTIMO''NIUM CALCINA'TUM*, L. Prepared by roasting the common grey sulphide of antimony on an iron plate set under a chimney, to carry off the fumes. The product is a mixture of teroxide of antimony, with some unburnt sulphide, and a little antimonious acid.

_Prop., &c._ Ash-grey; emetic in small doses. Used chiefly as a cheap substitute for teroxide of antimony by the manufacturers of tartar emetic; also to make metallic antimony.

=Antimony, Butt'er of.= See ANTIMONY, TRICHLORIDE OF.

=Antimony, Calx of.= _Syn._ CALX ANTIMO''NII, L. Sometimes applied to antimony-ash, but more commonly to crude, unwashed diaphoretic antimony.

=Antimony, Calx of= (Sul'phurated). _Syn._ ANTIMO''NII CALX SULPHURA'TA, L. _Prep._ (Hufeland.) Calcined oyster-shells, 10 parts; sulphur, 4 parts; crude antimony, 3 parts; powder, mix, and calcine in a luted crucible for an hour. Emetic, resolvent, and alterative.--_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr.; in gout, rheumatism, scrofula, &c.

=Antimony, Ce'ruse of.= _Syn._ ANTIMO''NII CERUS'SA, L. _Prep._ (Bate.) As diaphoretic antimony (over which it possesses no advantage), merely using the metal instead of the sulphide.

An old preparation made by igniting antimony in the sun's rays, by means of a lens, was called ANTIMONII CERUSSA SOLA''RIS.

=Antimony, Chlo''rides of= (kl[=o]re'-[=i]dz):--

=1. Antimony, Trichloride of.= SbCl_{2}. _Syn._ TERCHLORIDE OF ANTIMONY, ANTIMONIOUS CHLORIDE, CHLO''RIDE OF ANTIMONY, SESQUICHLORIDE OF A., BUTTER OF A., CAU'STIC ANTIMONY[dagger], &c.; ANTIMO''NII CHLORI'DUM, A. TERCHLORI'DUM, A. BU'TYRUM*, &c., L.; CHLORURE D'ANTIMOINE, BEURRE D'ANTIMOINE, &c., Fr.; ANTIMON-CHLORID, SPIESSGLANZ-BUTTER, Ger. This is the substance of which common chloride, or butter of antimony, of the shops, is an impure concentrated solution containing free acid.

_Prep._ 1. SOLID, ANHYDROUS:--

_a._ Pure commercial tersulphide of antimony, in coarse powder, 1 part; concentrated hydrochloric acid, 5 parts; are mixed in a capacious stoneware or glass vessel set under a chimney with a quick draught, to convey away the fumes, the whole being constantly stirred, and, as the effervescence slackens, a gradually increasing gentle heat applied until solution is complete; the resulting liquid is put into a retort, and distilled, until each drop of the distillate, as it falls into the aqueous liquid which has previously passed over into the receiver, produces a copious white precipitate; the receiver is then changed, and the distillation continued, when pure TRICHLORIDE OF ANTIMONY passes over, and solidifies on cooling to a white and highly crystalline mass, which must be carefully excluded from the air.

_b._ From pure metallic antimony, 2 parts; bichloride of mercury, 5 parts; both in fine powder; mixed and distilled in a retort with a large neck, by a gentle sand-heat, into a suitable receiver. Chemically pure.

2. LIQUID:--

_a._ (LIQUOR ANTIMONII CHLORIDI, B. P.) _Syn._ SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF ANTIMONY.

_Prep._ Take of black antimony, 1 _lb._; hydrochloric acid, 4 pints; place the black antimony in a porcelain vessel; pour upon it the hydrochloric acid, and, constantly stirring, apply to the mixture, beneath a flue with a good draught, a gentle heat, which must be gradually augmented as the evolution of gas begins to slacken, until the liquid boils. Maintain it at this temperature for fifteen minutes; then remove the vessel from the fire, and filter the liquid through calico into another vessel, returning what passes through first, that a perfectly clear solution may be obtained. Boil this down to the bulk of two pints, and preserve it in a stoppered bottle.

_Characters and Tests._ A heavy liquid, usually of a yellowish-red colour. A little of it dropped into water gives a white precipitate, and the filtered solution lets fall a copious deposit on the addition of nitrate of silver. If the white precipitate formed by water be treated with sulphuretted hydrogen it becomes orange-coloured. The specific gravity of the solution is 1.47. One fluid drachm of it mixed with a solution of a quarter of an ounce of tartaric acid in four fluid ounces of water, forms a clear solution, which, if treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, gives an orange precipitate, weighing, when washed and dried at 212 deg., at least 22 grains.

_b._ (Commercial.)--_a._ Take of ash or calx of antimony, 3-1/4 _lbs._; common salt, 2 _lbs._; oil of vitriol, 1-1/2 _lb._; water, 1 _lb._; proceed as before. Prod., 2-1/2 _lbs._

_c._ From roasted sulphide or glass of antimony, 7 _lbs._; salt, 28 _lbs._; oil of vitriol, 21 _lbs._; water, 14 _lbs._; as before.

_d._ From crude sulphide of antimony (powdered), 25 _lbs._; strongest commercial hydrochloric acid, 1 _cwt._; nitric acid, 3-1/2 _lbs._; as before; the product being coloured with a little pernitrate of iron, and made up to the sp. gr. 1.4. The quality is improved, and the process more easily conducted, if the crude antimony is roasted before dissolving it in the acid. The same applies to the other formulae.

_Prop., &c._--_a._ SOLID. When pure, and nearly free from water, it somewhat resembles butter, melts with a gentle heat, and partially crystallises on cooling; is very deliquescent, and quickly passes into an oily liquid when exposed to damp air; very soluble in strong hydrochloric acid; water, according to its quantity, more or less decomposes it. When perfectly pure and anhydrous, it forms a white and highly crystalline mass, rapidly decomposed by air and moisture.--_b._ SOLUTION. The sp. gr. of the solution of the shops varies from 1.25 to 1.4, in which state it is a transparent fuming yellow liquid (unless when artificially coloured), and extremely acid and caustic. Submitted to distillation, it at first parts with its water and excess of acid, after which the salt itself is volatilised. By changing the receiver as soon as the distillate concretes on cooling, or produces a copious white precipitate on falling into the liquid already passed over, the pure ANHYDROUS TRICHLORIDE may be readily obtained.

_Phys. eff., Ant., Lesions, &c._ See ANTIMONY.

_Uses._ In _medicine_, only externally, and chiefly as a caustic or escharotic to the wounds caused by rabid and venomous animals, and to repress excessive granulations in ulcers. In _pharmacy_, as a source of both oxychloride and oxide of antimony. The residuum in the retort when corrosive sublimate is used, is sulphide of mercury, and was formerly called CINNABAR OF ANTIMONY.

=2. Antimony, Pentachlo''ride of.= Sb_{2}Cl_{5}. _Syn._ PERCHLO''RIDE OF ANTIMONY; ANTIMO''NII PENTACHLORI'DUM, L. Prepared by passing a stream of chlorine gas over metallic antimony in fine powder, and gently heated. A mixture of TRICHLORIDE and PENTACHLORIDE OF ANTIMONY is found in the receiver, from which the latter may be separated by careful distillation. It is a colourless volatile liquid, forming a crystalline compound with a small quantity of water, but decomposed by a larger quantity.

=Antimony, Cro'cus of.= _Syn._ SAFF'RON OF ANTIMONY, LIV'ER OF A.; CRO'CUS ANTIMO''NII C. METALLO''RUM, HE'PAR ANTIMONII, L.; CROCUS D'ANTIMOINE, SAFFRAN D'A., Fr. _Prep._ 1. From black sulphide of antimony, and saltpetre, equal parts, deflagrated together by small portions at a time, and the fused mass (separated from the scoriae) reduced to fine powder.

2. (ANT. CROCUS, Ph. L. 1788,) Sulphide of antimony, 1 lb.; nitre, 1 lb.; common salt, 1 oz.; as before.

_Prop., &c._ Its medicinal properties closely resemble those of diaphoretic antimony. It is a mixture of sulphate of potassium, antimoniate of potassium, teroxide of antimony, oxysulphide of antimony, sulphide of potassium, and undecomposed trisulphide of antimony, in variable and undetermined proportions. When repeatedly washed or boiled in water, and dried, it forms the WASHED SAFFRON OF ANTIMONY (C. A. LO'TUS, L.) of old pharmacy, and has then lost its sulphate of potassium, caustic potash, and sulphide of potassium. Formerly used to make tartar emetic. See ANTIMONY, LIVER OF.

=Antimony, Crude.= Native sulphide of antimony melted from the gangue.

=Antimony, Diaphoret'ic.= _Syn._ CALX OF ANTIMONY, CALCINED' A., ANTIMO''NIATE OF POT'ASH, STIB'IATED KA'LI[dagger], DIAPHORETIC MIN'ERAL[dagger], &c.; ANTIMO''NIUM DIAPHORET'ICUM, A. CALCINA'TUM, CALX ANTIMO''NII, C. A. ANGLO''RUM[dagger], POTAS'SAE ANTIMO''NIAS, KALI STIB'ICUM[dagger], &c., L. var.; ANTIMOINE DIAPHORETIQUE, BIANTIMONIATE DE POTASSE, Fr. An old preparation with numerous synonyms, of which the first two of the above are those which are now chiefly in use.

_Prep._ 1. Sulphide of antimony, 1 part; nitre, 3 parts; powder, mix, and deflagrate by spoonfuls in a red-hot crucible, then calcine for half an hour, and when cold powder the residuum.

2. WASHED DIAPHORETIC A., W. CALX OF A.; ANTIMONIUM DIAPHORETICUM LO'TUM, A. D. ABLU'TUM (Ph. Bor. 1847), A. CALCINA'TUM (Ph. L. 1788); ANTIMOINE DIAPHORETIQUE LAVE, &c., Fr.:--_a._ (Ph. L. 1788.) As the last, but the powder is subsequently deprived of soluble matter by repeated washings with water, after which it is collected and dried.

