CHAPTER XVII
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
The construction of electrically-equipped cars is one which requires pages of explanations and illustrations to do it justice. The scope of the present work was originally intended to cover only gasoline-driven cars, so that this chapter, which in a measure only sets forth the manner in which such automobiles are built, will more particularly point out the mechanism which pertains to the operation, and the care needed to maintain them.
It is a long and difficult study to understand the electrical details necessary to build, repair, or maintain electric cars, but it is part of the general mechanic’s duty to understand where the troubles lie, when the mechanism fails to respond, and most of the electrical devices are now so made that the ordinary mechanic is able to make repairs, even though he may not have a technical knowledge of electricity.
Within the past five years this type of automobile has been improved to such an extent that it is steadily gaining ground, and their use growing to such a degree that it may soon become a great rival of the gasoline car, especially for pleasure purposes.
There never has been any question as to the value of electric motors for traction service. Wherever a current of electricity can be distributed and transmitted to a motor, it is the most satisfactory method of moving vehicles, as has been shown in street railways.
REQUIREMENTS.--But on individual cars, incapable of getting current from a system of wiring, the matter presents an entirely different aspect, and brings forth new problems, hence storage batteries must be resorted to, and this involves the consideration of many elements that may be ignored with the usual traction system.
Inventors have vied with each other to produce a type of battery that would possess at least three particular features of excellence, which may be stated as follows:
First. Exceeding lightness, proportioned to the energy exerted, and compactness of structure.
Second. A form of grid which will hold the matter, or active material, within it, and prevent it from disintegrating or falling out of the recesses into which it is pressed.
Third. To add to the life of the battery, or to the individual grids, or plates, which means the discovery of new material, available to receive and accumulate the electric charge.
GASOLINE-ELECTRIC TRUCKS.--Of late some progress has been made in constructing a type of electrics in which a gasoline engine is used, that is connected up with an electric generator. The latter is used to charge a storage battery also mounted on the truck, and the storage battery supplies the motor.
The gasoline engine being connected with the electric generator is constantly in condition to charge the storage battery and may be set in motion, whenever the charge in the storage battery falls below a certain electro motive force. At other times the motor is at rest.
In this type the electric motor is connected with the axle of the vehicle, so that it is always ready for service whether the gasoline motor is running or not.
In the ordinary gasoline automobile it is essential that the motor must be maintained in service at all times, so that any derangement in that part of the system, which includes the mechanism intermediate the motor and axle, or the electrical devices, or the carbureter, means a dead car.
It is urged that by combining the two systems a much wider range of usefulness will be obtained, and practice shows such to be the case. It has, however, some defects, one of which is the great weight necessary to maintain the entire train of mechanism thus described.
The other disadvantage is the great first cost, although it is maintained that the decreased cost of maintaining the cars, while in use, is sufficient to warrant an increased cost in the selling price of the machines.
It is undeniably true that such mechanism means additional care, and is liable to add to the complications necessary to operate the system, and it is obvious that these considerations will prevent the use of this type in all small vehicles, whereas it may be most serviceable and available in heavy trucks for transporting merchandise.
THE CURRENT USED.--Storage batteries are charged with and use a _direct current_. The difference between a direct and an alternating current is, that in the first the current flows continuously over a wire in one direction, whereas in the latter it changes its direction, going, for an instant, from the north pole to the south pole, and the next instant from the south pole to the north pole, and for this reason it is said to _alternate_.
MECHANICALLY-PRODUCED ELECTRICITY.--The alternating method is the natural form of flow in a current derived from mechanism, as, for instance, by means of a rotating armature.
The electricity, in this case, is produced by a metallic body moving through a magnetic field, and as it passes through it takes up a certain electric impulse in one direction when the body approaches the field, and instantly reverses and flows in the opposite direction as the body recedes from the magnet, or field.
To convert this alternating phase into what is called a direct current, certain dynamos are provided with a commutator, and the function of this commutator, which has two oppositely-disposed fingers contacting therewith, is to so divert the alternating impulses that they will go over the wire in one direction only.
CURRENT FROM BATTERIES.--Currents derived from batteries do not have the alternating flow. Instead, the movement is in one direction only, and it is in connection with this method of producing electricity that the terms _positive_ and _negative_ are found convenient in describing the current, and the action of the mechanism operated by it.
PRIMARY BATTERY.--The primary battery is one which _generates_ an electric current. It comprises one or more pairs of plates, of which zinc and copper are examples, although other couples are found to be equally serviceable.
Two metals, or materials, such as carbon and zinc, are selected, which are termed electrical opposites, or which are positive-negative to each other, and when such couples are immersed in an electrolyte a current will be set up between the two plates, if a wire is attached to each plate, and the outer ends of these wires brought together, a continuous current will flow through the wire.
The electrolyte is a solution of water, with a small amount of sulphuric acid. Numerous acid solutions are made, and salt, or saline solutions are also frequently employed.
SECONDARY, OR STORAGE BATTERIES.--These are also called _Accumulators_, because they are so constructed that they will accumulate a certain charge. The term _Secondary_ is used to indicate the idea that they receive their charge from an outside source, in distinction from a Primary, which generates its own current.
After the secondary is once charged it then begins to work on its own account, the same as a primary battery.
REVERSAL OF CURRENTS.--When a storage battery is being charged from an outside source of electricity, the current flows within the battery in one direction; but the moment the outside source is discontinued, and the battery itself is connected up with mechanism, it becomes a source of energy, but the current output is in the opposite direction.
The foregoing suggestions and features of explanation are thought to be desirable, in view of the following statements which pertain to the operation of machines of this type.
CHARGING.--One of the most important things in the care and handling of machines of this character, is the charging of the batteries. The utmost caution must be exercised to prevent derangement of the batteries.
Thus, to connect the positive pole of the charging generator with the negative pole of the storage battery would reverse the current and quickly destroy the plates.
TIME REQUIRED, AND CURRENT.--It requires time to charge a battery, usually from twenty to thirty hours. The usual charging rate is about fifty amperes for a cell with a capacity of forty ampere hours, and the voltage should be somewhat higher than the normal voltage output designed for the battery when it is in action.
TROUBLES IN USE.--The most frequent trouble in the use of batteries comes from short circuiting. This arises from two causes. The grids of the batteries are made of lead, cast in the form of flat plates, having small interstices, or openings, which are filled with various preparations, principally peroxide of lead.
