Part 43
It is customary to ascribe to Napoleon creative originality as a lawgiver. This is a part of the Napoleonic legend that has been upset by the industrious investigations of the partisans of the French Revolution, working under a famous professor at the Sorbonne. In many ways these scholars have rescued from obscurity the positive achievements of the Revolutionary statesmen, and it is now certain that the various codes of Napoleon carry out the principles of procedure and justice foreshadowed in the preliminary work done by the Constituent Assembly and the Convention. Napoleon’s own temperament is seen in the influence he brought to bear upon his lawyers to provide for rapidity in procedure and in execution of judgment, and in the increase of tribunals in which business men played an important rôle.
In education the Emperor’s influence was not so beneficial. He had little sympathy with any type of training that was not practical, and he had no sympathy at all with professorial free speech. Indeed, he expected the teaching profession to take its model from the Grand Army. There was to be little chance for personal development, each man marched in an appropriate rank under orders from a superior. The result of the iron-clad educational régime is acknowledged to have been most unsatisfactory, and it has been one of the most brilliant and most arduous achievements of the Third Republic to abolish the Napoleonic ideals of university teaching, and to substitute for them a system which encourages local and personal freedom. The change has already justified itself, for France is now close to Germany as the home of erudition in many fields of research in which Germany for years justly claimed an uncontested primacy.
The supreme position of Napoleon as a military commander has often led his admirers to affirm that he was infallible in his strategy. He encouraged this tendency at St. Helena, for, when he was composing his Memoirs, he invariably shifted the responsibility for errors in his battles to the shoulders of his lieutenants. He was an expert in manipulating figures, and he had such a good memory that he could always compose a most plausible lie. For years people supposed that the Russian expedition failed because of the extreme cold, and that the defeat at Waterloo might have been turned into a victory if the Emperor’s orders had been strictly carried out by Grouchy and if Ney had advanced more rapidly, as he was bidden to do by his commander-in-chief. These are misrepresentations--are the efforts of a man who wished to manipulate history for his own benefit. When, however, he was not dictating as an exile, Napoleon often enough expressed the truth about himself spontaneously. He allowed, for example, that he had been repeatedly defeated, and on more than one occasion he conceded to his marshals the possession of military talent superior to his own. One year after the Russian disaster he owned that the invasion had been ruined by blunders of his own. He was just as sweeping, too, in condemning various critical phases of his policy. He condemned the attack upon Spain not only as a wholesale blunder, but as a series of blunders in detail, and he characterized the invasion of Russia, while the Spanish War was unfinished, as a hopeless undertaking. Once, speaking to Talleyrand, he said, “I have made so many mistakes in my life that I am not ashamed of them.” It was a characteristic trait of his outlook on his own career that he imagined himself carried on as the instrument of deeds and acts which he could not justify. “I am not,” he once exclaimed, “a man, but a thing.”
Napoleon’s lack of appreciation of moral standards both in public and in private life is notorious, but he was no hypocrite. The one pleasing side of his character was his devotion to his family. Here the clear light of his intellect could not reach. It is true he made grotesque mistakes in putting his brothers into positions for which they were manifestly unfitted, but this sign of weakness shows that, after all, Napoleon was not entirely selfish. He seems to have had little actual patriotism. He was not a Frenchman either by descent or by sympathy, and what he accomplished was done at the expense of the French people. He understood some of their characteristics, but his own point of view was so practical that there were whole fields of achievement signalized in the records of French genius that he never appreciated. On lower planes of action, however, his driving power was immense, and the very terror he created by the success of his concentrated individualism prepared the way for that progressive acknowledgment of public justice and social righteousness which characterized the civilization of the nineteenth century. In spite of all his limitations, it seems impossible to point to a more marvelous career in the annals of humanity.