_b._ (Ph. Bor. 1847.) Metallic antimony, 1 part; nitre, 2 parts; as above, but drying the washed powder at a heat not exceeding 104 deg. F.

_Prop., &c._ A white or greyish-white powder, without either smell or taste; gently diaphoretic and laxative; its activity greatly depending on the quantity of acid in the stomach.--_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr., or even 10 gr.; for _horses_, 1 to 3 or 4 _dr._ It was formerly in high repute; but is now almost superseded by the present pharmacop[oe]ial preparations.

=Antimony, E'thiops of.= _Syn._ AE'THIOPS ANTIMONIA'LIS, L. _Prep._ 1. From metallic mercury, 1 part; sulphide of antimony, 2 parts; triturated together until the globules of the former entirely disappear.--2. Sulphide of antimony, 3 parts; black sulphide of mercury, 2 parts; triturated together for some time. An old remedy in certain skin diseases, still highly esteemed by some provincial practitioners.--_Dose_, 3 to 5 gr., gradually increased to 20 or 30 gr.

=Antimony, Flow'ers of.= _Syn._ FLO''RES ANTIMO''NII, L.; FLEURS D'ANTIMOINE, Fr. _Prep._ Throw powdered sulphide of antimony, by spoonfuls at a time, into an ignited tubulated retort with a short and very wide neck, until as many 'flowers' collect in the receiver as are required. An impure oxysulphide of antimony, with variable portions of trioxide, and undecomposed tersulphide. Emetic in doses of 1 to 3 grains.

=Antimony, Flowers of (Ar'gentine).= [-[)i]n.] _Syn._ WHITE OX'IDE OF ANTIMONY, SNOW OF A.[dagger]; ANTIMO''NII FLO''RES ARGENTI'NI, A. NIX[dagger], L.; FLEURS ARGENTINE D'ANTIMOINE, OXYDE BLANC D'ANTIMOINE, Fr. _Prep._ Melt metallic antimony in a vessel freely exposed to the air, and furnished with a cool place for the 'flowers' to rest on, and collect them as deposited; or, and what is better, heat the metal to a full red or white heat in a covered crucible, and then suddenly expose it to the air, when it will inflame, and the oxidised vapour condense as 'flowers' on any cool surface (as a partially inverted wide-mouthed flask) held at a little distance over it. The product is TRIOXIDE OF ANTIMONY in a crystalline form, and received the name of argentine flowers from its silvery whiteness and beauty.

=Antimony, Flowers of (Helmont's).= _Syn._ FLO''RES ANTIMO''NII HELMON'TII. An old preparation formed by dissolving sulphide of antimony in aqua regia, expelling the free water and acid by heat, and subliming the residuum with an equal weight of sal ammoniac. Violently emetic, even in small doses, and unfit for internal use.

=Antimony, Flowers of (Red).= _Syn._ FLO''RES ANTIMO''NII RU'BRI, L. From sulphide of antimony, and sal ammoniac, both in fine powder, mixed and sublimed together. Resembles the last.

=Antimony, Ful'minating.= See FULMINATING COMPOUNDS.

=Antimony, Glass of.= _Syn._ VIT'RIFIED ANTIMONY*, V. OX'IDE OF A.*, GREY O. OF A.*; ANTIMO''NII VIT'RUM, ANTIMO''NIUM VITRIFICA'TUM, A. VITRIFAC'TUM (Ph. L. 1788), OX'YDUM ANTIMONII VITRIFICATUM, &c., L.; VERRE D'ANTIMOINE, OXYSULFURE D'ANTIMOINE SILICATE, Fr. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1788.) Roast sulphide of antimony in a shallow earthen vessel, over a moderate fire, stirring it constantly with an iron rod, until it turns whitish-grey and ceases to emit fumes at a red heat; put the residuum into a covered crucible which it shall only two thirds fill, and expose it to an intense heat (gradually raised), until it fuses, then pour it out on an iron plate. If calcined too much, a little more crude antimony may be added to make it run well.

_Comp., Prop., &c._ A mixture of sulphide and oxide of antimony contaminated with a little silica and iron. In fine powder it is emetic, in doses of 1 to 3 gr.; but owing to the uncertainty and violence of its operation, is now seldom employed. It has been used as a cheap source of the TEROXIDE by the manufacturers of tartar emetic.

=Antimony, Glass of (Cera''ted).= _Syn._ ANTIMO''NII VIT'RUM CERA'TUM, L. _Prep._ (Dr Young & Ph. L. 1746.) Glass of antimony, in very fine powder, 1 oz.; yellow wax, 1 dr.; melt together in an iron ladle, and keep it over a gentle fire free from flame (constantly stirring) for about half an hour, or until it acquires a snuff colour, then pour it out on a piece of white paper (or a plate), and when cold, powder it.--_Dose_, 2 to 10 gr., in dysentery, &c.

=Antimony, Li'ver of.= _Syn._ HE'PAR ANTIMO''NII, L.; HEPAR D'ANTIMOINE, OXYSULFURE D'ANTIMOINE SILICATE, Fr. _Prep._ From sulphide of antimony, 1 part; and dry carbonate of sodium or potassium, 2 parts; melted together, and heated until it acquires the proper colour, and then cooled and powdered.

_Comp., Uses, &c._ A mixture of trioxide of antimony, sulphide of potassium, carbonate of potassium, and undecomposed trisulphide of antimony. It is chiefly used by farriers, in doses of 1 to 2 dr., as an alterative purge for horses, in greasy heels, &c.; and sometimes by chemists, as a source of the crude oxide. Crocus of antimony, before noticed, sometimes passes under the name, and is sold for it.

=Antimony, Ore of.= _Syn._ ANTIMONY-ORE. Native sulphide of antimony.

=Antimony, Oxide of.= The B. P. name for Antimony, Trioxide of (which _see_).

=Antimony, Oxides of.= Antimony forms with oxygen three definite compounds, viz the--

Trioxide or antimonious oxide Sb_{2}O_{3}

Tetroxide or antimonoso-antimonic { or oxide Sb_{2}O_{4} {Sb_{2}O_{3}. {Sb_{2}O_{5}

Pentoxide or antimonic oxide Sb_{2}O_{5}

=Antimony, Trioxide of.= Sb_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ TEROXIDE OF ANTIMONY, ANTIMONIOUS OXIDE (B. P. OXIDE OF ANTIMONY, Eng.; ANTIMONII OXIDUM, L.). _Prep._ (B. P.) Take of solution of chloride of antimony, 16 fluid _oz._; carbonate of soda, 6 _oz._; water, 2 _galls._; distilled water, a sufficiency. Pour the antimonial solution into the water, mix thoroughly, let the precipitate settle, remove the supernatant liquid by a siphon, add one gallon of distilled water, agitate well, let the precipitate subside, again withdraw the fluid, and repeat the processes of affusion of distilled water, agitation, and subsidence. Add now the carbonate of soda previously dissolved in two pints of distilled water, leave them in contact for half an hour, stirring frequently, collect the deposit on a calico filter, and wash with boiling distilled water until the washings cease to give a precipitate with a solution of nitrate of silver acidulated by nitric acid. Lastly, dry the product at a heat not exceeding 212 deg..

_Char. and Tests._ A greyish-white powder, fusible at a low red heat, insoluble in water, but readily dissolved by hydrochloric acid. The solution, dropped into distilled water, gives a white deposit, at once changed to orange by sulphuretted hydrogen. It dissolves entirely when boiled with an excess of the acid tartrate of potash.

_Uses._ Chiefly in making tartar emetic and some other salts of antimony; also in the preparation of pulvis antimonialis. Therapeutically, it is a diaphoretic and febrifuge.--_Dose_, 1 to 4 grains.

=Antimony, Pentoxide of.= See ANTIMONIC ANHYDRIDE.

=Antimony, Tetroxide of.= Sb_{2}O_{4} or Sb_{2}O_{3}.Sb_{2}O_{5}. _Syn._ ANTIMONOSO-ANTIMONIC OXIDE, ANTIMONIOUS ACID. Found natural as Cervantite or Antimony ochre. Prepared by heating antimonic anhydride, by roasting the trioxide or trisulphide, or by the action of excess of nitric acid on finely powdered metallic antimony. Thus prepared, it is a white solid, unalterable by heat; slightly soluble in water, more so in hydrochloric acid.

=Antimony, Oxychloride of.= SbOCl. _Syn._ POWDER OF ALGAROTH. Thrown down as a white precipitate when trichloride of antimony is poured into water. Continued washing with water deprives it of nearly the whole of its chlorine, and converts it into the trioxide, a change which is more completely effected by aqueous solutions of the alkalies or their carbonates.

=Antimony, Oxysulphide of.= The compound Sb_{2}O_{3}.2Sb_{2}S_{3} occurs native as red antimony. Antimony blende, Kermesome, Rothspiessglanzerz, Crocus of antimony, Glass of antimony, and similar preparations, are believed by some authorities to be crude oxysulphides of antimony. See ANTIMONY, SULPHURATED.

=Antimony, Red.= See OXYSULPHIDE OF ANTIMONY, before noticed.

=Antimony, Reg'ulus of.= _Syn._ REG'ULUS ANTIMO''NII, L. Metallic antimony obtained by fusion. Alloys formed by fusing antimony with iron, tin, lead, or copper, and a little tartar, were respectively called MAR'TIAL REGULUS OF ANTIMONY (_r. antimo''nii martia'lis_, L.), R. A. JOVIA'LIS (L.), R. A. SATURNI'NUS (L.), R. A. VEN'ERIS (L.), &c. (See _below_.)

=Antimony, Ru'by of.= _Syn._ MEDIC'INAL (-d[)i]s'-) REG'ULUS OF ANTIMONY; ANTIMO''NII RUBI'NUS, REG'ULUS MEDICINA'LIS, R. A. M., &c., L. From crude sulphide of antimony, 5 parts; fused with carbonate of potassa, 1 part; and the purified portion separated from the scoriae. See LIVER OF ANTIMONY.

=Antimony, Saff'ron of.= See CROCUS OF ANTIMONY.

