CHAPTER XXXII
POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC RECONSTRUCTION
_The purpose of this chapter is to discuss some present-day problems of world democracy._
[Sidenote: Why the people are now thinking new thoughts.]
=The War and the New Era.=—The world has spent the years since the war in a condition of political and economic unrest. This is not surprising because this herculean contest rocked the foundations of civilized society. It let loose the primitive passions of men, hurled monarchs from their thrones, turned industry upside down, drew millions of men out of life’s normal routine, and wasted as much wealth as the whole world can create in twenty or thirty years. Small wonder it is that people should ask themselves whether a social order which permitted all this to happen is in reality the best type of organization for the civilized countries of the world. Self-examination usually takes place among men and nations after a great disaster. Things which have been assumed to be true are inspected; old traditions are overhauled, and new proposals receive a more ready welcome than at other times.
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[Illustration:
THE GRADUATE. By Edwin H. Blashfield
_From a Copley Print, copyright by Curtis & Cameron, Boston. Reproduced by permission._] ]
THE GRADUATE
By Edwin H. Blashfield
From the mural painting in the Great Hall of the College of the City of New York.
Wisdom sits enthroned, a globe in her hands. Her placid head, covered with a fold of her mantle, is lighted from below by the flame on the altar at her feet. The light also illumines the globe which she holds. On either side of her pedestal, in a long curved row, sit the great centers of learning (Paris, Rome, Oxford, etc.) represented by graceful female forms, and in front of them are some illustrious representatives of the arts and sciences—Petrarch, Galileo, Shakespeare, and others. In the immediate foreground are young men of today—students on the right and aspirants on the left.
Directly in front of the altar is the Graduate, with academic cap and gown. Beside him stands Alma Mater, handsome and dignified, in a figured Venetian mantle, bearing a shield with a seal of the college and holding a scroll. She bids the young graduate go forth into the world, bearing the torch which he has lighted at the altar of Wisdom. In front of both, and a little to the right, is Discipline, or Self Control, holding in one hand a scourge and in the other a sword. She stands ready to accompany the young graduate on his journey through life.
Below the picture is the inscription: “Doth not Wisdom cry? She standeth in the top of the high places, by the way of the places of the paths. She crieth at the gates at the entry of the city, at the coming in at the doors.”
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=The Growth of Radicalism.=—Two working principles have hitherto furnished the basis for political and economic organizations in such countries as the United States, Great Britain, and France. [Sidenote: Democracy and individualism.] Democracy, by which we mean the control of government by the whole people, acting chiefly through their representatives, has been the accepted basis of political institutions. Individualism, by which we mean an economic system founded upon the individual ownership of private property and, through private property, the individual control of industry has been in general the recognized foundation of economic institutions. By the masses of the people in all free countries the principles prefigured by these two words, democracy and individualism, have been tacitly accepted for fifty years or more as the groundwork of political and economic activity. Both were challenged from certain quarters; the socialists, for example, attacked the whole system of economic individualism; but in no country was the policy of individualism overthrown.
[Sidenote: Should they be displaced?]
During and after the war, however, the demand for a reconstruction of the world’s entire political and economic structure became more insistent. Radical ideas as to what ought to be done, and radical proposals as to how it ought to be done were brought forth and spread. The world found itself, almost in a day, face to face with demands for the complete repudiation of democracy as an ideal and of individualism as a principle of economic organization. Proposals for state socialism, guild socialism, communism, and a dictatorship of the proletariat were put forth aggressively on every hand. No country proved to be immune from this radical movement, although in some it made far greater headway than in others.
=The Soviet Plan of Government in Theory.=[307]—Among the various countries, Russia has gone the farthest, of course, in the radical demolition of the old political and economic order. The overthrow of the Czarist empire was presently followed by the establishment of soviet government and a system of economic communism. This action naturally attracted world-wide attention and it has exerted, during the past few years, a profound influence upon the attitude of men toward political and economic problems everywhere. [Sidenote: Why should Americans care to know anything about it?] It has given new inspiration to radicalism in the United States. We ought, therefore, to know something about this extraordinary overturning of the old political and economic structure in Russia; otherwise we cannot grasp the far-reaching significance of radical movements in our own country.
What is the soviet form of government and what is meant by communism as applied to industry?
The soviet form of government is a repudiation of the entire scheme of government which has been described in this book. [Sidenote: Why the Bolshevists object to democracy.] Its supporters regard democracy as a mere weapon of the capitalist by means of which he exploits the worker. The only way in which the workers can obtain their rights, they declare, is by establishing a “dictatorship of the proletariat”, in other words, a government absolutely dominated by themselves to the exclusion of all others. This, in the first instance, must be done by violence; but, eventually, they hold, the people will accept it peaceably.
[Sidenote: The difference between soviet and democratic government.]
Soviet government differs from democratic government in two all-important respects. In a democracy all adult citizens, whatever their occupation, are equally entitled to a share in the control of the government. Democracy stands on the principle of universal, direct, and secret suffrage. The soviet form of government repudiates the doctrine of political equality. It asserts that all power must be vested in the hands of the peasants and workers, and that the _bourgeoisie_ (by which they mean capitalists, storekeepers, employers of any kind, including even farmers who employ hired labor) are entitled to no share in the control of the government. Democracy and equal suffrage, the soviet apologists proclaim, are merely instruments by which the strong oppress the weak. For a system of government by the people, they would substitute government by a portion of the people. In Russia this has meant, as a matter of fact, government by a very small fraction of the people.
The soviet system also differs from democracy as respects the way in which the officials of government are chosen. Representation in democracies is based upon areas of territory. [Sidenote: The soviet basis of representation.] All the voters of a town, country, or district join in electing a single representative. The people who live in a given territorial area are assumed to have a common interest by reason of their living close together. Under the soviet system this is considerably changed. Occupation as well as territory is the basis of representation. Groups of voters unite in choosing delegates because they work at the same trade, not because they live in the same neighborhood. For example, all the workers in a particular factory, or all the farmers in a certain district begin by choosing one or more representatives. These representatives come together and form the city workers’ soviet or the township soviet. The city workers’ soviet is made up of one or more delegates from every factory. Each local soviet, moreover, appoints delegates to higher soviets and these, in turn, choose delegates to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which is the supreme governing body. As this congress is too large to do the routine work of government, it delegates this function to a cabinet or Council of Peoples’ Commissars.[308]
=The Soviet Plan of Government in Practice.=—This is the theory of soviet government. The supreme political authority is constituted by the _workers_ alone, through a long process of indirect election. The national executive is several steps removed from the control of the people. He is not directly responsible to the people as in the United States. In actual fact, moreover, this elaborate plan of indirect representation has become, in Russia, little more than a scheme on paper. Many of the provincial Soviets have chosen no delegates at all. There is no assurance that those who now hold the reins of power in Russia are the real representatives of the masses of the people. To keep themselves in office the Commissars have throttled all opposition. [Sidenote: Some results of the soviet rule.] They have set at naught all the securities for personal liberty which exist in democratic countries. Arrests have been made without warrants, thousands of them; men and women have been held in prison and put to death without public trial; freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of assembly have been denied. The soviet leaders admit all this but argue that these measures are necessary in order to prevent a counter-revolution.
=The Economic Aspects of Communism.=—The Russian revolution did not confine itself to political reconstruction alone. It was an economic revolution as well. [Sidenote: Relation of communism to industry.] All private trade, of whatever sort, was, in theory at least, abolished throughout Russia and all industries taken over by the government. The factories, shops, stores, and all other instrumentalities of business were placed in charge of officials to be managed for the benefit of the workers. These workers were assigned to the various industries by the soviet authorities, compulsory labor being decreed by law and a fixed standard of wages established. Trade unions and co-operative societies were put under the ban. Workers received their pay in the form of requisitions or orders on the government stores for food and other supplies. Strikes were forbidden on penalty of imprisonment. All land was declared to be owned by the state, but the peasant farmers were allowed to retain their farms upon giving the government a share in the produce.
[Sidenote: Breakdown of communism in Russia.]