Other types use iron and nickel, and many are composed of lead and zinc, but in any case the object of the grid is to receive and hold the active material, and present as large a surface of the minum as possible to the action of the electrolyte.
When in use the lead particles begin to disintegrate, more or less, and fall out of the cavities of the grid, dropping to the bottom of the cell. In time the material thus deposited will form a path between the two adjoining plates, producing what is called a short-circuit, and if the accumulation is not removed, the plates will be seriously injured.
OVERCHARGING.--Sometimes the plates are overcharged, and the result is they will buckle, so that they touch each other, and a short circuit results. These hints are usually sufficient to indicate where the trouble will be found if the current measuring instruments indicate an excessive flow of current. In such cases the first direction to which the examiner turns is the battery.
THE CIRCUITING.--It has been found necessary, in providing for the operations of an electric vehicle, that the motor should have a means whereby the speed and power of its output can be regulated.
This may seem a very simple matter, at first glance, because, without stopping to examine the problem, and all the elements involved, it would be easy to settle it by simply giving the motor more or less current. To do so would turn the motor faster or slower.
In the gasoline car provision is made whereby, through the change speed gears, the engine gets the benefit of the leverage, by reducing the speed of the axle, relative to the engine shaft, at first speed, and this enables the motor to pull the car up steep grades, or over difficult roads, which it would not be able to do if the relative rotations were the same as at high speed.
ECONOMY IN USE OF CURRENT.--The same thing is necessary in the operation of the electric motor. The current must be so arranged that at certain periods it will be more effective than at others, and this effectiveness is generally wanted at times when the axles turn very slow, just the same as with the gasoline car.
This economizes, and prevents the waste of current. It is accomplished by connecting up the cells in such a manner that they may give a large voltage and small amperage, or a low voltage and great amperage, and in doing so will not detract from the efficiency of the battery.
SERIES AND PARALLEL.--The device resorted to, whereby this may be accomplished, is in the manner that the cells are connected up with each other. In a general way, it may be said that the _voltage_ has reference to the force, or pressure of the current, whereas _amperage_ is the quantity which flows over the wire.
Each cell has a voltage of, approximately, one and a half volts, and it matters not how large the cell may be, the voltage is no more. The amperage, however, depends on the surface area of the plates comprising the active agents in the cell, so that each cell has, say one and a half volts, and ten, or twenty, or more amperes.
If a number of such cells are connected up in one way the output may be represented in high amperage, or in high voltage. If we have a certain number of cells, which, when combined, give ten volts and hundred amperes, the result would be 10 × 100, equal to 1000 Watts.
But they may also be so connected together that they will have an output of 100 amperes and 10 volts, the total of which is also 1000 Watts. Such a current would be put through the motor under ordinary running conditions, as a high driving power is not necessary.
But suppose it is desired to have a high or strong driving power; then the force of all the volts is required, so that one hundred volts are used, and only ten amperes.
THE CONNECTIONS.--This is brought about by connecting up the cells in _series_, or, in _multiple_ or in _parallel_. The series connection is where the cells are placed in a row, for instance, and are connected together so that the carbon plate of one cell is joined by a wire with the zinc plate of the other cell; or the positive plate of one is connected with the negative plate of the other, and so on.
In that case all the current generated in all the cells join and flow along in one stream, from one end of the battery to the other. But now, all the positive plates may be connected together with one wire, and all the negative plates may be connected together with another wire, so that these two wires will thus be parallel with each other, and the lead wires which go to the motor are attached to these two parallel wires, and would represent the parallel type of connection.
But it is the most common practice to divide the cell into two sets, each of which is called a _unit_. Each unit, having a certain number of cells, can also have them connected up in series, or in parallel, and the different parallel units may be connected up together, so as to form a connection which is in _multiple_ or in _series multiple_.
Suppose there are eight units, each of ten volts, the motor would receive eighty volts. But now, if the cells are in parallel, or in multiple, as the case may be, then the pressure at the motor is equal to that of a single unit, but the current flow is eight times that of the foregoing example.
The object, therefore, is to change the battery pressure on the one hand, and to produce the most effective action on the other hand, at the motor, and to do so make both battery and motor more efficient.
THE CONTROLLER.--The device which performs this operation, at the will of the operator, is called the _Controller_, which changes the wiring connection from series to multiple, or the reverse.
The Controller is, in all probability, the most complicated piece of mechanism in the entire electric car. It must make an entire series of changes for each of the different speeds, of which there are frequently six.
The fields of the motor are also connected in series, or both series and multiple, so as to give a still greater efficiency. By this means the terminal points of the Controller may be turned, (1), so they will connect the batteries in multiple and the field windings in series; or, (2), the batteries in multiple and the fields in series multiple; or, (3), the batteries in series and the fields in series; or, (4), the batteries in series and the fields in multiple.
The figures in parentheses indicate the first, second, third and fourth speeds, respectively, and in such an arrangement two battery units are used, and also two motors.
The same rule as to efficiency applies with one motor, and two or more battery units. The battery unit may be of any desired number of cells, as stated.
THE GENERAL EQUIPMENT.--Cars for pleasure purposes are of different types, such as runabouts, roadsters, victorias, coupés, broughams, and the like, provided with batteries which will permit runs of at least 100 miles on each charge.
SPEEDS.--The Controller will permit of speeds ranging from five to thirty miles an hour. The number of cells vary with different makes, from twenty to forty, and the number of plates in each cell average about fifteen.
It will thus be seen that the operating limit is wide enough to permit considerable latitude; but recharging stations are now found everywhere, particularly in the cities, and in the large towns.
ACCESSORIES.--A fully-equipped electric, designed for the greatest luxury and comfort, has two head lamps, two side, and a tail lamp, and one in the interior, a lighting switch to control all the lights, a ventilator, voltammeter, shaft odometer, for showing speed and distance traveled, complete outfit of tools, novelty toilet set and case, cut glass flower vase, eight day clock and mirrors suitably arranged within the body.
SEATING ARRANGEMENT.--The broughams and coupés are especially arranged for comfortably seating the occupants.
In some the drive is at the rear seats, and the steering mechanism may be by means of a wheel, as in gasoline cars, or through a lever.
Most _Bodies_ are now made with aluminum panels, and sashless quarter windows, with drop doors, front and rear windows, and rain vision front windows.
