BOOK VII.

_A ~Survey~ of BIRDS._

Having briefly, as well as I could, dispatch’d the Tribe of _Quadrupeds_, I shall next take as brief and transient a View of the _feather’d Tribe_.

And here we have another large Province to expatiate in, if we should descend to every Thing wherein the Workmanship of the Almighty appears. But I must contract my Survey as much as may be; and shall therefore give only such Hints and Touches upon this curious Family of Animals, as may serve for Samples of the rest of what might be observ’d.

[Illustration]

CHAP. I.

_Of the MOTION of Birds, and the PARTS ministring thereto._

As this Tribe hath a different Motion from that of other Animals, and an amphibious Way of Life; partly in the Air, and partly on the Land and Waters; so is their Body accordingly shap’d, and all their Parts incomparably fitted for that Way of Life and Motion; as will be found by a cursory View of some of the Particulars. And the

I. And most visible Thing, is the Shape and Make of their Body, not thick and clumsy, but incomparably adapted to their Flight: Sharp before, to pierce and make Way through the Air, and then by gentle Degrees rising to its full Bulk. To which we may add,

II. The neat Position of the _Feathers_ throughout the Body; not ruffled, or discompos’d, or plac’d some this, some a contrary Way, according to the Method of Chance; but all artificially plac’d[a], for facilitating the Motion of the Body, and its Security at the same Time, by way of Cloathing: And for that End, most of the Feathers tend backward, and are laid over one another in exact and regular Method, armed with warm and soft Down next the Body, and more strongly made, and curiously clos’d next the Air and Weather, to fence off the Injuries thereof. To which Purpose, as also for the more easy and nimble gliding of the Body through the Air, the Provision Nature hath made, and the Instinct of these Animals to _preen_ and _dress_ their Feathers, is admirable; both in respect of their Art and Curiosity in doing it, and the _Oyl-bag_[b], Glands, and whole Apparatus for that Service.

III. And now having said thus much relating to the Body’s Motion, let us survey the grand Instrument thereof, the _Wings_. Which as they are principal Parts, so are made with great Skill, and plac’d in the most commodious Point of the Body[c], to give it an exact Equipoise in that subtile Medium, the Air.

And here it is observable, with what incomparable Curiosity every Feather is made; the _Shaft_ exceeding strong, but hollow below, for Strength and Lightness sake; and above, not much less strong, and fill’d with a _Parenchyma_ or _Pith_, both strong and light too. The _Vanes_ as nicely gaug’d on each Side as made; broad on one Side, and narrower on the other; both which incomparably minister to the progressive Motion of the Bird, as also to the Union and Closeness of the Wing[d].

And no less exquisite is the textrine Art of the _Plumage_[e] also; which is so curiously wrought, and so artificially interwoven, that it cannot be viewed without Admiration, especially when the Eye is assisted with Glasses.

And as curiously made, so no less curiously are the Feathers placed in the Wing, exactly according to their several Lengths and Strength: The _Principals_ set for Stay and Strength, and these again well lined, faced, and guarded with the _Covert_ and _Secondary Feathers_, to keep the Air from passing through, whereby the stronger Impulses are made thereupon.

And lastly, To say no more of this Part, that deserves more to be said of it, what an admirable _Apparatus_ is there of _Bones_, very strong, but withal light and incomparably wrought? of _Joynts_, which open, shut, and every way move, according to the Occasions either of extending it in Flight, or withdrawing the Wing again to the Body? And of various _Muscles_; among which the peculiar Strength of the _Pectoral Muscles_ deserves especial Remark, by Reason they are much stronger[f] in Birds than in Man, or any other Animal, not made for Flying.

IV. Next the Wings, the Tail is in Flight considerable; greatly assisting in all Ascents and Descents in the Air, as also serving to steady[g] Flight, by keeping the Body upright in that subtile and yielding _Medium_, by its readily turning and answering every Vacillation of the Body.

And now to the Parts serving to Flight, let us add the nice and compleat Manner of its Performance; all done according to the strictest Rules of Mechanism[h]. What Rower on the Waters, what Artist on the Land, what acutest Mathematician could give a more agreeable and exact Motion to the Wings, than these untaught flying Artists do theirs! Serving not only to bear their Bodies up in the Air, but also to waft them along therein, with a speedy progressive Motion, as also to steer and turn them this Way and that Way, up and down, faster or slower, as their Occasions require, or their Pleasure leads them.

V. Next to the Parts for Flight, let us view the _Feet_ and _Legs_ ministering to their other Motion: Both made light, for easier Transportation through the Air; and the former spread, some with Membranes for Swimming[i], some without, for steady Going, for Perching, for Catching and Holding of Prey[k], or for Hanging by the Heels to gather their Food[l], or to fix themselves in their Places of Retreat and Safety. And the latter, namely the _Legs_, all curved for their easy Perching, Roosting, and Rest, as also to help them upon their Wings in taking their Flight, and to be therein commodiously tucked up to the Body, so as not to obstruct their Flight. In some long, for Wading and Searching the Waters; in some of a moderate Length, answerable to their vulgar Occasions; and in others as remarkably short, to answer their especial Occasions and Manner of Life[m]. To all which let us add the placing these last mentioned Parts in the Body. In all somewhat out of the Center of the Body’s Gravity[n], but in such as swim, more than in others, for the better rowing their Bodies through the Waters, or to help them in that Diving[o] too.

FOOTNOTES:

[a] See before _Book IV. Chap. 12. Note (l)._

[b] Mr. _Willughby_ saith, there are two Glands for the Secretion of the unctuous Matter in the _Oyl-bag_. And so they appear to be in Geese. But upon Examination, I find, that in most other Birds, (such at least as I have enquir’d into,) there is only one Gland: In which are divers little Cells, ending in two or three larger Cells, lying under the Nipple of the _Oyl-bag_. This _Nipple_ is perforated, and being pressed, or drawn by the Bird’s Bill, or Head, emits the liquid Oyl, as it is in some Birds, or thicker unctuous Grease, as it is in others. The whole _Oyl-bag_ is in its structure somewhat conformable to the Breasts of such Animals as afford Milk.

