CHAPTER I
The Map of the Mask
From the map it is evident that masks have been worn in every part of the world. They are older than the idols which primitive man made for himself. Why he invented masks we do not exactly know. They may have originated when man first attempted to impersonate the gods as he sought to control nature. If you can imagine how vast and mysterious the world of nature looked to primitive man and how he felt about all moving things, animals, clouds, winds, flowing water, swaying trees, and creeping vines, you can understand how he came to believe that there were spirits dwelling in such things and that these indwelling spirits had power to work him good or evil. Through offerings and prayers he sought to control these mysterious spirits and make them do his will.
Death was the greatest of all mysteries. Where did the spirit go when it left the body? It must go somewhere. Why not into an animal, or a tree, or even into a stone? Gradually this came to be his belief. His desire for mastery and power over the spirits led him to imagine faces more powerful and compelling than his own which would dominate them. He was full of invention. He invented the mask and became a god. When he wore the mask he believed that he controlled indwelling spirits and even coming events. This belief was true of primitive man the world over.
In Africa, masks were always worn in the tribal religious rites. When a dancer wore a mask, he was no longer an individual for he felt within himself the spirit of all his tribe. When the dance was finished, the mask was taken from the head and worshiped like an idol. These masks were created by the greatest artists of the tribe. They were simple, strong, and severe, without naturalism of any kind. They exaggerated the character of eyes, nose, and mouth in order to give intensity of expression. They were strange, but not terrifying. They were an effort to reveal the inner relations of man, nature, and God. They were beautifully made out of wood, copper, bronze, and ivory.
Quite different masks are found among the primitive people of North America. The Eskimos in Alaska make animal masks such as of the bear, wolf, beaver, and various birds to represent their totem ancestors. Every totemistic tribe has its own animal ancestor which it believes is impressed upon everything around the dwelling. The Eskimos believe that in the early days, if animals wished to assume human form, they could do so at will by pushing up their faces or beaks, as if they were masks. This human or man-like form they called the “inua.” It was supposed to represent the thinking part of the animal, and, at its death, became its shade or ghost. During the many festivals when the Eskimos wore their animal masks, they believed that they actually became the creature that they represented. Some of their masks were ingeniously made with double faces, so arranged that, at certain times in the ceremony, the outer mask which was held in place by pegs could be removed, thus symbolizing the transformation of the animal into the man.
The Indians of California observe annual ceremonies of mourning for the dead. Ten or more men prepare themselves to play the part of the ghosts. Disguised with painted masks, and adorned with feathers and grasses, they dance and sing in the village or rush about at night in the forest, with burning torches in their hands. The relatives of the dead look upon the maskers as their departed friends.
Other Indian tribes disguise themselves by painting their faces instead of wearing masks. The inspiration for the painting comes from a trance or a vision. The dancer makes his request to the leader of the ceremony. “My Father, I have come to be painted, so that I may see my friends. Have pity on me and paint me.” Elaborate designs in red, yellow, green, and blue are put upon the face, with a red or yellow line upon the parting of the hair. The designs most commonly used are sun, moon, stars, crosses, and birds.
The Indians of Arizona and New Mexico, such as the Hopi and Zuni, are ancestor worshipers. They believe that their dead relatives become supernatural spirits or “cachinas” or “kokos.” They consider them guardians that they may call upon in time of distress and need. If the crops have suffered from drought, they bring out the sacred masks and perform the rain dance.
The Zuni believe that the earth is watered by these departed ancestors, who as they pass to and fro continuously over the middle plains collect water in vases and gourd jugs from the six great waters of the world. They are unseen by the people below, because they wear cloud masks.
The masks worn by the Zuni dancers in their great winter festivals bear symbols characteristic of the cachinas and are repainted with great care before each dance. Many and varied are the names of the different masks, such as Mountain Goat-hunter Mask, Thrush Mask, Owl Mask, Buffalo Mask, Dust-in-the-House Woman Mask, Rain-Drop-Maker Mask, Long-Life-Maker Mask.
