Part 1

OUTLINES OF MINERALOGY, TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL, OF SIR TORBERN BERGMAN, KNIGHT OF THE ORDER OF WASA, PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AT UPSAL, &C.

BY WILLIAM WITHERING, M. D.

MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY

AT EDINBURGH.

Itum eſt in viſcera terræ; Quaſque recondiderat ſtygiiſque admoverat umbris Effodiunter opes, irritamenta malorum. OVID.

BIRMINGHAM:

PRINTED BY PIERCY AND JONES,

FOR T. CADELL, AND G. ROBINSON, LONDON, J. BALFOUR, AND C. ELLIOTT, EDINBURGH.

M,DCC,LXXXIII.

TRANSLATOR’s PREFACE.

The pleaſure and inſtruction I received myſelf from this excellent little work of Profeſſor Bergman, inſpired me with a wiſh to make it more generally known to others. A ſyſtem like this, founded upon the constituent principles of things, may be improved, but never can be exploded. Engliſh names are given, but the Latin ones of the original are ſtill retained, as an acquaintance with them will enable the reader more readily to conſult other authors. Blank ſpaces are left after most of the ſpecies, for the convenience of inſerting any new ones that may occur. I have added a few new ſpecies, and ſome notes; the utility of which will be ſufficiently obvious. The table of metals, at page 71, and the index at the end, will alſo, I hope, be conſidered as uſeful additions.

BIRMINGHAM, _1ſt September, 1783_.

N. B. The centenary (_centenarius_) of PROFESSOR BERGMAN is equal to 60 Swediſh grains, or nearly 63 Engliſh grains.

THE AUTHOR’s PREFACE.

In compliance with the requeſt of my learned and amiable friend, the celebrated Mr. Ferber, I tranſmitted to him a ſlight ſketch of mineralogy, in which the ſubjects were arranged according to their conſtituent or component parts. After peruſing it, he requeſted my permiſſion to publiſh it. At firſt I thought it better to ſuppreſs a work that was ſo imperfect, eſpecially when I conſidered the number of analyſes that yet remained to be made. He replied, that a perfect method was not yet to be expected in a ſubject ſo extenſive, but that having once laid a good foundation, I might occaſionally make ſuch additions and corrections, in new editions of the work, as future experiments might render neceſſary. Indeed, I was fully aware, that the ſyſtem would ſooner be rendered perfect, if ſubmitted to the inſpection of other more diſcerning chemiſts, than if the completion of it reſted upon myſelf only. The different remarks of others, will correct errors, which, by a further attention, I might have amended; but if the intereſt of ſcience be promoted, no matter by whom.

This little work contains GENERA and SPECIES, except in the appendixes, which, as not properly belonging to my deſign, contain Genera only.

The GENERA are founded upon the prevalent component parts; the SPECIES upon the diverſity of the composition. _Varieties_ depend upon external appearances, and therefore are at preſent omitted.

After this manuſcript was ſent away, I diſcovered two species of _ſtannum ſulphuratum_ (tin combined with ſulphur), one of which contains about forty per cent. of ſulphur, the other only twenty. The firſt has the appearance of aurum muſivum; the latter partly reſembles _antimonium ſulphuratum_ (crude antimony), but does not contain antimony. Both are contaminated by a ſmall quantity of copper. I got them from Nerchinſkoi in Siberia[1].

As to the TERRA PONDEROSA (heavy earth), I have long been aware of its great reſemblance to calx of lead, and have even lately found a method of precipitating it by the phlogiſticated alkaly[2]; ſo that I verily believe it to be of a metallic nature, although it has never yet been made into a regulus, and, therefore, I ſtill place it with the earths, until its ſituation be better aſcertained.

If providence allots me life and health, I hope, a few years hence, to republiſh this imperfect ſketch, corrected and enlarged.

OF A NATURAL SYSTEM OF MINERALOGY.

§ 1.

