CHAPTER XI

THE PIANOFORTE

_The dulcimer and the psaltery or psaltérion; ancestors of the pianoforte; the jacks; the spinet; the virginal, the gravicembalo or harpsichord; the Ruckers of Antwerp; the pianoforte; Cristofori; Liszt; the pianoforte a hundred years ago._

The piano, or harpsichord, ceased to belong to the Orchestra in the days of Haydn; but it is often called upon to play a Concerto with the Orchestra and of late composers have again been experimenting with it as an orchestral instrument.

A description of its mechanism would be dull. Like every other instrument, the piano was a development of older instruments; and as it developed composers changed their style of writing for it. We can follow the development of the piano by following a chronological list of compositions, from the preludes and fugues of Bach; the suites for the clavecin and clavier of Handel, Couperin, and Rameau; and the early sonatas of Mozart and Beethoven to the big sonata of Beethoven, written for the “hammer clavier,” op. 111, and the elaborate _Hungarian Rhapsodies_ of Liszt, and so on. With the development of the piano came the development of _touch_. In the days of the harpsichords and clavichords there was practically no such thing as _touch_. There was brilliant execution, of course, and effects were produced; but _touch_ developed after the piano had been equipped with its softly padded hammers and its improved action.

The modern piano is a miniature orchestra; and since the days of Liszt pianists have sought to get orchestral effects from it. More literature has been written for the piano than for any other instrument.

To find the origin of the pianoforte we must go back to the dulcimer and the psaltery, or _psaltérion_. These two instruments are much alike, differing only in the way they were played. The strings of the dulcimer were set in vibration by hammers held in the hands of the performer, and the strings of the psaltery were plucked with an ivory, metal, or quill, plectrum, or even by the fingers. The psaltery was smaller than the dulcimer and had fewer strings. Perhaps the name dulcimer was derived from the words _dulce melos_, sweet melody; but it was only one of the names for the instrument. The French called it _tympanon_; the Italians _cembalo_ and _salterio tedesco_ (German psaltery); and the Germans _hackbrett_, a board for chopping sausage-meat. The Hungarian, or Magyar, name for it is _cimbelom_. It is played in Hungarian bands.

The dulcimer was a three-cornered or trapeze-shaped instrument, about three feet at its widest part composed of a wooden frame inclosing a wrestplank for the tuning pins around which one end of the strings were wound; a soundboard with two or more sound-holes; and two bridges over which the strings passed. Opposite the wrestplank there was a hitchpin-block, to which the other ends of the strings were attached.

The dulcimer had about fifty notes, and several strings (two, three, four, and even five) were used for each note. They were of fine wire. The dulcimer was placed on a table and struck with hammers, the heads of which were of leather, hard on one side and soft on the other to get the required loud and soft _forte_ and _piano_ effects. There was no damping (checking) contrivance to stop the vibration.

The compass was from two to three octaves from C or D in the Bass Clef. The psaltery and dulcimer came from the East; they had been known in Persia and Arabia for centuries when the Crusaders made their acquaintance and brought them home. Chaucer describes the instrument in his _Miller’s Tale_, (_Canterbury Tales_) as “a gay sauterie.” It appears in that beautiful fresco of Orcagna’s, _Triumph of Death_, in the Campo Santo in Pisa (1348) and in many illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages. From its likeness to the shape of a pig’s head, old writers often call it _Istromento di porco_.

Even as late as 1650, when instruments had improved so greatly, Kircher wrote in his _Musurgia_ that the psaltery played with a skilled hand is second to no other instrument, and Mersenne praises “its silvery tone and purity of intonation so easily controlled by the fingers.” These two instruments were often beautifully decorated and inlaid and the sound-holes artistically treated.

[Illustration: VIOLINIST, SINGER, AND LADY PLAYING THE VIRGINAL]

If we look at the frontispiece we will see the psaltery, or _psaltérion_, resting on the lap of the lady on the extreme left, who holds the plectrum delicately, but firmly, in her right hand. But to reach our modern piano from these two quaint instruments we have to travel through several centuries.

We get into a tangle of names when we stir up the ancestors of the pianoforte. The dulcimer and psaltery are simple enough, but from them we come immediately to the _clavicembalo_ (one of the Italian names for the harpsichord), or _gravicembalo_, as it was also called, which name was derived from _clavis_, a key, and _cembalo_, a dulcimer. Then we get the French _clavecin_ (which comes from _clavicymbalum_) _clavichord_, harpsichord, _harpsicordo_, _clavicordo_, and _clavier_. Then in the same group we have the virginal and the spinet, closely allied to these forerunners of the pianoforte in everything but their names.

Students of the piano are often puzzled to know why they are given a _Suite de pièces pour le clavecin_, or a Prelude and Fugue from the Well-tempered[90] Clavichord.

It is well to remember that the _clavecin_ (French), the _clavicembalo_ or _gravicembalo_ (sometimes _cembalo_ alone) and _harpsichordo_ (Italian), and _Clavicymbel_ or _Flügel_, meaning wing, from its shape (German) are all names for the harpsichord. All of these, as we will see by looking at the picture facing page 182 of Scarlatti at the _gravicembalo_, and that facing page 296 from Peter Preller’s _Modern Music Master_ (London), showing a gentleman at the harpsichord, have the form of our modern concert piano. On the other hand, the _clavicordo_, _clavichord_, and _clavier_, spinet and virginal, are of the square, oblong type, like the old square piano that has almost gone out of use.

In all the instruments of the piano family, the place of the plectrum of the psaltery is taken by the “jack,” which was usually made of pear-tree. It rested on the back end of the key-lever with a movable tongue of holly kept in place by a bristle spring. Projecting at the end of the tongue at right angles was a thorn, or a spike of crowquill. As the key was pushed down, the jack was forced upwards and the quill brought to the string, which it plucked. The string was “damped” (softened) by a piece of cloth above the tongue. When the finger left the key, the key sprang upward to its own level and the jack fell. The jack, is exactly the principle of the plectrum of the psaltery adjusted to a key.

The hammer of the pianoforte is only the old hammer of the dulcimer made into a part of the _action_, or mechanism, of the piano.