=Antimony, Smelt'ed.= _Syn._ ANTIMO''NIUM PURIFICA'TUM, L. Crude antimony melted and poured into small conical moulds.--_Uses, &c._ Same as the ordinary tersulphide.

=Antimony, Snow of.= See ANTIMONY, FLOWERS OF.

=Antimony, Sulphurated.= B. P. _Syn._ OXYSULPHURET, or PRECIPITATED SULPHIDE OF ANTIMONY, GOLDEN SULPHIDE OF ANTIMONY. Mix black antimony 10 _oz._ with solution of soda 4-1/2 pints, and boil for two hours, with frequent stirring, adding distilled water occasionally to maintain the same volume. Strain the liquor through calico, and before it cools add to it by degrees dilute sulphuric acid till the latter is in slight excess. Collect the precipitate on a calico filter, wash with distilled water till the washings no longer precipitate with chloride of barium, and dry at a temperature not exceeding 212 deg. F.--_Dose_, 1 to 5 grains.

=Antimony, Sulphantimonate.= _Syn._ SCHLIPPE'S ANTIMONIAL SALT. Mix eight parts of effloresced sulphate of soda, six of black antimony, and three of charcoal, and expose to a red-heat in a covered Hessian crucible till the fused mass ceases to throw up a scum. Boil the residue in a porcelain vessel with one part of sulphur and sufficient distilled water, and set the filtered liquor aside for crystallisation.

=Antimony, Pentasulphide of= (Sb_{2}S_{5}), is a yellowish-red powder, obtained (1) by passing hydrosulphuric acid gas through a mixture of pentachloride of antimony, water, and tartaric acid; or (2) through antimonic anhydride suspended in water. It is insoluble in water; hot hydrochloric acid decomposes it, producing trichloride of antimony, sulphur, and hydrosulphuric acid. With the more basic metallic sulphides it unites to form a class of salts called sulphantimonates.

=Antimony, Trisulphide of.= Sb_{2}S_{3}. _Syn._ TERSUL'PHIDE OF ANTIMONY, SUL'PHIDE OF A., SUL'PHURET OF A., BLACK S. OF A., SESQUISUL'PHURET OF A., &c.; L'ANTIMOINE SULFURE, SULFURE D'ANTIMOINE, &c., Fr.; SCHWEFEL-SPIESSGLANZ, ANDERTHALB, &c., Ger. This is the grey or greyish-black substance commonly known as crude antimony, black antimony, or sulphide of antimony, in commerce, and from which the other compounds of antimony are chiefly obtained.

_Nat. hist., Sources, &c._ See ANTIMONY.

The crude ore is freed from earthy impurities in the following manner:--The crushed ore is submitted to 'eliquation' in order to separate the SULPHIDE from the gangue or earthy matter with which it is contaminated; after which it is remelted and run into 'loaves' or large cakes, in which form it is sent to market. Formerly the operation was performed by introducing the ore into large pots or crucibles having a hole in the bottom, and which, after being closely covered, were set in a circle around a suitable furnace, by which they were heated. At the present time the process is commonly conducted in a 'reverberatory furnace,' similar to that figured in the _engraving_.

[Illustration:

_a_, _b_, Grate and fire-place. _c_, Bridge. _e_, Concave space for ore formed by a solid bed (_f_) of clay and sand, and having a 'hole' near the bottom extending nearly horizontally through the wall of the furnace to 'run off' the fused sulphide. _g_, Door for introducing ore, and removing residuum. _h_, Chimney. _i_, Damper, chain, and lever.]

Native trisulphide of antimony treated in this way and ground to powder constitutes the BLACK ANTIMONY (ANTIMONIUM NIGRUM), B. P.

=Antimony, Trisulphide of= (artificially prepared). Saturate an aqueous solution of tartar emetic with hydrosulphuric acid; an orange precipitate will be thrown down. This precipitate, when collected on a filter, washed, and dried, is the pure trisulphide.

_Prop., &c._ (_Native._) Anhydrous, inodorous, insipid, opaque, brittle, easily pulverisable, and of a dark leaden-grey or steel colour; it has a striated crystalline texture, and breaks with a rough spicular fracture; is insoluble in both water and alcohol; soluble, with decomposition, in hot strong acids and alkaline solutions; melts at a red heat, and is partly dissipated in white fumes, leaving an impure grey-coloured oxide mixed with some undecomposed tersulphide (ANTIMONY-ASH). Its powder is black, of peculiar richness, and stains the fingers. Sp. gr. 4.6 to 4.62. The pure precipitated (amorphous) tersulphide is of orange colour; is darkened by a gentle heat, with loss of water, and at a higher temperature passes from the amorphous to the crystalline condition, at the same time that it assumes the colour and appearance of the native sulphide. It dissolves in hot hydrochloric acid, evolving hydrosulphuric acid, and producing a solution of trichloride of antimony.

_Pur._ The crude commercial sulphide frequently contains lead, iron, copper, and arsenic, and sometimes manganese. Its goodness is commonly estimated by its compactness and weight, the largeness and distinctness of the striae, and the volatility of its sulphide.

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly as a source of metallic antimony, and of the oxide in the preparation of other antimonials. Exhibited alone, it possesses little activity unless it meets with acid in the primae viae, when it occasionally acts with considerable violence both as an emetic and cathartic.--_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr., in powder; as an alterative and diaphoretic in rheumatism, gout, scrofula, and glandular affections, and in lepra, scabies, and some other skin diseases. It is a favourite alterative in _veterinary medicine_, particularly in skin diseases. Farriers and grooms frequently mix a little of it with the food of horses to improve their coat and promote their 'condition,'--_Dose._ For a HORSE, 1 to 4 _dr._, in fine powder, often combined with nitre and sulphur; for CATTLE, 1/2 to 1 _oz._, or even 1-1/2 _oz._; DOGS, 5 or 6 to 20 or 30 gr.; HOGS, 20 to 30 gr., twice or thrice daily. According to Dr Paris, it is one of the ingredients in Spilsbury's Drops. It is also an ingredient in Tisane de Feltz.

=Antimony, Tartarated.= KSbOC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}.Aq. _Syn._ TARTARIZED ANTIMONY, TARTAR EMETIC, EMETIC TARTAR, POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF ANTIMONY, Eng.; ANTIMONIUM TARTARATUM, B. P. _Prep._ Various methods have been devised for the preparation of this compound, but the following, which is taken from the 'British Pharmacop[oe]ia,' is to be preferred:--

Take of oxide of antimony 5 _oz._, acid tartrate of potash in fine powder 6 _oz._, distilled water, 2 pints. Mix the oxide of antimony and acid tartrate of potash with sufficient distilled water to form a paste, and set aside for 24 hours. Then add the remainder of the water, and boil for a quarter of an hour, stirring frequently. Filter, and set aside the clear filtrate to crystallise. Pour off the mother-liquor, evaporate to one third, and set aside, that more crystals may form. Dry the crystals on filtering paper at the temperature of the air.

_Char. and Tests._ In colourless transparent crystals exhibiting triangular facets, soluble in water, and less so in proof spirit. It decrepitates and blackens upon the application of heat. Its solution in water gives with hydrochloric acid a white precipitate, soluble in excess, and which is not formed if tartaric acid be previously added. Twenty grains dissolve without residue in a fluid ounce of distilled water at 60 deg., and the solution gives with sulphuretted hydrogen an orange precipitate which, when washed and dried at 212 deg., weighs 9.91 grains.

_Phys. eff., Doses, &c._ Externally tartar emetic acts as a powerful local irritant, causing a pustular eruption, which permanently marks the skin; for this purpose it is used in the form of solution, ointment, or plaster. Internally, in small doses (1/16 to 1/8, or even 1/6 gr.), it acts as a diaphoretic and expectorant; in somewhat larger doses (1/6 to 1/2 gr.) it excites nausea, and sometimes vomiting, occasioning depression and relaxation, especially of the muscular fibre; in larger doses (1 to 2 or 3 gr.) it acts as an emetic and sudorific (and often as a purge), depressing the nervous functions, and producing a feeling of feebleness, exhaustion, and relaxation, greater than that caused by other emetics; in certain doses (1/2 to 3, or even 4 gr.), it is used as a sedative and antiphlogistic, to reduce the force of the circulation, _&c._; in excessive doses it acts as an irritant poison, and has in some instances caused death; and even small doses, frequently administered and long continued, have brought on a state of weakness, prostration, and distaste for food, which has led to a fatal termination. It is usually exhibited dissolved in distilled water, either with or without the addition of a little simple syrup. In acute rheumatism, inflammation of the lungs or pleura, chorea, hydrocephalus, and apoplexy, it is said to have been given in doses of 2 to 4, or even 6 gr., with advantage, by Laennec, Rasori, and others; but these extreme doses are not always safe, and cannot be commendable when smaller ones (1/4 to 1/2 gr., repeated every two hours) appear equally beneficial, and distress the patient less.[73] In doses of 1/2 gr. to 3/4 gr. each, combined with calomel, it is a powerful and excellent alterative in acute rheumatism and many skin diseases. Of all our sudorifics it is perhaps the most valuable, and the one most generally available. Triturated with 16 to 20 times its weight of sulphate of potassa, it forms an excellent substitute for antimonial powder and James's powder, as a diaphoretic, in doses of 2 to 4 gr.

[Footnote 73: "In consequence of the violent vomiting" (and it might be added--prostration) "which (even) 1 gr. has sometimes produced, I have found patients positively refuse to continue the use of the medicine." Pereira 'Th. & M. M.,' 4th ed., i, 752.]

Whenever much gastric or intestinal irritation is present, tartar emetic should be avoided, or very cautiously administered, and then combined with an opiate, or some other sedative. It should also be given with caution to children; as, according to Messrs Goodlad and Noble, even in small doses it sometimes acts as a poison on them.

