Part 40
_Fig._ 5. is the Spindle in Three Parts. A is the middle Part, wherein are the Notches _b b_. This is best to be of Oak, or some other hard Wood, in which the Edges of the Notches are less apt to wear than in softer Wood; but I have had a Set that have lasted the Drilling of 120 Acres, when made of Ash. B and C are the Two other Parts: D and E are their Ends, whereon the Wheels are put. The Holes _h h_ _h h_, and the same in the other End under the Letter E, are for setting the Wheels at different Distances, in order for making new Notches, or for different-sized Ridges: The Wheels are held in their Places by long Nails put through some of these Holes, and clenched upon the Iron Stock-bonds to prevent their falling out. These Ends B and C need not be cut to a Square; except just enough to prevent the Wheels from turning on the Spindle.
These Three Parts are grafted together by Help of the hollow Cylinder _Fig._ 6. which, being put on upon the Joint _f_, of the Spindle _Fig._ 5. holds the Parts A and B together by the Two Pins _a a_, passing through the Cylinder near its Ends, and through the Holes _k_ and _g_.
This Joint may be in another manner; _viz._ One Part of the Spindle may enter into the other by cutting it to a square Peg of an Inch long, and ³⁄₄ths Diameter, entering an Hole that fits it, at the End of the other Part.
These Pins will be best to have Screws at their Ends with Nuts to them; and then they need not be so tight in the Holes, and may be the more easily taken out, when the Part B is to be taken off for avoiding Obstructions in drilling an outside Ridge.
The Cylinder is a Foot long, and about half an Inch thick, bound with an Iron Ferrel at each End; and if there were another in the Middle, it might be the stronger.
Place the Cylinder on the Outside of the Spindle, the Joint _f_ being exactly against the Middle of the Cylinder; and mark at each End of it, in order to see when it is in its right Place; and after it is put on and pinned, mark likewise on the Spindle the exact Places of the Holes, for the more easy finding them every Time the Cylinder is put on.
Another Cylinder must be on the Joint _c_, held together by Pins passing thro’ the Holes _i_ and _d_, in the same manner, and for the same Purpose, as the other Joint already described.
The Spindle ought to be of equal Diameter with the Bore of the Seed-boxes, thro’ which it is to pass; but this I find, needs not be quite an Inch and ³⁄₄ths; it may want an 8th of it, even in this long Spindle.
_Fig._ 7. is one of the Pins which hold the Cylinder in its Place, as has been said; _a_ is its Head; _b_ the Stalk, which would be better to be a Screw at its lower End, whereon to screw a Nut; but then the Stalk must be square at the Head.
_Fig._ 8. is a Sheat with its Trunk and Share of the Drill-plough, which has been described in _Plates_ 4. and 5. but the Shape of the Share, as it rises at the Socket, is more plainly seen in this Figure.
_Fig._ 9. is the whole Wheat-drill, which at present I use for planting the double Row. A is the Hopper, rising and sinking on the single Standard B, which holds it up. C is the thing like the Carrier of a Latch, described by _Fig._ 22. in _Plate_ 4. I need say no more for describing this Drill, than to shew how it differs from that described in _Plate_ 4. _viz._ This Hopper has Two of these Carriers, the one near its Top, like the other; and another near its Bottom, which keeps the Plough from rising at either End, without the rising of either End of the Hopper, which is no Inconvenience here; because the Two Shares, being but Ten Inches asunder, are almost the same as one; so that at the Distance the Wheels stand from each other, the rising of one Wheel doth not lift up the Share that is next to it perceptibly; as it would do if the Shares were farther asunder, or the Wheels nearer together.
This Hopper holds twice as much Seed as the single fore Hopper did, _viz._ half a Bushel; and is divided into Two equal Parts by the Partition _e_, whereby the Driller sees whether the Seed is discharged equally; and if he perceives that one Part of the Hopper runs out faster than the other, he must adjust them by the Setting-screws.