INDEX
A
Addington, 400
Ajaccio, 402
Alcuin, 181-183
Alexander of Russia, forms alliance with Napoleon, 417; covets Finland and Sweden, 421; sympathizes with French defeat in Spain, 422; confers with Napoleon at Erfurt, 422; takes aggressive attitude toward the French, 429
Alexander the Great, his descent, 7; succeeds to the throne of Macedon, 5; educated under Aristotle, 5; his precociousness, 5; master of Macedon, 7; checks uprisings, 8, 9; declared guardian of the temple, 9; renews Hellenic league, 9; begins his reign with crime, 9-10; leaves Amphipolis, 11; offers thanks to Dionysus, 11; marches up the Danube, 11; his rumored assassination, 13; razes Thebes, 14-15; his placability toward Athens, 16-17; plans to dethrone Persia’s king, 18; crosses the Hellespont, 18; defeats Persians, 20; marches against Halicarnassus, 21; concludes peace with the Persians, 25; is voted a crown, 25; his reply to Darius, 25-26; calls himself “Great King of Asia,” 26; lays siege to Tyre, 27-28; founds Alexandria, 28; invades Syria and Egypt, 28-29; again defeats Persians, 31; proceeds to Babylon, 31; razes Persepolis, 32; takes Drangiana, 35; executes Philotas and Parmenio, 36; captures Bessus, 36; founds new Alexandria, 36; routs the Scythians, 37; executes Bessus, 37; spears Clitus, 38; massacres Sogdianians, 38-39; marries Roxane, 39; hangs Hermolaus, 40; motives for conquest of India, 40-41; begins Indian campaign, 42; fords the Hydaspes, 42; defeats Indian army, 46; forced to cease Eastern conquests, 46; takes up organization of his empire, 49; endeavors to amalgamate Greeks and Persians, 49-53; looks after economic development, 52; tries to legitimatize his rule in the East, 54-56; his death, 57; nature of his achievements, 58-59, 64; his temperament, 38; his lack of statesmanship, 40; as an explorer, 46; as a general, 11, 59-63
Alexander’s Conquest of Greece, 4-17
Alexander’s Conquest of Persia, 17-34
Alexander’s Empire, 48-64
Alexander’s Invasion of India, 34-48
Alexandria, 28, 36, 52
Almagro, 366, 367
Alvarado, 336, 337, 340, 362, 365
Amiens, 402, 409
Ancients, The, 390, 391, 392
Andronicus, 232
Antonius, Marcus, 125
Ariovistus, prepares to resist Cæsar, 89-90; suffers defeat, 90
Aristotle, Alexander’s tutor, 5
Assembly, The Constituent, 402
Atahuallpa, 359-362, 364
Athens, opposed to Macedonian rule, 7; aroused over Thebans’ defeat, 16; double-faced toward Alexander, 16; sends embassy to Darius, 22
Attalus, 9, 10
Austerlitz, Napoleon’s victory at, 412
Austrians, 380 _et seq._
Aztecs, 317-322, 338, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347
B
Babylon surrenders to Alexander, 31
Bagration, 431
Bajesid, son of Murad, murders his brother, 235; his first military exploit, 235; his repressive measures, 236-238; prepares to complete siege of Constantinople, 238; proceeds against Hungarians and Roumanians, 239; massacres Christians, 242; fails before Constantinople, 243; defeated by Mongolo, 244; his death, 244
Bajesid, son of Bajesid, proclaimed Sultan, 272; defeats Djem, 272; wars on Hungary, Morea, and Venice, 273; abdicates the throne, 273
Balboa, 310, 357
Barras, 377, 378, 388
Belgæ, The, rise against Romans, 91; retreat from Cæsar, 92
Bernadotte, 405, 429, 436
Bertoldo, 262
Bessus, as successor to Darius, 35; his stand against the Greeks, 36; his execution by Alexander, 37
Bibulus, 80
Blücher, 444, 445
Bolivia, 369
Bonaparte, Carlo, 371; Joseph, arranges armistice at Paris, 439; Lucien, 390, 391, 392, 414; Napoleon (see Napoleon)
Borodino, 430
Brankovitch, 260, 261