In _veterinary medicine_ it is employed to promote diaphoresis and expectoration, and to reduce arterial action, particularly in fevers, and catarrhal affections, the dose for HORSES being 20 gr. to 1 dr., or even occasionally _1-1/2_ dr., in gruel, thrice daily; also sometimes as a diuretic and vermifuge, in doses of 1 to 2 dr., combined with tin-filings, for 2 or 3 successive days, followed by a purge of aloes. The usual dose for CATTLE is 20 gr. to 1 dr.; SHEEP, 5 or 6 to 20 gr.; SWINE (chiefly as an emetic), 2 to 5 or 6 gr.; DOGS (chiefly as an emetic), 1 to 3 gr. It is sometimes, though seldom, used externally, as a counter-irritant, in chest affections, &c.; but its employment thus requires caution.

_Pois., &c._ That from large doses has been already noticed under ANTIMONY (which _see_). In poisoning the treatment is the entire disuse of all antimonials, followed by tonics, a light nutritious diet, the use of lemon-juice or ripe fruit, a little wine, warm baths, and mild restoratives generally.

=Antimony, Tar'tarised.= See ANTIMONY, TARTARATED.

=Antimony, Vit'rified.= See ANTIMONY, GLASS OF.

=ANTI-MIASMATICUM.= A disinfecting powder, manufactured first in Berlin in 1866, and described as "prepared by steam." Quicklime slaked with a solution of sulphate of iron and mixed with turf ashes, also probably containing some carbolic acid. Fluid anti-miasmaticum is a solution of sulphate of iron in impure acetic acid. (Hager.)

=ANTIPHLOGIS'TIC= (-flo-j[)i]s'-). _Syn._ ANTIPHLOGIS'TICUS, L.; ANTIPHLOGISTIQUE, Fr.; ANTIPHLOGISTISCH, Ger. In _medicine_, the common epithet of remedies, agents, and treatment (ANTIPHLOGIS'TICS; ANTIPHLOGISTICA, L.), which lessen inflammatory action, or allay the excited state of the system which accompanies it. Of these the principal are bleeding, purging, a low diet, cooling beverages (as water and acidulous drinks), and sedatives generally.

=ANTIPSILOTHRON=, for preventing loss of hair (Hegewald, Berlin). A brownish-yellow, clear, pleasant-smelling liquid, which consists of a filtered extract of 2.5 grms. of nutgalls, with 50 grms. strong spirit and 30 grms. water; perfumed with several ethereal oils. The liquid is not made turbid by dilution with water. Sold in square bottles containing about 80 grms. The directions strongly recommend the supplementary use of a Swiss "vegetable oil," which probably Switzerland has never seen. (Hager.)

=ANTI-RHEUMATIC DROPS= (Roll, Amsterdam). A turbid, dark-brown liquid, which consists of a solution of spirituous extract of aconite in a decoction of couch-grass root, and to which some tincture of opium with saffron and oil of valerian have been added.

=ANTI-RHEUMATIC SALVE, Mrs HUNGERFORD'S= (Wedecke, Berlin). Recommended for acute and chronic rheumatism, gout, and nervous pains. Camphor, 1 grm.; carbolic acid, 1 grm.; simple cerate, 12 grms. (Schaedler.)

=ANTISCORBU'TIC= (-skor-b[=u]'-). _Syn._ ANTISCORBU'TICUS, L.; ANTISCORBUTIQUE, Fr.; ANTISCORBUTISCH, GUT WIDER DEN SCHARBOCK, Ger. Good against scurvy. In _medicine_, an epithet of remedies, agents, &c. (ANTISCORBU'TICS; ANTISCORBU'TICA, L.), used in scurvy. Lemon-juice, ripe fruit, milk, the salts of potassa, green vegetables, potatoes, meal-bread, fresh meat, and raw or lightly boiled eggs, belong to this class.

=ANTISEP'TIC.= _Syn._ ANTISEP'TICUS, L.; ANTISEPTIQUE, Fr.; ANTISEPTISCH, FAeULNISSWIDRIG, Ger. An epithet of substances, agents, &c. (ANTISEP'TICS; ANTISEP'TICA, L.), that impede, arrest, or prevent putrefaction. The principal antiseptics in common use are culinary salt, saltpetre, spices, sugar, vinegar, carbolic acid, creasote, and alcohol; to which may be added intense cold, desiccation, and the exclusion of air. Among ANTISEPTIC MEDICINES, bark, dilute acids, quinine, wine, spirits, camphor, charcoal, and yeast, take the first rank. See PUTREFACTION, SOLUTIONS (Antiseptic), &c.

=ANTISPASMOD'IC= (-sp[)a]z-). _Syn._ ANTISPAS'TIC; ANTISPASMOD'ICUS, L.; ANTISPASMODIQUE, Fr.; KRAMPESTILLEND, Ger. In _medicine_, an epithet of substances and agents (ANTISPASMOD'ICS; ANTISPASMOD'ICA, L.) which allay spasms and convulsions. It is frequently incorrectly applied to anodynes and narcotics, which soothe pain, but do not repress muscular spasm. Ammonia, assaf[oe]tida, bark, camphor, castor, chalybeates, chloral hydrate, chloroform, ether, Indian hemp and cannabine, musk, opium, saffron, and valerian, with many other similar substances, are regarded as antispasmodics.

=ANTI-SPASMODIC SYRUP=, for hooping-cough (Dessaga, Strasburg). A pleasant syrup, leaving a slightly sharp taste, containing a little carbonate of potash, and faintly coloured with rosaniline. (Hager.)

=ANTISUDIN=, a remedy for sweaty feet (Mandowski, Annaberg). Powdered alum. (Hager.)

=ANTS= ([)a]nts). See ANT, FORMIC ACID, GARDENING, INSECTS, &c.

=AORT'A= [L., Ger.] _Syn._ AORTE, Fr. In _anatomy_, the main trunk of the arterial system, arising immediately from the left ventricle of the heart, and giving origin to all the other arteries of the body, except the pulmonary artery and its ramifications, which permeate the air-vesicles of the lungs.

=AP'ATITE= (-t[=i]te). In _mineralogy_, native tricalcium phosphate (phosphate of lime). It is found in Devonshire and Cornwall, and abundantly in Spain, whence it is imported for use as manure, and recently particularly for the manufacture of ARTIFICIAL GUANO. Its powder phosphoresces on burning coals. It differs from phosphorite in not containing fluorine.

Apatite (phosphate of lime of similar constitution to bone-earth, Ca_{3}(PO_{4})_{2}) is found in every fertile soil, and of which it is an essential ingredient.

=APE''RIENT= ([)a]-p[=e]re'-[)e]-[)e]nt; -p[)e]r'-, as marked by Mayne and Smart, though etym. correct, is less usual). _Syn._ APER'ITIVE (-t[)i]v); APER'IENS, L.; APERITIF, Fr.; ABFUeHREND, OeFFNEND, Ger. In _medicine_, opening, laxative, gently purgative; usually applied as an epithet to substances and agents (APE'RIENTS; APERIEN'TIA, APERITI'VA, L.) which, in moderate doses, and under ordinary circumstances, gently, but completely, open the bowels; and in this respect rank between the simple laxatives on the one hand, and the stronger purgatives and cathartics on the other. Among these may be named as examples--Aloes (when combined with soap or aromatics), Castile soap, castor oil, compound extract of colocynth (in small doses), compound rhubarb pill, confection of senna, cream of tartar, Epsom salts, Glauber's salt, phosphate of soda (tasteless purging salt), pil. rufi, seidlitz powders, cold-water compress over the abdomen, &c. Several of these, in larger doses, become active purgatives or cathartics. See PURGATIVES, also DRAUGHTS, MIXTURES, PILLS, &c.

=A'PIOL= (-pe-[=o]le; or -[)o]l). _Prep._ The soft alcoholic extract of parsley-seed is either digested or agitated for some time with ether; after sufficient repose in a cool place, the ethereal solution is decanted, and the ether removed by distillation; the residuum is purified by solution in rectified spirit, and agitation first with a little litharge, and next with animal charcoal; after which the spirit is removed by distillation from the filtered solution.

_Prop., &c._ A yellow, oily, non-volatile liquid, having a peculiar smell, and a highly disagreeable taste; soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform; insoluble in water; and coloured red by strong sulphuric acid. Sp. gr. 1.078. In small doses it excites the pulse and nervous system; and in larger ones it causes headache, giddiness, vertigo, &c. It is said to be powerfully febrifuge, and has been highly extolled by MM. Joret and Homalle as a substitute for quinine in intermittents.[74] It has also been found useful in intermittent neuralgias and the nocturnal sweats of phthisis. _Dose_, 5 to 15 drops, in capsules.

[Footnote 74: According to Drs G. O. Rees and A. S. Taylor, 66 out of 116 cases were cured by it in their practice; but according to the French Commission, the cures are only 42%, and in many of these only temporary.]

=A'PIS.= [L.] The bee. In _entomology_, a genus of hymenopterous insects of the family _anthoph'ila_ or _mellif'era_, section _apia''riae_. (Latreille.) The mouth has two jaws, and a proboscis infolded in a double sheath; the wings are four; the two foremost covering the hinder ones when at rest. The sexes are three--prolific females or queens, unprolific females or workers commonly (termed neuters), and males or drones. The females and working bees have a sting. The honey or hive bee is distinguished from the other species of this genus by having the femora of the posterior pair of legs furnished with a smooth and concave plate on the outer side, and fringed with hair, forming a basket or pocket for the reception and conveyance of the pollen of plants; and also in being destitute of spines at the extremity. The Linnaean genus includes nearly 60 species. See BEE.

=Apis Mellif'ica.= [Linn.] The honey bee.

=APLANAT'IC.= In _optics_, applied as an epithet to lenses, of which the figure, as well as the materials of which they are composed, are such that, with a given index of refraction, the amount of aberration, both chromatic and spherical, is insignificant, or the least that can be possibly obtained. See ABERRATION, ACHROMATISM, LENS, &c.