[c] In all Birds that fly much, or that have the most occasion for their Wings, it is manifest that their Wings are plac’d in the very best Part, to balance their Body in the Air, and to give as swift a Progression, as their Wings and Body are capable of: For otherwise we should perceive them to reel, and fly unsteadily; as we see them to do, if we alter their Æquipoise, by cutting the End of one of the Wings, or hanging a Weight at any of the extreme Parts of the Body. But as for such Birds as have as much occasion for Swimming as Flying, and whole Wings are therefore set a little out of the Center of the Bodies Gravity. See _Book IV. Chap. 8. Note (q)._ And for such as have more occasion for Diving than Flying, and whose Legs are for that Reason set more backward, and their Wings more forward. _Chap. 4. Note (k)_ of this _Book_.

[d] The wise Author of Nature hath afforded an Example of the great Nicety in the Formation of Birds, by the Nicely observ’d in a Part no more considerable than the Vanes of the Flag-feathers of the Wing. Among others, these two Things are observable: 1. The Edges of the exterior or narrow Vanes bend downwards, but of the interior or wider Vanes upwards; by which Means they catch, hold, and lie close to one another, when the Wing is spread; so that not one Feather may miss its full Force and Impulse upon the Air. 2. A yet lesser Nicety is observ’d, and that is, in the very sloping the Tips of the Flag-feathers: The interiour Vanes being neatly slop’d away to a Point, towards the outward Part of the Wing; and the exteriour Vanes slop’d towards the Body, at least in many Birds; and in the Middle of the Wing, the Vanes being equal, are but little slop’d. So that the Wing, whether extended or shut, is as neatly slop’d and form’d, as if constantly trimm’d with a Pair of Scissors.

[e] Since no exact Account that I know of, hath been given of the Mechanism of the _Vanes_, or _Webs_ of the Feathers, my Observations may not be unacceptable. The _Vane_ consists not of one continu’d Membrane; because if one broken, it would hardly be reparable: But of many _Laminæ_, which are thin, stiff, and somewhat of the Nature of a thin Quill. Towards the Shaft of the Feather, (especially in the Flag-feathers of the Wing,) those _Laminæ_ are broad, _&c._ of a semicircular Form; which serve for Strength, and for the closer shutting of the _Laminæ_ to one another, when Impulses are made upon the Air. Towards the outer Part of the Vane, those _Laminæ_ grow slender and taper: On their under Side they are thin and smooth, but their upper outer Edge is parted into two hairy Edges, each Side having a different Sort of Hairs, laminated or broad at Bottom, and slender and bearded above the other half. I have, as well as I could, represented the uppermost Edge of one of these _Laminæ_ in Fig. 18. with some of the Hairs on each Side, magnify’d with a Microscope. These bearded Bristles, or Hairs, on one Side the _Laminæ_, have strait Beards, as in Fig. 19. those on the other Side, have hook’d Beards on one Side the slender Part of the Bristle, and strait ones on the other, as in Fig. 20. Both these Sorts of Bristles magnify’d, (only scattering, and not close,) are represented as they grow upon the upper Edge of the _Lamina s. t._ in Fig. 18. And in the Vane, the hook’d Beards of one _Lamina_, always lie next the strait Beards of the next _Lamina_; and by that Means lock and hold each other; and by a pretty Mechanism, brace the _Laminæ_ close to one another. And if at any Time the Vane happens to be ruffled and discompos’d, it can by this pretty easy Mechanism, be reduc’d and repair’d. Vid. _Book IV. Chap. 12. Note (m)._

[f] _Pectorales Musculi Hominis flectentes humeros, parvi & parum carnosi sunt; non æquant 50am aut 70am partem omnium Musculorum Hominis. E contra in Avibus, Pectorales Musculi vastissimi sunt, & aquant, imò excedunt, & magìs pendent, quàm reliqui omnes Musculi ejusdem Avis simul sumpti._ Borell. de Mot. Animal. Vol. I. Prop. 184.

Mr. _Willughby_ having made the like Observation, hath this Reflection on it, _whence, if it be possible for Man to fly, it is thought by them who have curiously weighed and considered the matter, that he would attempt such a Thing with Hopes of Success, must so contrive and adapt his Wings, that he may make use of his Legs, and not his Arms in managing them_: (because the Muscles of the Legs are stronger, as he observes.) Willugh. Ornith. L. 1. c. 1. §. 19.

[g] Mr. _Willughby_, _Ray_, and many others, imagine the principal use of the Tail to be to steer, and turn the Body in the Air, as a Rudder. But _Borelli_ hath put it beyond all doubt, that this is the least use of it, and that it is chiefly to assist the Bird in its Ascents and Descents in the Air, and to obviate the Vacillations of the Body and Wings. For as for turning to this or that Side, it is performed by the Wings and Inclination of the Body, and but very little by the help of the Tail.

[h] See _Borelli ubi supr._ Prop. 182, _&c._

[i] It is considerable in all Water-Fowl, how exactly their Legs and Feet correspond to that way of Life. For either their Legs are long, to enable them to wade in the Waters: In which case, their Legs are bare of Feathers a good way above the Knees, the more conveniently for this Purpose. Their Toes also are all abroad; and in such as bear the Name of _Mudsuckers_, two of the Toes are somewhat joined, that they may not easily sink in walking upon boggy Places. And as for such as are whole-footed, or whose Toes are webbed together (excepting some few) their Legs are generally short, which is the most convenient Size for Swimming. And ’tis pretty enough to see how artificially they gather up their Toes and Feet when they withdraw their Legs, or go to take their Stroke; and as artificially again extend or open their whole Foot, when they press upon, or drive themselves forward in the Waters.

[k] Some of the Characteristicks of Rapacious Birds, are, _to have hooked, strong, and sharp-pointed Beaks and Talons, fitted for Rapine, and tearing of Flesh; and strong and brawny Thighs, for striking down their Prey._ Willughby Ornith. L. 2. c. 1. Raii Synops. Av. Method. p. 1.

