Part 10

=Road Tests of Electric Cars.= Of late considerable attention has been given to making road tests of electric cars. The results of the tests are usually plotted in the form shown in Fig. 93. Time is plotted horizontally in seconds, while volts, amperes, speed and per cent grade are plotted vertically. The diagram referred to is the result of a continuous run of 6 minutes of a 32.5 ton car equipped with two motors. The line voltage, motor consumption and other readings may be obtained for any instant of time. The acceleration in miles per hour per second may be obtained by noting the increase in height of the speed curve in one second. In making such a test the necessary instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters and speed indicators are mounted direct on the car and are read at intervals of a few seconds.

The curve of motor consumption gives an idea of the abnormal current required to get the car under headway.

=Economy in Power.= As already stated, a large part of the energy taken by a car in city service is used in accelerating the car. Much of this energy must be destroyed or used up in the brake shoes at the next stop. The energy stored up in a car by process of acceleration is represented by the formula: Mass in lbs. × (Velocity in ft. per sec.)² Energy in ft. lbs. = ——————————————————————————————————————————, which 2 is the formula for kinetic or live energy, the derivation of which is found in any Instruction Paper on Mechanics. In performing any given schedule with frequent stops, the more rapid the acceleration the lower the maximum speed required to make the schedule, and the less the energy required in acceleration. For city street and elevated service, therefore, rapid acceleration and low maximum speeds are desirable because not only more economical but safer.

For economical operation with any given equipment and schedule, it is important to use as much of the energy stored up in the car as possible, before wasting it by applying the brakes. Motors are built of a size to yield the large horsepower required in acceleration, and consequently are lightly loaded when operating the car at maximum speed. To economize in power, current should be shut off as soon as possible after the car has attained full speed; and the car should be allowed to drift without current as long as possible before the brakes are applied. In this way the energy stored in the car will propel it at nearly maximum speed for a considerable distance between stops; there will be the smallest possible waste of energy in the brake shoes; and the losses of energy which take place when the current is in the motors will be prevented as far as possible. Practical tests as well as theoretical calculations show a possibility of very material saving in energy in the operation of an electric railway car or train, by the observance of this simple rule of drifting as much as possible and using the brakes as little as possible. Whatever energy is used up in the brake shoes is necessarily wasted. The smaller this waste can be kept while performing a given service, the greater the economy secured.

=Cost of Power.= The reports of 85 per cent of the railway power generating stations in Indiana show the average cost at the station per kilowatt hour to be .755 cent. This was divided as follows: Fuel .526 cents, labor .158 cents, lubricants and miscellaneous supplies .032 cents, repairs .039 cents. The lowest cost reported was .505 cents.

During 1901 the average cost of power generated at the power house of the Indiana Union Traction Company was .443 cents per kilowatt hour at the switchboard. Distributed from the substations it was .765 cents per kilowatt hour. Natural gas was used for fuel. On occasions when this failed, coal at $1.50 per ton was burned.

=Sliding and Spinning Wheels.= In accelerating a car, however, there is no economy in turning on current so rapidly as to spin the wheels. As mentioned in the section on “Brakes,” the tractive effort between wheels and rails falls off about two-thirds when the wheels begin to slip; and this slipping of wheels, therefore, reduces the chance of securing the acceleration which is possible. For the same reason, in making emergency stops either by the use of brakes or by reversing the motors, care should be taken not to slide the wheels, as by so doing the time required to stop the car is much increased.

In the ordinary straight air-brake equipment used on heavy electric cars, there is much higher pressure carried in the storage reservoir than it is permissible to turn into the brake cylinder, since, if the full pressure were turned into the brake cylinder, it would result in sliding of the wheels—which, it has just been shown, is something to be avoided, not only on account of making flat spots on the wheels, but also because of the reduction in the braking force as soon as the wheels begin to slide. An experienced motorman can tell from the feeling of the car when the wheels are sliding, and will instantly release the brake sufficiently to allow the wheels to begin to revolve as soon as he notices that this has taken place.

The friction between brake shoes and car wheels decreases as the speed increases. A certain pressure applied to the brake shoes upon a car running 50 miles per hour, therefore, exerts much less retarding force than the same pressure at ten miles per hour. In order to give the same braking or retarding force at higher speeds, the brakes must be applied harder than at the lower speeds. If they are applied at the maximum pressure possible without sliding the wheels at higher speeds, it is evident that this pressure must be reduced as the speed of the car is reduced, or the wheels will be “skidded.” In the Westinghouse high-speed automatic air brake used on steam roads, this reduction of pressure is automatically accomplished.