=APLOTAXIS AURICULATA.= Nat. ord., COMPOSITAE. A plant growing in the North Western Himalayas. It was first shown by the late Dr Hugh Falconer to be the source of the _Costus Arabicus_ of the ancients, which Dr Royle had previously identified with the _Patchuck_ or _Koot_ root met with in the Indian bazaars. Dr Irvine states that formerly, when opium was not produced in Rajwarra, this root was extensively smoked as a stimulant. He adds, that it is said to be a narcotic when thus used, and that formerly great quantities went to China for smoking purposes. It is chiefly used as a perfume, as for protection of bales of cloth against insects.

=APO-.= [Gr.] In _composition_, from; denoting derivation, separation, opposition, or departure. It is a common prefix in words from the Greek, and is etymologically the same as the latin _ab-_.

=APOC'NYINE= (-p[)o]s'-e-n[)i]n). _Syn._ APOCYNI'NA, L. A bitter, crystallisable substance, found in _ap[)o]''cynum cannabi'num_ (Linn.), or the Indian hemp of North America. See ALKALOID.

=APOMORPHINE.= _Syn._ APOMORPHIA. C_{17}H_{17}NO_{2}. A remarkable base, obtained from morphia by Matthiessen and Wright. It is possessed of powerful emetic properties. Introduce into a strong glass tube, closed at one end, 1 part of pure morphia, and 20 parts of pure hydrochloric acid; these should not occupy more than one fifteenth of the tube. Seal the open end, and place the glass tube in another of cast iron, closed with a screw, and heat the whole in an oil-bath at a temperature between 140 deg. and 150 deg. C., during three hours. After cooling, the morphine has been converted into apomorphine, which can be purified as follows:

The tube is opened, and the liquid it contains diluted with water and neutralised by bicarbonate of soda; then an excess of this salt being added, the apomorphine is precipitated with any morphia that may remain. The liquid is decanted, and the precipitate is exhausted with ether or chloroform, which dissolves the apomorphine only. To the ethereal or chloroformic liquor are afterwards added a few drops of hydrochloric acid to saturate the base. Crystallised apomorphine then separates spontaneously, and is deposited on the sides of the vessel. These crystals are washed rapidly with cold water, and purified by crystallisation from boiling water. The apomorphine can be obtained by precipitating a concentrated solution of this hydrochlorate by bicarbonate of soda; the precipitate is white, but turns green rapidly in the air. It should be washed with a little cold water, and promptly dried to avoid this alteration.

=AP'OPLEXY= (-pl[)e]ks-e). _Syn._ APOPLEX'IA, APOPLEX'IS, L. (from [Greek: apo-plesso], I astound, or strike down, Gr.); APOPLEXIE, Fr.; SCHLAGFLUSS, Ger. A disease so named on account of the suddenness and violence of its attacks.

_Symp._ Sudden suspension or loss of the powers of sense and motion; the heart continuing to beat and the lungs to act, but generally with difficulty. During the fit the patient usually lies in a state resembling sleep, or the stupor induced by drunkenness. In some cases there is paralysis of one side of the body, and convulsions of the other. In the sanguineous or sthenic variety, or the one which is most common, the pulse is hard and full, the countenance flushed and bloated, and the breathing stertorous; in the serous or asthenic variety, the pulse is feeble, the skin cold, and the countenance pale. "The presence of convulsions is indicative of great danger." (Dr Cheyne.) In both cases the patient is generally found lying on his back, in a state of complete insensibility, which defies every effort to arouse him; the eyelids almost cover the eyes, which are fixed and devoid of intelligence, whilst the pupils scarcely change their dimensions under the varying influence of light and darkness; the lips are usually purple or very dark; and both the lips and nostrils have generally a slight trembling movement communicated to them by the deep and laborious breathing of the patient.

_Treat._ In this disease, more than perhaps any other, medical aid should be immediately sought. In the mean time the patient should be placed in an easy posture, in a well-ventilated apartment, and in the sanguineous or sthenic variety, in as erect a position as possible; but in the asthenic variety, when the face is pale, with the head and shoulders only moderately elevated. The neckcloth should be removed, and the clothes loosened, and the head and neck laid bare. Crowding round the patient should be particularly avoided, and a free exposure to fresh air secured in every possible way. When medical aid cannot be immediately procured, blood should be freely taken (say 15 to 20 fl. oz., or more) from the arm, by any person competent to do so; unless the face be pale, and the pulse feeble, when cupping at the back of the neck, or leeches behind the ears, should be substituted for ordinary bleeding. Cold water should be dashed on the head, the legs placed in pretty warm water, and blisters or mustard poultices applied between the shoulders. In the mean time 8 or 10 gr. of calomel may be administered, and its action subsequently promoted by the use of saline purgatives and stimulating clysters. When there is a difficulty of swallowing, a couple of drops of croton oil may be applied to the tongue; or it may be poured on sugar, before placing it in the mouth. Indeed, this mode of relieving the bowels should be adopted in all extreme cases, as soon as possible. Emetics should be carefully avoided. The only exception to this rule is, when the stomach is distended by a heavy undigested meal; when an emetic is hazarded as the less of two evils. Nasal stimulants, as smelling salts or aromatic vinegar, should also be avoided. If the bleeding has not afforded some relief, it may be repeated in from 3 to 5 hours. When these means prove successful, the remainder of the treatment may consist in the administration of mild purgatives and diaphoretics, and the avoidance of stimulating food or drinks, and of other like exciting agents.

_Prev., &c._ The premonitory symptoms of apoplexy are giddiness, pain and swimming in the head, loss of memory, faltering in speech or using one word for another, diminished sensibility either of body or mind, or both, drowsiness, noises in the ears, specks floating before the eyes, nightmare, frightful dreams, laborious respiration, heavy yet unrefreshing sleep, an inclination to sigh without any moral cause, cramp in the legs at night when there is no irritation of the bowels to account for them, &c. &c. When any of these symptoms occur (especially in "free livers") aperient medicines and a light diet should be at once had recourse to, and wine, beer, and spirits avoided as the most dangerous poisons. If the symptoms increase or continue, active purgation, a still lower diet, and even bleeding may be had recourse to. Pure air, early rising, regular habits, gentle muscular exercise, and loose, easy clothing, are powerful preventives of apoplexy. By attending to the admonitions of nature, and adopting the simple means which are within the reach of all, it is indisputable that many fatal cases of apoplexy might have been avoided, and a still larger number lessened in severity.

Robust, plethoric persons, with short thick necks, are universally accounted the most liable to apoplexy. In them the fit generally comes on without warning; and when once attacked with this malady they are especially liable to its recurrence. But it must be recollected that the possessor of no particular constitution or temperaments, to whatever class it may belong, enjoys immunity from the attacks of apoplexy--a disease more fatal among Englishmen than the natives of other countries.

_Obs._ A loss of consciousness exists alike in apoplexy, epilepsy, narcotism from opium and opiates, complete intoxication, and common fainting. These may be distinguished by observing that--in EPILEPSY there are almost always convulsions, and more or less rigidity of the limbs, with (generally) foaming at the mouth and gnashing or grinding of the teeth, and frequently, the utterance of noises often not unlike the barking of a dog; whilst stertor and laborious breathing, as a rule, are absent:--in the stupor produced by OPIUM, MORPHIA, &c., the face is pale, calm, and perspiring, and the respiration is tranquil and without stertor; whilst the patient can, in almost all cases, be temporarily aroused to consciousness and kept awake by being made to walk between two attendants; the odour of opium or laudanum is also frequently perceptible in the breath or ejected matter:--in the insensibility of INTOXICATION the pulse is usually feeble, and the patient may be temporarily roused by violent shouting in the ear, or by the application of nasal stimulants, particularly the common smelling-bottle (if strong); and the breath, and ejected matter (if any), smells of liquor:--in ordinary FAINTING the face and lips are pale, the breathing quiet, the pulse scarcely perceptible, the limbs mobile, and the fit lasts only a few minutes.

_Treatment for Horses._ Give in the first place a strong stimulant internally, and apply mustard embrocations to the belly and spine. Bleed, should the pulse be small and indistinct.--_In the parturient apoplexy of cows._ Bleed in the very earliest stage; give salts and croton; diluents; no solid food; let the body and legs be rubbed and clothed; use catheter; apply ice and refrigerants to head and neck; give frequent clysters of linseed gruel; remove milk every hour, and apply rubefacients to the spine.

=APOSEP'EDIN= (-d[)i]n). A substance found in putrid cheese, and supposed to be a product of the fermentation of caseine. Mulder and others have shown that it is merely impure leucine.

=AP'OSTEME=[dagger] (-t[=e]me or -t[)e]m). _Syn._ AP'OSTEM[dagger]; APOSTE'MA[dagger], L. An abscess or collection of purulent matter in any part of the body.

=APPARA'TUS.= [L., Eng.; class. pl., appara'tus; Eng. pl., appara'tuses--Webster.] _Syn._ APPAREIL, Fr.; APPARAT, GERAeTHSCHAFT, Ger. In technical language, the instruments, utensils, and mechanical arrangements, employed in any operation, experiment, or observation, or in any art or trade.

=Apparatus.= In _anatomy_ and _physiology_, a catenation of organs all ministering to one general purpose or function; as the digestive apparatus, respiratory a., &c.

=APP'ETITE.= _Syn._ APPETI'TUS, L.; APETIT, Fr.; APETIT, BEGIERDE, ESSLUST, Ger. The natural desire of gratification, whether corporeal or mental. In _physiology_, the instinctive inclination to perform certain natural functions, as those of digestion and generation; but appr., the natural desire for food. In _psychology_ and _philosophy_, the APPETITES (pl.) are affections of the mind directed to general objects, as fame, glory, or riches; these when subsequently turned to particular objects, constitute the PASSIONS, as envy, gratitude, revenge, or love. In its common and unqualified sense, the word appetite is confined to the desire for food; and in that sense chiefly concerns us here.

