Chapter IX

ESSAYS

1. DISCUSSIONS ON POLITICS AND SOCIETY

Two Italian books of the early sixteenth century became so famous as to be almost proverbial. Written about the same time, Macchiavelli’s _Principe_ (1513) and Castiglione’s _Cortegiano_ (1514) are complementary. Macchiavelli expounds princely policy in war and in the truces between wars; Castiglione leads princely leisure into culture. The policy and the culture are parts of the same Italian world; but the two books are in sharpest contrast. Macchiavelli’s facts are strictly analyzed; Castiglione’s are habitually idealized. Macchiavelli’s style is stripped and so fused with the message as to be inseparable; Castiglione’s is ample, manipulating the decorative diffuseness of its time and its setting to elegance. Macchiavelli’s economy is insistent, urgent; Castiglione’s is gracious, deliberate, suggestive, rising to oratory. Both men used their thorough control of Latin to shape their writing of Italian prose; but Macchiavelli was applying rather such compression as that of Tacitus, Castiglione the composition of Cicero.

It is Macchiavelli’s triumph that consideration of his doctrine has quite submerged his style.

I have not adorned nor distended this book with ample cadences, nor with precious or magnificent words or any other extrinsic charm or ornament, such as many are wont to use for descriptive decoration; for I have wished that nothing might win it praise, in other words that it should be acceptable only for the truth of its matter and the gravity of its subject (Dedication to Lorenzo).

Since my object is to write something useful to him who understands it, I have thought it more fitting to follow rather the effectual truth of the thing itself than its concept [immaginazione] (Opening of xv).

His name soon became a byword; for Englishmen and Frenchmen found it easier to denounce Italian statecraft than to explain wherein their own was different. Formulated for Italian despots, his doctrine that the safety and independence of the state are paramount over any consideration of justice or mercy became more and more sinister in terms of the rising new national monarchs beyond his ken. In the composition of the whole Macchiavelli was still young. He had not yet achieved the sure control felt in his _Istorie fiorentine_. Masterly already in expository analysis, eloquent in its close, the _Principe_ has not a compelling logical sequence.

In sequence and in detail the _Cortegiano_ is more mature than Macchiavelli’s _Principe_. Castiglione kept it by him ten years. The final revision (Codex Laurentianus, Rome, 1524) was published at Florence in 1528. All this care left the diction unpretentious. Scholarly without pedantry, Castiglione even forestalls the Tuscans by openly proclaiming his right to Lombard words. “I have written in my own tongue, and as I speak, and to those who speak as I do.” Thinking often of rhetoric, feeling the Latin period and attentive to _clausula_, he applies his lore to Italian sentences without stiffness or formality, happily reconciling gravity with ease. Encomium, inevitable in his subject and his time, is oftener implied than dilated. The plan of the dialogue is taken from Cicero’s _De oratore_. Reminiscence in detail is negligible. Castiglione’s imitation is not the common Renaissance borrowing of passages; it is the adaptation of Cicero’s plan for presenting the typical Roman statesman to survey of the typical Italian. Thus the dialogue is Ciceronian in proceeding logically from point to point. Within the frame of Cicero the conduct of the book expands the dialogue toward conversation. This is not dramatic dialogue; nor is it imitation of the Platonic quest. Rather Castiglione’s intention was to realize the human scene, to flavor the point with the speaker; and his achievement in suggesting the gracious interchange of the court of Urbino has been found quite as significant as the conclusions of his debates.

For the _Cortegiano_ is one of the few Renaissance books that have endured the test of time. Details of place and time have been made to carry so much larger human suggestion that it has been reprinted again and again; it has been widely translated; it has today an audience not only of special students, but of the many more who love literature. Though the very term “courtier” is obsolete, though the particular social function soon faded, the book endures. It is not only the best of Renaissance dialogues; it is a classic.

The _Utopia_ (1516) of Sir Thomas More, beginning as a dialogue on certain social evils in England, passes to descriptive exposition of a state organized and operated solely for the common weal. Though the name _Utopia_ means “nowhere,” this polity is described as the actual experience of a returned traveler. The literary form is thus reminiscent of Lucian, whom More ten years before had translated with Erasmus. It is reminiscent also of Plato, of the travelers’ tales popular in that age of discovery and explanation, and more faintly of those distant or fortunate isles (_îles lointaines_) which had often been posed as abodes of idealized communities. But though these hints were doubtless intended, they are incidental. They fade as we read on.