THE TRANSMISSION.--This varies in the different types, and in the makes. Chains, bevel, or worms gears, are employed, and in some cars two of these types are used, some of these devices being the products of the highest engineering skill.
The rear axles of the smaller vehicles are generally of the semi-floating type, usually made of vanadium steel, while the housing is drawn from sheet steel.
For heavier vehicles of the brougham style, the rear axles are full-floating and furnished with extra large annular ball-bearings in the hubs.
GLOSSARY OF WORDS
USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME
*Abrasive.* A material which wears away another material.
*Absorbent.* A material which will take up a liquid.
*Accumulate.* To bring together; to amass; to collect.
*Accentuate.* To bring out clearly; to lay great stress upon.
*Accelerator.* Mechanism for adding to the speed or power.
*Accessories.* The adjuncts to a car, not essential to its running but contributing to its make up.
*Acetylene.* A hydro-carbon gas, generated from a carbide by the application of water.
*Alinement.* Being in line; arranging in proper place.
*Ampere.* The unit of current; the term in which strength of the current is measured. An ampere is an electromotive force of one volt through a resistance of one ohm.
*Annular.* Pertaining to or formed like a ring.
*Annularly-disposed.* Running around; circularly-formed on the outside.
*Anticipate.* Thinking or acting ahead.
*Antennae.* A forwardly-projecting feeler, or hair-like appendage. Applies to the wires of a wireless telegraphy outfit, which are elevated, and receive the high tension impulses.
*Anti-friction.* A device or means to prevent the action of rubbing or wearing.
*Armature.* A body of iron or other suitable metal, which is in the magnetic field of a magnet.
*Arbitrary.* Stubborn determination. Doing a thing without regard to consequences.
*Asphaltum.* A combustible mixture of hydrocarbons; mineral pitch; also found in certain crude oil.
*Atmosphere.* The mass or body of gases surrounding the earth.
*Attributable.* To ascribe something to a state or condition.
*Automatic.* So made that it will operate without any external aid or mechanism.
*Available.* That which can be made use of.
*Auxiliary.* An aid; added to; giving or furnishing aid.
*Battery.* A combination of two or more cells.
*Bearing.* A term applied to a metal housing in which a journal or shaft turns.
*Bell-crank.* A lever, which is bent at right angles, and is pivoted to swing at the point near the right angled bend.
*Binding post.* A stud or projection, usually provided with a hole to receive a screw, and adapted to hold a wire.
*Buckled.* Specifically bent or distorted out of shape, but particularly applied to storage battery plates which are bent.
*Carbureter.* A mechanical device which is so arranged that it will receive and discharge a certain proportion of air, and mix therewith a quantity of hydro-carbon vapor.
*Carbureted air.* Air which is charged with a vapor of hydro-carbon gas, like gasoline.
*Carbon.* A material like coke, ground or crushed, and formed into sticks or plates by molding or compression. It requires a high heat to melt or burn, and is used as electrodes for arc lamps and for battery elements.
*Carbonization.* Coated with carbon. Turned into the form of carbon.
*Cell.* A vessel containing an electrolyte and two elements.
*Centrifugal.* The outwardly-moving force from a rotating body.
*Change-speed gears.* The part of an automobile which is in the line of the driving shafts, and designed to change the speed of the axle relative to the speed of the engine shaft.
*Channel bars.* A bar made U-shaped in cross section.
*Chemical action.* A term to describe the change brought about by uniting chemicals of different kinds.
*Circuiting.* The manner of wiring up an electric device so the current will perform its work.
*Circumferential.* Around the outside,
*Clearance.* That space in the head of an engine cylinder, above the piston, in which the gas is compressed previous to igniting it.
*Clutch.* A mechanism which is placed on the abutting ends of a pair of shafts, and designed to couple or uncouple the two shafts together.
*Cooperation.* Acting in unison. In harmony.
*Combustion chamber.* That part of a cylinder in which the gases are ignited and expanded.
*Comminuted.* Finely divided. A powder.
*Commutator.* A cylinder on the end of the armature of a dynamo or motor, and provided with a pair of contact plates for each particular coil in the armature, in order to change the direction of the current.
*Compression.* A term used to designate the forcing together of the carbureted air drawn into the chamber of an internal combustion engine.
*Compensate.* Paying for a thing; to give ample in return.
*Compounded.* The uniting of elements, in such manner that they are changed. Water is a compound. The atmosphere is merely a mixture.
*Comprehension.* Understanding. A full knowledge.
*Complex.* Difficult to understand. Involved.
*Condenser.* A term applied to the changing of gas to a liquid state. Used in electrical devices to collect a current in high tension apparatus.
*Conduit.* A channel, or an avenue through which liquids may be transported.
*Conically-formed.* Made in the shape of a cone.
*Conductivity.* Pertaining to the quality of a material to transmit an electrical wave or impulse.
*Contracted.* Drawn in; made smaller.
*Control.* Within power to handle.
*Control Lever.* A bar by the side of the driver’s seat, which enables him to check the speed of the car.
*Contact Maker.* A device which is designed to keep the circuit broken during the revolution of the shaft, and to throw it in only momentarily at each revolution.
*Contact Breaker.* A device which is designed to keep the current established except during a small portion of each revolution.
*Contact Plates.* A series of plates arranged in an electric circuit which are to be successively thrown into the circuit.
*Constituent.* An element; one part of a combination of elementary substances.
*Conspicuously.* Prominent. In the foreground.
*Constituting.* That which comprises the elements in a material. That of which it is made.
*Convolute.* A spiral form of winding, like a watch spring.
*Corrosion.* To disintegrate. To be eaten away by acid, or the action of any material, or by the weather.
*Counterpart.* The same as; something like another; similar to.
*Counteract.* To act in a contrary direction; adversely to.
*Crucial.* The testing point; a difficult or trying position.
*Cylindrical.* Having the form of a cylinder. A barrel-like shape or form.
*Cycle.* A period; a time during which certain elements operate or act.
*Cycle (Two).* An internal combustion engine, in which the gas is drawn in and exploded at each revolution of the crank shaft.
*Cycle (Four).* An internal combustion engine, in which the gas is drawn in and exploded at every other revolution of the crank shaft.
*Dead Center.* A term to designate the inoperative point of the crank.