The spinet was a keyed instrument with jacks. According to Dr. Burney it was a small harpsichord, or virginal, with one string to each note. Though many writers persistently say that the name was derived from the spine, or thorn, that plucked the strings, an old Italian book, published in Bologna in 1608, says: “The Spinetta received its name from its inventor, Giovanni Spinetti, of Venice.” One of his instruments is dated 1503. Very beautiful cases were made for these old Italian spinets which were sometimes painted by great artists.

Annibal Rosso made a new kind of spinet without a case, showing the soundboard with the wires lying flat like a harp. In England this _Spinetta traversa_ was called the Stuart, Jacobean, or Queen Anne, Spinet, and also the couched harp. The spinet made its way from Italy to France, the Netherlands, Germany, and England.

The largest spinets were called the virginals. The word “virginal” appears in a book by Virdung, published in Basle in 1511, which contains a picture showing an instrument of the same shape as the clavichord and with the same arrangement of the keyboard.

According to Prætorius, who wrote about a hundred years later, the word “virginal” was used for a quadrangular instrument. However, from the time of Henry the Seventh to the close of the Seventeenth Century the word was used to describe all quilled keyboard instruments,—the harpsichord and trapeze-shaped spinet as well as the regular virginal of Virdung and Prætorius. Henry the Eighth was a fine performer on the virginal and so was his daughter Queen Elizabeth.

Facing page 292 is a typical virginal of the Seventeenth Century; and we can see from the performer just how the hands were placed on the keyboard. This is taken from the title-page of Playford’s _Banquet of Music_, published in London in 1688.

Very often in literature we find “a pair of virginals” mentioned; for example Pepys, describing the Great Fire of London in 1666, writes: “I observed that hardly one lighter, or boat, in three that had the goods of a house in but there was a pair of virginals in it.”

The clavecin and harpsichord seem to have supplanted the psaltery some time in the Sixteenth Century. The _gravicembalo_ or _clavicembalo_ was, as we have seen, a conspicuous member of Monteverde’s Orchestra (see page 143). It remained in the Symphony Orchestra until the days of Haydn, who got rid of it.

Originating in Italy, it spread northward into France, Germany, the Netherlands, and England.

The earliest mention of the harpsichord is under the name _clavicymbolum_ and occurs in the rules of the Minnesingers in 1404. The earliest mention in English is in 1502, when it is called _clavicymball_.

The oldest harpsichord in the South Kensington Museum, of London, is a Venetian _clavicembalo_, signed and dated Joanes Antonius Baffo, Venetus, 1574. It has a compass of four and a half octaves from C to F. “Raising the top and looking inside, we observe the harp-like disposition of the strings, as in a modern grand piano, which led Galilei,[91] the father of the astronomer, Galileo, to infer the direct derivation of the harpsichord from the harp. In front, immediately over the keys, is the wrestplank, with the tuning-pins inserted, round which are wound the nearer ends of the strings—in this instrument two to each note—the further ends being attached to hitchpins, driven into the soundboard itself, and following the angle of the bent side of the case to the narrow end, where the longest strings are stretched. There is a straight bridge along the edge of the wrestplank and a curved bridge upon the soundboard. The strings pass over these bridges between which they vibrate, and the impulse of their vibrations is communicated by the curved bridge to the soundboard. The plectra, or jacks, with the exception that they carry points of leather instead of quills, are the same as in later instruments. This Venetian harpsichord has a separate case from which it could be withdrawn for performance, a contrivance usual in Italy, the outer case being frequently adorned with painting. Lastly, the natural keys are white and the sharps black, the rule in Italian keyed instruments, the German practice having been the reverse.”[92]

[Illustration: CONCERT WITH HARPSICHORD

_Eighteenth Century_]

This was the kind of instrument—the _gravicembalo_—that had a place in the Monteverde’s Orchestra (see page 143), and that Domenico Scarlatti is playing in the illustration facing page 182.

Just what the Amati family of Cremona was to the violin, the Ruckers family of Antwerp was to the harpsichord. The Ruckers made the most perfect and the most artistic of harpsichords. Altogether there were about forty Ruckers.

Of this family there were four members living and working between 1591 and 1651, or later, who achieved great reputation. Their instruments are known by their signatures and by the monograms forming the ornamental rosette, or sound-hole, in the soundboard—a survival from the psaltery. The great improvement of the harpsichord is attributed to Hans, the eldest, who by adding to the two unison strings of each note a third of shorter length and finer wire, tuned an octave higher, increased the power and brilliancy of the tone. To employ this addition at will alone, or with one or both the unison strings, he contrived, after the example of the organ, a second keyboard, and stops to be moved by the hand, for the control of the registers, or slides, of jacks acting upon the strings. By these expedients all the legitimate variety ever given to the harpsichord was secured. The Ruckers harpsichord given by Messrs. Broadwood to the South Kensington Museum, signed and dated “Andreas Ruckers me fecit Antverpiae 1651,” said to have been left by Handel to Christopher Smith, shows these additions to the construction, and was, in the writer’s remembrance, before the soundboard gave way, of deliciously soft and delicately reedy _timbre_. The tension being comparatively small, these harpsichords lasted much longer than our modern pianofortes.

“When the Ruckers family passed away we hear no more of Antwerp as the city of harpsichord makers; London and Paris took up the tale.”[93]

A Fleming named Tabel established himself in England, and his pupils Tschudi (or Shudi) and Kirchmann (or Kirkman) developed the harpsichord to its utmost and produced what in those days was considered a big tone.

The earliest mention of the pianoforte, or forte-piano rather, occurs in the records of the Este family, in the letters addressed to Alfonso II, Duke of Modena, by an instrument-maker named Paliarino. The invention of the pianoforte is, however, given to Bartolomeo di Francesco Cristofori (1651-1731), a harpsichord maker of Padua, who removed to Florence at the wish of his patron, Prince Ferdinand de’ Medici. Cristofori then produced instruments with the hammer mechanism. A stone in Santa Croce, Florence, to Bartolomeo Cristofori records that he was the inventor of the “Clavicembalo col Piano e Forté.”