Brutus, his opposition to Cæsarism, 121; his share in the conspiracy, 129
C
Cadiz, 426
Cæsar, Julius, youth and education, 67; political leanings, 68; first public office, 68; family connections, 69; contests Pompeius’ leadership, 69-70; his Agrarian Law, 70; as a free-thinker, 71; elected Pontifex Maximus, 72; supports Catiline, 72; opposes death penalty, 73-74; seeks alliance with Pompeius, 75-76; divorces his wife, 76; tries Clodius, 76; rules Spain, 77; returns to Rome, 78; forms alliance with Crassus and Pompeius, 78; elected magistrate, 79; arrests Cato, 79; submits his agrarian measures to the populace, 79; his anti-extortion law, 82; starts for Gaul, 85; defeats the Helvetii, 89; defeats Ariovistus, 90; crosses the Alps, 90; defeats the Belgæ, 94; returns to Rome to strengthen triumvirate, 95; defeats the Veneti, 96; “butchers” the Germans, 97; goes to Britain, 98-99; defeats Vercingetorix, 102; ends Gallic campaign, 102; breaks with Pompeius and the Senate, 102; outgenerals Pompeius in Spain, 107-108; returns to Italy, 111; serves as Dictator, 111; his second victory over Pompeius, 112-115; asserts Roman sovereignty over Egypt, 116; is made Dictator by Cæsarian Senate, 117; suppresses mutiny among troops, 117-118; defeats Scipio in Africa, 119; returns triumphantly to Rome, 119; beginning autocratic régime, 120; his problems and plans, 120-121; humbles the Senate, 121; reforms the Roman Calender, 122; his benevolent paternalism, 122; his relations with Cleopatra, 116, 122; defeats and executes Cnæus Pompeius, 123; turns to Spanish provinces, 124; is deified as founder of the Roman Empire, 124; plans Eastern campaign, 125; is offered a diadem, 125; his autocratic ambitions, 126; conspired against, 128; assassinated, 128-129; his sham republicanism, 131; his generalship, 86, 131-133; his manipulation of military figures, 93
Cæsar’s Alliance with Pompeius and Crassus, 75-84
Cæsar’s Beginnings, 65-75
Cæsar’s Break with Pompeius and the Senate, 102-119
Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul, 84-102
Cæsar’s Supremacy, 119-133
Cambacérès, 400, 402
Capac, 352
Capiastro, 261
Carloman, 139
Carolingian Culture, Charles the Great as promoter of, 180; Alcuin’s share in, 181-183; its literary movement, 184-185; its other phases, 186-188
Catiline, plans social revolution, 72
Cato, obstructs parliamentary proceedings, 79; defeats Crassus’s plan, 81; commits suicide, 119
Charles IV, 420
Charles VIII, 272
Charles, Archduke, 424, 425
Charles the Great, acknowledged sole Frankish King, 139; offers peace to Desiderius, 142; besieges Pavia, 142; honored as Exarch of Ravenna, 143; as Patrician, 144, 159, 160; his policy with the Saxons, 145; his view of the Saxon gods, 146; attacks Saxon tribes, 146-147; occupies Eresburg, 147; his first general assembly, 147; strengthens ecclesiastical organization, 147-148; his retaliation at Verden, 148; his Saxon campaign, 149; his drastic measures of pacification, 150; his warlike expeditions, 151-158; his coronation as Emperor of Rome, 158-165; provides for his succession, 167-169; his death, 169-170; his dress and physical features, 171; his marriages and progeny, 171; his education and intellectual interests, 172; as king and emperor, 172-179; as promoter of Carolingian Culture, 180, 185; as general, 195-196; his relations with the Church, 198-212
Châtillon, congress of, 438
Chlodvig, 134
Church, The, under Charles the Great, 199-212