The sensations of hunger and thirst are seated in the stomach, and their recurrence at proper intervals is a necessary consequence of vital action, and is essential to the existence of the body in a state of vigour and health. Any alteration from their normal condition indicates diseased action of the stomach, or of the nervous system or circulation; or it may result from vicious habits. A healthy appetite for food is usually a most certain indication that nature requires a supply; but in the indulgence of this appetite certain regulations should be observed, and a boundary should be put to mere animal gratification. By slowly eating and thoroughly masticating the food, the stomach becomes gradually and equally distended, and the individual feels himself satisfied only after he has taken a quantity sufficient for the nourishment of his body; but, on the contrary, if the food be swallowed rapidly, and without proper mastication, it presses heavily and roughly against the sides of the stomach, and induces a sensation of fulness before a sufficient meal has been made. The consequences are, that hunger soon returns, and the party must either have recourse to food between the usual time of meals, or suffer the consequences of imperfect nutrition. Exercise and labour, within certain limits, promote the healthy functions of the stomach and bowels, through the action of the muscles of the abdomen increasing the peristaltic motion of these viscera. An inordinate appetite in persons leading a sedentary life is generally indicative of the food passing off imperfectly digested, or of the coats of the stomach being relaxed, or even diseased. More food is required in winter than in summer, in consequence of the greater radiation of the heat of the body; and hence the increased appetite which is usually an accompaniment of that season. In persons who lead a more sedentary life in winter than in summer, either no change of this kind occurs, or the reverse is the case; the want of exercise producing a diminution of appetite corresponding to the increase of it that would otherwise result from the seasonal change of atmospheric temperature, or even greater. Deviations of the appetite from the healthy standard, or the normal condition, constitutes DEFECTIVE or DISEASED APPETITE.

Deficiency or loss of appetite (AN'OREXY; ANOREX'IA, L.) generally arises from disordered stomach; but is also frequently symptomatic of other affections, particularly dyspepsia, biliousness, feverishness, and organic diseases of the lungs, stomach, and primae viae. It is a common consequence of sedentary life, and of extreme mental anxiety, excitement, or exhaustion. The _treatment_ will necessarily vary with the cause. In simple spontaneous cases the appetite may generally be improved by outdoor exercise, and the occasional use of mild aperients, especially salines and aloetics. When the affection arises from the stomach being loaded with bile and crudities, an emetic in the evening, followed by a stomachic purgative the next morning, with an occasional aperient afterwards, will seldom fail to effect a cure. With heavy drinkers a gradual reduction of the quantity of the strong liquors usually consumed is generally followed by a restoration of the appetite and digestive powers. The change thus gradually effected in the course of 8 or 10 days is often almost magical. The excessive use of liquors--especially of spirits, wine, or beer, or even of warm weak ones, as tea, coffee, soup, &c.--is always prejudicial. Hence drunkards are particularly subject to defective appetite; and teetotallers and water-drinkers to a heartiness often almost approaching voracity. See BILE, DYSPEPSIA, &c.

Depraved appetite (PI'CA, L.), or a desire for unnatural food, as chalk, cinders, dirt, soap, tallow, &c., when an idiopathic affection or when depending on vicious tastes or habits (as is often the case in childhood), it may be treated by admixing very small doses of tartar emetic or ipecacuanha with the objectionable food or articles. When symptomatic of pregnancy, a plentiful and nutritious diet, including the red meats, with a little good malt liquor or wine, may be adopted with advantage. When symptomatic of chlorosis, to this diet may be added the use of chalybeate tonics, and sea or tepid bathing; when of dyspepsia, a light diet, bitter tonics, free exercise, fresh air, and cold bathing, will generally effect a cure.

Insatiable appetite (CANINE APPETITE, VORACITY; BULIM'IA, L.) is generally symptomatic of pregnancy, or worms, or diseases of the stomach or the viscera immediately connected with it; but sometimes exists as a separate disease, and is even said to be occasionally hereditary. When it occurs in childhood, worms may be suspected, and vermifuges administered. In adults, a common cause is imperfect digestion, arising from stomach complaints or gluttony, when the languor and gnawing pains of disease are mistaken for hunger. In this case the diet should be regulated and the bowels kept gently relaxed with mild aperients, and tonics (as bark and steel), or bitters (as orange-peel and gentian), may be administered. When pregnancy or vicious habits are the cause, the treatment indicated under DEPRAVED APPETITE may be adopted. When the affection is occasioned by acidity in the stomach, an emetic, followed by the moderate use of absorbents or antacids, will generally effect a cure. In those cases depending on a highly increased power of the stomach in effecting rapid and complete digestion, its contractile force and morbid activity may be often allayed by the copious use of salad oil, fat meat, &c., by the cautious use of opiates, or by the use, or freer use, of tobacco (either smoked or chewed, or both). A cathartic daily, with a dose of blue-pill, or mercurial powder, every second or third day, is also often advantageous. 25 or 30 drops of solution of potassa, in broth, twice or thrice daily, has also been recommended. See BILE, DYSPEPSIA, WORMS, &c.

=APP'LE= ([)a]p'l). _Syn._ MA'LUM, PO'MUM, L.; POMME, Fr.; APFEL, Ger.; APPEL, Dut.; APLE, Swed. This well-known fruit is the product of the cultivated varieties of _pyrus malus_ (Linn.), or the crab-apple of our hedges; a tree of the nat. ord. Rosaceae. The date of its amelioration from the wild state is probably very remote, as several kinds are noticed by Pliny in a manner that would lead to the inference of a high antiquity. Pippins, or 'seedling improved apples,' are said to have been introduced into this country from the South of Europe towards the end of the 16th century. Don enumerated 1400 varieties of the cultivated apple; there are now probably above 1650. Rennet apples (POMA RENETTIA) are those ordered in the P. Cod. to be used in pharmacy. In _botany_ and _composition_, the term apple (POMUM) is used to designate any large, round, fleshy fruit, consisting of a 'pericarp,' enclosing a tough 'capsule' containing several seeds; as love-apple, pine-apple, &c.

The wood of the apple-tree is much used in turnery; that of the crab-tree is generally preferred by mill-wrights for the teeth of mortise-wheels.

The expressed juice of 1 _cwt._ of ripe apples, after the free acid has been saturated with chalk, yields from 11 to 13 _lbs._ of a very sweet, but uncrystallisable sugar.

Apples have been analysed by Fresenius, and were found to have the following composition:--

SOLUBLE MATTER-- Sugar 7.58 Free acid (reduced to equivalent in malic acid) 1.04 Albuminous substance 0.22 Pectous substances, &c. 2.72 Ash 0.44 INSOLUBLE MATTER-- Seeds 0.38 Skins 1.44 Pectose 1.14 [Ash from insoluble matter included in weights given] [0.13] Water 85.04 ---------- 100.00

=Love'-apple=[double-dagger]. The tomato.

=Mad'-apple=[double-dagger]. The larger Mecca or Bussorah gall. They are also called DEAD-SEA APPLES, A. OF SODOM, &c. See GALLS.

=Acid of Apples.= Malic acid.

=A'PRICOT.= _Syn._ A'PRICOCK[dagger]; ARMENI'ACUM MA'LUM, PRAECO'TIUM, L.; ABRICOT, Fr.; APRIKOSE, Ger. The fruit of _armeniaca vulgaris_ (Lamb.; _prunus armeniaca_, Linn.), a rosaceous tree indigenous in Armenia, Cachmere, &c., and now cultivated in every temperate region of the world. Under the name of _praecox_ it was known in Italy in the time of Dioscorides; but it was not introduced into England until the reign of Henry VIII (A.D. 1540). Its cultivation has since been zealously attended to by our gardeners, and it is now one of the choicest and most esteemed of our wall-fruits, and is particularly valued for desserts. It is reputed to be nutritious, easy of digestion, laxative, and stomachic. The seeds are bitter and saponaceous.

Apricots are principally eaten as gathered; but are also dried, candied, and made into jam. In _confectionery_, the Brussels and Breda varieties are preferred to the larger and sweeter kinds. See FRUIT, PRESERVES, &c.

=Apricots, Briancon'.= The fruit of _armeniaca brigantiaca_ (Pers.). Acidulous; seeds or kernels, by expression, yield HUILE DE MARMOTE.

=A'QUA= (-kw[)a]). [L.] Water.--AQUA DESTILLA'TA or A. DISTILLA'TA, is distilled water; A. FLUVIA'LIS or A. EX FLU'MINE (-[)i]n-e), river-water; A. FONTA'NA, spring-water; A. MARI'NA or A. MA''RIS, sea-water; A. MINERA'LIS, mineral water; A. NIVA'LIS or A. EX NI'VE, snow-water; A. PLUVIA'LIS, A. PLU''VIA, or A. IM'BRIUM, rain-water, soft water; A. PUTEA'NA or A. EX PU'TEO, well, pump, or hard water.

=Aqua.= In _chemistry_ and _pharmacy_, this word was formerly applied to numerous preparations and articles now included under other heads. See EAU, ESPRITS, HAIR-DYES, LIQUORS, SOLUTIONS, WATERS, &c.

=Aquafor'tis.= [L.] Literally, 'strong water,' the name given by the alchemists to the acid obtained by distilling a mixture of nitre and sulphate of iron. The word is still commonly employed by mechanics and artists to designate the impure fuming nitric acid of commerce, and is thus also retained in trade. By these parties concentrated nitric acid is called 'spirit of nitre.' 'Double aquafortis' merely differs from the other in strength. See NITRIC ACID.

=Aqua Amarella.= A compound for hair-dyeing; is prepared with sugar of lead, common salt, and water.

=Aqua Grae'ca, A. Orienta'lis.= See HAIR-DYES.

=Aqua Mari'na.= [L.] The beryl[dagger].

=Aqua Mirab'ilis=[dagger]. [L.] Literally, 'wonderful water,' a cordial and carminative spirit distilled from aromatics, and formerly reputed to possess many virtues.

=Aqua Re'gia.= [L.] Nitrohydrochloric acid, originally so called, by the alchemists, from its power of dissolving gold.

=Aqua Toffa'nia.= [L.] See ACQUETTA.

=Aqua Vi'tae=[dagger]. [L.] Literally, 'water of life,' a name familiarly applied to the leading native distilled spirit. Thus, it is whiskey in Scotland, usquebaugh in Ireland, geneva in Holland, and eau de vie or brandy in France. When the term is employed in England, French brandy is understood to be referred to. See ALCOHOL, &c.