The MINERAL KINGDOM conſiſts of the foſſil ſubſtances found in the earth. Theſe are either entirely deſtitute of organic structure, or, having once poſſeſſed it, poſſeſs it no longer: ſuch are the petrefactions.

§ 2.

It is requiſite, for the proper diſcrimination of foſſils, to eſtabliſh certain characters, whereby they may, at all times, and in all places, be diſtinguiſhed from one another. The ſcience that teaches theſe is called MINERALOGY.

§ 3.

As in the vegetable kingdom different methods have been formed upon the roots, the leaves, the flowers, the fruit, &c. ſo alſo in Mineralogy many methods may be deviſed, and there is no doubt of the utility of contemplating inorganic bodies in every point of view; for the more compariſons are multiplied, the more evidently do reſemblances or differences appear.

§ 4.

But as the chief object of the ſcience is to render foſſils ſubſervient to the uſes of man, it is evident that that method muſt be the beſt which diſplays their component parts: for theſe being well underſtood, we know what to expect from them; we accommodate our deſigns to their nature, and ſpend not our labour and money in vain attempts inconſiſtent with their inherent qualities.

§ 5.

There is a power implanted by the creator in organized bodies, which, upon the acquiſition of proper nutriment, unfolds and evolves the ſtructure which before lay concealed in the fecundated egg or ſeed. Similar veſſels, in each ſpecies, abſorb, convey, and aſſimilate the nouriſhment in the ſame manner; ſo that the appearance and ſtructure remain the ſame, unleſs peculiar cauſes prevent the accuſtomed courſe of things, and produce monſters: but this very rarely happens. Hence it is that the leading features or the external parts agree with the internal properties, and when judiciouſly choſen, form ſufficient characteriſtic diſtinctions.

§ 6.

But the formation of foſſils is totally different. Here no ſyſtem of veſſels collects, diſtributes, ſecretes or changes the concurrent particles, but they run together by chance, and are ſolely connected by the power of attraction; they are generally, too, of different kinds, rare and denſe, figured and ſhapeleſs, admitting of every poſſible variety. This general view of the ſubject ſhews us how little external characters can be depended on; but we ſhall more particularly conſider the principal of theſe.

§ 7.

Colour varies exceedingly, as does alſo the ſize of bodies. We cannot ſufficiently wonder at the violence done to nature by the ſtudied ſeparation of earths from ſtones. The conſequence is, that a ſtone of a certain ſize muſt conſtitute one genus, whilſt the ſame thing, reduced to powder, muſt be placed under another genus, which ſhall not be found even in the ſame claſs.

§ 8.

Hardness not unfrequently varies even in the ſame ſpecimen. Soft clay dries in the fire, and at length acquires the hardneſs of flint. Steatites (_ſoap-rock_) which may be ſcraped with the nail, and many other matters harden in the ſame manner, and that ſometimes without any notable loſs of weight; ſo that bodies paſs through every different degree of hardneſs, without any other change of their mixture.

§ 9.

TEXTURE, and external form of the particles, may ſeem at firſt ſight to depend more upon the conſtituent parts; but a calcareous particle, globular or ſhapeleſs, is found, upon the moſt ſcrupulous examination, to poſſeſs the ſame properties as a piece of ſpar; and in another place I have clearly ſhewn, that the ſchirl-like, garnet-like, hyacinthine, twelve-ſided, and other figures, are not unfrequently formed by nature out of the ſame materials[3]. And if we are liable to deception where ſo great a difference in external forms exiſts, what can we expect from leſs conſtant external qualities?

§ 10.

Superficial characters are therefore inſufficient. They cannot even enable us to diſtinguiſh calcareous from other earths, for the efferveſcence with acids is a chemical mark, and happens, too, in matters of very different natures. To paſs over other inſtances, let him who is able diſtinguiſh the plumbum aeratum and plumbum phoſphoratum (§ 182. § 183.) by external appearances only!

§ 11.