Unfortunately for More’s literary reputation, most of us read his best-known book only in a pedestrian translation (Ralph Robinson, 1551; second edition, 1556). Keeping much of the vivacity of the diction, this is quite unequal to More’s flexible Latin rhythms.[84] For More, as for Poliziano and Leonardo Aretino, Erasmus and Buchanan, Latin was a primary language. But whereas Erasmus had, so to speak, no effective vernacular, More’s literary achievement in English is both distinguished in itself and ahead of his time. In spite of some uncertain ascriptions, we may be fairly sure that the English version of his _Richard III_,[85] as well as the Latin, is his own.

Continued discussion of the prince and the state moved Sir Thomas Elyot (1490?-1546) to make an English compilation for the widening circle of readers, _The Governour_ (1531, ed. H. S. Croft, London, 1883, 2 vols.). “I have nowe enterprised,” he says in a proem to Henry VIII, “to describe in our vulgare tunge the fourme of a juste publike weale, whiche mater I have gathered as well of the sayenges of moste noble autours (grekes and latynes) as by myne owne experience.” But the “governour” and the “juste publike weale” receive no consistent discussion.

The opening chapters, postulating _order_, proceed thence to _honour_ (i.e., rank), and so to _one sovereign_. Their review of history is very slight; and from Chapter iv Book I is occupied rather with the education of a gentleman. Book II is composed mainly of _exempla_ to illustrate the virtues appropriate to high position; and Book III adds little more than further classified aggregation.

With no further design, without even a distinct idea, _The Governour_ has of course no logical progress. Lawyer and something of a diplomat, Elyot was not a thinker. Reading widely without discrimination, and sometimes apparently at second hand, he compiled under headings. His later _Bankette of Sapience_ (second edition? 1542) is a collection of _sententiae_ arranged alphabetically under abstinence, adversity, affection, ambition, authoritie, amitie, apparaile, almsdeede, accusation, arrogance, etc. His _Governour_, though its headings have more logic, is hardly consecutive. In sources as in topics the book is a miscellany.

I. vii, viii, for instance, on a gentlemanly, not a professional knowledge of music, painting, and sculpture, suggest the _Cortegiano_; xii inquires “why gentilmen in this present time be not equal in doctryne to the auncient noblemen”; xiv proposes _exempla_ for law students. After finding England deficient in the fine arts (140), he returns to law students with a recommendation of rhetoric, and thereupon itemizes it (149) under _status_, _inventio_, etc. By the end of the book he has passed from prudence to chess, archery, tennis, and bowls.

Elyot’s diction, though he wishes to “augment our Englysshe tongue,” is Latinized sparingly. _Copie_ in the sense of the Latin _copia_, was fairly common in his time. He adds, e.g., _allecte_ and _allectyve_, _coarted_, _fatigate_, _fucate_, _illecebrous_, _infuded_, _propise_, and _provecte_. His generally unpretentious habit is sometimes concretely racy.

Jean Bodin’s treatise on historical method (_Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem_, 1566),[86] giving high praise to Guicciardini, differs from him in conception. For Bodin, history is less a progress in time than a thesaurus of _exempla_.

Dividing it into human, natural, and divine, he would have us begin with a chronological reference table (ii), proceed to a more detailed survey, such as Funck’s or Melanchthon’s, advance to the histories of particular nations, Jews, Greeks, Romans, and then to such smaller communities as Rhodes, Venice, and Sicily, with constant attention to geography.

In iii, _De locis historiarum recte instituendis_, the topics are first the commonplaces of encomium: birth, endowments, achievements, morals, culture. From the family, which for Bodin is the starting point of history, we are to proceed to the organization of the state and the developments of the arts.

_De historicorum delectu_ (iv) has many specific and acute estimates of both ancients and moderns. “Somehow those who are active in wars and affairs (44) shy at writing; and those who have given themselves somewhat more to literature are so possessed with its charms and sweetness as hardly to think in other terms.” Bodin himself is broad enough to praise both Plutarch and Tacitus.

_De recto historiarum iudicio_ (v), beginning with geography, proceeds to regional traits. The approach is suggestive; but the development is little more than aggregation under those dubious headings Northern and Southern, Eastern and Western.

At this point (vi) Bodin begins the analysis of the state: the elemental family, the citizen, the magistrate, the king. “Macchiavelli, indeed, the first after some twelve hundred years since the barbarians to write on the state, has won general currency; but there is no doubt that he would have written several things more truly and better if he had added legal tradition (_usus_) to his knowledge of ancient philosophers and historians” (140). Monarchy is found to be the ideal form of government. The golden age of primitive peace and happiness is proved to be a senile fancy (vii). Let us rather, relying on the science of numbers, _De temporis universi ratione_ (viii), compute the recurrence of historical “cycles.” Strange conclusion to so much hard reasoning!