TESTING FOR FAULTS.

[Illustration: Fig. 94. Bond Testing.]

=Bond Testing.= It is important to test the conductivity of rail bonds from time to time in order to determine if they have deteriorated so as to reduce their conductivity and introduce an unnecessary amount of resistance into the return circuits. One way of doing this is to measure the drop in potential over a bonded joint as compared with the drop in potential of an equal length of unbroken rail. To do this, an apparatus is employed whereby simultaneous contact will be made bridging three or more feet of rail and an equal length of rail including the bonded joint, as shown in Fig. 94, which illustrates the connections of a common form of apparatus where two milli-voltmeters are employed that measure the drop in voltage of the bonded and unbonded rail simultaneously. If the current flowing through the rail due to the operation of the cars were constant, of course one milli-voltmeter might be used, being connected first to one circuit and then to the other. The current in the rail, however, fluctuates rapidly, so that two instruments are necessary for rapid work. The resistance of the bonded joint is usually considerably more than that of the unbroken rail, and the milli-voltmeter used to bridge the joint consequently need not be so sensitive as that bridging the unbroken rail.

In another form of apparatus, a telephone receiver is used instead of the milli-voltmeter, the resistance of a long unbroken rail being balanced against that of the bonded joint, as in a Wheatstone bridge, until, upon closing the circuit, these two resistances when balanced give no sound in the telephone receiver.

Bond tests of this kind can be made with satisfaction only when a considerable volume of current is flowing through the rails at the time of the test, because the drop in voltage is dependent on the current flowing, and in any event is small. It has sometimes been found necessary or advisable to fit up a testing car equipped with a rheostat which will itself use a considerable volume of current, so as to give a current in the rail which will give an appreciable drop of potential across a bonded joint. Some of the latest forms of testing cars carry motor generators which will pass a large current of known value through a bonded joint, and so cause a drop of potential across the joint large enough to be easily measured.

=Motor-Coil Testing.= Testing for faults in the motor armature and field coils is done in a great variety of ways. The resistance of these coils can be measured by means of a Wheatstone bridge employing a telephone receiver in place of the galvanometer used in such bridges in laboratory practice; but other less delicate tests are also in use.

Another method is to pass a known current through the coil to be tested and to measure the drop in the voltage between the terminals of the coil, the voltage divided by the current equaling the resistance.

A simple method, and one which involves no delicate instruments, has lately been introduced into railway shop practice very successfully. This is known as the _transformer test_ for short-circuited coils. It requires an alternating current which can easily be supplied either by a regular motor generator or by putting collecting rings onto an ordinary direct-current motor and connecting these rings to bars of opposite polarity on the commutator.

The method of testing for short-circuited armature coils employed in the shops of the St. Louis Transit Company is indicated in diagram in Fig. 95. A core built up of soft laminated iron is wound with 28 turns of No. 6 copper wire. This coil is supplied with alternating current from a 110-volt circuit. The core has pole pieces made to fit the surface of the armature. When one side of a short-circuited coil in the armature is brought between the pole pieces of this testing transformer, as in Fig. 95, the short-circuited armature coil becomes like the short-circuited secondary of a transformer, and a large current will flow in it. This current will in time manifest itself by heating the coil; but it is not necessary to wait for this, as a piece of iron held over that side of the coil not enclosed between the pole pieces, as indicated in. Fig. 95, will be attracted to the face of the armature if held directly over the coil, but will be attracted at no other point.

[Illustration: Fig. 95. Method of Testing for Short-circuited Armature Coils.]

This testing can be done very rapidly, and does not require delicate instruments or skilled operators.

Tests for short circuits in field coils can be made in a similar manner, by placing the coils on a core which is magnetized by alternating current. The presence of a short circuit, even of one convolution of a field coil, will be apparent from the increase in the alternating current required to magnetize the core upon which the field coil is being tested. The insulation resistance of armatures and fields is frequently tested by means of alternating current, about 2,000 volts being the common testing voltage for 500-volt motor coils. One terminal of the testing circuit is connected to the frame of the motor, and the other to its windings. Any weakness in the insulation insufficient to withstand 2,000 volts will, of course, be broken down by this test. Alternating current is generally used for such tests because it is usually more easily obtained at the proper voltage, as it is a simple matter to put in an alternating transformer which will give any desired voltage and which can be controlled by a primary circuit of low voltage.