However, the hammer head was small and there was no check to control the hammer in its rebound. At first the pianoforte was not much liked by the musicians. It required a new kind of touch; but as makers added improvements the new instrument gained in popularity and gradually supplanted the harpsichord. Bach did not care for it. His favorite instrument was the clavichord; and he often said “that he found no soul in the clavecin, or spinet, and that the pianoforte was too clumsy and harsh.”

But with the piano a new style of playing came into fashion and also a new style of composition. Clementi, Mozart and Beethoven laid the foundations for the modern style of playing. Then followed Hummel and poetic Chopin; and, finally, Liszt, who created modern piano-playing after hearing Paganini’s magical violin. In 1839 Liszt gave the _first piano recital_ ever heard; and he labored all his life to teach pupils to play the piano correctly and poetically and to put his technical knowledge into permanent form for future generations. And this is how he felt towards the instrument:

“My piano is to me what his boat is to the seaman, what his horse is to the Arab: nay, more, it has been till now my eye, my speech, my life. Its strings have vibrated under my passions, and its yielding keys have obeyed my every caprice. In my opinion the piano takes the first place in the hierarchy of instruments; it is the oftenest used and the widest spread. In its seven octaves it embraces the whole compass of the orchestra, and a man’s ten fingers are enough to render the harmonies which in an orchestra are only brought out by the combinations of many musicians. We can give broken chords like the harp; long sustained notes like the wind; _staccati_; and a thousand passages which before it seemed only possible to produce on this or that instrument.”

By the side of this eulogy we may place the following and quite extraordinary description of the piano written by an English musician named William Gardiner, in 1818, just one hundred years ago.

“The pianoforte was scarcely known in the time of Bach; and, from the style of his compositions, it is evident that they were the product of the harpsichord, an instrument of very limited powers, the boldest effects of which were produced by sprinkling the chords in _Arpeggio_, which occasioned a disagreeable jingling. The early sonatas of Haydn, also, bear marks of the influence of this instrument, and possess nothing of the expression of his later works.

“The invention of the pianoforte has formed a new era in the art. It has been the means of developing the sublimest ideas of the composer, and the delicacy of its touch has enabled him to give the lightest shades, as well as the boldest strokes of musical expression. It is the only instrument that will represent the effects of a full orchestra; and, since its mechanism has been improved, Beethoven has displayed its powers in a way not contemplated even by Haydn himself.”

Modern composers have experimented with the piano as an orchestral instrument. Saint-Saëns uses it efficiently in his great Symphony in C, dedicated to the memory of Liszt. Perhaps the most successful treatment of it has been made more recently by Stravinsky in his Ballet, _Petrushka_.

FOOTNOTES

[1] Haweis.

[2] Haweis.

[3] Abele.

[4] Haweis.

[5] Parker.

[6] Heron-Allen.

[7] Haweis.

[8] From the entrails of sheep.

[9] Parker.

[10] “In bowed instruments the wolf occurs owing to defective vibration of one or more notes of the scale. When it occurs, it is generally found, more or less, in every octave and on every string. Different instruments have it in different places: it is most common at, or near, the fourth above the lowest note on the instrument,—in the violin at C, in the violoncello at F. The more sonorous and brilliant the general tone, the more obtrusive it becomes: if the tone be forced, a disagreeable jar is produced. Hence it is idle to attempt to play the wolf down; the player must humor the troublesome note. It is commonly believed that there is a wolf somewhere in all fiddles; and it is certain that it exists in some of the finest, for example in Stradivaris. Probably, however, it is always due to some defect in the construction, or adjustment.

“Violins with a soft, free tone are least liable to it. The cause of the wolf is obscure and probably not uniform: it may result from some excess or defect in the thickness; from unequal elasticity in the wood; from bad proportion or imperfect adjustment of the fittings; or from some defect in the proportions of the air-chamber. In the opinion of violin-makers where it is once established it cannot be radically cured. Some instruments have what may be termed an anti-wolf, _i. e._ an excess of vibrations on the very notes where the wolf ordinarily occurs.” (Parker).

[11] Lavignac.

[12] Lanzetti appears in the picture facing page 182.

[13] See page 25.

[14] See pages 43 and 44.

[15] See page 61.

[16] See page 44.

[17] See page 33.

[18] See page 22.

[19] See page 50.

[20] Strauss calls for this in his Domestic Symphony.

[21] Lavignac.

[22] See pages 83-84.

[23] Dr. W. H. Stone.

[24] Köchel No. 622.

[25] William H. Husk.

[26] See page 108.

[27] See page 112.

[28] Now played on the double-bassoon.

[29] See page 55.

[30] See illustration facing page 136.

[31] See illustration facing page 140.

[32] See page 21.

[33] See page 25.

[34] Cecil Forsyth.

[35] See page 24.

[36] See page 23.

[37] See page 21.

[38] See pages 49 and 58.

[39] See pages 49 and 58.

[40] La Vieuville de Freneuse.

[41] See page 154.

[42] This is interesting as showing that Lully used a cane to beat time.

[43] Romain Rolland.

[44] Romain Rolland.

[45] Viola da Gamba.

[46] _La Parnasse Francoise._

[47] See page 160.

[48] See page 167.

[49] See page 165.

[50] Paul David.

[51] Equal tuning.

[52] Charles Villiers Stanford.

[53] See page 182.

[54] Romain Rolland.

[55] Volbach.

[56] Romain Rolland.

[57] Julien Tiersot.

[58] Henri Marie Beyle (Stendhal).

[59] J. Cuthbert Hadden.

[60] Jahn.

[61] Romain Rolland.

[62] In the Mannheim Orchestra (see page 210.)

[63] Rudall.

[64] Beethoven’s pupil.

[65] Sir George Grove.

[66] Romain Rolland.

[67] Sir George Grove.

[68] Sir George Grove.

[69] Edward Carpenter.

[70] A. W. Wodehouse.

[71] Dr. Philipp Spitta.

[72] See page 234.

[73] Dr. Philipp Spitta.

[74] Ernest Newman.

[75] Ernest Newman.

[76] Edward Dannreuther.

[77] Lavignac.

[78] See page 244.

[79] Henry T. Finck.

[80] Lavignac.

[81] Edward Dannreuther.

[82] James G. Huneker.