Systematically analytical, the book is easier to consult than to follow; but its Latin style is of that sincere, capable, unpretentious sort which had been established for history by the Italians. The political ideas of the _Methodus_ are carried out by the same systematic analysis in Bodin’s second book, _Les Six Livres de la république_, 1576.[87] Greek and Latin political usage is made by a long wall of citations to support, with other proofs from history, the theory of absolute monarchy.

Such support of the new monarchies by a reasoned theory based on ancient history did not pass unchallenged. George Buchanan, with more literary competence in Latin, though with less knowledge of politics, offered for his little Scotland a theory of monarchy answerable to the people (_De jure regni apud Scotos dialogus_, 1579).[88] The preface, addressed to James VI, keeps a tutorial tone, as of one still laying down the law. The occasion put forth for the Ciceronian dialogue is French reprobation of Scotch politics. How shall this be met? The method is evident from the first three points.

To distinguish a king from a tyrant, we must remember that society is founded not only on utility, but on natural law implanted by God. A king is typically shepherd, leader, governor, physician, created not for his own ends, but for the welfare of his people (1-6).

Kingship, being an _ars_ based on _prudentia_, needs guidance by laws (8). Objection: who would be king on these terms? Answer: ancient history and doctrine show motives higher than lust for power and wealth (9).

These two points being iterated in summary for transition, the third is the need not only of laws, but of a council (11-14).

The many _exempla_ from ancient and modern history confirming or challenging the _a priori_ progress of the dialogue do not touch the recent events that raised the question. Scotch history is used even less specifically than ancient to confirm the theory of limited monarchy. But though Buchanan does not prove that recent politics were an application of his theory, he makes the theory itself interesting and sometimes persuasive.

The Latin style has more liveliness, expertness, and range than Bodin’s. But the argument, though urgent as well as scholastically ingenious, remains unconvincing. After debating general considerations inconclusively, it falls back at last on the particular customs and needs of Scotland. These are not applied specifically enough to be determining. The expertness of the dialogue is rather literary than argumentative.

Brought down to the market place by printing, controversy by the end of the century was learning the ways of journalism in pamphlets. Meantime printing had opened such compilation as Elyot’s, samples of learning for those eager readers who had not gone to school with the Latin manuals of Erasmus.

The best of these sixteenth-century discussions, the piercing urgency of Macchiavelli, the charming exposition of Castiglione, the philosophical survey of More, the systematic analysis of Bodin, the hot attack of Buchanan, are all essays in that modern sense of the word which applies it to consecutive exposition involving argument. They show essay-writing of this kind—which was to move more surely in the seventeenth century—already on a firm footing. They recognize the Italian tradition of history in abjuring the decorative dilation which was habitual in other fields. They show Latin and vernacular side by side, and vernacular prose gaining point and finish from the Latin commanded by all their writers. They are a solid literary achievement of the Renaissance.

2. MONTAIGNE

The other kind of essay, the literary form that has kept the original meaning of attempt, sketch, experiment, had its pace set late in the sixteenth century by Montaigne. Nothing could be farther removed than his habit from tidy system or consecutive argument. Devoted to the reading of history, and eager to share its profits, he had no mind to follow the Italian tradition of writing history. _Essai_ in his practice is not the settling of a subject, but the trying. He makes one approach, then another, suggesting relations that he does not carry out. With many _exempla_ he invites us to accumulate philosophy of living. If we do not coöperate, if we do not think them over, his essays remain collections of items in memorable phrase, without compelling sequence of ideas. For Montaigne is not the kind of philosopher who integrates a system; he is a sage. He has the sage’s oral habit. No writing conveys more the impression of thinking aloud. Again and again he writes as if making up his mind, not before utterance, but by the very process of utterance. Macchiavelli, or Bodin, having made up his mind fully and finally, tries to convince us; Montaigne, as if making up his in our company, throws out suggestions.

True, some few of his essays are more consecutive developments of what he has concluded. His early and widely quoted _Education of Children_ (II. xxvi) has even some logical progress.

But logical sequence is not Montaigne’s habit. His many revisions[89] show him leaning more and more on the aggregation of separate suggestions. He changes words, he adds instances, but he does not seek a stricter order.

But I am going off a little to the left of my theme.... I, who take more pains with the weight and usefulness of my discourses than with their order and sequence, need not fear to lodge here, a little off the track, a fine story (II. xxvii).