[l] Such Birds as climb, particularly those of the _Wood-pecker_ Kind, have for this Purpose (as Mr. _Willughby_ observes, L. 2. c. 4.) 1. Strong and musculous Thighs. 2. Short Legs and very strong. 3. Toes standing two forwards and two backwards. Their Toes also are close joined together, that they may more strongly and firmly lay hold on the Tree they climb upon. 4. All of them——have a hard stiff Tail bending also downwards, on which they lean, and so bear up themselves in climbing.

[m] _Swifts_ and _Swallows_ have remarkably short Legs, especially the former, and their Toes grasp any Thing very strongly. All which is useful to them in building their Nests, and other such Occasions as necessitate them to hang frequently by their Heels. But there is far greater use of this Structure of their Legs and Feet, if the Reports be true of their hanging by the Heels in great Clusters (after the manner of Bees) in Mines and Grotto’s, and on the Rocks by the Sea, all the Winter. Of which latter, I remember the late learned Dr. _Fry_ told this Story at the University, and confirmed it to me since, _viz._ That an ancient Fisherman, accounted an honest Man, being near some Rocks on the Coast of _Cornwal_, saw at a very low Ebb, a black List of something adhering to the Rock, which when he came to examine, he found it was a great Number of _Swallows_, and, if I misremember not, of _Swifts_ also, hanging by the Feet to one Another, as Bees do; which were covered commonly by the Sea-Waters, but revived in his warm Hand, and by the Fire. All this the Fisherman himself assured the Doctor of. Of this, see more, _Chap. 3. Note (d)_ of this Book.

[n] In Birds that frequent not the Waters, the Wings are in the Center of Gravity, when the Bird lies along, as in Flying; but when it stands or walks, the Erection of the Body throws the Center of Gravity upon the Thighs and Feet.

[o] See _Chap. 4. Note (k)._

CHAP. II.

_Of the HEAD, STOMACH, and other Parts of Birds._

Thus having dispatched the Parts principally concerned in the Motion of the _Feather’d Tribe_, let us proceed to some other Parts not yet animadverted upon. And we will begin with the _Head_, concerning which I have already taken notice of its Shape for making way through the Air; of the make of the _Bill_, for gathering Food, and other Uses; the commodious Situation of the _Eye_; and I might add that of the _Ear_ too, which would be in the way, and obstruct Flight, if ’twas like that of most other Animals: Also I might say a great deal of the Conformation of the _Brain_, and of the Parts therein wanting, and of others added, like to what is observable in Fishes; whose Posture in the Waters resembles that of Birds in the Air[a], and both very different from Man and Beasts; and lastly, to hint at no more, I might survey the peculiar Structure of the _Larynx_[b], the _Tongue_[c], the inner _Ear_[d], and many Matters besides; but for a Sample, I shall only insist upon the wonderful Provision in the Bill for the judging of the Food, and that is by peculiar Nerves lodged therein for that Purpose; small and less numerous in such as have the Assistance of another Sense, the Eye; but large, more numerous, and thickly branched about, to the very End of the Beak, in such as hunt for their Food out of Sight in the Waters, in Mud, or under Ground[e].

And now from the Head and Mouth, pass we to its near Ally, the Stomach, another no less notable than useful Part; whether we consider the Elegancy of its Fibres and Muscles, or its Multiplicity; one to soften and macerate, another to digest; or its Variety, suited to various Foods, some membraneous, agreeable to the frugivorous, or carnivorous Kind; same musculous and strong[f], suited to the Comminution, and grinding of Corn and Grain, and so to supply the Defect of Teeth.

And now to this Specimen of the Parts, I might add many other Things, no less curiously contriv’d, made and suited to the Occasions of these Volatiles; as particularly the Stratum and Lodgment of the _Lungs_[g]; the Configuration of the _Breast_, and its Bone, made like a Keel, for commodious Passage through the Air, to bear the large and strong Muscles, which move the Wings, and to counterpoise the Body, and support and rest it upon at roost. The _Neck_ also might deserve our Notice, always either exactly proportion’d to the Length of the Legs, or else longer, to hunt out Food, to search in the Waters[h]; as also to counterpoise the Body in Flight[i]. And lastly, I might here take Notice of the Defect of the Diaphragm, so necessary in other Animals to Respiration; and also of divers other Parts redundant, defective, or varying from other Animals. But it would be tedious to insist upon all; and therefore to the Examples already given, I would rather recommend a nice Inspection[k], of those curious Works of God, which would be manifest Demonstrations of the admirable Contrivance and Oeconomy of the Bodies of those Creatures.

From the Fabrick therefore of their Bodies, I shall pass to a Glance of one or two Things, relating to their _State_; and so conclude this Genus of the animal World.

FOOTNOTES:

[a] _Cerebra Hominum & Quadrupedum in plerisque similia existunt——Capitibus Volucrum & Piscium contenta, ab utrisque prioribus longè diversa, tamen inter se, quoad præcipuas ἐγκεφάλου partes, Symbola reperiuntur._ The Particulars wherein the Brains of Birds and Fishes agree with one another, and wherein they differ from the Brain of Man and Beasts, see in the same justly famous Author, _Willis Cereb. Anat._ c. 5.

[b] _Circa bifurcationem Asperæ Arteriæ, elegans Artificis liberè agentis indicium detegitur ex Avium comparatione cum Quadrupedibus: cùm Vocis gratia in diversis Avibus diversam musculorum fabricam bifurcationi Asperæ Arteriæ dederit, quorum nullum vestigium extat in Homine & Quadrupedibus mihi visis, ubi omnes vocis musculos capiti Arteriæ junxit. In Aquilâ, ~&c.~ supra bifurcationem, ~&c.~_ Steno in Blas. Anat. Animal. P. 2. c. 4.