[83] Coerne.

[84] James G. Huneker.

[85] Coerne.

[86] Mrs. Franz Liebich.

[87] The name “score” is derived from this scoring. This in other languages is _partition_ (French); _partitio_ (Italian); _partitur_ (German); meaning a collection of parts.

[88] See page 52.

[89] Circles.

[90] Well-tuned; not applying to the instrument’s disposition.

[91] See page 287.

[92] A. J. Hipkins.

[93] A. J. Hipkins.

INDEX

_Acis_, 163

_Acis and Galatea_, 77, 81

Addison, 187, 188

_Adrianna_, 147

_Aïda_, 283

Air-stream (or air-column), 74, 75, 76, 86, 92, 98, 107

_Alceste_, 109

_Alcyone_, 171

Alps, 21

Amati, Andreas, 25, 59, 64, 138-139

Amati, Antonio and Geronimo, 25

Amati, Nicolò, 25-26, 27, 64, 178

“Amatis, Grand,” 26

American taste, 273

Anne of Austria, 152, 154

Antoniotti, 59

Anvil Chorus, 129

Anvils, 129, 163

_Après midi d’un faune_, 270, 271-272

Arditi, 70

Arnould, Sophie, 105

_Arpa doppia_, 144

Arpeggios, 41

_Art of Bowing_ (Tartini), 44

Attack, 42, 162

Atys, 164

Bach, Johann Sebastian, 57, 62, 104, 111, 185-187, 210, 260, 262, 290, 299

Bach, Philipp Emmanuel, 186

Ballet-music, 140, 196

Baltzar, Thomas, 173, 174, 176

_Banquet of Dainty Conceits_, 136

Barberini, Cardinal, 150

Barberini Theatre, 150

Barret, A. M. R., 85

Barrère, George, quoted, 75

Bassani, Giovanni Battista, 179

Bass-bar, 14, 15

_Basse de viole_, 47, 168, 170. _See_ _Viola da gamba_

Basset-horn, 101-102

_Basson_, 95

Bassoon, 91-96; air-column, 92; compass, 92; construction, 91; keys, 92; tone, 92

Bassoon, double, 96

Bass tuba. _See_ Tuba

Bass viol, 47. _See_ _Basse de viole_ and _Viola da gamba_

Battery, 5, 264

Bavaria, King of, 256

Bayreuth, 256

Beethoven, 41, 52, 61, 69, 77, 81, 82, 88, 93, 94, 96, 100, 114, 120, 121, 199, 214-232, 244, 262, 290, 299

Beethoven as conductor, 220, 227

Beethoven, quoted, 196

Bells, 130-131

Bells of Montsalvat, 131

Benda, Franz, 79

_Benvenuto Cellini_, overture, 251

Bergonzi, Carlo, 64

Berlioz, 52, 78, 83, 90, 114, 117, 243-251, 260, 267, 268, 279-282, 289; orchestra of, 247; quoted, 42-43, 53, 65, 80-82, 87-88, 89, 99-100, 111, 114, 226

Berteau, 60

Beyle, Henri Marie. _See_ Stendhal

_Birthday Ode, Queen Anne’s_, 188

Bizet, 117

_Black Tulip, The_, 166

Bocan, 154, 155, 156, 157

Boccherini, 62

Boehm, Theobald, 75, 76

Bologna, 24, 179

Bombardino, 83

Bombardino-Chalumeau Family, 84, 90, 96

Bombardo, 83

Bossier, violin, 30, 31

Bottesini, 70

_Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Le_, 160

Bouts, 19, 22

Bow, the, 43

Bowing, 40-41, 162, 180

Brahms, 95, 96, 265

Brass instruments, 5, 152, 259, 263-264

Brass wind, 5. _See_ Brass instruments

Brescia, 21, 22, 23, 25, 179

Brian Boru, harp of, 284

Bridge, 14

Brienne, Comte de, quoted, 155

Bruyère, La, 165; quoted, 166, 167

Bucina, 104

Bülow, Hans von, 121, 262

Burney, quoted, 173, 177, 182, 183, 195, 204-206

Buysine, 112

Cannabich, 211, 216

Cannons, 188, 289

_Cantus_, 49

_Carillon_, 127

_Carmen_, 117

_Carnaval Romain_, 83

Carnegie Hall, opening of, 265

Carpenter Edward, quoted, 231

Casals, Pablo, 61

_Casse Noisette Suite_, 78, 102, 267

Castanets, 126, 163

_Cat’s Fugue_, 184

Celesta, 128, 267

Cellini, Benvenuto, 22

Cembalo, 151, 291, 293

Cesti, Antonio, 151

_Chalumeau_, 83, 84, 97

Chandos, Duke of, 188, 289

_Chanterelle_, 39, 171

Charles I, of England, 154

Charles II, of England, 173; music under, 173-177

Charles IX, of France, 59, 244

Chaucer, 292

Cherubini, 94, 105

Chest of viols, 29

_Childe Harold_, 52

_Chitarone_, 137, 140

Chopin, 232, 299

Chorale, 185

Christina, of Sweden, 180

Cimbalon, 128

_Cimbelom_, 291

Clarinet, 96-101, 195, 210, 236, 241, 258, 264; air-column, 98; compass, 99; registers, 97; voice of, 97, 99

Clarinet, bass, 101, 102

Clarinet, double-bass, 102; voice of, 102

“Clarinet Symphony,” 100

Clarino, 110, 143

Clarion, 110, 112

Claro, 110, 112

Classical music, 232, 255

Clavecin, 140, 153, 293, 299

Clavicembali, 143, 150

Clavicembalo, 293, 296

Clavichord, 293, 299

Clavicordo, 293

Clavicymball, 296

Clavicymbalum, 293

Clavicymbel, 293

Clavicymbolum, 296

Clavier, 293

Clementi, 299

_Clemenza di Tito_, 102

Coerne, quoted, 263-264

Collasse, Pascal, 169

Colonne, 268

_Combattimento di Tancrede e Clorinda_, 146

Concert of lutes, 57

Concert of viols, 57, 62

Concert-master, 41

Concertino, 190

Conductor, 6, 42, 135, 146, 274-278; Beethoven, 227; Corelli, 180-181; Handel, 189-191; Lully, 162-164; Mendelssohn, 242-243; Mozart, 212; Wagner, 256; Weber, 235