This bundling of so many various pieces is made on condition that I put hand to it only when urged by too lax a leisure, and only when I am at home (II. xxxvii, opening).

His usual lack of sequence, then, is not careless. The careless fumbling that comes from muddled thinking he ridicules.

They themselves do not yet know what they mean, and you see them stammer in bringing it forth, and judge that their labor is not in childbirth, but in conception, and that they are only licking what is not yet formed (I. xxvi).

As to sequence he even catechizes himself.

Is it not making bricks without straw, or very like, to build books without science and without art? The fantasies of music are conducted by art, mine by chance.

And his answer is very earnest.

At least I have this from my course of study (_discipline_), that never a man treated a subject that he understood and knew better than I do the one that I have undertaken, and that in this subject I am the most learned man alive; secondly, that no one ever penetrated farther into its material, nor peeled more sedulously its parts and their consequences, nor reached more precisely and fully the end that he had proposed for his job. To accomplish this, I need bring no more than fidelity. That I have, the most sincere and pure that is to be found (III. ii).

Montaigne’s method, then, is deliberate.[90] If he passes, as in _Des coches_ (III. vi), from examples of lavish display to the cruelty of Spanish conquest in Mexico and frankly begins his last paragraph with _retumbons à nos coches_, that is because he usually prefers to take us on a journey around his idea. Hundreds of readers have found the talk of such a guide on the way more winsome than the conclusions of others after they have come home.

The art of growing an idea by successive additions sets the pace also for his sentences. Knowing Latin, he tells us, as a native language, and better than French, he puts aside Cicero for Seneca. This is more than the rejection of Ciceronianism, more than preference for Seneca’s philosophy; it is in detail the same aggregative method that he uses for the composition of a whole essay. That vernacular sentences were commonly more aggregative than those of Augustan Latin may have been a reason for his choosing the vernacular. At any rate, he keeps the two languages quite apart. Instead of applying his Latin to the pointing of his French sentences, he prefers to let them accumulate as in talk.

(1) They do still worse who keep the revelation of some intention of hatred toward their neighbor for their last will,

(2) having hid it during their lives,

(3) and show that they care little for their own honor,

(4) irritating the offense by bringing it to mind,

(5) instead of bringing it to conscience,

(6) not knowing how, even in view of death, to let their grudge die,

(7) and extending its life beyond their own. (I. vii.)

The sentence might easily have been recast in a Latin period; Montaigne prefers to let it reach its climax by accumulation.

(1) Nature has furnished us, as with feet for walking, so with foresight to guide our lives,

(2) foresight not so ingenious, robust, and pretentious as the sort that explores (_invention_),

(3) but as things come, easy, quiet, and healthful,

(4) and doing very well what other people say,

(5) in those who have the knack of using it simply and regularly,

(6) that is to say, naturally. (III. xiii.)

So his epigrams are comparatively few and simple. His many memorable sayings are not paraded as _sententiae_.

It is not a soul, not a body, that we are educating; it is a man (I. xxvi).

Unable to regulate events, I regulate myself, and adjust myself to them if they do not adjust themselves to me (II. xvii).

The teaching that could not reach their souls has stayed on their lips (III. iii).

Between ourselves, two things have always seemed to me in singular accord, supercelestial opinions and subterranean morals (III. xiii).

For Montaigne’s shrewd summaries prevail less often by balanced sentences than by concrete diction.

I am seldom seized by these violent passions. My sensibility is naturally dense; and I encrust and thicken it daily by discourse (I. ii).

Anybody’s job is worth sounding; a cowherd’s, a mason’s, a passer-by’s, all should be turned to use, and each lend its wares; for everything comes handy in the kitchen (I. xxvi).

Such sentences, such diction, are not only his practice; they are part of his literary theory.

The speech that I like is simple and direct, the same on paper as on the lips, speech succulent and prompt (_nerveux_), curt and compact, not so much delicate and smoothed as vehement and brusque—_Haec demum sapiet dictio quae feriet_—rather tough than tiresome, shunning affectation, irregular, loose, and bold, each bit for itself, not pedantic, not scholastic, not legal, but rather soldierly (I. xxvi).

The urgent metrical sentence of poetry seems to me to soar far more suddenly and strike with a sharper shock [The figure is of a falcon] (I. xxvi).

These good people (Vergil and Lucretius) had no need of keen and subtle antitheses. Their diction is all full, and big with a natural and constant force. They are all epigram, not only the tail, but the head, the stomach, and the feet.... It is an eloquence not merely soft and faultless; it is prompt and firm, not so much pleasing as filling and quickening the strongest minds. When I see those brave forms of expression, so vivid, so deep, I do not call it good speaking; I call it good thinking (III. v).[91]

So he cannot stomach that Renaissance imitation which ran to borrowing, nor that display of Latin style for itself which published even private letters.