Cicero, on Cæsar’s education, 67; defeats Cæsar’s agrarian legislation, 70; frustrates social revolution, 72-73; makes overtures to Pompeius, 75; on Cæsar’s administration of Spain, 77; refuses to leave aristocratic party, 78; opposes Crassus’ legislative measures, 81
Clitus, 38
Clodius, 76
Cleopatra, 5, 116, 122
Coalitions, Anti-Napoleonic, 388-389, 390, 397-398, 410, 414, 423
Colonial System, The, 308-309
Columbus, sordid motives for his voyages, 295-296; results of his voyages, 297; starts American slave-trade, 298; deports Spanish criminals to the Indies, 308; dies in Spain, 298; his opinion of the Haytians, 306
Committee of Public Safety, The, 375-376
Constant, Benjamin, 444
Constantine, 253, 254, 255, 258
Consul, Napoleon as, 392; the provisional, 393-394; the First, 395, 397; of State, 394, 396, 401, 404
Cornwallis, Lord, 400
Corsica, its heroic struggle for independence, 371
Cortez, his birth and education, 322; his expeditions and conquests, 323-326; founds Vera Cruz, 325; yearns for Montezuma’s capital, 326; punishes disloyalty, 327; starts for Aztec capital, 327, 330; at the home of Montezuma, 331-334; his extreme cruelty, 330 _et seq._; imprisons Spanish envoys, 334-335; condemns Narvaez and his men, 335; wars on Vera Cruz Indians, 338; executes Montezuma, 338; his perilous escape from the Aztecs, 339; plans Mexican siege, 341; progress of the expedition, 341-348; takes Mexico, 348; plans a new city, 348; goes to Honduras, 349; returns to Mexico, 349; his last years, 349-350
Cromwell, 137
Cuba, its discovery and occupation, 307; barbarities practised on its inhabitants, 307-308
Curio, Cæsar’s agent at Rome, 104-105
Cuzco, taken by the Spaniards, 366
D
Dagobert, 135
Darius, resists Alexander in Syria, 22; outgeneraled by Alexander, 24; recrosses the Euphrates, 24; his humiliation, 25; gathers another army, 26-27, 29; again defeated by Alexander, 31; escapes to Media, 31; tries to make another stand, 33; his assassination, 34
Dauchan, 221
Davout, 444, 445
Demosthenes, leads patriotic Athenians, 7; delivers commemoration speech, 8; thanks gods for deliverance at Ægæ, 8; his relations with Attalus, 9; is given means to bribe Greek states, 12; aids Thebes’ struggle for restoring independence, 13; involved in Harpalus’ scandal, 57
Desaix, 398, 400
Desiderius, King of the Lombards, offers his daughter’s hand to Charles the Great, 139; before the walls of Rome, 140; prepares against Northern invasion, 141; flees to Pavia, 142; surrenders to Charles the Great, 143
Dionysus, Alexander’s thank offering to, 11
Directory, The, 379, 380, 382, 383, 384, 388, 389, 390, 392, 393, 394, 455
E
Eastern Emperor, The, 230
Economic conditions in Charles the Great’s empire, 189-198
Egypt, invaded by Alexander the Great, 28-29
Empire, Alexander’s, 48-64; Charles’, 172-179; Napoleon’s, 407-418; Ottoman, 285-292
Erfurt, 422
Euphrates, The, Alexander crosses, 29
Eylau, 416, 425
F
Ferdinand, 294, 420
Five Hundred, The Council of, 377
Fontainebleau, Napoleon’s farewell at, 441
Fouché, 423
Franks, The, 135, 136
Frederick III, 253
Frederick the Great, 414, 418
Free States, The, the final struggle of, 4
G
Gaul, Cæsar’s conquest of, 84-102; nature of the country, 85
Giustiniano, 257
Goethe, 422
Gold Fever, The, in Hayti, 305-306
Granada, end of, 294, 295
Greek Empire, feebleness of the revived, 223-224
Greek invasion of Persia, averted, 12
Greek and Persian elements, amalgamation of, attempted by Alexander, 49-50
Greek people, influenced by Persian invasion, 3-4
Gregory the Great, 136
H
Halicarnassus, taken by Alexander, 21
Harpalus, seeks to stir up revolt, 49; his fate in Athens, 57