Although the government did its best to carry through the foregoing program, economic communism in Russia broke down.[309] Factories and stores went out of business; the peasants could not be coerced into supplying food for cities; foreign trade stopped almost entirely; the railroads failed to function; everywhere there was misery and starvation. So the soviet authorities in 1921 decided upon a partial return to the system of privately-managed industry. Factories and shops, to some extent, have been reopened under individual ownership; the trade unions have been permitted to reorganize; the rules relating to compulsory labor have been relaxed; and differences in the rate of wages paid to different workers are once more permitted. The country has swung back to a modified form of individualism and capitalistic production.
[Sidenote: The Russian lesson.]
The great lesson of communism in Russia is that no system of economic organization can long survive unless it succeeds in producing enough to feed, clothe, and shelter the people. When the incentive of private gain is taken away, some equally strong incentive to production must be put in its place; otherwise production will decline and there will not be enough to go around. That is what happened in Russia. Neither compulsion nor appeals to the loyalty of the worker availed to keep production up. Fewer goods were produced and there was less to distribute. Equality of distribution avails nothing when there is too little to be distributed.
=The International Aims of the Communists.=—Communism is not merely national in its aim; it is international. Its motto is: “Workers of the World, Unite!” Its goal is the violent overturning of the existing political and economic organization in all countries so that soviet governments may be established and all private industry abolished. [Sidenote: Program of the Third International.] This is the program of the _Third International_, a body made up of communist delegates from all over the world. In order to promote this program the Russian authorities have endeavored to carry on a propaganda in all other countries, sending out literature and agents wherever possible. The communists realize, however, that the prospects for such a revolution are not good in countries like the United States, Great Britain, and France so long as the trade union movement makes progress and gains advantages for organized labor. Hence they aim to secure the destruction of unions, to promote “outlaw” strikes, and to encourage every form of industrial discontent.
[Sidenote: Socialism and communism are widely different.]
=Moderate Socialism and Communism Distinguished.=—Communism, as it has been exemplified in Russia during the past few years, should be distinguished from socialism as the latter term is commonly understood, although extreme forms of socialism may go substantially as far. Socialists do not propose that all except the workers shall be excluded from a share in government. They do not propose to wipe out the political rights of the individual, or to destroy trade unionism, or to provide for labor conscription. Orthodox socialism does not aim at a “dictatorship” of any kind.
[Sidenote: Socialism defined.]
=State Socialism.=—The program of the moderate socialists is commonly known as state socialism. Briefly stated, it proposes that all the land, the mines, the forests, the factories, the railroads, and every other instrumentality of production or distribution should be managed in the interests of the whole people. Under the system of individualism, according to the socialist argument, these things are now managed primarily in the interest of private owners. The worker creates values in far greater proportion than the wages he receives. This surplus value goes to the employer in the form of profits. The socialist would abolish profits. The entire net earnings would go to the worker. The basis of government would not, however, be revolutionized. With some changes to make democracy more effective (for example, the wider use of the initiative and referendum), state socialism would leave government about as it is. The workers, being in the majority, would control government through their numerical superiority at the polls; they would not deny the suffrage to non-socialists. State socialism proposes the doing of all this through the ballot-box, not by violence or armed revolution.
=The Case for Socialism.=—Many books have been written in advocacy of state socialism and many arguments advanced in its behalf. The case for socialism rests largely upon certain propositions which may be briefly stated as follows: [Sidenote: The present industrial injustice.] Wealth is largely the product of labor, yet labor does not get its rightful share in the product. Capital and management, on the other hand, get more than their rightful share. Hence the rich are growing richer, and the poor are growing poorer. The control of industry, and with it the well-being of many million workers, is passing steadily into the hands of a very few men. Inequalities of wealth lead to discontent; the present organization of industry results in unemployment; and men are engaged in a perpetual class war with one another. Great wastes, moreover, result from the system of competition. Several milkmen, for instance, go up and down the same street, each serving a few families. Think of what the postage rates would be if we had a similar state of affairs under free competition in furnishing postal service! Socialism, it is claimed, would unify production and distribution, thus preventing waste.
[Sidenote: What socialism proposes as a remedy.]
Now the remedy for this is to abolish private capitalism, to have the government take over the industries, divide the earnings fairly, giving every worker his rightful share, thus securing a more nearly equal distribution of wealth and happiness. By this means, also, poverty and unemployment would be abolished. If all the products of labor were given to the worker (rent, interest, and profits being abolished), there would be enough to give everybody a reasonable day’s work and a comfortable living. There would be steady employment for all. The great majority of the people are workers. Their welfare should be the first care of organized society; but their welfare can never be secured so long as practically complete power over the conditions under which the workers labor and live is exercised by the private owners of industry. Socialists also claim that a moral gain would result, inasmuch as the present class conflict would give way to a recognition of human brotherhood. Co-operation, not conflict, would be the watchword of industrial society.
=The Case Against Socialism.=—The advocates of socialism, in their arguments, frequently assume something which they have not been able to prove. [Sidenote: Are the poor growing poorer?] They proclaim that the rich are growing richer and the poor are growing poorer, that the middle class is being crushed out, and that soon there will be only two groups, the very rich and the very poor. It is true that wealth is increasing and that there are more rich men today than ever before in the history of the world; but it is also true that the middle class is more numerous and the worker much better off than at any previous time. The standard of living among American wage-earners today is higher than it was among well-to-do people a hundred years ago. The average worker is better housed, better clothed, better fed, and has more of the comforts of life than the employer of a century ago.
[Sidenote: The chief argument against socialism.]
But apart from this the crucial question concerns the way in which production would be maintained and how the earnings would be distributed under a socialist system. Today the main incentive to work is the expectation of reward. Most men work because they expect to be paid for it. Cut down their pay and they will usually stop work and try to persuade other people from working. There are exceptions to the rule, of course; but when men and women work hard and try to do their best it is because they hope to get promoted, to get their wages raised, to secure an easier job at higher pay.[310] Socialism would abolish this exact relation between skill and wages. Everyone would work at whatever task he was best fitted to perform and would be given enough to live on comfortably. Or, as the socialists put it, everyone would produce according to his ability and be paid according to his needs.
[Sidenote: Some practical questions.]
This, however, begs some very important questions of a practical nature. Who would determine the work that you or I should do? Who would determine that you must labor in the coal mines while I go abroad, as a foreign ambassador? Who will determine your needs and mine, so that we may be rewarded accordingly?
[Sidenote: Socialism and compulsion.]
The answer is that authorities would have to be established with power to settle these things and to apply compulsion where necessary. We would have industrial autocracy. Men and women would have no complete freedom to choose their own occupations. The socialists say that if the existing wage system were abolished everyone would do his best to increase production in order to make the new plan a success; but where socialistic experiments have been tried the contrary is true; the workers do less and produce less. Let us remember, also, the increased danger of corruption which would come if the authorities were given so great an increase in power. The whole resources of the country would be placed in the control of an official class; the entire labor-force of the nation would be put at their disposal. The socialist answers that if officials proved arbitrary or corrupt the people would turn them out of office. Does our experience with other forms of government warrant any such expectation?
[Sidenote: Socialism and human nature.]
Two methods of getting work done have been tried by the world at one time or another. In ancient and mediæval times most of the work was done by slaves. The slave got no wages; he did his work because he was compelled to do it. In modern times, since slavery and serfdom no longer exist among civilized people, most of the work is done by free men who do it because they expect to be paid for doing it. And since there are differences in the abilities of different men, some get more pay than others, even though the opportunities be the same for all. If the capable worker were not paid more than the less competent, he would not exert himself to do his best. To get the best out of any free man he must be given the hope of a reward in proportion to his efficiency, and for the great majority of people this means a reward in dollars and cents. That is human nature.
[Sidenote: Can human nature be changed?]
It is sometimes said that human nature may change and that, in a new environment, men might work unselfishly for the common welfare without reference to their rate of wages or profits. True enough the motives of men may and do change somewhat; but when we trace the course of human history through twenty centuries we find that the dominant traits of mankind have altered very little in all that time. Human nature itself affords the greatest obstacle to the success of a socialist system.