The _Aspera Arteria_ is very remarkable in the _Swan_, which is thus described by _T. Bartholin_, viz. _Aspera Arteria admirandæ satìs structuræ. Nam pro Colli longitudine deorsum Oesophagi comes protenditur donec ad sternum perveniat, in cujus capsulam se incurvo flexu insinuat & recondit, velut in tuto loco & thecâ, moxque ad fundum ejusdem cavitatis delata sursum reflectitur, egrediturque angustias Sterni, & Claviculis mediis concensis, quibus ut fulcro nititur, ad Thoracem se flectit——Miranda hercle modis omnibus constitutio & Respriationi inservit & Voci. Nam cùm in stagnorum fundo edulia pro victu quærat, longissimo indiguis collo, ne longa mora suffocationis incurreret periculum. Et certè dum dimidiam fere horam toto Capite & Collo pronis vado immergitur, pedibus in altum elatis cœloque obversis, ex eâ Arteriæ quæ pectoris dictæ vaginæ reclusa est portione, tanquam ex condo promo spiritum haurit._ Blas. ib. c. 10.

[c] The Structure of the _Tongue_ of the _Wood-Pecker_ is very singular and remarkable, whether we look at its great Length, its Bones and Muscles, its encompassing part of the Neck and Head, the better to exert it self in Length; and again, to retract it into its Cell; and lastly, whether we look at its sharp, horny, bearded Point, and the glewy Matter at the end of it, the better to stab, to stick unto, and draw out little Maggots out of Wood. _Utilis enim Picis_ (saith _Coiter_) _ad Vermiculos, Formicas, aliaque Insectæ venanda talis Lingua foret. Siquidem Picus, innata suâ sagacitate cùm deprehendit alibi in arboribus, vel carie, vel aliâ de causâ cavatis, Vermes insectaque delitescere, ad illas volitat, seseque digitis, ungulisque posterioribus robustissimis, & Caudæ pennis rigidissimis sustentat, donec valido ac peracuto Rostro arborent pertundat; arbore pertusâ, foramini rostrum immittit, ac quo animacula stridore excitet percellatque, magnam in arboris cavo emittit vocem, insecta vociferatione hâc concitata huc illucque repunt; Picus v. linguam suam exerit, atque aculeis, hamisque animalia infigit, infixa attrahit & devorat._ Vid. Blasii ubi supra. P. 2. c. 24.

[d] I have before, in _Book IV. Chap. 3. Note (u)_, taken notice of what others have observed concerning the _inner Ear_ of _Birds_, reserving my own Observations for this Place: Which I hope may be acceptable, not only for being some of them new, but also shewing the Mechanism of Hearing in general.

In this Organ of Birds, I shall take notice only of three Parts, the _Membranes_ and _Cartilages_; the _Columella_; and the _Conclave_: The _Drum_, as some call it, or _Membrana Tympani_, as others, consists of two Membranes, the Outer, which covers the whole _Meatus_, Bason or _Drum_, (as some call it) and the inner Membrane. To support, distend and relax the outermost, there is one single Cartilage, reaching from the Side of the _Meatus_, to near the middle of the Membrane. On the top of the _Columella_ is another Cartilage, consisting of three Branches, _a.b.c._ in Fig. 23. The longest middle Branch _a_. is joined to the top of the single upper Cartilage before spoken of, and assists it to bear up the upper outer Membrane: The two Branches, _b.c._ are joined to the _Os Petrosum_, at some distance from the outer Membrane: Upon this inner Cartilage, is the inner Membrane fixed, the two outer Sides of which, _a.b._ and _a.c._ are joined to the outer Membrane, and make a kind of three-square Bag. The Design of the two Branches or Legs of the Cartilage, _b.c._ are I conceive to keep the _Cartilage_ and _Columella_ from wavering side-ways, and to hinder them from flying too much back: There is a very fine slender Ligament extended from the opposite side, quite cross the _Meatus_ or Bason, to the Bottom of the _Cartilage_, near its joining to the _Columella_. Thus much for the _Membranæ Tympani_, and their _Cartilages_.

The next Part is the _Columella_ (as _Schelhammer_ calls it.) This is a very fine, thin, light, bony Tube; the Bottom of which spreads about, and gives it the Resemblance of a wooden Pot-lid, such as I have seen in Country-Houses. It exactly shuts into, and covers a _Foramen_ of the _Conclave_, to which it is braced all round, with a fine subtile Membrane, composed of the tender Auditory Nerve. This Bottom or Base of the _Columella_, I call the _Operculum_.

The last Part, which some call the _Labyrinth_ and _Cochlea_, consisting of Branches more like the _Canalos Semicirculares_ in Man, than the _Cochlea_, I call the _Conclave Auditûs_. It is (at in most other Animals) made of hard context Bone. In most of the Birds I have opened, there are _circular Canals_, some larger, some lesser, crossing one another at right Angles, which open into the _Conclave_. But in the _Goose_ it is otherwise, there being cochleous Canals, but not like those of other Birds. In the _Conclave_, at the Side opposite to the _Operculum_, the tender Part of the _Auditory Nerve_ enters, and lineth all those inner retired Parts, _viz._ the _Conclave_ and _Canals_.

As to the _Passages_, _Columnæ_, and other Parts observable in the Ear of Birds, I shall pass them by, it being sufficient to my Purpose, to have described the Parts principally concerned in the Act of Hearing. And as the Ear is in Birds the most simple and incomplex of any Animals Ear; so we may from it make an easy and rational Judgment, how _Hearing_ is performed, _viz._ _Sound_ being a _Tremor_, or _Undulation_ in the Air, caused by the Collision of Bodies, doth as it moves along, strike upon the _Drum_, or _Membrana Tympani_ of the Ear: Which Motion, whether strong or languid, shrill or soft, tuneful or not, is at the same Instant impressed upon the _Cartilages_, _Columella_, and _Operculum_, and so communicated to the _Auditory Nerve_ in the _Conclave_.