=Aqua Vitae Aromatico-Amara.= (F. Bolle, formerly J. B. Claude, Berlin). Galangal ginger, [=a][=a], 2 parts; orange berries, European centaury, gentian, cinnamon, angelica, [=a][=a], 1 part; alcohol, 30 parts; water, 26 parts. Digest and filter. (Hager.)

=AQUARIUM.= A tank or vessel made of glass, containing either salt or fresh water, and in which either marine or fresh-water plants and animals are kept in a living state. In principle, the aquarium depends upon the interdependence of animal and vegetable life. The carbonic acid evolved by the animals is decomposed under the influence of solar light by the plants, and the oxygen necessary for the maintenance of the life of the animals is thus eliminated, whilst the carbonic acid essential to the existence of the plants is supplied by the animals. The aquarium, therefore, must be stocked both with plants and animals, and for the welfare of both, something like a proper proportion should exist between them. But even under these conditions the water should be frequently aerated, whether the aquarium contains fresh or salt-water. This may be done by simply blowing through a glass tube which reaches to near the bottom, or, still better, in the following manner:--Take a glass syringe which can be easily worked. Having filled it with water, hold it with the nozzle about two inches from the surface of the water in the aquarium, into which the contents are to be discharged quickly and with a sort of jerk. By this means a multitude of small bubbles are forced down into the fluid. This operation should be several times repeated. A simpler method is to take out a portion of the water from the aquarium and to pour it back again from a height. When, as not infrequently happens, the aquarium is provided with a fountain, this of course ensures a continual change of water; but even where this is the case the joint presence both of plants and animals is advantageous to the health of both. When sea-water cannot be procured for the marine aquarium a substitute for it may be made as follows:--Mix with 970,000 grains of rain-water 27,000 grains of chloride of sodium, 3600 of chloride of magnesium, 750 of chloride of potassium, 29 of bromide of magnesium, 2300 of sulphate of magnesia, 1400 of sulphate of lime, 35 of carbonate of lime, and 5 of iodide of sodium. These all being finely powdered and mixed first, are to be stirred into the water, from which a stream of air may be caused to pass from the bottom until the whole is dissolved. On no account is the water to be boiled, or even to be heated. Into this water, when clear, the rocks and seaweed may be introduced. As soon as the latter are in a flourishing state the animals may follow. Care must be taken not to have too many of these, and to remove immediately any dead ones. The loss that takes place from evaporation is to be made up by adding clear rain-water. The presence of a number of molluscous animals, such as the common periwinkle, is necessary for the consumption of the vegetable matter continually given off by the growing plants, and of the multitudinous spores, particularly of the confervae, which would otherwise soon fill the water, rendering it greenish or brownish, and turbid. In a fresh-water aquarium the bottom should be covered with a layer of fine sand and shingle, and in this the weeds should be planted. The best for this purpose are _valesneria spiralis_, _anacharis_, and _chara vulgaris_. A few water-snails should also be put in; the best are _planorbis_, _paludina_, and _amphibia glutinosa_. One plant and two or three snails should be used for each gallon of water put into the aquarium.

=AQUATINT'A.= [L., Fr.] _Syn._ A'QUATINT, Eng.; ACQUATINTA, It. A species of etching on copper, producing an effect resembling a drawing in Indian ink.

=A'QUEOUS= (-kwe-). _Syn._ AQUOSE'*; A'QUEUS, AQUO'SUS, L.; AQUEUX, Fr.; _Waesserig_, _Waesserhaltig_, Ger. Watery; made with, containing, or resembling water. In _chemistry_ and _pharmacy_, applied to solutions, extracts, &c., prepared with water.

=AR'ABESQUE= (-b[)e]sk). [Fr.] In the Arabian manner; more particularly applied to a species of capricious, fantastic, and imaginative ornamentation, consisting of foliage, stalks, plants, &c., to the entire exclusion of the figures of animals. The designs of this class, now so much employed in cloth and leather binding, are produced by the pressure of hot plates or rollers having the pattern engraved on them. See MORESQUE.

=AR'ABIN= (-b[)i]n). C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}. [Eng., Fr.] _Syn._ SOLUBLE GUM; ARABI'NA, L. The pure soluble principle of gum acacia.

_Prep._ Dissolve white gum arabic in pure water, filter the solution, and add alcohol as long as it produces curdiness; collect the precipitate, and dry it by a gentle heat.

_Prop. &c._ Very soluble in water; basic acetate of lead, alcohol, and ether, precipitate it from its solutions. It is isomeric with crystallised cane sugar. It possesses no practical superiority over the best gum arabic, except its paler colour.

=AR'ABLE= ([)a]bl). _Syn._ ARAB'ILIS, L.; ARABILE, LABOURABLE, Fr.; PFLUeGBAR, Ger. In _agriculture_, fit for or under tillage or aeration; ploughed.

=Arable Land.= In _agriculture_, land which is chiefly or wholly cultivated by the plough, as distinguished from grass-land, wood-land, common pasture, and waste. See LAND, SOILS, &c.

=ARACHIS HYPOGAEA.= _Syn._ GROUND NUT PLANT. _Hab._ Cultivated throughout the tropics of the Old and New World. _Officinal part._ The oil of the seeds (Oleum Arachis, Ground Nut Oil). Obtained by expression. Limpid, clear, light yellow, almost inodorous, or with a faint smell and bland taste. Sp. gr. 0.916.--_Prop. and Uses._ This oil affords a cheap and excellent substitute for olive oil for pharmaceutical and other purposes.

The following notice, by the Editor of this work, appeared in 'The Veterinarian' for October, 1876:--

"Having in the course of my analytical practice had occasion to examine some samples of Marseilles earth-nut cake, I take the opportunity of communicating the results obtained, in the hope of furnishing interesting information respecting a material which is chiefly employed in the sophistication of the more expensive feeding cakes, but which I think might in some instances be with advantage substituted for them.

"Arachis seeds constitute one of the varieties of food termed pulse, and the oil which exists in them to the extent of from 40 to 50 per cent., is rapidly being introduced in the making of soap in this and other countries. It is an article also of the Indian Pharmacop[oe]ia.

"By pressure the seeds yield all but about 7 per cent. of their oil, and the material which remains after the expression of the greater part of the oil is sent into commerce as earth-nut or ground-nut cake.

"Sometimes the husks of the seeds are first removed and only the kernels subjected to pressure for the sake of the oil; the cake so produced is called 'decorticated earth-nut cake,' at other times the entire seeds are subjected to this treatment, and then the resulting cake is known as 'undecorticated earth-nut cake.'

"The following table shows the composition in 100 parts of both descriptions of cake, as well as that of linseed cake of first-rate quality; the last analysis being added for the sake of comparison:--

_Table showing the Centesimal Composition of Decorticated and Undecorticated Earth-nut Cake and Linseed Cake._

Decorticated Undecorticated Linseed Earth-nut Cake. Earth-nut Cake. Cake. Moisture 9.58 9.28 11.72 Fat and heat producers Oil 7.40 6.99 12.00 Starch digestible fibre, &c. 27.63 23.66 25.29 Flesh-formers (albumenoids) 42.81[75] 32.81[76] 32.64 Indigestible fibre 7.87 23.80 11.79 Ash 4.71 3.45 6.47 ------ ------ ------ 100.00 100.00 100.00

[Footnote 75: Containing 6.85 of nitrogen.]

[Footnote 76: Containing 5.25 of nitrogen.]

"From the foregoing analyses it will be seen that both descriptions of earth nut are exceedingly rich in flesh-formers, and that they contain a moderately large amount of oil. They also possess a sweet agreeable flavour, and are, I believe, very digestible. As these may, I am informed, be bought at from L6 to L8 per ton, it is evident that farmers would do well to give earth-nut cakes a trial in the feeding of their stock.

"Pure linseed cake does not contain starch, but in its stead mucilage. The feeding qualities of starch and mucilage are, however, very similar."

=ARAROBA.= _Syn._ ARAROBA POWDER. BAHIA POWDER. GOA POWDER. The pith or medulla of the stem and branches of a leguminous tree (a species of _Centrolobium_) growing in Brazil. It is in extensive use amongst the natives of India, who employ it in affections of the skin. It has been applied with success in shingles and ring-worm, in the form of ointment made as follows:--

Araroba in powder 20 grains. Acetic acid 10 drops. Benzoated lard 1 ounce.

Dr Attfield found the powder to contain from 80 to 84 per cent. of chrysophanic acid, to which substance its remedial powers are doubtless due. It is now the chief source of this acid.

=ARA'TION*.= In _agriculture_, ploughing; culture by ploughing; tillage. Lands in a state of aration' are those under tillage.

=AR'BOR.= [L.] A tree. The seventh family of vegetables in Linnaeus's system. In _anatomy_ and _chemistry_, a term formerly applied to membranes and substances having some real or fancied resemblance to a tree or vegetation. An ar'boret is a little tree; an arborist, or ar'bor[=a]tor[dagger], is one who studies or cultivates trees.

=ARBUTIN.= C_{12}H_{16}O_{7}. A substance obtained by KAWALIER from the leaves of the red bearberry _Arctostophylos uva ursi_, and by ZWENGER and HIMMELMANN from the leaves of a species of winter-green, _Pyrola Umbellata_. It is prepared by precipitating the aqueous decoction of the leaves of either of these plants, with basic acetate of lead, filtering, removing the excess of lead with sulphuretted hydrogen, and either treating the filtrate with animal charcoal and leaving it to crystallise or evaporating and digesting the residue with a mixture of eight parts of ether and one part of alcohol, which dissolves out the arbutin, and deposits it on evaporation in the crystalline state.

=ARCA'NUM= [L.] _Syn._ ARCANE, Fr.; GEHEIMNIS, Ger. A secret. In _alchemy_, a term applied to various preparations without any precise meaning. "Arcanum is a thing secret, incorporeal, and immortal, which can only be known to man by experience; for it is the virtue of each thing, which operates a thousand times more than the thing itself." (Ruland) In _ancient medicine_ and _pharmacy_; a nostrum. The word is still occasionally used in the plural (ARCA'NA, secrets, mysteries), in the titles of books; as, 'Arcana of Chemistry,' a book professing to contain a full exposition of the mysteries of that art.