But let us not altogether deſpiſe external characters: it is of moment to know and mark them well[4]. They frequently enable the accuſtomed eye without troubleſome trials to acquire a degree of certainty, which wants only a few ſelect experiments to confirm it. Sometimes alſo the uſe depends upon external properties, evident to our ſenſes, as the hardneſs, the colour, the pellucidity, &c. Theſe therefore may with propriety be joined to thoſe which point out the conſtituent principles.

§ 12.

Claſſes, Genera and Species are therefore to be formed upon the internal nature and compoſition; the varieties upon the external appearances. In ſuch a ſyſtem both methods conveniently agree.

§ 13.

CRONSTEDT firſt attempted this method, and with great ſucceſs; but afterwards the _liquid analyſis_, in which the illuſtrious MARGRAAF took the lead, better opened the internal ſecrets of nature; ſo that the excellent work of Cronſtedt now appears to contain many errors; theſe however are not to be attributed to any fault in the author, but to the inſufficiency of his experiments. The attempts of Mr. Pott by fuſion have long been known; but theſe however uſeful in other reſpects, rather tend to confound than to lay open the component parts of bodies.

§ 14.

In methodizing foſſils, _compounds ſhould rank under the moſt abundant ingredient_. Thus let _a_ and _b_ repreſent the component parts; if the former be the heavier, the compound muſt be placed under the genus of that: but this rule admits of ſeveral exceptions.

§ 15.

Thus, the _properties of all ingredients are not of the same intenſity_, if I may be allowed the expreſſion; ſome are more powerful or efficacious, ſo as to impreſs the maſs with their own genus and character, though forming _leſs_ than half the weight. In ſuch a caſe the qualities are rather to be conſidered than the quantity, eſpecially if _b_ ſo far from preponderating hardly ever amounts to half the weight.

§ 16.

Argillaceous earth (_earth of allum_) and magneſia are never found ſeparate, but almoſt always mixed with other things ſo that their weight conſtitutes the ſmaller part of the maſs: therefore if the above rule (§ 14.) was rigourouſly adhered to, theſe primitive earths would not be found amongſt the Genera, which would doubtleſs be an abſurdity.

§ 17.

The _value_ of a thing muſt likewiſe be conſidered. Minerals containing gold or ſilver muſt be ranked with thoſe noble metals although they hold three, four, or more times the quantity of heterogeneous matter. Not to mention other examples, pyrites are placed under the genus copper although they contain a much greater quantity of iron. This cuſtom, eſtabliſhed with the univerſal conſent of mineralogiſts, wants indeed a natural foundation, but it ſeems uſeful to miners to retain it; and the more ſo as it is certain that otherwiſe many minerals would be to be sought for under ſtrange and improper titles.

§ 18.

Laſtly, it muſt be remarked, that _the ſolid ingredient determines the genus_ although the menſtruum be greater in quantity. Thus in magneſia vitriolata (_Epſom ſalt_) the earth gives the Generic name, although the vitriolic acid be the more ponderous. The same holds good in gypſum, allum, &c.

CLASSES OF FOSSILS.

§ 19.

Fossils are of four kinds, viz. _ſaline_, _earthy_, _inflammable_, and _metallic_; hence ariſe four claſſes.

§ 20.

Salts, or ſaline ſubſtances are more or leſs ſapid, and when finely powdered diſſolve in at leaſt 1000 times their weight of boiling water. They melt in the fire, which for the moſt part changes or deſtroys them[5].

§ 21.

Earths are inſipid, not ſoluble in water in the degree mentioned above (§ 20) though perhaps water in Papin’s digeſtor will diſſolve ſome if not all of them, eſpecially if their ſurface be greatly increaſed by a previous ſolution in and precipitation from ſome other menſtruum. In the chain of nature they are by inſenſible gradation joined to the ſalts, ſo as not to be diſtinguiſhed without artificial limits. Their form is not changed by a moderate heat, nor are they diſſipated by a violent one. Their ſpecific gravity is to water, leſs than 5 to 1.

§ 22.

Inflammable foſſils abound with phlogiſton, do not unite with water, but when pure diſſolve in oils; expoſed to the fire, they ſmoke, generally inflame, are for the moſt part conſumed, and ſometimes totally vaniſh.