*Deflected.* Driven away; thrown off.
*Depression.* A recess; a sunken part.
*Designated.* Named; set forth; pointed out.
*Deteriorate.* Depleted; grown worse.
*Deviation.* Changed from a certain course.
*Diameter.* The direction across a body.
*Diagonally.* Any direction which is not across a body at right angles, nor longitudinal.
*Diagrammatically.* A drawing which shows the relation and operation of parts, without showing them in the correct mechanical structural forms.
*Diagram.* A drawing or sketch which shows the characteristics of a structure in simple lines.
*Diagnosis.* An examination which takes into consideration all the elements which make up the condition.
*Differential.* Any mechanism which seeks to take care of and utilize the difference of speed or power in the various elements in a machine.
*Dioxide of Manganese.* The native state of manganese.
*Disengaged.* Separated from; not attached.
*Distillation.* The act of abstracting a substance by vaporization, and afterwards returning the vapor to a liquid form by means of a cool temperature. The act of separating the more volatile from the less volatile parts of a substance.
*Dissecting.* Taking apart; viewing the separated or different elements.
*Distribution.* Spread about; in electricity, the method of directing the current to various parts of the system.
*Distilled.* A liquid which has been vaporized and condensed back into a liquid.
*Dynamo.* An apparatus, consisting of field and core magnets, which, when the core is turned, will develop a current of electricity.
*Effective.* Producing the best results.
*Electrolyte.* Any material which is capable of being decomposed by an electric current.
*Eliminate.* To take away from; to remove; to take out.
*Elliptical.* A form which is in the shape of an ellipse.
*Emergency.* At the last or critical moment.
*Equipped.* Built with; arranged with all the elements.
*Excessive.* Too much; more than normal.
*Exhaust.* The discharge of the burnt gas from an internal combustion engine.
*Expansion.* The term applied to the increases in volume by heat of a gas, or other substance.
*Expansion line.* The line formed by the different pressures at various parts of the piston during the active stroke.
*Explosion.* The burning and expansive force of a fuel.
*Equalizer.* A mechanical element which is interposed between a moving and two or more moved parts to even up the force upon the moved parts.
*Facility.* Ease; easiness in performing.
*Fascination.* Attraction; an irresistible or powerful influence.
*Field.* A term used to designate the magnetic influence of pole pieces which surround an armature in a dynamo or motor.
*Fire test.* The determination of the point at which any substance will actually burst into flame.
*Flash system.* A method of igniting substances. A leaping spark.
*Flash point.* The temperature at which a fuel will flash but not burn.
*Flexible.* Yielding; capable of being distorted.
*Floating.* A condition in which a substance will not sink in a liquid.
*Foot pounds.* A unit, usually determined by the number of pounds raised one foot in one second of time. 550 pounds raised one foot in one second of time, means 550 foot pounds.
*Formation.* The act, or process of making, by the combination of materials.
*Frictional.* The rubbing together of parts.
*Fulcrum.* The point round which a lever turns.
*Function.* Any specific power of acting or operating that belongs to an agent.
*Fundamental.* The first. The primitive order of anything, or of any act.
*Gasket.* A small interposing substance, usually softer than the united particles, for the purpose of effecting a tight joint.
*Gear Box.* A case or shell designed to hold the transmission, or other wheels, in a piece of mechanism.
*Gear-Shifting.* The mechanism for changing the speed gears in an automobile.
*Globules.* Small particles of liquid.
*Gravity.* The attraction of mass for mass; weight; the accelerating tendency of material to move toward the earth.
*Graphite.* A form of carbon. A natural product especially used as a dry lubricant.
*Ground carbon.* Usually gas coke.
*High tension.* An electric current which has an exceedingly high voltage.
*Herring bone.* A term applied to various mechanical structures. It is primarily made up of a rib from which a number of small spines branch out in opposite directions.
*Hood.* The covering or enclosure at the forward part of an automobile, within which the engine is placed.
*Housing.* Any enclosure, or covering.
*Hummock.* A rising, more or less pronounced, in the roadway.
*Hydro-carbon.* Usually applied to a gas evolved from gasoline. This substance has from 80 to 83 per cent. of carbon, and from 12 to 15 per cent. of hydrogen.
*Hydrogen.* One of the lightest elementary substances. Two-thirds of water is hydrogen.
*Idler pinion.* A small gear, usually placed so it may be moved to be in contact with one or more gears, but is not directly connected up in the line of the gearing.
*Ignitable.* The term applied to substances which can be brought to the point of burning or exploding.
*Immaterial.* Not important.
*Imparted.* Given to something else; transferred over.
*Impregnated.* To infuse or saturate with another substance.
*Impalpable.* Exceedingly fine.
*Impulses.* An action which is irregular or at certain periods.
*Impediment.* Something which is in the way.
*Impact.* A striking against; a force which contacts with another.
*Incline.* A declivity; a slope.
*Induction coil.* A core with two windings thereon, one of coarse and one of fine wire, so as to change a current from a low voltage to a high voltage, and from a high amperage to a correspondingly low amperage.
*Ingredient.* The element in a compound.
*Inductor.* Any part of an electrical apparatus which acts on another by induction.
*Inflation.* The stimulation or the arousing to unnatural action. The enlarging of a substance.
*Inflammable.* Any substance which will burn is called inflammable.
*Intervening.* Between; intermediate certain things, or parts.
*Integral.* A part of; different parts of a machine which are of the same substance.
*Intersection.* To divide at a certain point. The crossing point of one line over another.
*Interrupter.* A piece of mechanism which cuts out an electric current at regular intervals.
*Interposed.* Placed before; coming between.
*Intimate.* Very close. Nearly related.
*Insidious.* An influence, not of the best.
*Internal, expanding.* Referring to the condition of a gas within an internal combustion engine.
*Internal cone.* A clutch which has a cone within the wheel, to receive a part which contacts with it.
*Intermeshing.* The meeting of the teeth of gears.
*Intermittent.* Having periods of intermission.
*Intermingle.* Mixing. Closely united.
*Internal combustion.* A burning within a cylinder or chamber.
*Insulated.* A conductor, or other material so coated as to prevent a current of electricity from passing, to or from the same through the substance so placed on it.
*Invariably.* Constant; a uniform condition.
*Journaled.* Held within a bearing so it may revolve.