=Socialism and Liberty.=—Liberty does not include political freedom alone. It comprises the right of the individual to choose his own career, to make his own bargains, and to become his own employer if he can. An industrial system in which all men are compelled to do as some higher authority dictates would establish the very negation of liberty. Under socialism the complete control of all economic life would be vested in some supreme authority. It matters little how that authority might be chosen; the concentration of such vast powers anywhere, in the hands of any group of men, would make individual liberty a meaningless expression. It may be replied that under our present system of private industry the worker has in fact very little liberty; that many employers are despots and that the worker is subjected to tyranny. That is to a certain extent true. But in so far as there is an undue and needless restriction under present conditions of industry the remedy is to promote the liberty of the worker through the power of his own organizations and by the laws of the land.
=Socialism and Democracy.=—Socialism and democracy can never be good friends. Democracy is government _by the people_; in other words it is government by amateurs. It is not government by a professional class. The government of the German Empire before the war was largely in the hands of a professional class, a bureaucracy it was called. Now a democratic government, being managed by the rank and file of the people, is often wasteful and clumsy in its handling of business affairs. We have had some notable examples of this in the United States; for example, the building of airplanes and ships during the war, the operation of the railroads during 1918-1920, and the construction of public buildings. A bureaucratic government, conducted by professional administrators, is much more efficient. [Sidenote: Socialism would professionalize the government.] It is not improbable, therefore, that socialism, by placing upon the public authorities the entire management of every form of industry, including factories and shops as well as railroads and telegraphs, would mean the breakdown of the democratic ideal and the professionalizing of government. The entire industrial system of the country could not be successfully managed by amateurs. To save it from collapse under socialism the government would have to be reorganized on bureaucratic lines.
=Can Democracy Solve Its Problems?=—But if not socialism, what then? Certain it is that we are facing great problems both at home and abroad today; and these problems must be solved in the interest of human happiness. We cannot close our eyes to them and trust that somehow or other they will work out their own solution. Can democracy and our present system of private industry master them? Well, democracy and our present industrial system have overcome a great many obstacles in the past and it is only by studying the past that we can make any forecast of the future. The land surveyor, when he wants to project a straight line from a given point, walks back some distance so that he may align his pickets in the ground. Let us for a moment pursue the same plan, walk back a dozen decades in American history and take a sight along the great landmarks to the present time. What have democracy and individualism contributed to the well-being and happiness of the American people?
[Sidenote: Democracy and American progress.]
=What America Has Done.=—In the past one hundred and twenty years the people of the United States have increased their territories ten-fold, their numbers twenty-fold, and their wealth at least a thousand-fold. They have, with one great exception, composed their internal quarrels peaceably during the whole of this long period. They have developed a government based upon the consent of the governed and have placed the capstone upon it by the grant of universal suffrage. They have kept the various branches of government within their own respective fields and have thus prevented the growth of despotic power anywhere. The people’s direct control over the policy of the government, moreover, has been greatly augmented during the past generation. It is indeed doubtful whether Washington, Hamilton, and Madison, if they were to arise from their graves, would recognize the present government of the United States as their own handiwork, so far has it moved along lines of greater democracy. In the states and the cities this steady drift to more direct popular control has been very marked. One need only mention such things as the initiative, referendum and recall, direct primaries, popular election of senators, the short ballot, the commission and city-manager forms of government, and the extension of suffrage to women—all of which are the product of the last twenty-five years—to indicate how strong has been the tide of popular control.
Most striking of all American achievements, however, has been the wide diffusion of material comforts among the masses of the people. In no other country is there anything approaching it. The standard of living among wage-earners is higher than it is anywhere else, much higher. The average American worker is better housed and better provided with food than is the typical workman in any other country. He and his children get better educational opportunities and a better chance to rise in the world. The way in which immigrants have been flocking to our shores during the past hundred years is a proof that millions of men and women have looked upon America as a land of opportunity. This is not to imply, by any means, that there are no slums in American cities, no poverty, no misery, and no industrial oppression. We have, in truth, far too much of all these things. But it is also the truth that we have relatively less of them than any of the other great industrial lands.
Not all of this progress and prosperity is due, of course, to the political and economic system which America has maintained during the past century. The rich natural resources of the country and the steady industry of its people have been fundamental factors. But no matter how vast their resources or how unremitting their industry a people cannot achieve lasting prosperity and contentment unless they possess a political system and an economic organization which is well suited to their needs.
=What Democracy Has Failed to Do.=—It would be idle to regard democratic government everywhere as an unqualified success. No scheme of political organization will of itself secure a government which is both efficient and popular. The active efforts of the people are required to achieve this end. Not merely the consent of the governed but the participation of the governed is essential. By reason of popular indifference the institutions of democracy in America have frequently been perverted and abused by men whom the people have placed in power. [Sidenote: Some examples.] What passes for public opinion is at times nothing but propaganda, organized to promote some selfish interest. Democracy has not yet succeeded, moreover, in preventing wars or inducing all nations to deal justly with one another. It has not prevented the rise of opposing classes among the people, or kept groups of individuals from setting themselves in antagonism to each other. Democracy has not reconciled labor and capital; it has not carried its principles very far into our industrial organization. These are serious failings, no doubt; but the friends of democracy can fairly say, “Would any other system have done better?” Democracy is what the people make it, and its faults point to the defects of human nature.
=The Citizen’s Duty in a Democracy.=—No form of government gives the citizen so much as democracy, and none makes greater demands upon him in return. We are far too much concerned about the rights of men and women; far too little concerned about their obligations to society, to the state, and to their fellow-men. Voting at elections is but a small part of the citizen’s duty. His share in the forming of a sound and enlightened public opinion constitutes an obligation upon him every day in the year. When public opinion takes an unwise course it is because the people make up their minds hastily, without careful thought, and without the guidance which should be provided by the educated men and women of the land. Every individual is a unit in the forming of public sentiment; he can be a helpful factor if he will. Education is the chief corner-stone of democratic government, and it must also be the chief prop to any plan of industrial democracy which hopes to be successful and permanent. Education makes men and women tolerant of other people’s opinions, gives them confidence in mankind, and faith in what mankind can accomplish.
Democracy has passed through many raging storms. In the dark days of the Civil War there were many who feared that in America it was about to perish utterly. But it survived and grew stronger than before. Without the faith of the people in it, and the work which is the exemplification of faith, democracy can accomplish nothing; with these things there is no problem that it need fear to face.
General References
E. M. FRIEDMAN, _American Problems of Reconstruction_, pp. 45-55;
BERTRAND RUSSELL, _Proposed Roads to Freedom_, pp. 186-212;
R. C. K. ENSOR (editor), _Modern Socialism_, pp. 65-89;
N. P. GILMAN, _Socialism and the American Spirit_, pp. 46-89;
H. G. WELLS, _What is Coming_, pp. 96-124;
O. D. SKELTON, _Socialism: A Critical Analysis_, pp. 16-61;
JOHN SPARGO, _Social Democracy Explained_, pp. 1-49;
C. J. BULLOCK, _Selected Readings in Economics_, pp. 668-705;
J. R. COMMONS, _Industrial Government_, pp. 110-134;
F. A. CLEVELAND and JOSEPH SCHAFER, _Democracy in Reconstruction_, pp. 165-192;
SIDNEY and BEATRICE WEBB, _A Constitution for the Socialist Commonwealth of Great Britain_, _passim_;
WILLIAM MACDONALD, _A New Constitution for a New America_, pp. 127-139.
Group Problems
=1. What industrial democracy means.= The traditional organization of industry. Relations of employer and employee. The representation of the workers in the management of industry. Methods of securing this representation. Shop councils. Merits and defects of the plan. Other proposals. Effects of industrial democracy upon production. =References=: G. D. H. COLE, _Guild Socialism Re-stated_, pp. 42-77; _Ibid._, _Self-Government in Industry_, pp. 24-47; R. W. SELLARS, _The Next Step in Democracy_, pp. 246-272; J. R. COMMONS, _Industrial Government_, pp. 77-109; IDA M. TARBELL, _New Ideals in Business_, pp. 134-162; SIDNEY and BEATRICE WEBB, _A Constitution for the Socialist Commonwealth of Great Britain_, pp. 147-167.