The Funnels _a a_, which receive the Seed from the Hopper, and convey it down into the Trunks _c c_, appear under the Hopper, as doth also Part of the Hole _d_, whereon the Funnel stood when the fore Hopper was single. D shews the Cylinder upon the grafted Spindle at one End, as F shews where the other End with its Cylinder and Wheel is taken off. The Ends of the Piece A, which guide the Harrow, appear behind the Plank at _f f_. At _g_ in the Harrow-head is a Hole exactly in the Middle between the Tines, for tying on a Stone when the Harrow is too light for the Soil. _Note_, This Hole must follow exactly after the Middle of the Plank, _i. e._ between the Two Shares at an equal Distance from each.
Observe, that the Legs of this Harrow go thro’ the Head on the Outsides of the Tines, as in the treble Drill they go thro’ on the Inside of the Tines. Instead of the wooden Tines, may be put in common Iron Tines of a proper Length.
The Two Hooks whereby the Plough is drawn are at _h h_. ’Tis best for the Ends of the Hooks to turn upwards, so that the Links of the Chain-traces, that are to be put on them, may not be apt to drop off. Take care that these Traces be of an equal Length, which may be easily made even by the Links that are put on these Hooks.
_Note_, The Links of the Piece of Chain, whereby the Plough is made to go deeper or shallower, may be very small, and by no means in the Proportion they bear to the Limbers in the Cut. There need not be above Four or Five Links. If there be occasion to raise or sink the Limbers more than that Number will reach, the Cord may be tied longer or shorter on the other Limber. And when there is not the Convenience of Chain-traces, they may be supplied by a few Iron Links at the Ends of Hempen Traces.
_Fig._ 10. is the Shape of a wooden Wreath, which (when the Shares stand wider asunder, or when there are more than Two of them, so that they come nearer to the Ends of the Plank, this Wreath) is necessary to be put on the Spindle, the End _a_ bearing against the Inside of the double Standards, and the End _b_ being towards the Hopper. ’Tis fixt to the Spindle by the Screw _c_, which should not enter the Spindle above half an Inch deep. There may be another like Screw to enter in the same manner on the opposite Side of this Wreath. There must be in this case another Wreath the same of this to bear against the other double Standards. And when these Wreaths are used, the Hopper must have only the upper Carrier C; the lower one must be taken off. But in this our Drill for planting Wheat, no Wreaths must be on the Spindle, except those at _b b_, which are to hold the Hopper from moving endways. And these may be of the Sort above described, the End _a_ bearing against the Hopper.
_Fig._ 11. is the Beam of the Hoe-plough described in _Plate_ VI. _Fig._ 2. with no other Alteration than leaving out the Hole H, and the pricked Line between it and the Hole I; and changing the Hole G into a Mortise. The pricked Line _a b_ represents the hinder Edge of the Plank, behind which appears a very small Part of a Mortise. See _p._ 415, 416.
_Fig._ 12. is the Plank, which is _Fig._ 3. in _Plate_ VI. The Improvement of it in this Figure is described in _p._ 415, 416.
_An_ Appendix _to Chap._ IX. _of_ Wheat, _p._ 138. _containing_ Memoranda _for the Practisers of this_ Husbandry.
At the Second Hoeing the Plough goes in the Furrow of the First, making it deeper, and nearer to the Wheat. The Third Hoeing fills up this Furrow; and then, at the Fourth Hoeing, the Plough goes in the same Place as the Second, turning the Mould into the Interval. ’Tis remarkable that though the Furrows of the Second and Fourth Hoeings be deep, and near to the Rows, seeming to deprive the Wheat of the Mould which should nourish it, whereby one would imagine, that these Furrows lying long open should weaken or starve it; yet it is just the contrary; for it grows the more vigorous: And it is the Observation of my Ploughmen, that they cannot at these Hoeings go too near to the Rows, unless the Plough should tear out the Plants.
[Illustration: _Plate 7._
_P. 422_
_Invented & Designed by & Printed for JETHRO TULL ESQ Oct: the 25^{th} 1738]
If I may presume to assign the Cause of this surprising Effect, it is, in my Opinion, the following; _viz._ This open Furrow has a double Surface of Earth, which by the _Nitre_ of the contiguous _Atmosphere_, is pulverized to a great Degree of Minuteness near the Row. The Roots that the Plough cuts off on the perpendicular Side of the Furrow, send out new Fibres to receive the _Pabulum_ from this new-made Pasture; and also Part of this superfine Powder is continually falling down into the Bottom of the Furrow, and there gives a very quick Growth to those Roots that are next it, and a quick Passage through it into the Earth of the Interval, where they take likewise the Benefit of the other Side of this pulverized Furrow. When it is said, that Air kills Roots, it must not be understood, that it kills a Plant, unless all, or almost all, its Root is exposed to it, as it is not in this Case. Some think there are Roots that run horizontally below the Plough into the Interval; but of this I am not convinced.