Consorts (lutes), 173

Constantin, 156, 157

_Coppelia_, 82

_Cor, anglais_, 84, 88-89; compass, 89; tone, 89

_Cor à piston_, 108

Cordier, Jacques, 154

Corelli, Arcangelo, 43, 60, 178-182; conducting of, 180-181

Corner blocks, 18-19, 27

Cornet, 116, 153

Cornet Family, 116

_Cornu_, 104

_Couac_, 73

Couched harp, 295

Couperin, 273, 290

Cousineau, 288

_Creation, The_, 77, 96

Cremona, 10, 21, 24-25, 141, 179, 297

Cristofori, 298-299

Crooks, 107, 108

Cruit, 283

Crusaders, 122

_Crwth_, 283

Cuckoo, 130

Cymbals, 124-125

_Cyrano_, 107

_Damnation of Faust_, 83, 117, 246, 251

Damrosch, Walter, 107, 121, 264, 269

Dance-music, 153, 160, 179, 181, 184, 196

Dannreuther, Edward, quoted, 248-249, 259-260

_Danse Macabre_, 41, 128, 130

Dante, 143

_Dante Symphony_, 254

Debussy, 260, 269-273, 289; quoted, 272-273

Delibes, 82

Denner, J. C., 97

Descoteaux, 165-166, 173

_Devil’s Sonata_, 44

Diapasons, 138

Discant, 18, 47

_Divertissement_, 141

Don Giovanni, 51, 69, 93, 100, 114

Don Juan, 95

_Don Quixote Variations_, 53, 63, 78, 102, 261

Double-bass, 47, 67-71; Amati, 70; Bergonzi, 70; Gasparo di Salò, 70; Stradivari, 70; strings of, 67

Dragonetti, 70, 227

Drum, bass, 123; sticks, 123; side, 122; heads, 122; playing of, 122; roll, 122

Duiffoprugcar, G., 48

Dulcimer, 291, 292, 293

Dumanoir, 157

Duport, Jean Louis, 60, 63

Dürer, Albrecht, 152

Dvořák, 77, 90, 101

Egmont, overture, 52, 82

“Elector Stainers,” 34

Elgar, 53, 95, 121

_Elijah_, 62, 77, 117, 241

_Embouchure_, 73, 75

_Enfance du Christ_, 78, 247, 289

Engel, Carl, quoted, 83

English horn, 89

_Enigma_, 95

Érard, 279, 289

_Eroica Symphony_, 88, 223, 225

“Esterhazy,” 198-199

Esterhazy, Prince, 197, 252

_Esther_, 192, 289

_Euryanthe_, 236, 237

Fagott, 95

Fagotto, 95

_Fancies_, 175

Fanfares, 104

_Fantastic Symphony_, 250, 254

Fasch, C. F., 79

“Father of Classical Music,” 183

“Father of the Orchestra,” 199

“Father of Modern Orchestration,” 246

_Faust, Symphony_, 254

_f_-holes, 12, 18, 20, 30, 31

_Fidelio_, 88

_Fifth Symphony_ (Beethoven), 52, 69

_Fifth Symphony_ (Tschaikowsky), 95

Finck, Henry T., quoted, 254

First violin, 41, 42

“Flaming-sword” sound-holes, 20, 57

“Flowers,” 179

Flügel, 293

Flute, 73-79, 153, 273; air-stream, 74, 75, 76; compass, 74; construction, 74; keys, 74, 75; playing of, 74; scale, 75; voice, 73

Flute-players, famous French, 165-168, 173

Flutes, 146, 151, 153, 163, 165-167

Flutter tongue, 78

_Flying Dutchman_, overture, 109, 256

Forsyth, Cecil, quoted, 117

Foucard, 156

Francesca da Rimini, 101

Franchomme, A., 64

Franciscello, 60, 183

Francisco II, Duke of Modena, 59

Frederick the Great, 78

_Freischütz_, 81, 100, 105, 106, 236-237

French composers, modern, 270

French flute-players, 165-168, 173

French horn, 108

Frichot, 116

Galiano, Alessandro, 64

Galiano, Januarius, 64

Galilei, quoted, 287

Galli, Domenico, 59

_Gamme La_ (Marais), 171

Gardiner, William, quoted, 300

Gasparo di Salò, 21, 22, 23, 25, 33, 48, 50, 71, 135, 138, 141, 179

Gatti, Teobaldo di, 168

Geminiani, 180, 193; quoted, 180

George I, of England, 188

Gevaert, 101, 119

Giraldus, quoted, 284-285

Gladstone, quoted, 16

_Glockenspiel_, 127, 131

Gluck, 69, 78, 82, 88, 94, 100, 106, 193-196, 244

_Golden Legend_, 149

Gonzaga, Francesco di, 142

Gossec, 105

_Götterdämmerung, Die_, 105, 115

_Grande Mademoiselle, La_, 159-160

Gravicembalo, 183, 293, 295, 297

Great Fire of London, 295

Grieg, 265

Grove, Sir George, quoted, 228, 230

Guarneri, 26, 32

Guillaume Tell. _See_ William Tell

Guitar-fiddle, 17

Habeneck, 239, 268

Hackbrett, 291

Hadden, J. Cuthbert, quoted, 206

Hammer, 294, 299

Handel, 62, 77, 96, 111, 127, 187-193, 210, 289, 290; caricature of, 191; conductor, 189-191

_Hänsel and Gretel_, 95, 130

Harmonics, 39, 64, 69, 113

_Harold Symphony_ (Harold in Italy), 52, 250

Harp, 5-6, 195, 247, 255, 260, 264, 279-289

Harp, Egyptian, 283; English, 287; Irish, 283; mediæval, 288; Scottish, 286; Welsh, 286