Among the old chemists, ARCANUM AL'BUM was 'pulvis Viennensis albus virgineus' (see POWDERS); A. BEC'CHICUM, a sweetened aqueous solution of liver of sulphur; A. CORALLI'NUM, red oxide of mercury that had been digested in a solution of potash, washed with water, and then had spirit of wine burnt on it (once a favourite mercurial and escharotic); A. DUPLICA'TUM, sulphate of potash; A. D. CATHOL'ICUM, roots of colchicum and plantain (worn as an amulet against fevers and pestilential diseases); A. LUDEMAN'NI, oxide of zinc; A. TAR'TARI, acetate of potassa; A. VI'TAE, elixir vitae; &c.

=ARCHE'US= (-k[=e]'-[)u]s; [)a]r'*--Mayne). [L.] _Syn._ ARCHAE'US, L. A term invented by Paracelsus, and employed by the alchemists and older physicians, to imply the occult cause of phenomena, as well as the sub-causes or agents by which the effects were accomplished. Van Helmont and Stahl ascribe certain vital functions to the influence and superintendence of a 'spiritus archaeus' or intelligent vital principle. According to others, the powers of 'Archaeus' were indefinitely extended. He or it was an occult power of nature, the artificer of all things, physician-general to the universe, &c. &c., to the utmost bounds of absurdity and confusion.

From this word comes the adj. ARCHE'AL or ARCHAE'AL, hidden, operative.

=ARCH'IL= (artsh'-[)i]l). _Syn._ ARCH'EL*, OR'CHIL; ARCHIL'LA, ORCHIL'LA (ch as k), L.; ORSEILLE, Fr., Ger.; ORICELLO, It. A violet-red, purple or blue colouring matter or dye-stuff, obtained from several species of lichens, but of the finest quality from roccella tinctoria (DC.), and next from r. fuciformis (DC.).

The archil of commerce is met with as a liquid paste, or as a thin liquid dye or stain of more or less intensity. The ordinary archil or orchil of the shops (ORCHIL-LIQUOR) is under the last form; and is known as either BLUE OR RED ARCHIL--distinctions which arise as follows:--

_Prep._ 1. BLUE ARCHIL:--The bruised or coarsely ground lichen is steeped for some time in a mixture of stale urine, or bone-spirit, and lime or milk of lime, or in any similar ammoniacal solution, contained in covered wooden vessels in the cold; the process being repeated until all the colour is extracted.

2. RED OR CRIMSON ARCHIL:--The materials are the same as for the last variety, but rather less milk of lime is used, and the 'steep' is generally made in earthen jars placed in a room heated by steam, technically called a stove. The two kinds merely differ in the degree of their red or violet tint--the addition of a small quantity of lime or alkali to the one, or of an acid to the other, immediately bringing them both to the same shade of colour.

_Prop._ Archil has a disagreeable putrid ammoniacal odour. Its colouring matter is soluble in water, alcohol, urine, ammoniacal and alkaline lyes, and weak acid liquors; alkalies turn it blue, acids red; alum gives with it a brownish-red precipitate, and solution of tin a red one; the alcoholic solution gradually loses its colour when excluded from the air. Its colouring matter consists chiefly of orcein.

_Pur._ Archil is frequently adulterated with extract of logwood, or of Lima or Sapan-wood. It may be tested as follows:--1. A solution of 50 or 60 drops of pure archil in about 3 fl. oz. of water slightly acidulated with acetic acid, almost entirely loses its colour, or presents only a yellowish tinge, when heated to ebullition in a flask along with 50 drops of a fresh solution of protochloride of tin made with 1 part of the salt to 2 parts of water:--2. A drop of fluid extract of logwood treated in the same way, gives a distinct violet tint, which resists several hours' boiling; but when only 3 or 4 per cent. of logwood is present, the boiled liquid has a permanent grey tint:--3. If the boiled liquid retains its red hue, extract of Sapan-wood is present:--4. The boiled liquor, when the archil is pure, re-acquires its colour by exposure to the air, and the addition of an alkali, particularly ammonia; whilst the colour produced by logwood is destroyed only by an alkaline solution of tin, and is restored by acids.

_Uses, &c._ It is employed to tinge the spirit used to fill the tubes of thermometers, and to stain paper, wood, &c. The aqueous solution stains MARBLE, in the cold, of a beautiful violet colour, of considerable permanence when not exposed to a vivid light. "Marble thus tinged preserves its colour unchanged at the end of two years." (Dufay.) Its principal use is, however, in dyeing. By proper management it may be made to produce every shade of pink and crimson to blue and purple. Unfortunately, although the hues it imparts to silk and wool possess an exquisite bloom or lustre, they are far from permanent, and unless well managed, soon decay. It is hence generally employed in combination with other dye-stuffs, or as a finishing bath to impart a bloom to silk or woollens already dyed of permanent colours. In using it as a dye it is added to hot water in the required quantity, and the bath being raised to nearly the boiling-point, the materials are put in and passed through it, until the desired shade is produced. A mordant of alum and tartar is sometimes used, but does not add to the permanence of the colour. Solution of tin added to the bath increases the durability, but turns the colour more on the scarlet. (Hellot.) Milk of lime or salt of tartar is added to darken it; acids or solution of tin to redden it. A beautiful crimson-red is obtained by first passing the stuff through a mordant of tin and tartar, and then through a bath of archil mixed with a very little solution of tin. By the proper management of this dye, lilacs, violets, mallows, rosemary flower, soupes au vin, agates, and many other shades may be produced on silk or cloth, either alone or in conjunction with other dyes to modify it. 1/2 _lb._ of solid archil, or its equivalent in a liquid form, will dye 1 to 2 _lb._ of cloth. HERB-ARCHIL, it is asserted, will bear boiling, and gives a more durable tint than the other lichens, especially with solution of tin. (Hellot.) Recently Mr Lightfoot has patented a process for dyeing with archil with the aid of oil, after the manner followed for producing Turkey-red on cottons.

Archil, Facti''tious:--1. From a mixture of onions (in a state of incipient putrefaction) with about 1-10th to 1-12th their weight of carbonate of potash and some ammonia, fermented together; and adding, after some days, 1-7th to 1-8th of the weight of the potash used in a salt of lead. The details of the process essential to success are, however, now unknown, the secret having died with a relative of the writer of this article.

2. Extract of logwood dissolved in juice of elderberries and putrid urine, with the addition of a little pearlash for the BLUE, and a very little oxalic acid or oil of vitriol for the RED variety. Used to stain wood.

=Arch'il, Herb.= Roccella tinctoria. See ARCHIL (_above_), LICHENS, and MOSSES.

=ARE= ([)a]r; [=a]re--Eng.). [Fr.] See MEASURES.

=ARE'CA.= [L.] In _botany_ a genus of East Indian trees, of the nat. ord. Palmae (DC.).

=Areca Cate'chu.= [L.; Linn.] _Syn._ ARE'CA, A. IN'DICA, A. FAUFEL, BE'TEL-NUT TREE. _Hab._ East Indies. Fruit (BETEL-NUT), astringent and narcotic; husk of fruit (PENANG or PINANG), sialagogue and stomachic; both are used as masticatories; wood and nut yield an inferior or bastard sort of catechu; charcoal of the nut highly esteemed as tooth-powder; also given in tape-worm in doses of 1/4 _oz._ and 1/2 _oz._; said to be more efficacious in coarse than in fine powder.--_Doses for Animals_. HORSE, 4 to 6 drachms; CATTLE, 4 to 8 drachms; DOG, 30 grains to 2 drachms.

=Areca Globulif'era.= [L.] Properties similar to the last.

=Areca Olera'cea.= [L.; Willd.] Cabbage-palm.

=ARENA'CEOUS= ([)a]r-e-). _Syn._ ARENA'CEUS, L.; ARENACE, SABLONNEUX, Fr.; SANDIG, SANDARTIG, Ger. In agriculture, mineralogy, &c., sandy; resembling sand; friable.

=ARENA''RIOUS= (-nare'-). _Syn._ ARENA''RIUS, L.; ARENAIRE, Fr. Sandy, arenaceous. In _agriculture_ and _botany_ applied to soils (ARENARIOUS SOILS) in which sand is the prevailing and characteristic ingredient; also to plants that grow in sandy or arid soils.

=ARENA'TION.= _Syn._ SABURRA'TION; ARENA'TIO, L.; ARENATION, Fr.; SANDBAD, Ger. In _medicine_ sandbathing; a practice formerly prevalent, in dropsy, of applying hot sand, either by immersion or otherwise, to the feet, legs, or even the whole body.

=ARENOSE'= ([)a]r-e-n[=o]se'). _Syn._ AR'ENOUS*; ARENO'SUS, L.; ARENEUX, Fr. Sandy; arenaceous (which _see_).

=AREOM'ETER= ([)a]-re- or [)a]r-re-; [=a]re-e--Smart). _Syn._ AREOM'ETRUM, L.; AREOMETRE, Fr. Literally, a 'measure of lightness' or 'rarity,' originally applied to any instrument for determining the specific gravity of alcoholic and ethereal liquids; but since applied, like the word 'hydrometer,' to instruments adjusted to the densities of all liquids. In this country the term is principally confined to the areometres of Baume, on account of their general use by Continental chemists. The relations and equivalents of Baume's scales, as now adopted in France, are shown in the first two of the following _Tables_:--

I.--_Corresponding_ DEGREES of BAUME'S AREOMETERS and REAL SPECIFIC GRAVITIES:--

1. _Areometer for liquids_ LIGHTER _than_ WATER, or _Pese-esprit_.[77]

-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------- Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific|Degrees|Specific Baume. |Gravity.|Baume. |Gravity.|Baume. |Gravity.|Baume. |Gravity.|Baume. |Gravity. -------+--------+-------+--------+------

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