*Jump spark.* A system of igniting the carbureted air in an explosion engine, which consists in having a small separation between the points in a conductor, and in using a current with a sufficiently high voltage to jump across the gap thus made.
*Lapped.* A term used to designate the smoothing out of engine cylinders or of any metal too hard to be handled by the lathe.
*Lateral.* Across; longitudinal, means lengthwise, and lateral is the term to express the direction at right angles to the longitudinal line.
*Lock nut.* Any device which will prevent the nut from turning loose after being tightened.
*Longitudinal.* The long way across an article.
*Low tension.* A current which has a low voltage.
*Lubricant.* Any substance which, when applied to moving parts, will decrease friction.
*Lubrication.* The act of applying a lubricant.
*Magnet.* A metallic substance which has power to attract iron or steel.
*Magneto.* A permanent magnet and a revolving armature for generating a current.
*Magnetic pull.* The action exercised by a magnet of attracting or repelling.
*Magnetic field.* The space or region near a magnet or charged wire.
*Make and break.* In igniting systems a piece of mechanism which makes and breaks a circuit, so as to produce a spark each time when the wires are separated.
*Manifold.* A series of piping on the engine, so as to bring all the inlet or exhaust pipes together.
*Manually.* Operating by hand.
*Maximum.* The utmost; the greatest amount or sum.
*Mesh.* Fitting together, like the teeth of gear wheels.
*Mean Effective Pressure.* That pressure in the movement of a cylinder which represents the average, as the piston moves from end to end of its stroke.
*Metallic couples.* Usually two metals of different structure, and of different polarities.
*Minimize.* To belittle; the smallest amount.
*Misconception.* A wrong idea; a mistaken view.
*Misnomer.* A false name; a wrong appellation.
*Minutely.* Very accurate; correct to the smallest feature.
*Momentarily.* For an instant only.
*Momentum.* That quality of matter which is the combined energy of mass and speed. Inertia.
*Multi-cylinder.* More than one; several put together.
*Multiple.* Containing or consisting of more than one.
*Multiple disk.* A form of clutch where there are a number of disks which contact with one another.
*Muffler.* A device for silencing the noise of the explosion of the engine.
*Neutral.* Neither.
*Normal.* The usual form, manner, or condition.
*Obliquely.* Branching off from a straight line, at an angle.
*Obstruction.* Something in the way.
*Operation.* A process; an act, or a manner of doing a thing.
*Oxygen.* The life giving element in the atmosphere. One-third of water is oxygen; one-fifth of the atmosphere is oxygen.
*Parallel.* The same distance apart all along.
*Pedestrian.* A footman; a walker.
*Perceptible.* That which can be observed with our senses.
*Perimeter.* The outer margin of a wheel; the bounding line of any figure of two dimensions.
*Pedal.* A foot operated lever.
*Permanent magnet.* A bar of steel, charged with magnetism which it retains indefinitely.
*Perspective.* A view of an object which shows all three dimensions from one side.
*Pinion.* A small toothed wheel.
*Planetary.* A system of gears where two or more mesh with and revolve around a central gear.
*Plurality.* Numerous; more than one.
*Plumbago.* Graphite; a form of carbon; a lubricant.
*Potentiality.* The term applied to the volts and amperes in an electric current.
*Positive.* One which deflects a needle to the left.
*Pre-ignition.* Where the spark ignites the charge before the piston begins to descend, or ahead of its proper time.
*Precision.* A system of oiling the machinery which depends on a pump that sends in a definite amount of lubricant at each turn of the engine.
*Predeterminate.* Arranging beforehand.
*Preferential.* A more satisfactory manner, or time; estimating one thing above another.
*Primary.* The first. As applied to electrical devices it has reference to a battery which generates a current in contradistinction to the secondary or storage battery.
*Proportionate.* The ratio to something else. This compared with that.
*Properties.* The attributes of matter.
*Protective.* That which shields; a covering, or an enclosure.
*Progressive.* Proceeding in a direct line.
*Propelling.* Moving; drawing; giving motive power.
*Pneumatic.* Pertaining to air.
*Push leg.* An old system of propelling mechanism for vehicles. Not used in that manner now. The pawl engaging a lever, is the only form in which the push leg is now employed.
*Puncture.* A rupture; a hole; a tear.
*Quadrant.* One-fourth of a circle.
*Radiating.* Moving out in all directions from a common center.
*Radiation.* Applied to the movement of heat from a body.
*Radiator.* A device which cools water, by the application of air.
*Raceway.* A track for the movement and guidance of anti-friction balls.
*Radius.* That line from a center to the circumferential or outer line or point.
*Rectilinear.* Right; straight.
*Recessed.* A depression; a cavity.
*Reinforce.* The term applied to any means which may be employed to strengthen any part.
*Requisite.* Necessary.
*Registering.* To indicate; also applied to mechanism where one part exactly coincides with another part.
*Resorted.* Where one device is utilized instead of another.
*Refinement.* Made better; a more satisfactory form.
*Retreating.* Falling back; one part to the rear of another.
*Reversed.* Turned about; in the opposite direction. Inversed means; upside down.
*Resiliency.* That property of matter which will yield, or change its form and return to its original form.
*Resistance.* That property of all matter to object to a change of form; the force which opposes the movement of a current through a conductor.
*Ribbed.* Having raised surfaces, of greater or less length.
*Rock shaft.* A shaft which turns back and forth; oscillating.
*Rotatable.* Turning, as a wheel on its axle; often confounded with the word revoluble, which describes the movement of a body through an orbit. The earth rotates on its axis once every twenty-four hours; it revolves through space around the sun once every year.
*Rotor arm.* An arm adapted to swing through an arc.
*Saturate.* To absorb a liquid or gas to full capacity.
*Secondary.* The second place; applied to a battery, it is one which receives and holds a charge.
*Sectional.* A part; a view across the parts.
*Selector.* A plate with notches in it for a lever, which is moved through the openings at the will of the operator.
*Selector plate.* The notched, or slotted plate, in which the transmission lever travels.
*Series.* One following directly after the other; in electrical connections, the wires attached in line from positive to negative, through the different cells.
*Series multiple.* A wiring system wherein the cells are placed in two or more groups, and the groups connected up in series.
*Segment.* A portion of a disk cut off by a straight line. Distinguished from a sector which is made by two radial lines running from the center to the circumference.