Those indiscreet writers of our century who go sowing in their worthless works whole passages from the ancients to honor themselves (I. xxvi).

But it surpasses all baseness of heart in persons of their rank that they have sought to derive a principal part of their fame from chatter and gossip, even to using the private letters written to their friends (I. xl).

So he is impatient with the unreality of romance.

Going to war only after having announced it, and often after having assigned the hour and place of battle (I. v).

Those Lancelots, Amadis, Huons, and such clutter of books to amuse children (I. xxvi).

Reviewing contemporary criticism of poetry, he says: “We have more poets than judges and interpreters of poetry; it is easier to make it than to know it” (I. xxxvii). “You may make a fool of yourself anywhere else,” he warns, “but not in poetry” (II. xvii). So there is no room for mediocre poetry.

Popular, purely natural poetry has simplicities and graces comparable with the eminent beauty of poetry artistically perfect, as is evident in the Gascon villanelles and in songs brought to us from illiterate peoples. Mediocre poetry, which is neither the one nor the other, is disdained, without honor or even esteem (I. liv).

Dismissing in a scornful phrase “the Spanish and Petrarchist fanciful elevations” (II. x), he exactly estimates the Latin poets of his time as “good artisans in that craft” (II. xvii). Perhaps a certain significance, therefore, attaches to his repeating the current complacency with regard to French poetry.

I think it has been raised to the highest degree it will ever attain; and in those directions in which Ronsard and Du Bellay excel I find them hardly below the ancient perfection (II. xvii).

Elsewhere, and habitually, Montaigne’s attitude toward the classics was quite different from the habit of the Renaissance. He sought not so much the Augustans as Seneca and the Plutarch of Amyot.

Je n’ay dressé commerce avec aucun livre solide sinon Plutarque et Seneque, où je puyse comme les Danaides, remplissant et versant sans cesse (I. xxvi).

These, and even Cicero and Vergil, he sought not for style, but for philosophy and morals. That sounder classicism of composition which, through the Italian tradition of history, had animated Renaissance essayists of the stricter sort he put aside. He was not interested in the ancient rhetoric of composition, nor, to judge from his slight attention to it, in that field of ancient poetic. He quotes both Dante and Tasso, but not in that aspect. He is not interested in the growing appreciation of Aristotle’s _Poetic_. In this disregard of composition, indeed, he was of the Renaissance; but he rejected and even repudiated Renaissance pursuit of classicism in style. There he adopted the sound doctrine of Quintilian and scornfully, to use his own word, abjured borrowed plumes and decorative dilation. If we use the word classical in its typical Renaissance connotation, we must call Montaigne, as well as Rabelais, anti-classical. Unlike as they are otherwise, they agree in satirizing Renaissance classicism.

The positive aspect of this rejection is Montaigne’s homely concreteness. Trying to teach his readers, not to dazzle them, he is very carefully specific. To leave no doubt of his meaning, he will have it not merely accepted, but felt. Therefore he is more than specific; he is concrete. Imagery for him is not mythology; it is of native vintage.

“In this last scene between death and us there is no more pretending. We have to speak French; we have to show how much that is good and clean is left at the bottom of the pot” (I. xix). Such expression strikes us not as wit, not as an aristocrat’s catering to the new public, but as the sincere use of sensory terms to animate ideas. If it reminds us sometimes of popular preaching, that is because Montaigne was a sage.

FOOTNOTES

[1] In H. Chamard, _Les Origines de la poésie française de la Renaissance_ (Paris, 1920), p. 256.

[2] Bembo, _Prose_, II. xxi (Venice, 1525).

[3] Allen, _Age of Erasmus_, p. 121.

[4] É. Egger, _L’Hellénisme en France_ (Paris, 1869), pp. 358-359; see Monnier, II, 134 for modern estimate of Renaissance Greek texts.

[5] _Prose_, I, vi (1525).

[6] Egger, p. 398.

[7] _Ibid._, p. 205.

[8] Edition of Osgood, pp. 119, 193.

[9] Probably the source of Rabelais’s Abbey of Thelème. He had read the book.

[10] Page references to 1596 edition.

[11] Edited by Louis Humbert, Paris, 1914.

[12] Sir John Cheke, however, spoke as a scholar when he wrote to Hoby: “I am of opinion that our own tung shold be written cleane and pure, vnmixt and vnmangeled with borrowing of other tunges.” Quoted in Arber’s Introduction to Ascham’s _Scholemaster_, p. 5.