Open circuits in the armature can be easily detected by placing the armature in a frame so that it can be rotated, the frame being provided with brushes resting 90° apart on the commutator. If either an alternating or direct current be passed through the armature by means of these brushes, and the armature be rotated by hand, a flash will occur when the open-circuited coils pass under the brushes. A large current should be used.

The tests just mentioned are among the best of the methods used by electric-railway companies for systematic work in the location of certain classes of faults. A large number of other methods of testing have also been evolved.

The following are some of the most common faults experienced with electric railway car equipments:

=Grounds.= As one side of the circuit is grounded, any accidental leakage of current from the car wiring or the motors to ground will cause a partial short circuit. Such a ground on a motor will manifest itself by blowing the fuse or opening the circuit breaker whenever current is turned into the motor. In case the fuse blows when the trolley is placed on the wire and the controller is off, it is a sign that there is a ground somewhere in the car wiring outside of the motors. Moisture and the abrasion of wires are the most common causes of grounds in car wiring. In motors, defects are usually due to overheating and the charring of the insulation.

=Burn-Outs.= Burning out of motors is due to two general causes: First, a ground on the motor, which, by causing a partial short circuit, causes an excessive current to flow; second, overloading the motor, which causes a gradual burning or carbonizing of the insulation until it finally breaks down.

Short-circuited field coils having a few of their turns short-circuited, if not promptly discovered, are likely to result in burned-out armatures, as the weakening of the field reduces the counter-electromotive force of the motor, so that an abnormally large current flows through the armatures. Cars with partially short-circuited fields are likely to run above their proper speed, though, if only one motor on a four-motor equipment has defective fields, the motor armature is likely to burn out before the defect is noticed from the increase in speed.

[Illustration: Fig. 96.]

=Defects of Armature Windings.= Defects in armature windings probably cause one-third the maintenance expenses of electrical equipment of cars. Almost all repair shops have men continually employed in repairing them. The most frequent trouble with armatures is through failure of the insulation of the coils and consequent “grounding.” This term is used in connection with armatures and fields and other electrical apparatus where a direct path exists to ground. As the armature core is electrically connected to the ground through its bearings and the motor casing, a break down of the insulation of the coils in the slots permits the current to pass directly to ground. This shunts the current around the fields and an abnormal current flows because of their weakness. The circuit breaker or fuse is placed in circuit to protect the apparatus in such an emergency, but usually before such devices break the circuit, several of the coils of the armature are burned in such a manner as to make their removal necessary. The coils are so wound on top of one another that in order to replace one coil alone, one-fourth of the coils of the armature must be lifted.

[Illustration: Fig. 97.]

With the armature of No. 1 motor grounded the car will not operate and if the resistance points be passed over, the fuse will usually blow. When No. 2 motor is grounded the action of No. 1 motor is not impaired and this latter motor will pull the car until the controller is thrown to the multiple position. But if the motors are thrown in multiple, the path through the ground of No. 2 motor shunts motor No. 1. A study of Fig. 18 will make this evident.

[Illustration: Fig. 98.]

Next to grounding, open circuits are the most serious defects of armatures. These are usually caused by burning in two of the wires in the slot, or where they cross one another in passing to the commutator. Sometimes the connections where the leads are soldered to the commutator become loose.

The effect of an open circuit is shown in Fig. 96. The circuit is open at n. The brushes are on segments _a_ and _d_. By tracing out the winding it will be found that no current flows through the wires marked in heavy lines. Whenever segments _c_ and _d_ are under a brush the coil with the open circuit is bridged by the brush and current flows as in a normal armature. As segment _c_ passes out from under the brush the open circuit interrupts the current in half the armature and a long flaming arc is drawn out.

In Fig. 97 is shown the result of a short circuit between two coils. The short circuit is at _b_, _c_, the two leads coming in contact with each other when they cross. The effect is to short-circuit all of the winding indicated by the heavy lines.

[Illustration: Fig. 99.]

=Mistakes in Winding Armatures.= The armature winder is given very simple rules as to how to wind the armature, but the great number of leads each to be connected to their proper commutator segment sometimes so confuse him that misconnections are made. The effect of getting two leads crossed is shown in Fig. 98. The leads to segments _b_ and _c_ from the right are shown interchanged. This short-circuits the coils shown in heavy lines. The abnormal current resulting in these would usually cause them to burn out.