*Self starting.* A mechanism on automobiles for starting the engine without muscular effort.
*Self-inductance.* In electricity, the property of one metal to receive an electrical charge without being in contact with the charged wire.
*Selective.* The term applied to a system of transmission, whereby the driver is able to select any speed without going through any intermediate speed.
*Service brake.* The brake ordinarily used in running a car.
*Semi-floating.* An axle in which the wheels are secured directly to the axle shafts, but where the reaction of the differential and bevel gear drive is supported by the axle housing.
*Shackle.* A device for restraining or holding.
*Simultaneous.* At the same time; occurring at the same moment.
*Solution.* To solve a question. To dissolve solid matter in a liquid.
*Soapstone.* A rock which has a structure similar to that of soap.
*Speculate.* To consider a subject from the standpoint of probabilities.
*Sprocket.* A wheel with teeth in it adapted to engage with a chain, for driving purposes.
*Spur gear.* A gear with teeth which are at right angles with the body of the gear.
*Spline.* A rib usually along the side of a shaft, to engage in a groove in the hub or wheel.
*Sparking.* The jumping of a spark from one conductor to another due to the high heat developed when the current leaps the gap.
*Spark plug.* A plug which has in it two conductors which lead to its inner end, and have their ends in close proximity, across which the current leaps.
*Structurally.* The manner in which a device is made of its various parts.
*Straight line drive.* The system of transmitting power in an automobile, which consists in employing a train of shafting in a direct line from the engine shaft to the differential.
*Stranded (cable).* A conductor, or wire rope, made up of a number of small wire strands.
*Storage battery.* A container, or accumulator, of electricity, which is designed to receive a charge of electricity, and to give it forth as required.
*Susceptible.* A condition in which the truth is considered probable from a knowledge of all the surroundings.
*Superheated.* A substance, such as steam, heated above the normal temperature which is given to it when it is generated.
*Surging.* The term applied to a high tension current, which, during the impulses, appears to move back and forth, as though it possessed elasticity.
*Symptoms.* Appearances; the outward manifestations of a condition.
*Systematic.* Done in regular order.
*Technicalities.* The scientific and orderly terms and requirements.
*Tension.* Voltage. The force of the current. Also the power applied on a spring, or the amount of force it will exert.
*Terminal.* The end, or the starting point, as well as the last or final end of a wire or connection.
*Threaded.* The spirally-formed ribs on a bolt or in a nut.
*Throttle.* The device on an automobile which opens or closes the discharge port of a carbureter.
*Timing.* A device which times the sparking mechanism.
*Timing device.* The entire mechanism which provides for sparking at certain periods.
*Torque.* A twist.
*Torsional.* A movement around a shaft.
*Transmission.* The mechanism which sends the power from the engine to the axles.
*Tubular housing.* A covering, or shield for a shaft such as a tube, within which the shaft is mounted.
*Turnbuckle.* A device which provides for tightening a rod, wire, or strut.
*Undulating.* Wave-like; a regular motion of a sinuous character.
*Unison.* Together; acting as one.
*Universal.* Pertaining to all things.
*Universal joint.* A joint connecting two shafts so arranged that the shafts may be placed at an angle with each other.
*Utilized.* To take advantage of. To use.
*Vacuum.* A space from which the air has been exhausted.
*Vaporize.* Changing from a solid or liquid into a gas.
*Venturi.* A form of tube which is contracted between the ends.
*Vertical.* A direction at right angles to the surface of water.
*Vibratory coil.* A coil in a high tension circuit that has a spring finger which, in vibrating to and fro, cuts the current in and out.
*Viscosity.* A glutinous, sticky body; slowly flowing; opposed to mobility; usually applied to thick oils. The degree of cohesion of a liquid, usually in connection with oils.
*Volatile.* That which is easily changed into a gas at ordinary temperatures.
*Volts.* The measure of the tension of a current.
*Vulcanizing.* The process of treating raw rubber with sulphur in the presence of heat.
THE MOTOR BOYS SERIES
_(Trade Mark, Reg. U. S. Pat. Of.)_
By CLARENCE YOUNG
12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 60 cents, postpaid.
[Illustration: Book: THE MOTOR BOYS]
The Motor Boys _or Chums Through Thick and Thin_
The Motor Boys Overland _or A Lone Trip for Fun and Fortune_
The Motor Boys in Mexico. _or The Secret of The Buried City_
The Motor Boys Across the Plains _or The Hermit of Lost Lake_
[Illustration: Book: THE MOTOR BOYS AFLOAT]
The Motor Boys Afloat _or The Stirring Cruise of the Dartaway_
The Motor Boys on the Atlantic _or The Mystery of the Lighthouse_
The Motor Boys in Strange Waters _or Lost in a Floating Forest_
The Motor Boys on the Pacific _or The Young Derelict Hunters_
[Illustration: Book: THE MOTOR BOYS IN THE CLOUDS]
The Motor Boys in the Clouds _or A Trip for Fame and Fortune_
The Motor Boys Over the Rockies _or A Mystery of the Air_
The Motor Boys Over the Ocean _or A Marvellous Rescue in Mid-Air_
The Motor Boys on the Wing _or Seeking the Airship Treasure_
[Illustration: Book: THE MOTOR BOYS AFTER A FORTUNE]
The Motor Boys After a Fortune _or The Hut on Snake Island_
The Motor Boys on the Border _or Sixty Nuggets of Gold_
The Motor Boys Under the Sea _or From Airship to Submarine_
The Motor Boys on Road and River _(new)_ _or Racing to Save a Life_
CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, NEW YORK
UP-TO-DATE BASEBALL STORIES
BASEBALL JOE SERIES
By LESTER CHADWICK
Author of “The College Sports Series”
12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 60 cents, postpaid.
[Illustration: Book: BASEBALL JOE OF THE SILVER STARS]
Ever since the success of Mr. Chadwick’s “College Sports Series” we have been urged to get him to write a series dealing exclusively with baseball, a subject in which he is unexcelled by any living American author or coach.
BASEBALL JOE OF THE SILVER STARS _or The Rivals of Riverside_
In this volume, the first of the series, Joe is introduced as an everyday country boy who loves to play baseball and is particularly anxious to make his mark as a pitcher. He finds it almost impossible to get on the local nine, but, after a struggle, he succeeds. A splendid picture of the great national game in the smaller towns of our country.