[13] Parodied by _Orationes obscurorum virorum_ (before 1515), which was part of the Reuchlin-Pfefferkorn controversy.

[14] This is the exercise called by the ancients _declamatio_. See ARP (_Ancient Rhetoric and Poetic_) and a letter of Erasmus, May 1, 1506.

[15] _Bartholomaei Riccii De imitatione libri tres_ (Venice, 1545), folio 38 verso. See below, Chapter III, Sect. 3.

[16] MRP (_Medieval Rhetoric and Poetic_) I and II.

[17] Ep. 221 in Migne’s _Patrologia latina_ (Vol. 199, p. 247), which dates it 1167; Ep. 223, p. 389, in the collection of the letters of Gerbert, John of Salisbury, and Stephen of Tournay printed by Ruette (Paris, 1611). The letter is translated MRP 209.

[18] _Apologia dei dialoghi_, opening; p. 516 of the Venice, 1596, edition.

[19] For _De oratore_, see ARP.

[20] Minturno, _Arte poetica_, is mere catechism. Perionius hardly achieves dialogue at all; his interlocutors merely interrupt.

[21] _Analecta hymnica._

[22] For the pattern of the classical rhetoric, see ARP.

[23] MRP.

[24] Paul Spaak, _Jean Lemaire_ (Paris, 1926).

[25] Pierre Villey, _Les Grands Écrivains du xviᵉ siècle_, I, 83-97, 110-148.

[26] _Evvres de Louize Labé, Lionnoize_, revues et corrigées par la dite dame, à Lion, par Jean de Tournes, MDLVI (dedicatory epistle dated 1555).

[27] Each stanza of the _Epithalamion_ ends with a longer line (6 beats), which is the common refrain. The other lines have generally five beats, but the sixth and eleventh have only three; and this variation is occasionally extended. Generally there is a rhyme-shift after the eleventh line, but not a break (11 lines on 5 rhymes [or 4] plus 7 lines on 3 rhymes [or 4]). A few stanzas are lengthened to nineteen lines (11 plus 8). Thus the typical variations in this triumph of metrical interweaving are as follows, the underlined letters indicating the lines of three beats:

Stanza I a b a b c _c_ b c b d _d_ / e f f e e g g II a b a b c _c_ d c d f _f_ / g h h g g h h IV a b a b c _c_ d c d e _e_ / f g g h _h_ i i III. & VIII a b a b c _c_ d c d e _e_ / f g g f h _h_ i i (19 lines)

[28] _Œuvres complètes de P. de Ronsard_, ed. par Paul Laumonier (Paris, 1914-1919), I, 316.

[29] London, Wynkyn de Worde, 1515.

[30] For Petrarch and Boccaccio, see Carrara, _La poesia pastorale_, pp. 88-111.

[31] Edited by M. Scherillo (Torino, 1888).

[32] Written 1573; published 1580; edited by Angelo Solerti (Torino, 1901).

[33] _Le Premier Livre d’Amadis de Gaule_, publié sur l’édition originale par Hugues Vaganay (Paris, 1918), 2 vols.

[34] For Alamanni, see Henri Hauvette, _Un Exilé florentin ..._ Luigi Alamanni (Paris, 1903).

[35] Edited by G. B. Weston (Bari, 2 vols.).

[36] So I. iii. 31, 51; v. 13, 56; vi. 54; ix. 36; xi. 46; and throughout the poem.

[37] I. xxii is _fabliau_; and so, in various degrees, the stories inserted at I. vi. 22, xiii. 29, xxix. 3; II. i. 22, xiii. 9, xxvi. 22; III. ii. 47.

[38] E. Donadone, _Torquato Tasso_ (Venice, 1928).

[39] The stanzas are adapted by Spenser, FQ, Book II. xii. 74-75.

[40] Diocletian-giants-Brutus-Hogh-Gormet-Hercules, II. x. 7; Tristan-nymphs-Latona’s son, VI. ii. 25.

[41] Chapter VII.

[42] For Seneca, see ARP.

[43] _Opera_, II, 2.

[44] “Acta fuit Burdegalae Anno MDXLIII” in the colophon can hardly mean merely that the play was finished in that year.

[45] On tragicomedy, see H. C. Lancaster, _The French Tragicomedy, Its Origins and Development from 1552 to 1628_ (Baltimore, 1907).

[46] For Garnier in England, see A. M. Witherspoon, _The Influence of Robert Garnier on Elizabethan Drama_ (New Haven, 1924).