’Tis not often that we hoe above Four times; and then the Furrow is turned towards the Row at the Third time only.
There being no Danger from these Furrows lying long open, we are not confined to any precise Distance between the times of Hoeing, for which we need only regard the Weather, the Weeds, and our own Convenience of Opportunity and Leisure.
’Tis an Advantage when these Furrows lie open on each Side of the double Row till Harvest; for then there need only Two Furrows to be plowed on a Ridge to throw down the Partition in order for planting the next Crop; but if at the last Hoeing the Furrows are turned towards the Row, they must be plowed back again after Harvest before the Partition can be plowed: This requires double the time of the other; and the sooner the Partitions are plowed, the more time they will have to be pulverized before they are replanted. Indeed this Advantage is only when the Rows are to be planted where they were the Year before; for this is rather a Disadvantage when they are to be planted in the Intervals. Whether these Furrows lying long open next the Rows in very hot dry Climates may be prejudicial, cannot be known, but by Trials.
As from the external Superficies of an Acre of Pasture on a rich Soil, Animals take more _Pabulum_ than of an Acre on a poor Soil; so Vegetables take more _Pabulum_ from the internal Superficies of a rich Acre than of a poor one; the Pulveration, or Superficies of Parts, being equal. _See_ p. 44, 45. From whence there is no Encouragement for making Trials on very poor Land.
’Tis no great Matter whether the Rows are drilled on the Partitions, or the Intervals; for the Crops of a Field, Four Years successively drilled on the Partitions, were very good. After the Partitions had been plowed, and lain open till the Weather made them pulverizable by the Harrows, and then turned together by Furrows larger than those which opened them, much Earth of the Intervals was mixed with them. This is the strongest and lowest Ground I have; and if there should be much wet Weather after Harvest, it is so long in drying, that we take the first Opportunity the Weather allows for planting the Wheat, which is generally done in the above manner, because it is the shortest; but, without some such Reason to the contrary, I prefer planting the Rows on the precedent Intervals.
My Field, whereon is now the Thirteenth Crop of Wheat, has shewn that the Rows may successfully stand upon any Part of the Ground. The Ridges of this Field were for the Twelfth Crop, changed from Six Feet to Four Feet Six Inches: In order for this Alteration, the Ridges were plowed down, and the whole Field was plowed cross-ways of the Ridges for making them level; and then the next Ridges were laid out the same way as the former, but One Foot Four Inches narrower; and the double Rows drilled on their Tops, whereby of consequence there must be some Rows standing on every Part of the Ground, both on the former Partitions, and on every Part of the Intervals: Notwithstanding this, there was no manner of Difference in the Goodness of the Rows, and the whole Field was in every Part of it equal, and the best, I believe, that ever grew on it. It has now the Thirteenth Crop, likely to be very good, tho’ the Land was not plowed cross-ways.
The proper Times for Plowings and Hoeings depending upon the Weather, and other Circumstances, cannot be directed but by the Reason and Experience of the Practiser, as has been said.
The Number of Ridges being increased, as their Breadth is now diminished, occasions somewhat the more Plough-work, we likewise use more Handwork than formerly; but the Profit of this increased Labour is more than double to the Expence of it.
The Decline of the Woolen Manufacture furnishes us at this time with Plenty of Hand-hoers and Weeders; because they can earn much more by working in the Field than by Spinning at home.
’Tis better to make Fifteen Ridges on an Acre, than to leave any Earth unmoved by the Hoe-plough in the Middle of the Intervals; but when Ploughmen, by Practice, understand well to use the Hoe-plough, they will plow the Intervals clean, tho’ the Ridges are only Fourteen on an Acre.