Hayti, first European settlement in New World, 300; civilization of its natives, 300-302; its European colonization, 303; its economic exploitation, 303-304; discovery of gold in, 304
Heine, on Napoleon’s power, 415
Hellenic Confederation, votes Alexander a crown, 25
Helvetii, defeated by Cæsar, 89
Hermolaus, hanged by Alexander, 40
Hundred, The Five, 390, 391, 392
Hunyadi, 249, 250, 251
I
Illyrian campaign, The, 13
Incas, The, their state of civilization, 350-351; rise of their domination, 351-352; extent of their conquests, 353; their theological ideas, 353-355; their government, 355-356; as warriors, 357; capture and execution of their leader, 364
India, invasion of, 35-38, 40-41, 42, 46
J
Jacobins, The, 401
Jena, 415
Jerome of Westphalia, 435
John the Fearless, 239
Joseph, King of Naples, 421, 426
Josephine, 422
Jourdon, 427
K
Kutusoff, 431
L
Lafayette, opposes “arbitrary government,” 403
Lala Schahin, 232
Lannes, 417, 425
Las Casas, 299, 303-304, 306-308, 310, 349
Legion of Honor, Napoleon’s, 404
Leipzig, 437
Letitia, Maria, 371, 414
Louis XIV, 434
Louis XVIII, proclaimed King of France, 439; plans for the dethronement of, 442
M
Macedon, Kingdom of, 3, 7
Macedonia, 10
Macedonians, 10
Manuel II, 236, 237, 239, 243, 244, 245, 247
Marbot, on the Prussian campaign, 416; on Napoleon’s marshals, 434
Marcellus, wants Cæsar declared enemy of the people, 106
Marseilles, 375
Masséna, 425, 426-427
Memnon, 21-22
Memoirs, Napoleon’s, 448-449
Metternich, 433, 435, 436
Mexico, its great antiquity, 311; its early history, 311-322; taken by Cortez, 341-348; plans for the reconstruction of, 348
Mohammed II, his ambitions, 253; prepares to besiege Constantinople, 254-255; his strategy, 256-257; sacks Constantinople, 258; inaugurates Mohammedan rule, 259; attacks Belgrade, 260-261; conquers Servia and Bosnia, 262; takes Athens, 263; ravages Morea, 263; humiliates Venice, 264; enters Italy, 265; defeated at Croia, 266; his aggressive policy, 266; his fleet in the Greek islands, 267; abandons aggression on Wallachia, 269; defeated by Stephen of Moldavia, 270-271; end of his reign, 271; extent of his conquests, 271-272
“Moniteur,” The, 408
Montezuma II, 316, 324, 325, 326, 331, 332, 333, 336, 337, 338
Morea, ravaged by Turks, 263
Moreau, 405, 436
Moscow, Napoleon’s retreat from, 431-432
Murad I, his personal qualities, 220; his measures and conquests, 220-234; his assassination, 234
Murad II, succeeds Mohammed, 246; besieges Constantinople, 246; invades Morea, 247; leads army in person, 248; defeats Hunyadi, 250; attempts to repress Albanian rebellion, 252; his success in the Morea, 252; his death, 252
Murat, 417, 423, 432, 433, 435, 442
N
Napoleon, his birth and ancestry, 371; his childhood and education, 372-373; his early revolutionary sympathies, 373-374; arrives in France, 374; shows Jacobin leanings, 374; made brigadier-general, 375; attracted by Robespierres’s régime, 375; commended by Committee of Public Safety, 376; involved in ruin of Robespierre’s party, 376; stricken from list of French generals, 377; appointed second commander of Convention, 377; made commander-in-chief of the army, 378; prepares to attack Austrian provinces, 379; his plan of operations, 380; defeats Austrians and their allies, 380-381; asserts French sovereignty over Naples and Tuscany, 382; accounts for Austrians’ defeat, 382; eulogized by Talleyrand, 383; calls Directory a makeshift, 384; his Egyptian Campaign, 384-389; his share in Siéyès’ scheme, 390; receives command of Paris troops, 391; ejected from Hall