§ 23.

Metals when perfect do not diſſolve at all in water; only a few of them in oils, and then only when in part deprived of their phlogiſton. They are the heavieſt of all known ſubſtances, the lighteſt of them weighing more than ſix times its bulk of water.

They melt in the fire with a ſhining ſurface, and in clay veſſels the ſurface is convex.

CLASS I. SALTS.

§ 24.

We begin with the nature and properties of ſaline bodies, for unacquainted with theſe our knowledge of other bodies muſt be exceedingly imperfect. _Native ſalts_ are either _acid_, _alkaline_, _neutral_, _earthy_ or _metallic_.

§ 25.

Acids may be diſtinguiſhed by their proper taſte; they efferveſce with mild alkalies; and change the blue juices of vegetables and tincture of heliotropium to a red colour[6].

We are acquainted with many ſpecies of acids, but they are hardly ever found pure in the bowels of the earth, nor can we expect to find them ſo when we conſider how ſoon ſuch powerful menſtrua muſt meet with ſubſtances to ſaturate them. Their great abundance and their properties ſhew their various and indiſpenſible uſes in the œconomy of nature.

§ 26.

As mineralogy treats of thoſe bodies which are found under the ſurface of the earth, and as acids in an uncombined ſtate are not found there, it would ſeem proper to exclude them; but the ſame reaſon would likewiſe exclude the primitive earths, ſome of which have never yet been found pure. Therefore in a ſyſtem formed upon the component parts of bodies, a ſhort deſcription of the principal of theſe is not to be diſpenſed with, although they hardly ever preſent themſelves in a ſeparate ſtate.

§ 27.

_Vitriolic_ ACID. When moſt concentrated by artificial means its ſpecific gravity is 2, 125. When pure, has neither colour nor ſmell. Cold ſometimes though very rarely concretes it into a ſolid form; it may be coagulated by nitrous air. This as well as the other acids is beſt known from the compounds it forms with other ſubſtances.

Mr. VANDELLI[7] ſays that it is ſometimes mixed with the ſtreams from the hills in the neighbourhood of Sienna and Viterbo, raiſed no doubt by ſubterranean fires; but in general it is united to alkalies (§§ 44, 47, 50,) to earths (§§ 58, 59, 63, 67,) to metals (§§ 69, 70, 72, 73,) or to phlogiſton (§§ 134, 136.)

_Phlogiſticated vitriolic_ ACID (volatile vitriolic acid) is frequently thrown out by the craters of volcanoes; its ſmell ſuffocating and penetrating. The union to phlogiſton and the matter of heat gives it an aerial form, but does not prevent its union with water.

§ 28.

_Nitrous_ ACID is by ſome excluded from the foſſil kingdom, becauſe they ſuppoſe it to be produced from the putrefaction of organic bodies. But theſe bodies when deprived of life are again received amongſt the foſſils, from whence their more fixed parts were originally derived.

In the moſt concentrated ſtate that art can procure it, its ſpecific gravity is 1, 580. Colourleſs when pure; but its ſtrong attraction to phlogiſton renders particular management neceſſary to procure it ſo[8]. With different proportions of phlogiſton it forms phlogiſticated acid and nitrous air.

It has never as far as I know been met with diſengaged, unleſs perhaps in water precipitated out of the atmoſphere, but is found united to alkalies (§§ 45, 47, 51 ) or to earths (§§ 60, 64.)

§ 29.

_Muriatic_ ACID (ſpirit of ſalt) is found in great quantity at and under the ſurface of the earth. The ſtrongeſt prepared by art hardly attains a ſpecific gravity of 1, 150. It has a very peculiar and volatile ſmell. Deprived of its ſuperfluous water it aſſumes an aerial form, for phlogiſton ſeems to be one of its conſtituent parts[9].

It has never been found uncombined (unleſs perhaps like the nitrous acid in water precipitated from the atmoſphere[10])[11] but united to alkalies (§§ 46, 49, 52), to earths (§§ 61, 65), or to metals (§§ 74, 161, 175, 191).