=2. The worker in the socialist state.= =References=: HARTLEY WITHERS, _The Case for Capitalism_, pp. 138-168; H. G. WELLS and others, _Socialism and the Great State_, pp. 69-119; R. W. SELLARS, _The Next Step in Democracy_, pp. 135-156; O. D. SKELTON, _Socialism: A Critical Analysis_, pp. 177-219; JOHN SPARGO, _Social Democracy Explained_, pp. 50-84.
=3. The newer problems of democracy.= =References=: F. A. CLEVELAND and JOSEPH SCHAFER, _Democracy in Reconstruction_, pp. 25-66; E. M. FRIEDMAN, _American Problems of Reconstruction_, pp. 447-464; F. J. C. HEARNSHAW, _Democracy at the Crossways_, pp. 11-78; GRAHAM WALLAS, _Our Social Heritage_, pp. 158-186; L. T. HOBHOUSE, _Democracy and Reaction_, pp. 167-187; H. F. WARD, _The New Social Order_, pp. 35-75; J. H. TUFTS, _Our Democracy; its Origins and its Tasks_, pp. 268-298.
Short Studies
1. =How the workers manage business enterprises.= C. R. FAY, _Cooperation at Home and Abroad_, pp. 222-237.
2. =Anarchism: its teachings and methods.= BERTRAND RUSSELL, _Proposed Roads to Freedom_, pp. 32-55; F. J. C. HEARNSHAW, _Democracy at the Crossways_, pp. 262-287.
3. =Syndicalism: its organization and aims.= JOHN SPARGO, _Social Democracy Explained_, pp. 244-277; J. G. BROOKS, _American Syndicalism_, pp. 73-105.
4. =Communism.= LEO PASVOLSKY, _The Economics of Communism_, pp. 1-17; 48-83.
5. =Bolshevism.= R. W. POSTGATE, _The Bolshevik Theory_, pp. 13-41; BERTRAND RUSSELL, _The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism_, pp. 119-156; JOHN SPARGO, _Bolshevism_, pp. 262-323.
6. =The soviet experiment in Russia.= H. N. BRAILSFORD, _The Russian Workers’ Republic_, pp. 37-79; FRANK COMERFORD, _The New World_, pp. 118-169; 281-305.
7. =Guild socialism.= G. D. H. COLE, _Guild Socialism Re-Stated_, pp. 9-41; HARTLEY WITHERS, _The Case for Capitalism_, pp. 189-235; GRAHAM WALLAS, _Our Social Heritage_, pp. 102-121.
8. =Marxian socialism.= B. L. BRASOL, _Socialism_ vs. _Civilization_, pp. 61-110; JOHN SPARGO, _Socialism Explained_, pp. 123-157.
9. =State socialism: the arguments for and against.= HARTLEY WITHERS, _The Case for Capitalism_, pp. 138-168; A. E. DAVIES, _The Case for Nationalization_, pp. 12-29.
10. =The individual and the new society.= A. B. HART (editor), _Problems of Readjustment After the War_, pp. 98-128.
11. =Women in the new social order.= H. G. WELLS, _What is Coming_, pp. 159-188; H. A. HOLLISTER, _The Woman Citizen_, pp. 142-178.
12. =Fiscal reconstruction.= E. M. FRIEDMAN, _American Problems of Reconstruction_, pp. 427-446.
Questions
1. Why has the movement for political and social reconstruction become stronger in recent years?
2. Explain how “the soviet form of government is a repudiation of the entire scheme of government which has been described in this book”.
3. Make a diagram showing the organization of the soviet government in Russia. Show how much more direct is the control of the people over their government in the United States.
4. What is the lesson of the economic breakdown in Russia?
5. Explain what is meant by the _International_. What are its aims?
6. State any arguments for socialism which are not given in the text. Any arguments against socialism. Is it true that “as a general rule there are only two ways of getting work done in this world”? In a socialist state what would be the incentive to work? Would it be sufficient?
7. Would the establishment of socialism necessarily involve the abandonment of democracy? Argue the point.
8. Name the principal achievements of American democracy during the past hundred years. Which of them do you regard as the most important and why?
9. Name some present-day political and economic injustices which you would like to see set right. Suggest what might be done about them.
10. Are you a more earnest or a less earnest believer in democracy by reason of your having studied _Social Civics_?
Topics for Debate
1. Representation in government should be based on occupations rather than on territorial divisions.
2. The laborers should be given a voice in the management of their respective industries.
3. The condition of the laborer is better under private capitalism than it would be under socialism.
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Footnote 307:
The term “soviet” means council or meeting. The constitution of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic may be found in FRANK COMERFORD, _The New World_, pp. 281-305.
Footnote 308:
Nikalai Lenin is now the head of this Council; Leon Trotzky is Minister of War in it. Each member of the Council is head of a department.
Footnote 309:
The breakdown was due in part, no doubt, to the disorganization wrought by the war and the internal revolts which broke out in Russia after the war. To make matters worse there were crop failures, with resulting famines, in some of Russia’s best grain-producing regions.
Footnote 310:
It is quite true that some men and women work because they like to work and dislike to be idle, or because they feel that what they do is of value to the community, or for some other reason not directly connected with their pay. They form, however, a very small fraction of the total body of wage-earners.
APPENDIX CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
PREAMBLE
We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
ARTICLE I LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT
Section 1. Two Houses
1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.
Section 2. House of Representatives
1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors[311] of the most numerous branch of the state legislature.
2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen.
3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, _three-fifths of all other persons_[312]. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one Representative; and, until such enumerations shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.
4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.
5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.
Section 3. Senate
1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state chosen by the legislature thereof[313] for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote.
2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year; and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year; so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.[314]
3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United
States, who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen.
4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.
5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President _pro tempore_, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.
6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present.
7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit, under the United States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law.
Section 4. Elections and Meetings of Congress
1. The times, places, and manner, of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof: but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators.
2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.
Section 5. Powers and Duties of the Houses
1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each House may provide.
2. Each House may determine the rules of the proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member.
3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and, from time to time, publish the same, excepting such parts as may, in their judgment, require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal.
4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.
Section 6. Privileges of and Restrictions on Members
1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to, and returning from, the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place.
2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person, holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office.
Section 7. Revenue Bills: Veto of President
1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills.
2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.
3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment), shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.
Section 8. Legislative Powers of Congress
The Congress shall have power:
1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts, and provide for the common defence and general welfare, of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises, shall be uniform throughout the United States:
2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States:
3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes:
4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States:
5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures:
6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the Unites States:
7. To establish post-offices and post-roads:
8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries:
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court:
10. To define and punish piracies and felonies, committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations:
11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water:
12. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years:
13. To provide and maintain a navy:
14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces:
15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions:
16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia, according to the discipline prescribed by Congress:
17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places, purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings:—And
18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.
Section 9. Prohibitions upon the United States
1. The migration or importation of such persons, as any of the states, now existing, shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person.
2. The privilege of the writ of _habeas corpus_ shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it.
3. No bill of attainder, or _ex post facto_ law, shall be passed.
4. No capitation, or other direct tax, shall be laid, unless in proportion to the _census_ or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken.[315]
5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state.
6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties, in another.
7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time.
8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state.
Section 10. Prohibitions upon the States
1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, _ex post facto_ law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility.
2. No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.
ARTICLE II EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT: THE PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT
Section 1. Term: Election: Qualifications: Salary: Oath of Office
1. The Executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows:
2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of Electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives, to which the state may be entitled in the Congress; but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit, under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.
3. [The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one, who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said House shall, in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the Electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them, by ballot, the Vice-President.][316]
4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the Electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States.
5. No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office, who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States.
6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.
7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive, within that period, any other emolument from the United States, or any of them.
8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation:
9. “I do solemnly swear (or affirm), that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.”
Section 2. President’s Executive Powers
1. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.
2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.
3. The President shall have power to fill all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session.
Section 3. President’s Executive Powers (_continued_)
1. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States.
Section 4. Impeachment
1. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.
ARTICLE III JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT
Section 1. Courts: Terms of Office
1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.
Section 2. Jurisdiction
1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more states, between a state and citizens of another state,[317] between citizens of different states, between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.