of Five Hundred, 391; appointed Consul, 392; seeks rôle of a Washington, 394; would be master of France, 394; projects sham constitution, 394-396; his administrative activities, 396-397; wars on coalition, 397-400; hastens to resume reins of government, 400; escapes a plot, 401; erects revolutionary tribunal, 401; re-elected First Consul, 402; reconstructs the provisional government, 402-404; departs from Republicanism, 404; seeks revenge, 405-407; inaugurates the Empire, 407; becomes Emperor of France, 407; plans to extend his dominions, 408-409; renews hostilities with England, 410; forces Austrians to capitulate, 411; defeats allies at Austerlitz, 412; forms Confederation of the Rhine, 413; his birthday made a national holiday, 414; prepares for new campaign, 415; enters Berlin, 415-416; defeats Prussians, 416; held in check at Eylau, 417; breaks up Fourth Coalition, 417; forms alliance with Alexander of Russia, 417; plans invasion of British Asia, 419-420; annexes Spain, 420; embarks on Asiatic campaign, 420; gets abdication from Ferdinand and Charles IV, 420; makes his brother king of Spain, 421; modifies plan of aggressive campaign, 422; confers with Alexander at Erfurt, 422; hastens back to Spain to restore Joseph to the throne, 423; urges Alexander to help against Fifth Coalition, 424; enters on new Austrian campaign, 424; wins dubious victory at Wagram, 425; threatens to annex Iberian kingdom, 426; provoked by bad turn of affairs, 427; intrigues with the Czar of Russia, 428-429; invades Russia, 429-430; fights inconclusive battles at Smolensk and Borodino, 430; enters Moscow, 431; retreats westward, 431-432; tries to rehabilitate his broken army, 433; grows sick and suspicious, 432-434; beaten at Leipzig, 437; forced to abdicate, 439; tries to commit suicide, 440; takes farewell of his troops, 441; exiled at Elba, 442; plans to regain control, 442; returns to Paris, 443; appeals to his veteran troops, 443; makes liberal professions, 444; prepares for new war with allies, 444; attacks Blücher, 445; defeated at Waterloo, 445; again forced to abdicate, 445; confined at St. Helena, 446; dies of cancer, 448; his “Memoirs,” 448-449; his ambitions and genius, 449-453; his military blunders, 440-441; his economic, financial, and religious policies, 454-460; as a lawgiver, 461; as a general, 463; his moral standards, 463
Napoleonic Régime, The, 448-463
Narvaez, 334, 335
Ney, 417
O
Osman, begins rule as independent prince, 214; converted to Islamism, 215; reason for his leadership, 217; his plan of conquest, 217; his death, 218
Ottomans, The, their chief characteristics, 280; their changed traditions, 280-281; their religious absolutism, 281-282; position of their women, 282; their army, 283; their rule over subject peoples, 283-287; economic effects of their rule, 284-285; beginnings of their conquests, 285-287; their rule over African provinces, 287; their Algerian corsairs, 288; eclipse of their power, 288-289; their conflict with the Christian Armada, 289-291; decline of their empire, 292
Ourach, 222
Ourkhan, 218-219
P
Pachacutic, 352
Paoli, Pasquale, 371, 373, 374
Parmenio, executed by Alexander, 35
Persians, The, awakened to danger of Greek invasion, 12; their incompetence in aggressive warfare, 18-19
Persian invasion, influence of, on Greek people, 3-4
Peter of Cyprus, 229, 230
Peru, the Incas of, 350-370
Philip of Macedon, beginning of his historic career, 4; his lawless and amorous nature, 5; performs duty toward Alexander, 5; understanding entered into with Alexander, 5; death of, as master of Greece, 4; his assassination, 6; as destroyer of Greek liberties, 7