The ancient Aztecs wore masks decorated with turquoise and shell.
[Illustration:
_Masks_
_Indian Corn Maidens_
_Clowns_
_Japanese Characters_: _Old Woman_, _Devil Mask_, _Old Man_ ]
[Illustration: MAP of the MASK]
1 _AFRICA (Congo)_
2 _ESQUIMAU_
3 _ITALY (Commedia del Arte)_
4 _ROMAN_
5 _Greece (Ancient)_
6 _ASIA (Thibet)_
7 _EGYPT_
8 _BRAZIL_
9 _NEW MEXICO (Hopi)_
10 _ARIZONA (Zuñi)_
11 _CALIFORNIA_
12 _NEW YORK (Benda)_
13 _PHILADELPHIA (Bellsnickles)_
14 _ENGLAND (Mummers)_
15 _FRANCE (Revels)_
16 _CEYLON (Lion)_
17 _NEW ORLEANS (Mardi Gras)_
18 _JAVA_
19 _SIAM_
20 _BURMA_
21 _CHINA_
22 _JAPAN (No Drama)_
In Brazil, masks were used in dances performed in honor of the dead. The mask represented animals, birds, and insects. They obtained their magical power by the wearer imitating the movements and actions of these creatures. For instance, the butterfly masks came by their magic through the dance of two men who imitated the play of these brilliant insects fluttering on the wing, settling on sand banks and rocks. The magic of the swallow masks came through the imitation of the swallow, and so it was with the owl, spider, vulture, beetle, toad, jaguar mask, and others. After the dance the masks were burned in order to drive the indwelling spirits back to their haunts. Even idols needed masks to give them life, and special power over disease and disaster. These masks must be as enduring as the gods themselves, so they were made of terra cotta, shell, and stone. Among the gifts made to Columbus when he landed in San Salvador were some of these sacred masks.
Masks originated in Asia just as they did in Africa and America, through man’s fears and superstitions. In India, China, Japan, and throughout the Orient, they have been used for centuries in religious ceremonies. Gradually they were introduced into court functions, such as wedding and birthday celebrations, and finally animal masks were used to entertain the common people.
The highly involved religions of these eastern peoples, with their countless deities, brought infinite variety to their masks. Their civilization, being old and rich in tradition, gave to the mask subtleties and refinement of characterization that could not be conceived of by primitive peoples. Their masks reflected their clear, well-defined ideas, and showed their artists’ amazing ability to recognize and analyze expressions of the human face. Tranquillity, mirth, cunning, scorn, wrath, and subtle shades of feeling are portrayed. The idea in the mind of the mask maker was so clear that we are never left in doubt as to the meaning of the mask. They are emotional interpretations, never realistic portraits.
Chinese priests used the mask in morality plays showing the rewards and punishments that will be meted out in their many heavens, hells, and purgatories. Their masks are usually horrible or terrifying, sometimes humorous, rarely beautiful. They are worn by gorgeously costumed priests who enact the plays, in pantomime, on stages erected in the temple courtyards.
In Siam, Burma, Java, and Ceylon, the mask passed from the temple to the theater and the strolling players. Much of its old symbolism has been lost, and it frequently becomes merely an elaborate piece of decoration.
Probably the most beautiful masks in the world are the religious or _No_ masks of Japan. These are worn in the sacred _No_ plays, of which there are more than two hundred. They represent the Japanese idea of the appearance of their gods and heroes. Music, dance, and dialogue all are used in the five or six short plays which make the _No_ cycle. The _No_ begins with the bestowing of blessings by the gods and their victory over the demons. A short love story follows, with possibly a bit of humor, and then a picture of the passing of life. The end is a gracious recognition of the favor of the gods. These ancient plays are performed out of doors on a simple platform erected against a wall on which is painted a symbolic pine tree. Masks have been used for more than four hundred years in these _No_ dramas.