2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make.
3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed.
Section 3. Treason
1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court.
2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted.
ARTICLE IV RELATIONS OF STATES
Section 1. Public Records
1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.
Section 2. Rights in One State of Citizens of Another State
1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states.[318]
2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime.
3. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due.
Section 3. New States: Territories
1. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state, nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the Congress.
2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular state.
Section 4. Protection to States by the Nation
1. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence.
ARTICLE V AMENDMENT
1. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress: provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first Article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.
ARTICLE VI NATIONAL DEBTS: SUPREMACY OF NATIONAL LAW: OATH
1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under the Confederation.
2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding.
3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound, by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States.
ARTICLE VII ESTABLISHMENT OF CONSTITUTION
1. The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the same.
AMENDMENTS[319]
ARTICLE I FREEDOM OF RELIGION, OF SPEECH, AND OF THE PRESS: RIGHT OF PETITION
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
ARTICLE II RIGHT TO KEEP ARMS
A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.
ARTICLE III QUARTERING OF SOLDIERS IN PRIVATE HOUSES
No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner; nor, in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
ARTICLE IV SEARCH WARRANTS
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
ARTICLE V CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous, crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war, or public danger; nor shall any person be subject, for the same offence, to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.[320]
ARTICLE VI CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS (_continued_)
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law; and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence.
ARTICLE VII JURY TRIAL IN CIVIL CASES
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact, tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law.
ARTICLE VIII EXCESSIVE PUNISHMENTS
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
ARTICLE IX UNENUMERATED RIGHTS OF THE PEOPLE
The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
ARTICLE X POWERS RESERVED TO STATES
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.
ARTICLE XI[321] SUITS AGAINST STATES
The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state.
ARTICLE XII ELECTION OF PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT
1. The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign, and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and the House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such a majority, then, from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in case of the death, or other constitutional disability, of the President.[322]
2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then, from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators; a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice.[322]
3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States,
ARTICLE XIII[323] SLAVERY
Section 1. Abolition of Slavery
Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
Section 2. Power of Congress
Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
ARTICLE XIV[324] CIVIL RIGHTS: APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATIVES: POLITICAL DISABILITIES: PUBLIC DEBT
Section 1. Civil Rights
All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. Apportionment of Representatives
Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state.
Section 3. Political Disabilities
No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.
Section 4. Public Debt
The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void.
Section 5. Powers of Congress
The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
ARTICLE XV[325] RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE
Section 1. Right of Negro to Vote
The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
Section 2. Power of Congress
The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
ARTICLE XVI[326] INCOME TAX
The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, and without regard to any census or enumeration.
ARTICLE XVII[327] SENATE: ELECTION: VACANCIES
The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislatures.
When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the Senate, the executive authority of such state shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any state may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointment until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.
This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.
ARTICLE XVIII[328] NATIONAL PROHIBITION
SECTION 1—After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.
SECTION 2—The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
SECTION 3—This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years of the date of the submission hereof to the States by Congress.
ARTICLE XIX[329] WOMAN SUFFRAGE
SECTION 1—The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.
SECTION 2—Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
-----
Footnote 311:
Voters.
Footnote 312:
Annulled by the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments.
Footnote 313:
Superseded by the Seventeenth Amendment.
Footnote 314:
See Seventeenth Amendment.
Footnote 315:
See Sixteenth Amendment.
Footnote 316:
Superseded by the Twelfth Amendment.
Footnote 317:
Modified by the Eleventh Amendment.
Footnote 318:
Compare Fourteenth Amendment.
Footnote 319:
The first ten Amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, were adopted in 1791.
Footnote 320:
See Amendment XIV, Sec. 1, which extends part of this restriction to the States.
Footnote 321:
Adopted in 1798 to protect the sovereignty of the States.
Footnote 322:
Adopted in 1804, superseding Article II, Sec. 1.
Footnote 323:
Adopted in 1865.
Footnote 324:
Adopted in 1868.
Footnote 325:
Adopted in 1870.
Footnote 326:
Adopted in 1913.
Footnote 327:
Adopted in 1913.
Footnote 328:
Adopted in 1919.
Footnote 329:
Adopted in 1920.
INDEX
A
Accidents, industrial, 411-412
Admission of new states, 227-228
Agriculture, the federal Department of, 299 _n_ scope and methods of, 339-342 special characteristics of, 343-345 improvements in, 345-346 government encouragement of, 346-348 financial aids to, 348-349 problems of, 349-352
Agricultural bloc, in Congress, 282 _n_, 350-351
Alaska, government of, 229 _n_
Albany Congress, 248
Ambassadors, appointment and duties of, 591-595
Amendments, to state constitutions, 232 to national constitution, 260-262
American Federation of Labor, 403-404
Americanization, the public schools as agencies of, 28 purpose and methods of, 33
“American Plan” in industry, 409
Anti-Trust Law. _See_ Sherman Act
Appointments to office, methods of, 99-101 confirmation of, 270-271 presidential, 293-294
Appeals, judicial, 311-312
Appropriations in Congress, 463-465
Arbitration, of labor disputes, 409-410 compulsory, 410-411 international, 601-602
Aristotle, classification of governments by, 66-67
Armaments, the cost of, 563-564
Army, various divisions of the, 567-571 control of, in war, 571-572
Army in peace, 572-573
Articles of Confederation, 249-251, 287
Assessments for taxation, 456-457
Athletics, value of, in training citizens, 86-88
Attorney-General, office of, 299 _n_
Australian ballot, 132
B
Balance of power in Europe, 629
Ballot, history of the, 131-132 reform of, 132-133 preferential, 133-134
Banks, functions of, 434 organization of, 435-437 federal reserve, 437-439 work of, 439-442 _See_ also Farm Loan Banks
Bargaining, collective, 405-406
Billboards, regulation of, 214-215
Bill of Rights, 261
Bimetallism, the controversy over, 428-430
Blacklists, industrial, 407
Blackstone’s _Commentaries_, 314 _n_
Bloc. _See_ Agricultural bloc
Blue-sky laws, 446 _n_
Boards, in counties, 169-170 in cities, 192 in state government, 238-239 of education, 498 of health, 534