Philotas, executed by Alexander, 35
Pippin the Hunchback, 167
Pippin, his characteristics, 135; his policy, 136; end of his reign, 137; his march on the Saxons, 145; his diplomacy, 138, 161
Pitt, William, 400
Pizarro, his birth, education, and characteristics, 357-358; plans to acquire Bisu, 357-359; starts for Caxamalca, 359; sets trap for Atahuallpa, 360-361; massacres Peruvians and captures their chief, 362; reduces captives to slavery, 363; receives enormous ransom from Peruvians, 363; executes Atahuallpa, 364; his pact with Alvarado, 365; plans new Peruvian capital, 365; takes Cuzco, 366; his administration, 368; his assassination, 368
Pompeius the Great, Cæsar anxious to measure strength with, 69-70; returns from Eastern campaign, 75; forms triumvirate with Cæsar and Crassus, 78; marries Cæsar’s daughter, 80; breaks with Cæsar, 102; is outgeneraled by Cæsar in Spain, 107-110; his final defeat and assassination, 115
Pompeius, Cnæus, seeks to avenge father’s murder, 122; his defeat, capture, and execution, 123
Pope Hadrian, 160
Pope Leo III, 160
Pope Stephen, 136, 140, 159
Pope Sylvester, 137
Porus, King, defeated and taken by Alexander, 46
Pressburg, 412-413, 414
R
Republic of Plato, The, 227
Reign of Terror, The, 374
Rhine, Confederation of the, 413
Robespierre, Napoleon on good terms with, 374; commends Napoleon, 375
Russia invaded by Napoleon, 429-432
S
Scanderbeg, 251, 252, 260, 261, 266, 267
Scipio, Cæsar would force to give battle, 119; defeated by Cæsar, 119; perishes at sea, 119
Scythians, routed by Alexander, 37
Selim, opposes his father’s authority, 273; forces father to abdicate, 273; murders claimants of throne, 273; organizes massacre of Schismatics, 274; subjugates Egypt, 275; his death, 275
Siéyès, Director, 390, 392, 394
Sigismund of Hungary, 236-240, 241-248
Slave Trade, American, started by Columbus, 298-299
Smolensk, 430
Sogdinians, massacred by Alexander, 38-39
Souliman, succeeds his father, 275; his aggressions, 276-278; end of his reign, 279-280
“Souper de Beaucaire,” Napoleon’s, 374
Spain, its phenomenal rise, 293-295; its motive in encouraging Columbus, 295; recalls Cortez, 349; advantages of its colonial policy, 369-370; mistreated by Napoleon, 419; annexed by the French, 420; revolutionary movement in, 420; revolts against French domination, 421
Stephen of Moldavia, defeats Mohammed II, 269-271
Sulla, 72
Syria, invaded by Alexander, 28
St. Helena, Napoleon at, 446-448
T
Talleyrand, eulogizes Napoleon, 383; at Erfurt, 422; his alleged plot, 423; helps to make Napoleon abdicate, 439; suggests Napoleon’s imprisonment at Elba, 441
Terrorists, The, 374
Thebes, aided by Demosthenes, 13; taken by Macedonians, 14; razed by Alexander, 15; its association with Greek heroic age, 15; the consternation caused by its fate, 15-16
Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, 134, 159
Tilsit, 417, 418-419
Timur, 244
Toltecs, The, 312-314
Toulon, 375, 377
Trafalgar, 411
Treaty of, Amiens, 409; Lunéville, 399; Pressburg, 412-414; Tilsit, 417
Tribunate, The, 396, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 407, 444
Tupac, 352
Turanians, in the New World, 290; their civilization, 296
Tyre, siege of, 27
V
Vaca de Castro, 368
Velasquez, 327, 328, 334
Venice, defeated by Mohammed II, 264; chief rival of Ottoman empire, 289-290
Vera Cruz, founded by Cortez, 325, 338, 339
Vercingetorix, executed by Cæsar, 120
Viazma, 431
Vienna, Congress of, 444, 449