Harpers, Irish, 284-285; Welsh, 285

Harps, 260

Harpsichord, 183, 186, 195, 293, 295, 296, 297-298

Harpsicordo, 293

Haweis, quoted, 15, 26, 28, 34-36

Haydn, 77, 88, 93, 96, 130, 183, 196-207, 210, 217, 218, 262

Hebrides, overture, 96, 101

Heine, quoted, 245

Heinrich, Carl, quoted, 111

_Heldenleben_, 90, 95

Hellier violin, 30

Henrietta Maria, 154

Henry VIII, 122, 295

Heron-Allen, quoted, 30-32

Horn, 103-110; air-stream, 107; bell, 103, 107; construction, 107; crooks, 107; keys, 107; playing of, 107-108; tone, 108

Horns, 104, 107, 109, 163, 182, 191, 236, 259, 263; modified, 117

_Huguenots Les_, 82, 130

Hummel, 299

Humperdinck, 95, 130

Huneker, James G., quoted, 260-261

_Hungarian Rhapsodie_, No. 2, 77; _Rhapsodies_, 254, 290

Hurdy-gurdy, 17

_Improvisation_ (Beethoven’s), 216

_Improvisation_ (Handel’s), 189

_Incoronazione di Poppea_, 146

Ingegneri, Marc Antonio, 142

Instruments, Sixteenth-century, 136-139

Interludes, instrumental, 140

Intonation, 38

_Iphigénie en Aulide_, 87; _en Tauride_, 80, 88

_Ireland_, arms of, 287

_Isis_, 163, 169

_Israel in Egypt_, 188

_Istromento di porco_, 292

Jacks, 294

Jahn, quoted, 212

Jingles, 125

Joachim, quoted, 36-37

Joseph del Gesù, 32-33

Jubilee, Saint-Saëns, 269

Kettledrums, 120-122, 191, 197, 200; compass, 121; sticks, 121; tuning, 121

“King, The” (violoncello), 60

Kirchmann, 298

Kreisler, Fritz, 30

La Bas, 168

Labyrinth (Marais), 171

La Londe, 172

Lalouette, Jean François, 169

Lamoureux, 268

Landi, Stefano, 149

Lanzetti, 59

Lavignac, Albert, 270; quoted, 42, 54, 65, 73, 84, 89, 92, 97, 98, 108, 110, 113, 130, 257-258

Lazarin, 156

Leclerc, Guy, 169

Léger, 156

Lesueur, 249

Lichnowsky, Prince, 218, 220

Liebich, Mrs. F., quoted, 271-272

Liszt, 41, 60, 77, 102, 124, 243, 251-255, 260, 267, 290, 299, 301; quoted, 299-300

Lobkowitz, Prince, 223

Local coloring, 237

_Lodoiska_, 105

_Lohengrin_, 253, 256

Lombardy, 21, 49, 142, 179

“Long Strads,” 31

Louis XIII, 154

Louis XIV, 155; age of, 158; music of, 160

Lulli. _See_ Lully

Lully, Jean Baptiste, 158-164, 174, 195, 269, 277, 278

Lute, 168

Lute, bass, 140; tenor, 137

Lutes, 29, 57, 58, 137, 140

Luther, Martin, 185

Lyre, 140

Madrigals, 136, 142

_Maestro di Capella_, 142, 147, 148

Maggini, Giovanni Paolo, 21, 23-24, 64, 141, 179

_Magic flute_, 77, 114, 127

_Manfred_, overture, 114

Mantua, Duke of, 141

Marais, Marin, 165, 169-172

Marchand, Jean Baptiste, 168

_Marche Slave_, 95

Marie Antoinette, 194

Marly, 155, 156

Martini, Padre, quoted, 193

_Maximilian, Triumph of_, 152

Mazarin, Cardinal, 152, 157

_Mazeppa_, 41, 102

Mazzocchi, Vergilio, 148; school of, 148-149

Medea, 94

Medici, Ferdinand de’, 298

_Meistersinger, Die_, 62, 70, 77, 109, 127, 257, 264

Melodic instruments, 85, 86, 106

_Melusine_, 101, 241

Mendelssohn, 6, 62, 77, 94, 96, 101, 105, 240-243; conducting, 242-243

Mersenne, quoted, 154, 156, 292

_Messiah_ (Handel’s), 188, 191

“Messiah,” violin, 30, 32

Metsu, 55

Meyerbeer, 82, 90, 130, 289

_Midsummer Night’s Dream_ (Mendelssohn’s), 6-8, 77, 95, 105, 117, 240, 241

Military Symphony, 93

_Modern Music Master_, 293

Molière, 160

Monodic music, 140

Monteverde, Claudio, 141-148, 295

Montpensier, Mademoiselle de, 159-160

Mozart, Leopold, 207

Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 51, 69, 77, 93, 100, 105, 114, 127, 199, 207-214, 262, 267, 289, 290

_Mozartiana_, 267

“Music of the Future,” 243, 253, 255

Music of the Renaissance, 48, 152, 185

Music of the Seventeenth Century, 58

“Musicians’ musician,” 186

_Musurgia_, 292

_Naggareh_, 122

“Nakers,” 122

Newman, Ernest, quoted, 244-245, 246-247, 265

_New World Symphony_, 77, 90, 101

_Nibelungen Ring_, 256, 259

_Ninth Symphony_, 52, 69, 88, 94, 96, 114, 120, 121

_Nuance_, 192

_Nut Cracker Suite_, 78, 102, 267

Oberon, 101, 106, 236, 237

Oboe, 83-88, 89, 189; air-column, 85; compass, 86; construction, 85; keys, 87; playing of, 86; reed, 86; scale, 86; voice, 84

_Oboe d’amore_, 84, 186, 264

_Oboe di caccia_, 84, 90, 186

_Ode to Joy_, 70

Ole Bull, 22, 29

“Olifant,” 103

Opera, dawn of, 139

Opera, Italian, 139, 142-152

Operas, Gluck’s, 196; Handel’s, 188

Ophicleide, 116, 117, 247

Oratorios, Handel’s, 188

Orchestra, 3-8, 42, 65, 68; Bach, 192, 209; Beethoven, 230; Berlioz, 247; Cesti, 151; Corelli, 180; Dresden, 234, 235, 256; Eleventh-century, 273; French, 153; Gluck, 194; Handel, 189, 192, 209; Haydn, 199, 200, 223; Landi, 149-150; Louis XIV, 155; Lully, 160, 161-164, 172; Mannheim, 210; Monteverde, 143-144; Mozart, 223, 229; Scarlatti, 183; Venetian, 150; Wagner, 258