Fig. 99 shows the results of placing all of the top leads, or all of the bottom leads one segment beyond the proper position. This causes the circuit starting from _a_ and traveling counter clockwise around the armature to return on segment _m_ instead of on segment _b_ as is the case in Fig. 97.

The only result of such connections is to change the direction of rotation of the armature. It may be noticed by comparing the two figures that with the positive brush on segments _a_ the arrows show the currents to be in opposite directions in coils similarly located with reference to the position of the brushes. Some armatures are intended to be wound as in the last case mentioned.

=Sparking at the Commutator.= As railway motors are made to operate, and usually do operate, almost sparklessly, sparking at the brushes may be taken as a sign that something is radically wrong.

The pressure exerted by the spring in the brush holder may not hold the brush firmly against the commutator.

If brushes are burned or broken so that they do not make good contact on the commutator, they should be renewed or should be sandpapered to fit the commutator.

A dirty commutator will cause sparking.

A commutator having uneven surface will cause sparking, and should be polished off or turned down.

[Illustration: Fig. 100.]

Sometimes the mica segments between commutator bars do not wear as fast as the bars and when this is the case, the brushes will be kept from making good contact when the commutator bars are slightly worn. The remedy is to take the armature into the shop, and groove out the mica between the commutator bars for a depth of about ¹⁄₆₄-inch below the commutator surface.

A greenish flash which appears to run around the commutator, accompanied by scoring or burning of the commutator at two points, indicates that there is an open-circuited coil at the points at which the scoring occurs as in Fig. 100.

The magnetic field may be weakened by a short circuit in the field coils, as before explained, and this may give rise to sparking.

Short circuits in the armature may give rise to sparking, but will also be made evident by the jerking motion of the car and the blowing out of the fuse.

=Failure of Car to Start.= The failure of the car to start when the controller is turned on may be due to any of the following causes:

Opening of the circuit breaker at the power house.

Poor contact between the wheels and the rails owing to dirt or to a breaking of the bond wire connections between the rail on which the car is standing and the adjacent track.

One controller may be defective in that one of the contact fingers may not make connection with the drum. In this case try the other controller if there is another one on the car.

The fuse may be blown or the circuit breaker opened. The occurrence of either of these, however, is usually accompanied by a report which leaves little doubt as to the cause of the interruption in current.

The lamp circuit is always at hand for testing the presence of current on the trolley wire or third rail. If the lamps light when the lamp circuit is turned on, it is a tolerably sure sign that any defect is somewhere in the controllers, motors, or fuse boxes, although in case the cars are on a very dirty rail enough current might leak through the dirt to light the lamps, but not sufficient to operate the cars. In such a case, the lamps will immediately go out as soon as the controller is turned on. Ice on the trolley wire or third rail will have the same effect as dirt on the tracks.

LOCATING DEFECTS IN MOTOR AND CONTROLLER WIRING.

Defects in the wirings are those due to (1) open circuits, (2) short circuits. Open circuits make themselves evident by no flow of current, short circuits usually by a blowing of the fuse or opening of the breaker. The point of the short circuit or “ground” can be located roughly by noting on what point the fuse is blown. Accurate location can be made by cutting out the motors, disconnecting, etc., according to directions in the following pages. The tests outlined apply particularly to the K type of controller with two-motor equipment.

OPEN-CIRCUIT TESTS.

No current: On 1st point, Open circuit but not located. On 1st point multiple, Motors most probably O. K. On series-resistance points after trying 1st point multiple, Open circuit outside controller and equipment wiring.

With an open anywhere between trolley and ground no current will flow on the first point. Opens are most likely to occur in the motors and these may be tested first. However, as will be explained later, one open in an armature will not stop the current. To test the motors open the breaker and put the controller on the first point multiple. Then flash the breaker quickly. Current flowing indicates that one or the other of the motors has an open circuit. In the series position this open prevented the flow but in multiple the current flows through the other motor. Which one is at fault can be quickly determined by returning the controller to the off position and cutting out one or the other of the motors by means of the cut-out switch and then trying for current. The car can in any event be run on the remaining motor. On returning to the shop the open can be determined definitely by the use of the lamp bank.

But should no current flow when the breaker is flashed on the 6th point it is reasonable to presume that the motors are O. K. and that the open is elsewhere. The ground for such a supposition is that as there is a path through each motor normally, there would necessarily be an open in each one to stop the current. It is hardly probable that such a coincidence would occur.