The ancient Egyptians used the mask in their sacrificial ceremonies. In the “Book of the Dead” ceremony one may see a priest wearing the jackal-headed mask of Anubis, standing before the bier of the great god, Osiris. The victims kneeling before him wear hare and hawk headed masks. Egyptian kings wore lion, bull, and dragon masks to impress their subjects with their mighty power. Even the mummies wore masks. On the faces of their dead kings they placed masks of pure gold as did the Mycenæans.
The mask, as we know it, came to us through the Greeks. In the worship of Demeter, the earth mother of the Greeks, masks of horses, pigs, cats, hares, and asses were used. Masks were also used in the worship of Dionysus, with dancing, chanting, and chorus. The Greeks, being the first people to have a theater, were also the first people to realize that no human face could portray the sustained expression of tragedy and comedy called for by the great rôles of their dramas. The mask became a necessity. Thespis is credited with its invention. The mask enabled an actor to play female rôles, to play many different characters, and to represent his character in youth, middle life, and old age. The open mouth characterized the Greek mask. Some scholars have believed that a brass mouthpiece was used to amplify the voice of the actor.
The Romans appropriated the Greek mask. Virgil tells us that they hung masks on trees at the time of sowing, in order to better the crops. Noble Romans wore masks of their illustrious ancestors at funerals. The impersonators riding in chariots through the streets were dressed in rich robes of office, resplendent in purple and gold such as the dead nobles had worn in their lifetime. When the funeral procession reached the Forum, the maskers solemnly took their seats on the ivory chairs placed for them on the platform of the rostra, in the sight of all the people. This spectacle, no doubt, stirred memories of the glorious past in the hearts of the old and fired the young with noble ambitions. It is said that Nero wore masks resembling his own face and those of his favorites.
With the passing of glorious Rome the mask became a degraded thing, abhorred by the early Christians.
Throughout the Dark Ages in Europe the mask was used only in the revels, and to celebrate the coming of the New Year and the springtime. Gradually the spirit of revelling slipped into the Church. In England and in France, during the XIIth Century, there was a very famous revel called “The Feast of Fools” that began at vespers on the last day of the year. Two equally famous revels were those of the “Boy Bishop” and the “Feast of the Ass,” celebrated with rout and mock ritual. Such were the excesses indulged in that Pope Innocent III, in 1207 A. D., formally prohibited masking in the church. But it was not until the XVth Century that these revels were effectively driven out. We hear next of the mask in scriptural plays, such as those given at Christmas time. These plays were performed outside the church. During the XIVth Century, we discover the guilds or corporations of craftsmen employing the mask in their religious plays, in honor of royal visits, and in their May Day processions. In fact, all over Europe, at that time wherever the mystery, miracle, or morality play was given, we are sure to find at least occasional use of the mask.
[Illustration:
_Masks_
_Upper Row_: _Bishop_, _Queen_, _King_ _Middle Row_: _Lady-in-Waiting_, _Crusader_, _Child_ _Lower Row_: _Jester_, _Old Woman_, _Little Jack_ ]
In Italy, from the XIVth to the XVIIth Century, the mask was worn by Harlequin, Pantaloon, Pulcinella, the Doctor, and all the characters of the _Commedia dell’arte_. In the XVIIIth Century, the comedy theaters of France also affected the mask as a dramatic requisite.
During the XIXth Century the mask had degenerated to the crude false faces used by Europeans or their descendants in America. In Philadelphia, children wear masks at Thanksgiving. Masks appear at the celebration of the Mardi Gras in New Orleans, and the old-time custom of wearing masks at Hallowe’en still prevails.
A few years ago a group of artists, foremost among them W. T. Benda, who knew the great and beautiful tradition of the mask and had felt its strange fascination, lifted the mask to a new level of distinction. Anyone who has had the good fortune to see one of their masks cannot escape its spell nor can he rest until he finds an occasion to make a mask.
[Illustration: [Mask]]
[Illustration: [Mask]]