BASEBALL JOE ON THE SCHOOL NINE _or Pitching for the Blue Banner_
Joe’s great ambition was to go to boarding school and play on the school team. He got to boarding school but found it harder making the team there than it was getting on the nine at home. He fought his way along, and at last saw his chance and took it, and made good.
BASEBALL JOE AT YALE _or Pitching for the College Championship_
From a preparatory school Baseball Joe goes to Yale University. He makes the freshman nine and in his second year becomes a varsity pitcher and pitches in several big games.
BASEBALL JOE IN THE CENTRAL LEAGUE _or Making Good as a Professional Pitcher_
In this volume the scene of action is shifted from Yale College to a baseball league of our central states. Baseball Joe’s work in the box for Old Eli had been noted by one of the managers and Joe gets an offer he cannot resist. Joe accepts the offer and makes good.
BASEBALL JOE IN THE BIG LEAGUE _or A Young Pitcher’s Hardest Struggle_
From the Central League Joe is drafted into the St. Louis Nationals. At first he has little to do in the pitcher’s box, but gradually he wins favor. A corking baseball story that fans, both young and old, will enjoy.
CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, NEW YORK
The Racer Boys Series
by CLARENCE YOUNG
Author of “The Motor Boys Series”, “Jack Ranger Series”, etc. etc.
Fine cloth binding. Illustrated. Price per volume, 60c postpaid.
[Illustration: Book: THE RACER BOYS]
The announcement of a new series of stories by Mr. Clarence Young is always hailed with delight by boys and girls throughout the country, and we predict an even greater success for these new books, than that now enjoyed by the “Motor Boys Series.”
The Racer Boys or The Mystery of the Wreck
This, the first volume of the series, tells who the Racer Boys were and how they chanced to be out on the ocean in a great storm. Adventures follow in rapid succession in a manner that only Mr. Young can describe.
The Racer Boys At Boarding School or Striving for the Championship
When the Racer Boys arrived at the school everything was at a standstill, and the students lacked ambition and leadership. The Racers took hold with a will, got their father to aid the head of the school financially, and then reorganized the football team.
The Racer Boys To The Rescue or Stirring Days in a Winter Camp
Here is a story filled with the spirit of good times in winter--skating, ice-boating and hunting.
The Racer Boys on The Prairies or The Treasure of Golden Peak
From their boarding school the Racer Boys accept an invitation to visit a ranch in the West.
The Racer Boys on Guard or The Rebellion of Riverview Hall
Once more the boys are back at boarding school, where they have many frolics, and enter more than one athletic contest.
The Racer Boys Forging Ahead or The Rivals of the School League
Once more the Racer Boys go back to Riverview Hall, to meet their many chums as well as several enemies. Athletics play an important part in this volume, and the rivalry is keen from start to finish. The Racer Boys show what they can do under the most trying circumstances.
CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, NEW YORK
THE DOROTHY DALE SERIES
By MARGARET PENROSE
Author of “The Motor Girls Series”
12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 60 cents, postpaid.
[Illustration: Book: DOROTHY DALE’S PROMISE]
DOROTHY DALE: A GIRL OF TO-DAY
Dorothy is the daughter of an old Civil War veteran who is running a weekly newspaper in a small Eastern town. When her father falls sick, the girl shows what she can do to support the family.
DOROTHY DALE AT GLENWOOD SCHOOL
More prosperous times have come to the Dale family, and Major Dale resolves to send Dorothy to a boarding school.
DOROTHY DALE’S GREAT SECRET
A splendid story of one girl’s devotion to another. How Dorothy kept the secret makes an absorbing story.
DOROTHY DALE AND HER CHUMS
A story of school life, and of strange adventures among the gypsies.
DOROTHY DALE’S QUEER HOLIDAYS
Relates the details of a mystery that surrounded Tanglewood Park.
DOROTHY DALE’S CAMPING DAYS
Many things happen, from the time Dorothy and her chums are met coming down the hillside on a treacherous load of hay.
DOROTHY DALE’S SCHOOL RIVALS
Dorothy and her chum, Tavia, return to Glenwood School. A new student becomes Dorothy’s rival and troubles at home add to her difficulties.
DOROTHY DALE IN THE CITY
Dorothy is invited to New York City by her aunt. This tale presents a clever picture of life in New York as it appears to one who has never before visited the Metropolis.
DOROTHY DALE’S PROMISE
Strange indeed was the promise and given under strange circumstances. Only a girl as strong of purpose as was Dorothy Dale would have undertaken the task she set for herself.
DOROTHY DALE IN THE WEST
Dorothy’s father and her aunt inherited a valuable tract of land in the West. The aunt, Dorothy and Tavia, made a long journey to visit the place, where they had many adventures.
CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, NEW YORK
THE MOTOR GIRLS SERIES
By MARGARET PENROSE
Author of the highly successful “Dorothy Dale Series”
12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 60 cents, postpaid.
[Illustration: Book: THE MOTOR GIRLS]
THE MOTOR GIRLS _or A Mystery of the Road_
When Cora Kimball got her touring car she did not imagine so many adventures were in store for her. A tale all wide awake girls will appreciate.
THE MOTOR GIRLS ON A TOUR _or Keeping a Strange Promise_
A great many things happen in this volume. A precious heirloom is missing, and how it was traced up is told with absorbing interest.
THE MOTOR GIRLS AT LOOKOUT BEACH _or In Quest of the Runaways_
There was a great excitement when the Motor Girls decided to go to Lookout Beach for the summer.
THE MOTOR GIRLS THROUGH NEW ENGLAND _or Held by the Gypsies_
A strong story and one which will make this series more popular than ever. The girls go on a motoring trip through New England.
THE MOTOR GIRLS ON CEDAR LAKE _or The Hermit of Fern Island_
How Cora and her chums went camping on the lake shore and how they took trips in their motor boat, are told in a way all girls will enjoy.
THE MOTOR GIRLS ON THE COAST _or The Waif from the Sea_
The scene is shifted to the sea coast where the girls pay a visit. They have their motor boat with them and go out for many good times.
THE MOTOR GIRLS ON CRYSTAL BAY _or The Secret of the Red Oar_
More jolly times, on the water and at a cute little bungalow on the shore of the bay. A tale that will interest all girls.