Bonds, defined and explained, 445 _n_ government, 466-467 serial, 469
Bonaparte, Napoleon, on the qualities of a good constitution, 258
Bosses, political, their origin, 29 their methods, 160-161
Boycotts in labor troubles, 407
Brindell Case, 404 _n_
Bryan, William J., on free silver, 430
Budgets, how made, 462-463 in Congress, 463-465
Buildings, public, in cities, 212-214
Bureau of Animal Industry, 347 of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 376 of Child Welfare, 415 _n_ of Education, 499 of American Republics, 617
Burke, Edmund, on the function of a representative, 98-99
Business taxes, 222
C
Cabinet, organization and functions of, 297-303
Campaign funds, 161-162
Capital, as a factor in production, 48-50
Center of population in the United States, 21
Chancery. _See_ Equity
Charters, municipal, 186-190
Checks and balances, 232-234
Child labor, the restriction of, 414-415
Chief justice, duties of, in presidential impeachments, 270 _n_
China, economic resources of, 335 open door in, 618-620
Circuit courts, 313
Cities, drift of population to, 22-23 growth of, 183-184 character of population in, 184-186 relation to state, 186-190 government of, 190-199 administrative problems in, 203-222 taxation in, 455-457
City councils, 193-194
City government, development of, 182-184 present organization of, 184-199 _See_ also Municipal problems
City-manager plan, 197-198
City planning, 206-298
Citizenship, rights of, 79 qualifications for, 81 dual, 82 _n_ obligations of, 83-84 training for, 84-88
Civil liberty, origin and nature of, 78-81 relation of direct legislation to, 111
Civil War, effect of, on relations between nation and states, 227 on the constitution, 261-262 martial law during, 574-575 naval progress during, 575 _n_ cost of pensions after, 583 danger of foreign intervention during, 608
Civil service, federal, 104 in counties, 173 _See_ also Merit system
Clayton Act, 391, 408
Cleveland, adoption of city manager plan in, 197 _n_ Grover, use of armed forces in labor troubles by, 572-573
Closed shop, the question of, 408-409
Coal, the conservation of, 329-330
Codes of law, 315 _n_
Coinage in the United States, 427-430
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, on the art of taxation, 455 _n_
Collective bargaining, 56, 405-406
Colleges, training for citizenship in, 87-88
Commerce, purposes of, 356-357 development of, 357-358 scope and nature of, 358-359 regulation of, 359-360 agencies of, 364-368 effect of tariffs on, 368-372 the encouragement of, 372-378
Commission government, in cities, 194-196 in states, 241-242
Commissions, public service, 480-481
Committees, party, 156-158 in the Senate, 268-269 in the House, 275 of conference, 277-278 on budget matters, 464-465
Communism, economic aspects of, 650-652
Common law, 314-315
Companies, commercial, 50-51 _See_ also Holding companies
Competition, the nature of, 54 among public utilities, 475-476
Conciliation in labor disputes, 409-410
Confederation, Articles of, 249-251
Confirmation of appointments, 100
Congress, of the Confederation, 248-252, 257 of the United States, influence of public opinion on, 95-96 organization and work of, 266-282 committees in, 268-278 agricultural bloc in, 350-351 new budget system in, 464-465 of Vienna, 627-628
Conservation of natural resources, 326-336
Consular service, 373-374
Constitution of the United States, events leading to, 246-253 makers of, 254-255 nature of, 257-258 development of, 258-260 methods of amending, 260-262
Constitutions, state, 230-232
Consumption of wealth, 39-40
Constabulary, state, 217
Constitutional Convention of 1787, 253-257
Continental Congress, 248
Contract, freedom of, 55-56
Conventions, party, state, 129, 156-157 national, 158-159
Coroner, office of, 172
Corporations, the nature of, 50-51 citizenship of, 81 _n_ industrial, 384-385 control of, 389-393
Council, in cities, 193-194
County districts, 177
County government, 167-174
County manager plan, 170
Courtesy of the Senate, 270-271
Courts, county, 170-171 state, 239 federal, 308-313
Courts-martial, 573-574
Covenant. _See_ League of Nations
Credit, agricultural, 348-349 relation of money to, 442-443
Credit, relation of prices to, 443-444 advantages and dangers of, 444-445
Crime, classifications of, 550-551 causes of, 552-553 methods of dealing with, 553-557
“Crime of 1873”, 429 _n_
“Cross of Gold” campaign, 430
Currency, paper, history of, 430-431 present forms of, 431-432 advantages of, 432-434
Currency Act (1900), 430
Custom, the influence of, 9-10
D
Darwin, Charles, theories of, 2-4
Debts, public, necessity of, 465-466 nature and amount of, 466-468 repayment of, 468-469
Declaration of Independence, influence of John Locke on, 64-65 assertion of civil rights in, 80 political doctrines of, 248-249
Defence, national, cost of, 563-564 need for, 564-567 methods of, 567-583
Degeneracy as a cause of poverty, 542
Demand and supply, relations of, 40
Democracy, true and false types, 68 progress of, 69 justification of, 70 relation of education to, 492-493 relation of socialism to, 657-658 achievements of, 658-660 citizen’s duty toward, 660-661
Departments, in city government, 191-192, 205-206 in state government, 238-239 in federal government, 299
Diminishing returns, the law of, 343
Diplomatic service, organization and functions of, 591-595
Direct legislation, progress of, 107-108 procedure in, 109-110 merits and defects of, 110-112
Disarmament, international, 576-577 _See_ also Washington Conference
Disease, the germ theory of, 516-517 transmission of, 517-520 in industry, 521-522 the prevention of, 522-524
District attorney. _See_ Prosecuting attorney of Columbia, government of, 230 _n_ courts, federal, 313
Divine right, theory of, 63-64
Division of labor, 44-46 in agriculture, 344-345 of powers, 232-234
Divorce problem, 557-560
Domestic relations, courts of, 559
Drug evil, the, 526
Duties on imports, 459 _See_ also Tariffs and Tariff problems
E
Economics, the subject-matter of, 38-39
Education, relation to democracy, 492-493 to personal efficiency, 493-494 purpose and value of, 494-495 growth of, 495-496 control and management of, 496-498 national government’s work for, 498-499 federal aid to, 499-500 problems of, 500-507 vocational, 507-508
Educational tests for voting, 122-124
Elections, in counties, 169 procedure at, 129-137 corrupt practices at, 137-138 of senators, 267-268 of representatives in Congress, 273-274 presidential, 288-290 _See_ also Ballots, City Government, Voting
Emergency Fleet Corporation, 375
Employers’ liability, 411-412
England, local government in, 227 cabinet system in, 301
Environment, the influence of, 5-9
Equity, origin and nature of, 316-317
Espionage Act, the, 581
Europe, relations with, 613
Evolution, theory of, 1-5 in political institutions, 66
Excess profits, taxation of, 458-459
Exchange, the theory of, 53
Expatriation, the doctrine of, 83
F
Factories. _See_ Industry
Family, as a fundamental social group, 11-12 its place in the evolution of government, 66
Far East, American interests in the, 617-618
Farm Loan Banks, 348-349
Farmers’ Alliance. _See_ National Farmers’ Alliance Institutes, 350
Farmer-Labor party, 351
Federalism, the nature of, 67-68
_Federalist, The_, 257
Federal reserve banks, organization and work of, 437-439 Trade Commission, 341-392
Filibusters, 278-279
Filtration of water supplies, 530-531
Fire prevention, the need for, 217-218 methods of, 218-219
Fisheries, economic importance of, 333
Fittest, survival of the, 3-4, 11
Food, the inspection of, 525-526 control of, in war time, 582
Foreign policy, American traditions relating to, 606-607 nature of, 587-590 control of, 590-591 how conducted, 591-602
Forests, economic importance of, 331 _See_ also Reserves
Four Power Treaty, 619-620
Fourteen Points, the, 609-610
France, local government in, 227
Franchises, taxation of, 456 public service, 477-480
Freedom of speech in war time, 581-582
Free silver, the fight for, 428-430
Free trade, arguments for and against, 370-372
G
Garbage, disposal of, 527-528
Gary system, 506-507
General property tax, 455-456
“Gentlemen’s agreement”, with Japan, 32 in industry, 386
Geography, influence of, 8-9, 333-336
George, Henry, social views of, 461 _n_
Germany, social insurance in, 419
Gerrymander, origin and use of, 273
Gladstone, W. E., opinion of the national constitution, 256-257
Gompers, Samuel, 405
Government, the importance of, 13 as a factor in production, 51-52 the basis of obedience to, 63-65 origin of, 65-66 classification of, 66-69 purpose of, 70-72 functions of, 72-73 the study of, 74
Governor, position and powers of, 237-238
Grand jury, 318
Granges. _See_ Patrons of Husbandry