And now if we compare the Organ and Act of Hearing, with those of Sight, we shall find, that the _Conclave_ is to Hearing, as the _Retina_ is to Sight; that sonorous Bodies make their Impressions thereby on the Brain, as visible Objects do by the _Retina_. Also, that as there is an _Apparatus_ in the Eye, by the opening and shutting of the Pupil, to make it correspond to all the Degrees of Light, so there is in the Ear to make it conformable to all the Degrees of Sound, a noble Train of little Bones and Muscles in Man, _&c._ to strain and relax the Membrane, and at the same Time to open and shut the _Basis_ of the _Stapes_ (the same as what I call the _Operculum_ in Birds:) But in Birds, there is a more simple, but sufficient _Apparatus_ for this Purpose, tender Cartilages, instead of Bones and Joints, to correspond to the various Impressions of Sounds, and to open and shut the _Operculum_. Besides which, I suspect the Ligament I mentioned, is only the Tendon of a Muscle, reaching to the inner _Membrana Tympani_, and joined thereto (as I find by a stricter Scrutiny) and not to the Cartilage, as I imagined. By this Muscle, the inner Membrane, and by Means of that the Outer also can be distended or relaxed, as it is in Man, by the _Malleus_ and its Muscle, _&c._

[e] _Flat-billed Birds, that grope for their Meat, have three Pair of Nerves, that come into their Bills, whereby they have that Accuracy to distinguish what is proper for Food, and what to be rejected by their Taste, when they do not see it. This was most evident in a Duck’s Bill and Head; a Duck having larger Nerves that come into their Bills than Geese, or any other Bird that I have seen; and therefore quaffer and grope out their Meat the most. But then I discovered none of these Nerves in round-bill’d Birds. But since, in my Anatomies in the Country, in a Rook, I first observed two Nerves that came down betwixt the Eyes into the upper Bill, but considerably smaller than any of the three Pair of Nerves, in the Bills of Ducks, but larger than the Nerves in any other round-bill’d Birds. And ’tis remarkable that these Birds, more than any other round-bill’d Birds, seem to grope for their Meat in Cow-dung, ~&c.~_ _Mr._ J. Clayton, _in_ Philos. Transact. Nᵒ. 206.

_I observ’d three Pair of Nerves in all the broad-bill’d Birds that I could meet with, and in all such at feel for their Food out of Sight, as Snipes, Woodcocks, Curlews, Geese, Ducks, Teals, Widgeons, ~&c.~ These Nerves are very large, equalling almost the Optic Nerve in Thickness.——Two are distributed nigh the End of the upper Bill, and are there very much expanded, passing through the Bone into the Membrane, lining the Roof of the Mouth._ Dr. _A. Moulen_. Ibid. Nᵒ. 199. Or both in Mr. _Lowthorp_’s Abridg. V. 2. p. 861, 862.

[f] The _Gizzard_ is not only made very strong, especially in the Granivorous; but hath also a Faculty of Grinding what is therein. For which Purpose, the Bird swalloweth rough Stones down, which, when grown smooth, are rejected and cast out of the Stomach, as useless. This Grinding may be heard in Falcons, Eagles, _&c._ by laying the Ear close to them, when their Stomachs are empty, as the famous Dr. _Harvey_ saith. _De Generat. Exer._ 7.

As to the Strength of the _Gizzard_, and the Use of Stones to the Digestion of Fowls, divers curious Experiments may be met with, try’d by _Seigneur Redi_, with glass Bubbles, solid Glass, Diamonds, and other hard Bodies. See his _Exp. Nat._

[g] It is no less remarkable in Birds, that their _Lungs_ adhere to the _Thorax_, and have but little play, than that to other Animals they are loose, and play much, which is a good Provision for their steady Flight. Also they want the _Diaphragm_, and instead thereof, have divers large Bladders made of thin transparent Membranes, with pretty large Holes out of one into the other. These Membranes seem to me to serve for _Ligaments_, or _Braces_ to the _Viscera_, as well as to contain Air. Towards the upper Part, each Lobe of the Lungs is perforated in two Places, with large Perforations; whereof one is towards the outer, the other towards the inner Part of the Lobe. Through these Perforations, the Air hath a Passage into the Belly, (as in _Book I. Chap. 1. Note (b)_;) that is, into the foremention’d Bladders; so that by blowing into the _aspera Arteria_, the Lungs will be a little rais’d, and the whole Belly blown up, so as to be very turgid. Which doubtless is a Means to make their Bodies more or less buoyant, according as they take in more or less Air, to facilitate thereby, their Ascents, and Descents: Like as it is in the _Air-bladders_ of Fishes, in the last cited Place. _Note (i)._

[h] _Such Birds as have long Legs, have also a long Neck; for that otherwise they could not commodiously gather up their Food, either on Land, or in the Water. But on the other Side, those which have long Necks, have not always long Legs, as in Swans——whose Necks serve them to reach to the Bottom of Rivers, ~&c.~_ Willughby’s Ornithol. L. 1. c. 1. §. 7.

[i] We have sufficient Instances of this in _Geese_, _Ducks_, &c. whose Wings, (their Bodies being made for the Convenience of Swimming,) are plac’d out of the Center of Gravity, nearer the Head. But the extending the Neck and Heads in Flight, causeth a due Æquipoise and Libration of the Body upon the Wing. Which is another excellent Use of the long Necks of these Birds, besides that of reaching and searching in the Waters for their Food.

But in the _Heron_, whose Head and long Neck, (although tuck’d up in Flight,) over-balance the hinder Part of the Body; the long Legs are extended in Flight, to counterpoise the Body, as well as to supply what is wanting in the Tail, from the Shortness of it.

[k] _Steno_ thus Concludes his Myology of the Eagle, _Imperfecta hæc Musculorum descriptio, non minùs arida est Legentibus, quàm Inspectantibus fuerit jucunda eorundem præparatio. Elegantissima enim Mechanices artificia, creberrimè in illis obvia, verbis non nisi obscure exprimuntur, carnium autem ductu, tendinum colore, insertionum proportione, & trochlearam distributione oculis exposita omnem superant admirationem._ Steno in Blas. Anat. Animal. P. 2. c. 4.

CHAP. III.