§ 30.

_Fluor_ ACID, is obtained by art; its ſpecific gravity never exceeds 1,500, it is very volatile. Its vapours when hot, corrode glaſs; and meeting with moiſture generate, or at leaſt depoſit ſiliceous earth. When deprived of its ſuperfluous water it aſſumes an aerial form[12]. It has never been found diſengaged, but united to calcareous earth forming ſparry fluor[13] (§ 96) and if I am not miſtaken it enters into the compoſition of ſiliceous earths.

§ 31.

_Arſenical_ ACID, dry; prepared by art; ſpecific gravity 3,391; fuſible and fixed in the fire, until it acquires from the matter of heat ſo much phlogiſton as is neceſſary to convert it into white arſenic. In a moiſt air it deliqueſces.

It is not found uncombined, but united to calx of cobalt (§ 228), and alſo to phlogiſton, forming a brittle arſenical metal (§ 220), and its calx (§ 222).

§ 32.

_Molybdæna_ ACID. This is very probably of metallic origin, though it does not yet appear to which metal it belongs. Seeing that arſenic, a brittle metal, by dephlogiſtication only is changed into an acid, different from all other acids, it is not improbable that other metals may have an acid baſis, although their phlogiſton adhering more ſtrongly has not yet been completely ſeparated.

How this ſubſtance may be obtained by art does not belong to this place to deſcribe[14]; but that the acid got from Molybdæna has a metallic nature, and as yet has not been perfectly freed from phlogiſton, is probable from the following conſiderations. 1, Its taſte is acid and at the ſame time metallic. 2, Microcoſmic ſalt and borax are coloured by it, and theſe ſalts are hardly coloured by any thing but metallic calxes. 3, Its decompoſition by means of the phlogiſticated fixed alkaly, which always indicates the preſence of a metal. 4, Its concrete form, and not deliqueſcing, analogous to white arſenic. 5, Its ſpecific gravity 3,460. And very lately M. HIELM by my perſuaſion attempted the reduction and obtained a regulus, ſeemingly different from every other metal, but not yet ſufficiently examined.

§ 33.

An acid conjoined to the calx ponderoſa (_ponderous calx or lime_) is nearly allied to the preceding, but dropped into lime water produces a different compound, though in a number of other circumſtances theſe two acids agree. I apprehend that this is likewiſe of a metallic nature.

§ 34.

_Phoſphoric_ ACID, evidently exiſts in the animal kingdom,[15] much more plentifully in the vegetable, but in the foſſil very rare. Mr. J. G. GAHN firſt detected it united with lead;[16] but probably it may be found in many other foſſils. It is fuſible in the fire. Its ſpecific gravity when deprived of water 2,687.

§ 35.

_Boracic_ ACID, (_acid of borax, or ſedative ſalt_.) Many people ſtill think this to be an artificial production, but not long ſince Mr. HOEFER[17] found it in a lake near Sienna in the great dutchy of Hetruria, and it has long been known to be united to the foſſil alkaly in native borax. It acts like an acid, though very feebly. It melts in the fire and volatilizes with water. Its ſpecific gravity is 1,480.

§ 36.

_Amber_ ACID, is a concrete ſalt obtained from amber; it acts like a feeble acid. It is yet doubtful whether amber be of vegetable origin; many reckon it foſſil.

§ 37.

_Aerial_ ACID (_fixed air_) is not only combined with water but with many other foſſil ſubſtances, as alkalies (§§ 54, 56), earths (§§ 62, 66), and with ſome metals (§§ 71, 183, 192, 217, 234, 243). It floats uncombined in the atmoſphere. Its ſpecific gravity 0,0018[18].

§ 38.

ALKALIES are known by their peculiar lixivial taſte, by their vehement attraction to acids, and by their changing the blue colours of vegetables to a green. In a pure ſtate, as was before obſerved of acids, their attraction to other ſubſtances is ſo ſtrong that they cannot long remain uncombined; and if other acids were wanting, the aerial acid, every where preſent in the atmoſphere, would unite with them: therefore they are always found in a ſtate of combination, unleſs prepared by art.