Orchestral palette, 209-210

Orchestral solos, 186

Orchestration, Debussy, 270-271; Liszt, 255; Strauss, 263-264; Tschaikowsky, 267; Wagner, 257-258

_Orfeo_, Gluck, 69, 78, 88, 94, 196; Monteverde, 141-146

Organ, 143, 151, 186, 199

Organists, German, 185

Otello, 70, 82

Ottoboni, Cardinal, 180

_Ouvertures_ (Lully), 174

Over-blowing, 76, 87, 92, 108

Paganini, 33, 45, 249, 250, 252

“Paganini of the ’cello,” 61

Paliarino, 298

Papa Haydn, 199

_Parsifal_, 131

Pasdeloup, 268

_Pastoral Symphony_, 77, 82, 88, 101, 226

_Pathetic Symphony_, 53, 95

_Pelleas et Mélisande_, 270

Pepys, quoted, 295

Percussion instruments, 5, 119-131

“_Petits Violons_,” 160, 172

_Petrushka_, 301

Philbert, 167-168, 173

Piatti, Alfredo, 61, 63

Pianoforte, 290-301

Pianoforte Concerto in E-flat (Liszt), 124

Pianoforte recital, first, 299

Piccini, 194, 197

Piccolo, 79-83

_Piffero pastorale_, 83

_Pills to Purge Melancholy_, 177

Pitch, definite, 119; indefinite, 119

Pizzicato, 41

Plague, the, 23, 147

Platel, N. J., 61

Plectrum, 291, 292, 294

Polyphonic Music, 140, 142

Pommers, 83

_Pomo d’oro, Il_, 151

_Pomone_, 93

_Pomp and Circumstance_, 95

_Portamento_, 40

_Pourceaugnac_, 160

_Preciosa_, 160, 237

_Princesse d’Élide, La_, 163

“Prison Josephs,” 33

Provence, 17

_Psaltérion_, 273, 291, 292

Psaltery, 291, 292, 293, 295

Purfling, 13, 23

Quantz, 78

Quartet, string, 58, 62

Quartet, woodwind, 83

Queen Anne, court of, 187-188

_Queen Mab Scherzo_, 246

Quill, 294, 297

Quinault, 160

Quintons, 139

Raguenet, Abbé, quoted, 173

Rameau, 184, 195, 269, 273

_Ranz des Vaches_, 90

Rasoumoffsky Quartet, 218

Rattle, 129

Reed, 72, 86; double, 85, 89; single, 97

Reed family, 72

_Regale_, 143

Regibo, 116

Renaissance, the, 48, 152, 185, 277; French, 269; instruments, 136-139, 143-144; music, 136-152

René, King, 269

Requiem (Mozart’s), 93, 102

Revolution of 1830, 244, 269

_Rheingold Das_, 115, 259, 289

_Richard the Second_, 135

Richelieu, Cardinal de, 154-155

Riddle, 48

_Ride of the Walküre_, 82

_Rienzi_, 117, 256

Ries, 216, 220

Rinaldo, 81

Ripienist, 190

_Robert le Diable_, 82-90, 289

Rolland, Romain, quoted, 162, 163, 190, 192-193, 196

Romantic music, 232

Romantic movement, 244, 252

_Romaunt of the Rose_, 288

Rome, opera in, 150

_Roméo et Juliette_, Symphony, 246, 250

Rospigliosi, Giulio, 149

Rossini, 62, 90, 130

_Rouet d’Omphale_, 268

Rubinstein, Anton, 266; quoted, 266

Rubinstein, Nicholas, 266

Ruckers, 297-298

_Ruy Blas_, overture, 94

Sacchini, 100

Sackbut, 112, 116

S. Alessio, 149

St. Cecilia, picture of, 19, 20

Saint Paul, 62

Saint-Saëns, 41, 126, 128, 130, 268-269, 301

Salieri, 227, 238, 252

_Salterio_, 291

Samson, 188

_Samson et Dalila_, 126

Sarasate, 269

_Saul_, 127, 188

_Savoyard in Paris, Little_, 17

Scarlatti, Alessandro, 62, 180, 182-183, 187; Domenico, 183-184, 293, 297

_Schalmei_, 83

Schalmey, 84, 91

Schalmey-Pommer Family, 90, 91

Schubert, 88, 105, 114, 239-240

Schumann, 114, 232, 233

Schuppanzigh Quartet, 218

Score, 274-275

Scotch Symphony, 94

_Seasons, The_, 88

_Semele_, 191

Serpent, the, 116

Servais, A. F., 61, 63

Shakespeare, 56, 58, 134-5

_Shawm_, 83, 84

Sheridan, 191

_Siegfried_, 109, 115, 127

_Siegfried Idyll_, 109

Simonelli, Matteo, 179

_Sinfonia Domestica_, 131

Snares, 122

_Sordino_, 40

Sound-holes, 12, 18, 20, 22, 23, 27, 30, 31, 57

Sound-post, 14, 15

Speaker-keys, 85

Spinet, 293, 294-295, 299

_Spinetta_ traversa, 294

Spinetti, Giovanni, 294

Spitta, Dr., quoted, 233, 237

Spohr, 289

Spontini, 81

Stabat Mater (Rossini), 94

Stainer, Jacob, 34

Stamford, Charles Villiers, quoted, 70

Stamitz, 211

Steele, 187, 188

Stendhal, quoted, 200-204, 208

Stone, W. H., quoted, 93, 94

Stradivari, Antonio, 15, 16, 26-32, 63, 178, 250; house of, 28

“Stradivari of the Bow,” 43

Strauss, Richard, 41, 53, 63, 78, 82, 90, 95, 102, 109, 128, 129, 131, 260, 289; quoted, 262