_Of the MIGRATION of Birds._

Concerning the _State_ of this Tribe of _Animals_, the first Thing I shall speak of, (by Reason God himself instanceth in it,) shall be their Migration, mention’d, _Jer._ viii. 7. _Yea, the Stork in the Heaven knoweth her appointed Times, and the Turtle, and the Crane, and the Swallow observe the Time of their Coming; but my People, ~&c.~_

In which Act of Migration, there are two Things to me, exceedingly notable. One is what the Text speaks of, their knowing their proper Times for their _Passage_, when to come[a], when to go; as also that some should come when others go; and some others go when these come. There is no doubt but the Temperature of the Air, as to Heat and Cold, and their natural Propensity to breed their Young; may be great Incentives to those Creatures to change their Habitation: But yet it is a very odd Instinct, that they should at all shift their Habitation: That some certain Place is not to be found in all the terraqueous Globe, affording them convenient Food and Habitation all the Year, either in the colder Climes, for such as Delight in the colder Regions, or the hotter, for such _Birds of Passage_ as fly to us in Summer.

Also it is somewhat strange, that those untaught, unthinking Creatures, should so exactly know the best and only proper Seasons to go and come. This gives us good Reason to interpret the ‎‏מועדיה‏‎ _appointed times_[b], in the Text, to be such Times as the Creator hath appointed those Animals, and hath accordingly, for this End, imprinted upon their Natures such an Instinct, as exciteth and moveth them thus, at proper Times, to fly from a Place that would obstruct their Generation, or not afford convenient Food for them, and their Young, and betake themselves to another Place, affording all that is wanting for Food or Incubation.

And this leads me to another Thing remarkable in this Act of Migration; and that is, That those unthinking Creatures should know what Way to steer their Course[c] and whither to go. What but the great Creator’s Instinct should ever move a poor foolish Bird, to venture over vast Tracts of Land, but especially over large Seas? If it should be said, That by their high Ascents up into the Air, they can see cross the Seas; yet what should teach or persuade them, that that Land is more proper for their Purpose, than this? That _Britain_, (for Instance,) should afford them better Accommodations than _Ægypt_[d], than the _Canaries_, than _Spain_, or any of those many intermediate Places over which some of them probably fly.

And lastly, to all this, let us briefly add the Accommodations these _Birds of Passage have_, to enable them to take such long Flights, _viz._ the Length of their Wings, or their more than ordinary Strength[e] for Flight.

FOOTNOTES:

[a] _Curiosa res est, scire, quàm exacte hoc genus avium, ~[Gruum]~ quontannis observet tempora sui reditûs ad nos. Anno 1667. primæ Grues comparuerunt in campestribus Pisæ 20 Feb. ~&c.~_ F. Redi Exp. Nat. p. 100. ubi plura.

[b] From ‎‏יעד‏‎ _indixit_, _constituit_, _scil locum, vel tempus, ubi vel quando aliquid fieri debet_. Buxt. in verb.

_De voluntate suâ certiorem reddidit._ Con. Kircher concordant. Pars. 1. Col. 1846. ‎‏מועד‏‎ _Generaliter pro re aliguâ certà, artestatâ, & definitâ accipitur. 1. Pro tempore certo & constituto. 2. Deinde pro sesto seu Solennitate, quæ certo & stato tempore celebratur. 3. Pro loco certo constituto._ Id. ibid. Col. 1847.

[c] _Quis non cum admiratione videat ordinem & politiam peregrinantium Avium, in itinere, turmatim volantium, per longos terrarum & maris tractus absque Acu marinâ?——Quis eas certum iter in aëris mutabili regione docuit? Quis præteritæ signa, & futuræ viæ indicia; quis eas ducit, nutrit, & vitæ necessaria ministrat? Quis insulas & hospitia, illa, in quibus victum reperiant, indicavat; modumque ejusmodi loca in peregrinationibus suis inveniendi? Hæc sanè superant hominum captum & industriam, qui non nisi longis experientiis, multis itinerariis, chartis geographicis,——& acûs magneticæ beneficio,——ejusmodi marium & terrarum tractus conficere tentant & audent._ Lud. de Beaufort. Cosmop. divina Sect. 5. c. 1.

[d] I instance particularly in _Ægypt_, because Mr. _Willughby_ thinks _Swallows_ fly thither, and into _Æthiopia_, &c. and that they do nor lurk in Holes, or under Water, as _Olaus Magnus_ Reports. _Vid._ _Ornith._ L. 2. c. 3. But _Etmuller_ puts the Matter out of doubt; who saith, _Memini me plures, quàm quas Medimnus caperit, Hirundines arcte coacervatas intra Piscinæ cannas, sub glacie prorsus ad sensum exanimes pulsantes tamen, reperiisse._ Etmuller Dissert. 2. c. 10. §. 5. This as it is like what _Ol. Magnus_ saith, so is a Confirmation of it. The Archbishop’s Account is, _In Septentrionalibus aquis sæpius casu Piscatoris extrahuntur Hirundines, in modum conglemeratæ massæ, quæ ore ad os, & alâ ad alam, & pede ad pedem post principium autumni sese inter cannas descensuræ colligârunt.——Massa autem illa per imperitos adolescentes——extracta, atque in æstuaria portata, caloris accessu Hirundines resolutæ, volare quidem incipiunt, sed exiguo tempore durant._ Ol. Mag. Hist. L. 19. c. 20.

Since my penning this Note, we had, at a Meeting of the Royal-Society, _Feb. 12. 1712-13._ a farther Confirmation of _Swallows_ retiring under Water in Winter, from Dr. _Golas_, a Person very curious in these Matters; who speaking of their Way of Fishing in the northern Parts, by breaking Holes, and drawing their Nets under the Ice, saith, that he saw sixteen Swallows so drawn out of the _Lake of Samrodt_, and about Thirty out of the King’s great Pond in _Rosineilen_; and that at _Schlebitten_, near an House of the Earl of _Dohna_, he saw two Swallows just come out of the Waters, that could scarce stand, being very wet and weak, with their Wings hanging on the Ground: And that he hath observ’d the Swallows to be often weak for some Days after their Appearance.