Greenbacks, the, 431
Guidance, vocational, 396-397
Guild operation, 488-489
H
Habeas corpus, the writ of, 317 _n_
Habit, influence of, 10
Hague Conferences, the, 577
Hamilton, Alexander, 255, 257 _Report on Manufactures_, 370
Hawaii, government of, 229 _n_
Hayes-Tilden election, 290 _n_
Highways in counties, 168
Hobbes, Thomas, defender of absolutism, 65
Holding companies, 387
Holy Alliance, 598-599
Home rule, municipal, 187-190
House of Representatives, federal, organization and work of, 272-283
Housing, municipal control of, 531-533
I
Ideals, national, economic influence of, 327 effect of urban growth on, 184-186
Illiteracy in the United States, 502 _n_
Immigration, the course of, 23-24 causes of, 25-26 effects of, 26-29 restriction of, 29-30, 32
Impeachments, federal, 269-270
Income taxes, 458-459
Increasing returns, law of, 388
Incidence of taxation, 451-452
Individualism as an economic system, 14, 73
Index numbers, 443 _n_
Industrial accidents, 411-412 courts, 410-411 democracy, 393-394 Revolution, nature of, 383-384 Revolution, effect on labor, 400-401, 414 _n_ Workers of the World (the I. W. W.), 405
Industry, definition of, 383 development and organization of, 384-386 combinations in, 386-389 government regulation of, 389-393 present-day problems of, 393-397 the hygiene of, 520-521
Inheritances, taxes on, 458
Initiative and referendum, origin and spread of, 107-108 how used, 109-110 value of, 110-111 objections to, 111-112
Injunctions, use of, in labor disputes, 407-408
Insular possessions, government of, 229-230
Insane, problem of the, 549-550
Insects as disease carriers, 518-519
Insurance, against accident, 413 against unemployment, 418 against old age, 419
Interest on invested capital, 49-50
Interior Department, its work, 299 _n_
International, The, 651-652
International law, nature and scope of, 588-590
Interstate commerce, growth of, 359-361 regulation of, 362-364 Commerce Commission, jurisdiction and work of, 363-364
Interpretation, development of the constitution by, 259-260
J
Jackson, Andrew, removals from office by, 102
Japan, relations with, 618-620
Japanese, problem of the, on Pacific slope, 32-33
Jefferson, Thomas, believer in social contract theory, 65 on entangling alliances, 598, 606
Johnson, Andrew, impeachment of, 270 _n_
Judicial procedure, 317-323
Judicial supremacy, the doctrine of, 310-311
Judges, selection and removal of, 239-240
Jukes, the, 542-543
Junior high schools and colleges, 502-503
Jury, grand, 318 trial, 318-319 merits and defects of, 317-321
Justice, Department of, its work, 299 _n_
Juvenile delinquency, 557
K
Kansas plan of arbitration, 410-411
Knights of Labor, 402-403
L
Labor, as a factor in production, 43-44 division of, 44-46 perishable nature of, 46-47 federal department of, 299 _n_
Labor in agriculture, 349 changes in the conditions of, 400-401 organization of, 401-403 American Federation of, 403-404 the radical element in, 404-405 methods and policies of, 405-410 problems of, 410-419 services of, during the World War, 419-420 relations of, to League of Nations, 637
Latin-America, relations with, 615-617
Law, branches of the, 314-315 military, 573-574 martial, 574-575 relations of labor to, 411
League of Nations, origin of the, 625-630 covenant of, 630-632 as a scheme of government, 632-636 system of mandates, 636-637 relation of labor to, 637 public health work of, 638 American objections to, 638-639 work of, 639-640 relation of Washington Conference to, 640-641 future of, 641-642 relation of Monroe Doctrine to, 600 _n_
Legislative reference bureaus, 237 _n_
Legislatures, state, decline of confidence in, 108 organization of, 235-237
L’Enfant, Major, planning of Washington by, 207
Liquor traffic, its effect upon the public health, 526-527
Loans to European countries, 613-614 _See_ also Debts
Lobbying, 237 _n_
Local government in Europe and America compared, 178-179
Locke, John, his theory of political obedience, 64
Lockouts, industrial, 407
Lockwood Committee, its investigations, 55 _n_
London, first civil police established in, 216 poverty in, 541
Los Angeles, origin of recall in, 114
Louisiana Purchase, 228
Lusitania, sinking of the, 609
M
McCulloch _v._ Maryland, the case of, 435 _n_
Machines, political, 159-160
Madison, James, on the need of national defence, 564 contributions to _The Federalist_, 257
Magna Carta, 79, 323, 495
Maine, Sir Henry, on the rise of men from status to contract, 56
Management, industrial, as a factor in production, 50-51
Mandate (_mandamus_), the writ of, 317 _n_
Mandates, the system of, 636-637
Martial law, 574-575
Mayor, position and powers of the, 190-191
Mentally defective, the problem of the, 549-550
Merchant marine, 375-376
Mergers in industry, 387
Merit system, origin of, 103-104 workings of, 104-105 value of, 105-106 in the consular service, 374
Metropolitan counties, 173-174
Mexico, relations with, 615-617
Military government, 575 _n_
Military law, 573-574
Militarism, the encouragement of, 565-566
Milk, inspectors of, 524-525
Mines and minerals, economic importance of, 329-340 their relation to conquest, 334-335
Minimum wage laws, 416-417
Minor political parties, 152-153
Mints in the United States, 428
Money, origin of, 424-425 functions and characteristics of, 425-427
Money, forms of, in the United States, 427-433 relation of credit to, 442-443 quantity theory of, 444 _See_ also Currency
Monopolies, types of, 54 effects of, 55 industrial, 387-388 natural, 474-475
Monroe Doctrine, origin and nature of, 596-599 present status of, 600-601
Municipal problems, 203-222 _See_ also City government
N
National banks, organization and work of, 435-439 Farmers’ Alliance, 350 Guard, relation of federal authorities to, 568-569
Naturalization, requirements for, and procedure in, 81-82
Natural monopolies, 474-475 resources, 326-336 selection, the principle of, 3-4
Navy, growth and organization of, 575-576 _See_ also Disarmament
Near East, American interests in, 620
Negroes, migration of, to the United States, 27 present numbers and distribution, 30-31 problems of, 31-32 voting rights of, 261-262
Neutrality, laws of, 589 American contributions to the rights of, 601
New England town, the government of, 175-176
New York City, population of, 23 poverty in, 541
New Zealand, compulsory arbitration in, 409 _n_
Nominations, history of, 120-121 methods of making, 127-129 _See_ also Conventions, Primary
Normal schools, 504
Northern Securities Case, 365-390
O
Oil, the conservation of, 329-330
Old age pensions, 419
Open shop, controversies over, 408-409
Optional charter system, 189 _n_
Oregon, direct legislation in, 110
Organization, of industry, 50-51, 384-385 of labor, 401-405
Ownership, public. _See_ Public ownership
P
Pacific, problems of the, 618-620
Panama Canal, the, 617
Pan-American Congress, 617
Parks and recreation grounds, 212
Parole system, 555-556
Parties, political, nature and functions of, 145-150 history of, 150-151 programs of, 151-154 the voter’s relation to, 154-155 organization of, 156-161 finance of, 161-162 reform of, 162-163
Partnerships, business, 50
Patents, 55
Patrons of Husbandry, 350
Pauperism, nature of, and remedies for, 540-549
Pavements, 210-212
Peel, Sir Robert, first civil police system established by, 216 _n_
Penn, William, plan of colonial union proposed by, 248
Pensions, the cost of, 583 old age, 419
Petitions, for direct legislation, 109
Picketing during labor troubles, 407
Playground, training for citizenship on the, 86
Philippines, government of the, 229 _n_, 230 _n_
Plumb Plan, 366, 489
Pocket veto, 294
Police, history of, 215-216 organization of, 216-217
Poll taxes, 456
Pools in industry, 386-387
Poor relief, history and methods of, 540-549
Popular sovereignty, 94-95
Population, growth of, 19-20 distribution of, 20-21 center of, 21 drift of, to the cities, 22-23
“Pork barrel”, in Congress, 464 _n_
Porto Rico, government of, 229 _n_
Poverty, extent and causes of, 540-545 methods of dealing with, 545-549
President of the United States, position and powers of, 286-297 control of army, 571-572 control of navy, 576
Preparedness for war, the true nature of, 578-580
Price-fixing by governments, 391
Prices, relation of, to value, 53-54 to money and credit, 443-444 to taxes, 452
Primary, the different forms of, 127-129
Prisons and prison reform, 554-555
Private property, regulation of, 214-215
Probation system, 556-557
Production, economic, 41-42 the factors in, 42-52 large-scale, 388-389
Profit sharing, 394-395
Profits, nature and basis of, 51
Property, private. _See_ Private Property
Proportional representation, 134-136
Prosecuting attorney, 171-172
Protective tariffs, arguments for, 370-371 arguments against, 371-372