Stravinsky, 301

String-quartet, 58, 62

Strings, 4, 152, 153

_Suites_ (Bach), 187

_Surprise Symphony_, 200

_Symphonic Poems_ (Liszt), 254; Tschaikowsky, 266

_Symphonie Fantastique_, 90. _See_ Symphony

_Symphonie Pathetique_, 267

“Symphonies,” 140, 144, 168

_Symphonies_ (Haydn), 202-204; Mozart, 208; Schubert, 239

Symphony (Beethoven), _First_, 93, 223; _Second_, 94, 101, 220; _Eighth_, 94, 227, 242; _Fifth_, 96; _Fourth_, 94, 224; _Ninth_, 94, 96, 228; _Third_ (Eroica) 88, 223, 225; _Seventh_, 100, 120, 227; _Sixth_ (Pastoral), 77, 82, 88, 101, 226

_Symphony in C_ (Saint-Saëns), 301

_Symphony in C-major_ (Schubert), 88, 105, 114, 239

_Symphony in C-minor_ (Brahms), 95, 96

_Symphony_, Mozart’s first, 210

_Symphony in E-flat_ (Mozart), 100

_Symphony in F-minor_ (Tschaikowsky), 41

Symphony Society of New York, 273

Tabel, 298

_Tambour de Basque_, 126, 163

Tambourin, 126

Tambourine, 125-126

_Tannhäuser_, 53, 109, 126, 253

Tartini, 44, 60

Temperament, 186

Tennyson, quoted, 104

Tenor, 49

Tenor viol, 49, 67

Ter Borch, 55

_Theorbo_, 137, 153

_Till Eulenspiegel_, 83, 95, 110, 129

Tone, search for, 178

Tone-color, 209-210

Tonguing, 75, 86

Touch, 290

Tourte, François, 43, 44-46

_Toy Symphony_, 130

“Trackers,” 85

“Tragic _Symphony_,” 239

Transposing instrument, 89

_Treatise on Instrumentation_ (Berlioz), 249

Treble, 18, 47

Triangle, 124

Triébert, 85

_Tristan and Isolde_, 63, 90, 109, 257, 263

_Triumph of Death_, 292

Trombone, 112-115, 263; bell, 112; compass, 113; harmonics, 113; position, 112; slide, 112, 113; tone, 113

Troubadours, 17, 18

_Trouvères_, 269

_Trovatore, Il_, 129, 130

Trumpet, 110-112; keys, 111; voice, 110

Tschaikowsky, 41, 53, 78, 95, 101, 128, 260, 264-267

Tschudi, 298; quoted, 267

Tuba, bass, 115, 247, 267

Tubas, 117-118, 258, 264

“Tubular Chimes,” 131

Tuileries, 159

Tulip mania, 165-166

_Twelfth Night_, quoted, 56, 58

“Twenty-four Violins of the King,” 154-160, 169

Twenty-four Violins (Charles II), 173-174, 175-177

Tympanon, 291

Tyrol, 21, 34, 48

_Unfinished Symphony_, 239

Urfey, Thomas d’, quoted, 177

_Variations (Elgar)_, 121

Venice, opera in, 150

Verdi, 70, 82, 130, 283

Verdier, 168

Versailles, 155, 156

_Vibrato_, 154

_Vielle_, 17, 18, 43, 273

Vienna, opera in, 151

Viol, Bass, 171

Viol Family, 47, 55, 58, 67, 68, 139

Viol, tenor, 49, 67, 173

Viola, 47-54, 63, 67, 70, 236, 250; Berlioz, quoted, 53; Gasparo di Salò, 50; Lavignac, quoted, 54; Maggini, 50; strings, 47; tone, 54

_Viola d’amore_, 20, 47, 57, 58, 186

_Viola da braccio_, 47, 67, 138

_Viola da gamba_, 47, 55, 56-58, 59, 67, 136, 138, 170, 186

_Viola da spalla_, 138

Viole, 17, 43

Violin, 9-43, 49, 57, 58, 67, 146, 153, 173-176, 178, 186, 187; age of, 16, 21; ancestry, 17; bass-bar, 14, 15; belly, 12; birthplace, 21; bouts, 19, 21; bridge, 14; charm of, 9-10; construction, 13-14; corner-blocks, 18-19, 27; _f_-holes, 12, 18, 20, 30, 31; Lavignac, quoted, 42; model, 11; neck, 16; nervous system, 15; parts of, 13; positions, 38; purfling, 13, 23; ribs, 12; scroll, 11, 16; soul of the, 15; sound-holes, 12, 18, 20, 22, 23, 27, 30, 31, 57; sound-post, 14, 15; tension, 15; tongue of the, 14; varnish, 13, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 30, 31-32, 35; voice, 10; waist, 18; wood, 13, 23, 25, 34-35

Violin Family, 178

Violin, the Little, 49

_Violino_, 48, 138, 139

_Violino piccolo_, 49

Violins, Amati, 25-26; Bergonzi, 33; Berlioz, quoted, 42-43; Gasparo di Salò, 22; Guarneri, 26, 32-23; Maggini, 23-24; Stainer, 34; Stradivari, 30-32

Violoncello, 55-66, 67, 69, 146, 175, 183, 191, 236, 242; Berlioz, quoted, 65-66; Lavignac, quoted, 65; strings, 64

Violone, 47, 68

Viols, 58, 138-139, 141, 146, 156, 173, 175-176; chest of, 29; concert of, 62; consort of, 57, 62

Viotti, 44, 60

Virginal, 293, 295

Vizé, 167

Vogler, Abbé, 234

Voltaire, 61

Wagner, 52-53, 62, 70, 77, 82, 95, 101, 109, 115, 126, 127, 129, 147, 256-260, 261, 262, 264, 265, 278, 289; conductor, 256; quoted, 248, 261

Walküre, Die, 127, 289

Weber, Carl Maria von, 81, 94, 100-101, 105, 106, 232-238, 244; conductor, 235; quoted, 224

Widor, quoted, 124

Wieprecht, W. F., 115

Wilhelmj, 256

_William Tell_, overture, 62, 90, 130

Wind instruments, 141, 152

Wind-machine, 129

Wodehouse, A. W., quoted, 232

“Wolf,” the, 50

Wood, Anthony, quoted, 175-177

Woodwind, 4-5, 72-102, 184, 189, 258

Xylophone, 128

Zimbalist, Efrem, 23-24

Zinke, 115