[47] For Plautus and Terence, see ARP.

[48] “Politian was in 1471, at the request of Cardinal Francesco Gonzaga, despatched to Mantua by Lorenzo de’ Medici to prepare an entertainment for the reception of Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza. The _Orfeo_, a lyric pastoral in dramatic form, prophetic of so much that was later to come, was the contribution of the brilliant humanist and poet to the Duke’s entertainment. It stands close to the fountainhead of European secular drama.” H. M. Ayres, preface to his translation of the _Orfeo_ in _Romanic Review_, XX (January, 1929), 1.

[49] See Chapter IV.

[50] Alfred Mortier, _Un Dramaturge populaire ... Ruzzante_. Œuvres compl. traduites pour la première fois (Paris, 1926).

[51] ARP and MRP.

[52] For Aristotle’s _Poetic_, see ARP.

[53] For discussion of the romances, see Chapter V. For Giraldi’s _novelle_, see Chapter VIII, 1, c.

[54] ARP.

[55] For Hermogenes, see MRP, pp. 23 ff.

[56] References are to the second edition of 1581. See also F. M. Padelford, _Select Translations from Scaliger’s Poetics_ (New York, 1905).

[57] See above, Du Bellay, Chapter II, pp. 3, 6.

[58] See H. B. Charlton, _Castelvetro’s Theory of Poetry_ (Manchester, 1913).

[59] Lodge’s feebler _Defence of Poetry_ (1579) has little other interest than the historical, i.e., as a reply to Gosson’s attack on the stage.

[60] In Smith’s reprint shortened by summary.

[61] Gregory Smith, II, 327-355.

[62] Gregory Smith, II, 356-384; Arthur Colby Sprague, _Samuel Daniel, Poems and a Defence of Ryme_ (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1930).

[63] Patrizzi’s refutation of Tasso, 68, 116, 144/5, 173, 175.

[64] Nevertheless two of his references (V. 116; VI. 125) suggest, perhaps without his intention, a relation between Plato’s _Symposium_ and Aristotle’s idea of creative imitation.

[65] Pellissier’s long introduction and valuable notes, though they need a few corrections by later studies, remain one of the most important surveys of the French development of poetic in the sixteenth century.

[66] But Vauquelin with Tasso bids poets leave pagan myth for Christian themes, though perhaps he refers only to subject; and he recognizes the place of Montemayor’s _Diana_ among pastorals.

[67] For Aristotle’s _imitation_, see ARP, pages 139 ff.

[68] D. L. Clark, _Rhetoric and Poetry in the Renaissance_ (New York, 1922).

[69] Cf. in Chapter VII Giraldi’s theory of the romance.

[70] This is inferred from a commendatory letter of Bartolomeo Cavalcanti prefixed to this fourth (1580) edition.

[71] For editions and translations, see Louis Berthé de Besaucèle, _J.-B. Giraldi_ (thesis at the University of Aix-en-Provence, Paris, 1920), pp. 109, 255, 258; for the French translator, Gabriel Chappuys, see p. 261.

[72] See above, p. 198.

[73] For the Gorgian figures, see MRP and Croll’s introduction to his edition of _Euphues_.

[74] Samuel Lee Wolff, _The Greek Romances in Elizabethan Prose Fiction_ (New York, Columbia University Press, 1912).

[75] _Op. cit._, pp. 173 seq. The quotation is at p. 177.

[76] H. Brown, _Rabelais in English Literature_ (Harvard Press, 1933), p. 19.

[77] _Cf._ Budé, Chapter I, for Renaissance complacency.

[78] Above, Chapter II.

[79] J. Plattard, _François Rabelais_ (Paris, 1932), p. 194.

[80] _Ibid._, p. 140.

[81] _Ibid._, pp. 115 seq.

[82] Plattard, p. 117.

[83] For _narratio_, see ARP.

[84] In the prefatory epistle to Petrus Aegidius about two-thirds of the first hundred clauses conform to the _cursus_ of the curial _dictamen_ (MRP). These clauses compose about twenty sentences ending: _planus_, 6 (30%); _tardus_, 2 (10%); _velox_, 7 (35%); unconformed, 5 (25%). Inconclusive, this may be worth further study.

[85] See above, Chapter VIII.

[86] Citations are from Jacobus Stoer’s edition of 1595.

[87] The fourth edition, cited here, by Gabriel Cartier, 1599. Meantime Bodin had published in 1586 a revised edition in Latin, _De re publica libri vi_.

[88] Edition cited Edinburgh (Freebairn), 1715, _Opera omnia_, ed. Thomas Ruddiman, Vol. I.