[e] As _Swallows_ are well accommodated for long Flights, by their long Wings, so are _Quails_ by the Strength of their _pectoral Muscles_, by the Breadth of their Wings, _&c._ For Quails have but short Wings for the Weight of their Body; and yet they fly from us into warmer Parts, against Winter, and to us in Spring, crossing our Seas. So divers Travellers tell us they cross the _Mediterranean_ twice a Year, flying from _Europe_ to _Africa_, and back again: Thus _Bellonius_ in Mr. _Willughby_, saith, When we sail’d from _Rhodes_ to _Alexandria_ of _Ægypt_, many Quails flying from the North towards the South, were taken in our Ship; _whence I am verily persuaded, that they shift Places: For formerly also, when I sail’d out of the Isle of ~Zant~ to ~Morea~, or ~Negropont~, in the Spring Time, I had observ’d ~Quails~ flying the contrary Way, from ~South~ to ~North~, that they might abide there all Summer. At which Time also, there were a great many taken in our Ship._ Ornith. p. 170.

CHAP. IV.

_Of the INCUBATION of Birds._

Another Thing relating to the State of this Tribe of Animals, is their _Incubation_.

And first, the _Egg_ it self deserves our Notice. Its Parts within, and its crusty Coat without, are admirably well fitted for the Business of Incubation. That there should be one Part provided for the Formation of the Body[a], before its Exit into the World, and another for its Nourishment, after it is come into the World, till the Bird is able to shift for, and help it self; and that these Parts should be so accurately brac’d, and kept in due Place[b], is certainly a design’d, as well as curious Piece of Workmanship.

And then as to the Act it self, of _Incubation_, What a prodigious Instinct is it in all, or almost all the several Species of Birds, that they, and only they, of all Creatures, should betake themselves to this very Way of Generation? How should they be aware that their Eggs contain their Young, and that their Production is in their Power[c]? What should move them to betake themselves to their Nests, and there with Delight and Patience to abide the due Number of Days? And when their Young are gotten into the World, I have already shewn how admirable their Art, their Care, and Στοργὴ is in bringing them up until, and only until, they are able to shift for themselves.

And lastly, when almost the whole Tribe of Birds, do thus by Incubation, produce their Young, it is a wonderful Deviation, that some few Families only, should do it in a more novercal Way[d], without any Care or Trouble at all, only by laying their Eggs in the Sand, exposed to the Heat and Incubation of the Sun. Of this the Holy Scripture it self gives us an Instance in the Ostrich: Of which we have an Hint, _Lam._ iv. 3. _The Daughter of my People is become cruel, like the Ostriches in the Wilderness._ This is more plainly expressed in _Job_ xxxix. 14, 15, 16, 17. _~[The Ostrich]~ leaveth her Eggs in the Earth, and warmeth them in the Dust, and forgetteth that the Foot may crush them, or that the Wild-Beast may break them. She is hardened against her Young ones, as though they were not hers: Her Labour is in vain, without Fear. Because God hath deprived her of Wisdom, neither hath he imparted unto her Understanding._ In which Words I shall take notice of three Things, 1. Of this anomalous Way of Generation. It is not very strange, that no other Incubation but that of the Sun, should produce the Young; but ’tis very odd and wonderful that any one Species should vary from all the rest of the Tribe. But above all, 2. The singular Care of the Creator, in this Case, is very remarkable, in supplying some other Way the Want of the Parent-Animals Care and Στοργὴ[e], so that the Young should notwithstanding be bred up in those large and barren Desarts of _Arabia_ and _Africa_, and such like Places where those Birds dwell, the most unlikely and unfitting (in all human Opinion) to afford Sustenance to young helpless Creatures; but the fittest therefore to give Demonstrations of the Wisdom, Care, and especial Providence of the infinite Creator and Conservator of the World. 3. The last Thing I shall remark is, That the Instincts of Irrational Animals, at least of this specified in the Text, is attributed to GOD. For the Reason the Text gives why the _Ostrich is hardened against her young Ones, as though they were not hers, is, Because _GOD_ hath deprived her of Wisdom, and not imparted Understanding to her_; _i.e._ he hath denied her that Wisdom, he hath not imparted that Understanding, that Στοργὴ, that natural Instinct to provide for, and nurse up her Young, that most other Creatures of the same, and other Tribes are endowed with.

Thus I have dispatched what I intend to insist upon concerning the State of this Set of Animals; of which, as also of their admirable Instincts, a great deal more might deserve our especial Observation; particularly the admirable Curiosity, Art, and Variety of Nidification[f], used among the various Species of Birds; the great Sagacity, and many Artifices used by them in the Investigation and Capture of their Prey[g], the due Proportion of the more and less useful, the Scarcity of the Voracious and Pernicious, and the Plenty of the Mansuete and Useful[h]. Also the Variety of their Motion and Flight might deserve Consideration, the Swiftness of such whose Food is to be sought in far distant Places, and different Seasons[i]; the slower Motion and short Flights of others more domestick; and even the Aukwardness of some others to Flight, whose Food is near at hand, and to be gotten without any great Occasion of Flight[k]. These and divers other such like Things as these, I say, I might have spoken more largely unto; but I shall pass them by with only a bare Mention, having already taken notice of them in the Company of other Matters of the like Nature, and manifested them to be Acts of excellent Design, Wisdom, and Providence, in the great Creator.

FOOTNOTES:

[a] _The Chicken is form’d out of, and nourish’d by the White alone, till it be grown great. The Yolk serves for the Chicken’s Nourishment, after it is well grown, and partly also after it is hatch’d. For a good Part of the Yolk remains after Exclusion, being receiv’d into the Chicken’s Belly; and being there reserv’d, as in a Store-house, is by the ~Appendicula~, or ~Ductus intestinalis~, as by a Funnel, convey’d into the Guts, and serves instead of Milk, ~&c.~_ Willugh. Ornith. L. 1. c. 3. _Ipsum animal ex albo liquore Ovi corporatur. Cibus ejus in lutco est._ Plin. L. 10. c. 53.