§ 39.

New acids are daily detected, but no additions have been made to the three ſpecies of alkaly long ſince known.

§ 40.

_Vegetable fixed_ ALKALY, deprived of every acid is not found on the face of the earth; but it is ſometimes met with in combination with the vitriolic acid (§ 44) or the muriatic (§ 46), generally with the nitrous, (§ 45) rarely with the aerial (§ 54).

§ 41.

_Foſſil fixed_ ALKALY is only found in combination with acids, rarely with the vitriolic (§ 47) or nitrous (§ 48), principally with the muriatic (§ 49) or aerial (§ 55).

§ 42.

_Volatile_ ALKALY is frequently found in clays, doubtleſs in a mild ſtate, for the help of art is required to render it cauſtic. It is alſo found united to the vitriolic (§ 50) and the muriatic acids (§ 52.)

§ 43.

ACIDS united to _alkalies_ form NEUTRAL SALTS. Theſe diſſolved in water are no ways diſturbed by the addition of an alkaly, and generally by evaporation concrete into cryſtals. If by proper teſts they ſhew neither acid nor alkaline properties they are ſaid to be _perfect_ neutrals, but _imperfect_ when from defect in quantity or ſtrength of one ingredient the peculiar properties of the other more or leſs prevail.

We now proceed to conſider the native ſalts of both kinds.

NEUTRAL SALTS.

§ 44.

Alkali _vegetabile vitriolatum_ (tartar of vitriol) ſeldom occurs ſpontaneouſly, unleſs where tracts of wood have been burnt down.

§ 45.

Alkali _vegetabile nitratum_ (common nitre) forms upon the ſurface of the earth where vegetables, eſpecially when mixed with animal ſubſtances, putrify. The alkaline baſis previously exiſts in the plants[19], but the origin of the acid is not ſo well underſtood: whether it lies concealed in the vegetable acid, and by means of the putrefactive proceſs ſufficiently dephlogiſticating it, is evolved; or whether the purer part of the atmoſpheric air contains nitrous acid _fully_ ſaturated with phlogiſton, which[20] upon the alkaly being ſeparated by the putrefaction is attracted and extricated by it, and upon loſing its inflammable principle aſſumes its accuſtomed form. Nature perhaps operates in both ways; the latter however ſeems clearly confirmed by a very remarkable experiment (§ 60.)

As nitre is annually produced in large quantities, it cannot but ſometimes be found in ſprings or wells, as has been obſerved at Berlin[21], London[22], and elſewhere[23]. Sometimes it abounds in ſuch quantities that fleſh boiled in theſe waters turns red.

§ 46.

ALKALI _vegetabile ſalitum_ (digeſtive ſalt) is ſometimes though rarely met with; generated perhaps by the deſtruction of animal and vegetable ſubſtances.

§ 47.

ALKALI _minerale vitriolatum_ (Glauber’s ſalt) is ſometimes found in waters. Some of the lakes in Siberia and Astracan contain it, and many ſprings in other places.

§ 48.

ALKALI _minerale nitratum_ (cubic nitre) rarely occurs but where maritime plants putrify.

§ 49.

ALKALI _minerale ſalitum_ (common ſalt) plentiful every where as well in the earth, where it forms ſtrata more or leſs thick (ſal gem), as alſo diſſolved in ſprings and lakes, and in the ſea. (ſea ſalt.)

§ 50.

ALKALI _volatile vitriolatum_ (vitriolic ammoniac) is ſcarcely found any where but in places where the phlogiſticated fumes of vitriolic acid ariſe from burning ſulphur, and in putrid places are abſorbed by the volatile alkaly.[24] Thus at Fahlune the acid vapour from the roaſted minerals produces this ſalt in the neceſſary houſes. It is ſometimes alſo formed in the craters of volcanoes.

§ 51.