Bearded Wheat is in this Country called _Cone_, and that which has no Beard _Lammas_. I observed formerly the Bread of _White-cone_ had a little yellowish Cast, which I now suspect was from the Mill-stones; for I have seen it be very white these many Years, since the Millers know better how to grind this Wheat. Cone wheat Westwards yields Six-pence a Bushel more than _Lammas_; but towards _London_ the contrary.
The Reasons why a whole Field of Wheat doth not produce a Crop equal in proportion to a Yard or Perch cut, rubbed out, and weighed immediately upon the Spot, may be, because the Grain of the Field lying to sweat in the Mow, loses considerably of its Weight and Measure. There is also some lost in the Field by Reapers, and by Leasers; and some is by Threshers thrown out of the Barn; and some of them are found to have Contrivances to carry home with them at Night, Part of the Wheat they thresh in the Day. I say nothing of those Thieves, who in Harvest rob the Field in the Dark; tho’ they are not very uncommon.
I missed of making my proposed Experiment of the single Row, after I had prepared for it by plowing out one of the double in several Places for that Purpose; but, in the Hurry of Harvest, they were cut together with the rest, without making any Trial; as should have been made, if my Illness had not prevented my Attendance in the Field at the time of Reaping.
The Practice and Instruments that are left off for better in their room, as the Quadruple and Treble Rows, _&c._ are still useful to be shewn, in order to deter others from going into an inferior Method that is now exploded; for some might think it an Improvement of the double Rows, _&c._ by their own Invention, if they should not know it had been already tried.
[Illustration]
INDEX.
_Artificial_ Pasture of Plants exceeds the Natural, p. 27, _&c._ _Atmosphere_, by Rain and Dews, reimburses the pulverized Earth, 70, 127
B
_Barley_, a hoed Plant of it produced Fifty large Ears, 65 Barley drilled on Ridges must be reaped, 63 But needs not be bound up in Sheaves, _ibid._ Barley is the worse for Seed by being sown at _Patney_, 240 _Blight_, the true Causes of it, 144, _&c._ Remedies against the Blight, 149, _&c._ _Breast-Plough_ insufficient for Tillage of strong turfy Land, 284
C
_Change_ of Species of Plants not necessary on account of different Nourishment, 217, _&c._ Change of the Individuals of some Species of Plants, why useful, 239 _Clover_, Broad, a Damage to Barley when sown amongst it, 188 A Remedy against it, _ibid._ _Cytisus_, why it cannot be so great an Improvement in _England_ as St. Foin, 172
D
_Dung_, in what manner ’tis beneficial, 29, _&c._ Dung is the Putrefaction of Earth altered by Vessels, 31 It may afford some Warmth in Winter, but is sometimes injurious by its Hollowness, 34 A considerable Quantity of Dung is necessary to the Old Husbandry, but not to the New, 33 Dung, when reduced by a thorough Putrefaction, is next to nothing, 275 Why Dung is not injurious to Corn, _&c._, 33 Dung, why more beneficial to Turneps than to other Plants, 88 Gross Dung, why it should be prohibited the Kitchen-Garden, 30, _&c._
E
_Earth_, the Price of a Foot of it, and of a Row 124, 125 Particles of Earth much more heterogeneous after passing Vessels, 237 _Effluvia_ of Animal Bodies noxious, 32 _Equivocal Generation_ disproved, 78, 79 _Exhaustion_, 270, 271
F
_Food_, or _Pabulum_ of Plants, what it is, 15, _&c._ _Frost_, how it is advantageous, 116 _Furrow_, 114 Furrows lying long open next the Rows of Wheat beneficial; and the Cause of it, 422, 423
G
_Grass_, natural, why not killed by constant Feeding, 187
H