_Aristotle_ saith, _The long sharp Eggs bring Females; the round ones, with a larger Compass at the sharper End, Males._ Hist. An. L. 6. c. 2. After which, he tells of a Sott at _Syracuse_, that sate drinking so long, till Eggs were hatch’d; as also of the Custom of _Ægypt_, of hatching Eggs in Dunghills.

[b] As the Shell and Skin keep the Yolk and two Whites together; so each of the Parts, (the Yolk and inner White at least,) are separated by Membranes, involving them. At each End of the Egg is a Treddle, so call’d, because it was formerly thought to be the Sperm of the Cock. _But the Use of these_, (saith Dr. _Harvey_ in _Willugh. Ornith._ c. 3.) _is to be as ’twere, the Poles of this Microcosm, and the Connections of all the Membranes twisted and knit together, by which the Liquors are not only conserv’d, each in its Place, but do also retain their due Position one to another._ This, although in a great Measure true, yet doth not come up to what I have my self observ’d; for I find, that these _Chalazæ_, or _Treddles_, serve not barely to keep the Liquors in their Place, and Position to one another; but also to keep one and the same Part of the Yolk uppermost, let the Egg be turn’d nearly which way it will; which is done by this Mechanism: The _Chalazæ_ are specifically lighter than the Whites, in which they swim; and being brac’d to the Membrane of the Yolk, not exactly in the _Axis_ of the Yolk, but somewhat out of it; causeth one Side of the Yolk to be heavier than the other; so that the Yolk being by the _Chalazæ_ made buoyant, and kept swimming in the Midst of two Whites, is by its own heavy Side kept with the same Side always uppermost; which uppermost Side I have some Reason to think, is that on which the _Cicatricula_ lies; that being commonly uppermost in the Shell, especially in some Species of Eggs more I think than others.

[c] All Birds lay a certain Number of Eggs, or nearly that Number, and then betake themselves to their Incubation; but if their Eggs be withdrawn, they will lay more. Of which, see Mr. _Ray_’s Wis. of God, p. 137.

[d] The _Tabon_ is a Bird no bigger than a Chicken, but is said to lay an Egg larger than a Goose’s Egg, and bigger than the Bird it self. These they lay a Yard deep in the Sand, where they are hatch’d by the Warmth of the Sun; after which they creep out, and get to Sea for Provisions. _Navarett_’s _Account of China in Collect. of Voyages_, Vol. 1. This Account is in all Probability borrow’d from _Nieremberg_, or _Hernandez_, (that copy’d from him,) who call this Bird by the Name of _Daie_, and its Eggs _Tapun_, not the Bird it self, as _Navarette_ doth. But my Friend Mr. _Ray_ saith of it, _Historia isthæc proculdubio fabulosa & falsa est. Quamvis enim Aves nonnulla maxima ova pariunt, ut v.g. ~Alkæ~, ~Lomwiæ~, ~Anates~, ~Arcticæ~, &c. hujusmodi tamen unum duntaxat, non plura ova ponunt antequam incubent: nec ullam in rerum naturâ avem dari existimo cujus ova albumine careant. Cum Albumen præcipua ovi pars sit, quodque primum fœtus alimentum subministrat._ Raii Synop. Av. Method. p. 155.

[e] _The Eggs of the Ostrich being buried in the Sand, are cherished only by the Heat of the Sun, till the Young be excluded. For the Writers of Natural History do generally agree, that the old Birds, after they have laid and covered their Eggs in the Sand, forsake them, and take no more Care of them._ Willugh. Ornith. L. 2. c. 8. §. 1.

But there is another _Ostrich_ [of _America_] which _Acaret_ tells us of, that takes more Care of her Young, by carrying four of her Eggs, a little before she hatcheth, to four Parts of her Nest, there to breed Worms for Food for her Young. _Acaret’s Disc. in Philos. Trans._ Nᵒ. 89.

[f] See _Book IV. ch. 13._

[g] See _Book IV. ch. 11. and 14._

[h] See _Book IV. ch. 10._ beginn.

[i] See _Book IV. ch. 8._

[k] The _Colymbi_, or _Douckers_, having their Food near at hand in the Waters, are remarkably made for Diving therein. Their Heads are small, Bills sharp-pointed, Wings small, Legs flat and broad, and placed backward, and nearer the Tail than in Other Birds; and lastly, their Feet; some are whole-footed, some cloven-footed, but withal fin-toed. _Vid._ _Willugh. Ornith._ L. 3. §. 5.

CHAP. V.

_The CONCLUSION._

And now, if we reflect upon the whole Matter, we shall here find another large Tribe of the Creation, abundantly setting forth the Wisdom and Glory of their great Creator. We praise the Ingenuity and Invention of Man, for the Contrivance of various pneumatick Engines; we think them witty, even for their unsuccessful Attempts to swim in, and sail through that subtle Element the Air; and the curious Mechanism of that Artist is had in Remembrance, and praised to this Day, who made a Dove, or an _Eagle_[a] to fly but a short Space. And is not therefore all imaginable Honour and Praise due to that infinite Artist, that hath so admirably contrived and made, all the noble Variety of Birds; that hath with such incomparable Curiosity and Art, formed their Bodies from Head to Tail, without and within, that not so much as any Muscle, or Bone, no, not even a Feather[b] is unartificially made, misplaced, redundant, or defective, in all the several Families of this large Tribe? But every Thing is so incomparably performed, so nicely fitted up for Flight, as to surpass even the Imitation of the most ingenious Artificer among mortal rational Beings.

FOOTNOTES:

[a] _Vid._ _Book V. ch. 1. Note (aa)._

[b] _Deus non solùm Angelum, & Hominem, sed nec exigui & contemptibilis animantis viscera, nec Avis pennulam, nec Herbæ flosculum, nec Arboris folium sine suarum partium convenientiâ dereliquit._ Augustin. de Civ. Dei, L. 5. c. 11.

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