Public buildings, in counties, 168 in cities, 212-214
Public domain, 327-328
Public health, importance of, 514-515 progress in the protection of, 515-516 menaces to, 516-520 methods of safeguarding, 521-534 enforcement of regulations relating to, 534-535
Public Health Service, federal, 534-535
Public libraries, 504-505
Public opinion, nature and influence of, 94-96
Public ownership, in Europe, 482 in America, 483 arguments for, 483-485 arguments against, 435-437
Public service commissions, 480-481
Q
Quantity theory of money and prices, 444
Quarantine, methods of, 522-523
R
Races in the United States, 19-33
Radicalism, growth of, 646-647
Railroads, the beginnings of, 362-363 relation of, to Sherman Act, 364-365 in war time, 365-366 government operation of, 366-367 return to private operation of, 367 future of, 368
Railway Labor Board, 367
Ratio of representation, 272
Recall of officers, 113-114
Recess appointments, 271
Reciprocity with Canada, 373
Reconstruction, economic, in Europe, 614-615 political and economic, 646-661
Redistricting, 273
Refunding of public debts, 468
Registration of voters, 125-126
Regular army, 567-568
Removals from office, 106
Rent, its nature, 43
Representation, proportional, 134-136
Representatives, effect of direct legislation on the quality of, 112 the choice of, 96-97 proper function of, 98-99
Reserves, forest, 332-333
Restraint of trade, 389-390
Resources, natural, 326-336
Revolution, American, as a unifying factor, 248
Rings, political, 160-161
Rome, ancient, prestige of citizenship in, 80-81
Roosevelt, Theodore, on national defence, 565 _n_ in Venezuela controversy, 590
Rule of reason, the, 390
Rural exodus, the, 351-352
Russia, the new government in, 647-652
S
Sales tax, as proposed, 462
Schools. _See_ Education
Second jeopardy, 320
Secret diplomacy, 595-596
Selective service in war time, 570-571
Selectmen, boards of, in towns, 176
Senate of the United States, organization and powers of, 267-272 rejection of treaties by, 631
Senatorial courtesy. _See_ Courtesy of the Senate
Sewage, collection and disposal of, 527-528
Sheriff, office of, 171
Sherman Act, 364-365, 389-390, 391 _n_
Shipping Board, 375
Single tax, as proposed, 461-462
Short ballot, 132-133 in county elections, 174
Sinking funds, 468
Smith, Adam, on the canons of taxation, 455
Smoke abatement in cities, 531
Social contract, theory of, 65 control, 14-15 control, the limits to, 72-73 insurance as a means of reducing poverty, 548
Socialism, defined and explained, 652-653 arguments for, 653-654 arguments against, 654-658
Socialist party, its rise and present status, 154
Society, its origin and nature, 1-13
Soil, economic importance of, 327-328 exhaustion of, 345
Soviet system in Russia, 647-650
Speaker, office of, 274-275
Special assessments, 457
Spoils system, 101-103 in the consular service, 374
State Department, its work, 591
States, nature of, 62-63 relation of local government to, 186-190, 219-220 relation to national government, 226-227 admission of, 227-230 constitutions of, 230-232 functions of, 232-233 legislative organization in, 235-237 executive organization in, 237-238 judicial organization in, 239-240 encouragement of agriculture by, 348 control of corporations by, 392 tax systems of, 457-458 educational work of, 496-497 supervision of public health by, 534
Statutes and statutory law, 315-316
Steam, revolution in industry caused by, 384
Stock exchange, functions of, 445-446
Streets, planning of, 208-209 width and arrangement, 209-210 paving of, 210-212
Strikes, how organized, 406-407
Succession to the presidency, 296
Suffrage, history of, 119-120 negro, 120-121 universal, 121-122 _See_ also Elections, Voting
Supreme Court of the United States, its constitutional functions, 259-260 its organization and influence, 308-311
T
Tariffs and tariff policy, 368-372
Taxation, in cities, 220-222 the burden of, 450-451 the incidence of, 451-453 special nature of, 453-454 principles of, 454-455 local, 455-457 state, 457-458 national, 458-459 the two purposes of, 459-460 exemptions from, 460-461 the reform of, 461-462
Taxes, on immigrants, 30 as an element in the cost of production, 52
Teachers, the training of, 503-504
Tenements. _See_ Housing
Territories, the government of, 229-230
Timber, the conservation of, 331-332
Town government, 175-176
Towner-Sterling Bill, 499 _n_
Township government, 176-177
Trade unions. _See_ Organization of labor
Traffic zones, 210
Transportation Act, 364, 367
Treasury, Department of the, 299 _n_
Treaties, ratification of, by the Senate, 271 commercial, 373 how made, 596-597
Trial by jury, 318-321
Tribe, its place in political evolution, 66
Triple Alliance, 628-629
Trusts, industrial, 387
Tweed, William M., 161 _n_
Typhoid fever, its cause and method of transmission, 517-518
U
Unemployment, the problem of, 417-418
Unions, labor, aims and methods of, 401-410
Universal military training, merits and defects of, 578
Usage, development of constitution by, 258-259
Utility, the principle of, in determining demand, 40-41
Utilities, public, 215 the nature of, 474-476 regulation of, 470-477 franchises of, 477-480 public ownership of, 481-488 guild operation of, 488-489
V
Vaccination and inoculation, effects of 523-524
Value, definition of, 53
Versailles, Treaty of, 610, 631 _n_
Vice president, election of, 288 duties of, 270 _n_ functions of the, 296-297
Veto power, the President’s, 294-295
Vocation, the choice of a, 396-397
Vocational education, 507-508 _See_ also Guidance, vocational
Volunteers, use of, in war, 569-570
Voting, preferential, 133-134 qualifications for, 122-125 absent, 138 compulsory, 138-139 by machine, 139-140 in Congress, 278 _n_ _See_ also Registration of voters, Suffrage
W
Wages, factors affecting the rate of, 47-48
War, the cost of, 563-564 the causes of, 566-567 preparedness for, 578-581 the laws of, 588-589 humanizing of, 601 measures for the prevention of, 635-636 _See_ also Arbitration, Hague Conferences, League of Nations, Washington Conference
War Industries Board, 582
Washington Conference, 575 _n_, 577, 619-620
Washington Conference, relation of League of Nations to, 640-641
Washington, George, as a non-partisan President, 102 on the weakness of the Confederation, 252 at the constitutional convention, 254 on two-house legislatures, 266 advice on foreign policy, 597-598, 606 _n_
Waste disposal, methods of, in cities, 527-528
Water supply, sources and methods of, 529-530
Wealth, definition of, 39
Weather Bureau, importance of its work, 347
Wellington, the Duke of, on the value of organized play, 87
Wider use of the school plant, 505-506
Whitehall, Indiana, center of population, 21
Wilson, Woodrow, on the aims of America in the World War, 609-610 _See_ also Fourteen Points, League of Nations, World War
Woman suffrage, the winning of, 262
Women, in industry, the protection of, 413-414
Workman’s compensation, 413
World power, the United States in relation to, 606-621
World War, rise of wages during, 48 American agriculture during, 342-343 American labor during, 419-420 public debts resulting from, 466 powers of the government during, 580-583 America’s part in, 608-609 cost of, 612 problems created by, 646-661
Writs at law, 317 _n_
Y
Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, 347
Footnotes
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Transcriber’s Note
The index entry regarding the duties of the Vice President refers to a note on p. 270, but no such note exists.
The index entry regarding compulsory arbitration in New Zealand refers to a note on p. 419. The note appears on p. 409.
Other errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected, and are noted here. The references are to the page and line in the original. Where the error is in a footnote, the original note is included and the line within it.
71.32 protect a[rg/gr]iculture Transposed. 80.2 It wa[s] a long and grim struggle Restored. 82.34 In the case of the Porto Ricans[,] citizenship Added. 105.10 They are practical[ in] their nature. Added. 179.33 and[ and] the county-manager plans. Removed. 193.7 that i[s/t] encourages Replaced. 250.26 [I/i]t could act only Replaced. 316.13 many states[.] Added. 329.8 restocking of lakes with fish)[.] Added. 353.33 _The Non-Partisan League_, pp.269-283[;/.] Replaced. 379.33 and future development[.] Added. 418.10 a certain p[re/er]centage of the total Transposed. 465.12 to the present taxpayers[.] Added. 468.n2.2 life of a public i[n/m]provement Replaced. 470.10 _Public Finance_, [pp. ]261-280. Added. 471.11 p. 457.[)] Added. 618.6 mastery of the Pacific[.] Added. 673.29 I do solem[n]ly swear Inserted. 683.6 a Senator or Represen[t]ative Inserted.