_Harrowing_, how injurious, 46 Of harrowing Wheat-Ridges, 100, 101, 103 _Heat_, the very least Degree of it hard to distinguish from the very least Degree of Cold, 34 _Hills_, Mr. _Bradley_’s quibbling Arguments about them answered, 248 Wet Hills made dry by plowing them cross the Descent, 241-247 _Hoeing_ in general defined, 47 Its Uses and Benefit, 47-73 The Error of fansying that Hoeing lets in the Drought, 52 Hoed Plants do not impoverish Land, as sown Plants do, 71 _Horse-hoeing_: Mr. _Evelyn_’s Observation of an Orchard, kept in Tillage, coming to Perfection in half the time of one not plowed, 57 Horse-hoeing supplies the Use of local Motion to Plants, 64 It equals Dung, 70, 94, 269 Its Benefits discovered by Change of Colour of the Plants next to it, 51 Comparison of it with Hand-hoeing, 49 Some general Directions for performing the Horse-hoeing Husbandry, 57, _&c._ 114, _&c._
I
_Interval_, what it is, 61 Wide Intervals, 72, 122, _&c._ The Reason why Intervals may be narrower for Barley than for Wheat, 63
L
_Land_ strong and light, 38, _&c._ No one Arable Land exceeds another above twenty times in Richness, 44 Land burnt becomes next to barren, 40 Land without Cement is unfit for Tillage, 44 Land that is unfit for Horse-hoeing, 72 _Luserne_ described, 193 The Goodness of Luserne, _ibid._ The Antients Superstition concerning it, 194, _&c._ 210, _&c._ Swelling of Cattle by eating Luserne when green, 194 Why Luserne is more proper for the Hoeing Husbandry than the common Husbandry in _England_, 199, _&c._ The Soil most proper for Luserne, 204 Directions about planting Luserne, 205, _&c._ Luserne decays as natural Grass increases amongst it, 197, _&c._ 213
M
_Mints_, several Experiments made on them, 8, _&c._ Observation upon those Experiments, and Inferences from them, 11, _&c._
N
New and Old Husbandry, the Differences between them, 254, _&c._
O
_Objections_ likely to prepossess People’s Minds against making Trials of the Horse-hoeing Husbandry answered, 64, _&c._ 129, _&c._
P
_Pasture_ of Plants described, 22, _&c._ How the Vegetable Pasture differs from the Vegetable _Pabulum_, 22 The artificial Pasture of Plants vastly exceeds the natural, 27, _&c._ _Plants_, annual, that live the longest, have most need of hoeing, 92 They are more altered, as to their Growth, by Culture than by Climate, 204 There is no need to change the Species of Plants in Husbandry, on account of their supposed different Nourishment, 214, _&c._ Dr. _Woodward_’s Arguments for the vulgar Opinion in this Matter answered, 214, _&c._ Mr. _Bradley_’s Arguments for the same vulgar Opinion answered, 222 Mr. _Bradley_’s Arguments from the perpendicular Growth of Plants answered, 66, _&c._ 228, _&c._ Why long tap-rooted Plants do not succeed so well after one another, as they do after those that are not tap-rooted, 232 _Individuals_ of several Species (or Sorts) of Plants, are beneficially changed, 238, _&c._ _Partition_, what it is, 61 The Width of Partitions in the latest Practice, 108, _&c._ _Ploughs_, 277, _&c._ Hoe-Plough, 394, _&c._
Q
_Quick-lime_ for drying of brined Wheat to drill, 141
R
_Ridges_, the Methods and Reasons for making them, 241 Ridges of Six Feet, Reasons for leaving them off, 108, _&c._ _Roller_, when injurious, 46 _Rooks_, to prevent their Damage, 107, _&c._ _Roots_, their Description, 1, _&c._ Several Ways to discover their horizontal Extent, 2, _&c._ The Cause of People’s being deceived in the Extent of Roots, 5 Great Length of Roots necessary, on account of their Office, 7 How Roots and Guts agree, and wherein they differ, 6, _&c._ How Roots take in the _Pabulum_, 41 Roots have a Communication in all their Cavities, 13 Roots supply each other reciprocally with Water and Food, _ibid._ Roots cannot easily penetrate, unless the Land be opened by Tillage, 6 The Rotting of the Roots of broad Clover, and St. Foin, is a Manure to Land, 234 _Rows_, the Inconveniencies of too many or too few on an Acre, 122, _&c._ Reasons for leaving off the middle Row, 108, _&c._ ’Tis no great Odds whether the Rows of Wheat, _&c._ stand on the precedent Partitions, or the Intervals, 424 Rows too near, and mixed Crops, discarded, 62 Single Row proposed for _Smyrna_ Wheat, 136, _&c._ Double, Treble, and even Quadruple Rows, are each called One Row, 62
S