THE MOTOR GIRLS ON WATERS BLUE _or The Strange Cruise of the Tartar_
Before the girls started on a long cruise down to the West Indies, they fell in with a foreign girl and she informed them that her father was being held a political prisoner on one of the islands. A story that is full of fun as well as mystery.
CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, NEW YORK
RUTH FIELDING SERIES
By ALICE B. EMERSON
12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 40 cents, postpaid.
[Illustration: Book: RUTH FIELDING OF THE RED MILL]
RUTH FIELDING OF THE RED MILL _or Jaspar Parloe’s Secret_
Telling how Ruth, an orphan girl, came to live with her miserly uncle, and how the girl’s sunny disposition melted the old miller’s heart.
RUTH FIELDING AT BRIARWOOD HALL _or Solving the Campus Mystery_
Ruth was sent by her uncle to boarding school. She made many friends, also one enemy, who made much trouble for her.
RUTH FIELDING AT SNOW CAMP _or Lost in the Backwoods_
A thrilling tale of adventures in the backwoods in winter, is told in a manner to interest every girl.
RUTH FIELDING AT LIGHTHOUSE POINT _or Nita, the Girl Castaway_
From boarding school the scene is shifted to the Atlantic Coast, where Ruth goes for a summer vacation with some chums.
RUTH FIELDING AT SILVER RANCH _or Schoolgirls Among the Cowboys_
A story with a western flavor. How the girls came to the rescue of Bashful Ike, the cowboy, is told in a way that is most absorbing.
RUTH FIELDING ON CLIFF ISLAND _or The Old Hunter’s Treasure Box_
Ruth and her friends go to Cliff Island, and there have many good times during the winter season.
RUTH FIELDING AT SUNRISE FARM _or What Became of the Raby Orphans_
Jolly good times at a farmhouse in the country, where Ruth rescues two orphan children who ran away.
RUTH FIELDING AND THE GYPSIES _or The Missing Pearl Necklace_
This volume tells of stirring adventures at a Gypsy encampment, of a missing heirloom, and how Ruth has it restored to its owner.
CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, NEW YORK
THE DAVE DASHAWAY SERIES
By ROY ROCKWOOD
Author of the “Speedwell Boys Series” and the “Great Marvel Series.”
12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 40 cents, postpaid.
Never was there a more clever young aviator than Dave Dashaway. All up-to-date lads will surely wish to read about him.
[Illustration: Book: DAVE DASHAWAY THE YOUNG AVIATOR]
DAVE DASHAWAY THE YOUNG AVIATOR _or In the Clouds for Fame and Fortune_
This initial volume tells how the hero ran away from his miserly guardian, fell in with a successful airman, and became a young aviator of note.
DAVE DASHAWAY AND HIS HYDROPLANE _or Daring Adventures Over the Great Lakes_
Showing how Dave continued his career as a birdman and had many adventures over the Great Lakes, and how he foiled the plans of some Canadian smugglers.
DAVE DASHAWAY AND HIS GIANT AIRSHIP _or A Marvellous Trip Across the Atlantic_
How the giant airship was constructed and how the daring young aviator and his friends made the hazardous journey through the clouds from the new world to the old, is told in a way to hold the reader spellbound.
DAVE DASHAWAY AROUND THE WORLD _or A Young Yankee Aviator Among Many Nations_
An absorbing tale of a great air flight around the world, of adventures in Alaska, Siberia and elsewhere. A true to life picture of what may be accomplished in the near future.
DAVE DASHAWAY: AIR CHAMPION _or Wizard Work in the Clouds_
Dave makes several daring trips, and then enters a contest for a big prize. An aviation tale thrilling in the extreme.
CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, NEW YORK
THE SPEEDWELL BOYS SERIES
By ROY ROCKWOOD
Author of “The Dave Dashaway Series,” “Great Marvel Series,” etc.
12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 40 cents, postpaid.
All boys who love to be on the go will welcome the Speedwell boys. They are clean cut and loyal lads.
[Illustration: Book: THE SPEEDWELL BOYS ON MOTOR CYCLES]
THE SPEEDWELL BOYS ON MOTOR CYCLES _or The Mystery of a Great Conflagration_
The lads were poor, but they did a rich man a great service and he presented them with their motor cycles. What a great fire led to is exceedingly well told.
THE SPEEDWELL BOYS AND THEIR RACING AUTO _or A Run for the Golden Cup_
A tale of automobiling and of intense rivalry on the road. There was an endurance run and the boys entered the contest. On the run they rounded up some men who were wanted by the law.
THE SPEEDWELL BOYS AND THEIR POWER LAUNCH _or To the Rescue of the Castaways_
Here is an unusual story. There was a wreck, and the lads, in their power launch, set out to the rescue. A vivid picture of a great storm adds to the interest of the tale.
THE SPEEDWELL BOYS IN A SUBMARINE _or The Lost Treasure of Rocky Cove_
An old sailor knows of a treasure lost under water because of a cliff falling into the sea. The boys get a chance to go out in a submarine and they make a hunt for the treasure.
THE SPEEDWELL BOYS AND THEIR ICE RACER _or The Perils of a Great Blizzard_
The boys had an idea for a new sort of iceboat, to be run by combined wind and motor power. How they built the craft, and what fine times they had on board of it, is well related.
CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, NEW YORK
Transcriber’s Notes
Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_.
Bold text is surrounded by asterisks: *bold*.
Small capitals are changed to all capitals.
Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up the paragraphs.
Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources. Punctuation and capitalisation for figures and glossary has been made consistent silently. Otherwise, except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.
The following corrections have been applied to the text (before/after):
(CONTENTS) ... Race-ways. ... ... Race ways. ...
(p. 6) ... he used Heros steam ... ... he used Hero’s steam ...
(p. 43) ... is shown in Fig. 25, in ... ... is shown in Fig. 26, in ...
(p. 53) ... disagreeable characteristics of a differential ... ... disagreeable characteristic of a differential ...
(p. 201) ... when the mechainsm fails ... ... when the mechanism fails ...
(p. 201) ... knowledge of electricty. ... knowledge of electricity.
(p. 203) ... some proggress has been ... ... some progress has been ...
(p. 204) ... flows continously over a wire ... ... flows continuously over a wire ...
(p. 206) ... a continous current ... ... a continuous current ...
(p. 214) ... made of vadium steel, ... ... made of vanadium steel, ...