[89] See F. Strowski, _Montaigne_ (Paris, 1931).

[90] “Qu’il n’est rien si contraire à mon style qu’une narration estendue (i.e., _narratio_, sustained exposition); je me recouppe si souvent à fault d’haleine; je n’ay ni composition ny explication qui vaille” (I. xxi).

[91] This is the doctrine of Quintilian, whom he quotes. ARP.

INDEX

_Abraham and Isaac_, 136

_Accademia della Crusca_, 30

_Achilleis_ (Statius), 185

Achilles Tatius, 79, 87, 188

Acciajuoli, Donato, 214

_Actores octo_, _see_ _Auctores octo_

Adrian, Cardinal Corneto, 24

_Aeneid_, 102, 104, 114, 121, 126, 127, 165, 185

Aeschines, 26

Alain de Lille, 9, 10

Alamanni, Luigi, 13, 67, 96-98

Alberti, Leone Battista, 27

Aldus Manutius, 9, 20

Alexandrian literature, 7, 78, 90

Alexandrianism, 123, 188

Allegory, 123, 130, 133

Alliteration, 87, 129, 199

Alunno, Francesco, 31, 37

_Amadis of Gaul_, 95

_Amants fortunés, Les_, 194

_Ameto_ (Boccaccio), 82, 84

_Aminta_ (Tasso), 87, 147, 153

Amyot, Jacques, 23, 90, 238

Anacreon, 21, 79

_Annales d’Aquitaine_ (Bouchet), 134

_Anthology_, 7, 21, 79, 104

_Antigone_ (Garnier), 142

_Antigone_ (Sophocles), 142

Aphthonius, 21

Apollonius Rhodius, 21, 79, 188

Apuleius, 93, 179, 188

Aquila, Serafino d’, 69

Aquinas, 8, 9

_Arcadia_ (Sannazaro), 83-87

_Arcadia_ (Sidney), 90, 202

Aretino, Leonardo, _see_ Bruni, Leonardo

Ariosto, 9, 11, 24, 30, 67, 91, 96, 101, 104, 111-23, 131, 142, 143, 147, 159, 160, 164, 168, 177, 179, 184, 205

Aristotle, 15, 20, 25, 26, 53, 55, 61, 62, 63, 133, 145, 158, 159, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 172, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 184, 185, 186, 187, 189, 238

“Ars poetica” (Horace), 10, 15, 133, 155, 158, 161, 163, 164, 165, 171, 186, 188

_Arte of English Poesie_ (Campion), 183

_Arte of English Poesie_ (Puttenham), 182

_Arte poetica_ (Minturno), 44_n_, 168

Arthurian cycle, 96, 98

_Art of rhetorique, The_ (Wilson), 62

_Art poétique, L’_ (Peletier), 163-64

_Art poétique, L’_ (Ronsard), 175

_Art poétique, L’_ (Vauquelin de la Fresnaye), 186

_Arts poétiques_, 15, 127

Ascham, Roger, 37, 38_n_, 183

_Astrophel and Stella_ (Sidney), 77

_As You Like It_ (Shakspere), 146

Athenaeus, 21

_Auctores octo_, 10, 81

Augustan Latin, 18, 44, 58, 65, 234

Aulus Gellius, 10, 188

Aurispa, 20

Ausonius, 10, 79, 188

_Avarchide_ (Alamanni), 96

Ayres, H. M., quoted, 147_n_

Baif, 34

_Balade_, 10

Balsamo-Crivelli, Gustavo, 190

Bandello, Matteo, 190-94, 197, 198-99

_Bankette of Sapience_ (Elyot), 227

_Baptistes_ (Buchanan), 139

_Basia_ (Secundus), 66

Bede, 9

Bellay, Cardinal du, 211

Bellay, Joachim du, 10, 32, 34, 69, 163, 238

Belleau, Remi, 21

Belleforest, 198

Bembo, 9, 15, 22, 26, 28, 30, 31, 36, 87, 170, 179, 188

Beolco, Angelo, _see_ Ruzzante

Berni, 111

Besaucèle, 195_n_

Bessarion, Johannes, 20, 39

Beza, 179

Bibbiena, Cardinal, 179

_Blason_, 118

Boccaccio, 5, 6, 13, 14, 15, 20, 23, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 60, 67, 82, 84, 87, 104, 121, 153, 170, 177, 179, 185, 186, 194-96

Bodin, 228, 229, 230, 230_n_, 231, 232

Boece, Hector, 216

Boethius, 9, 25, 37, 85

Boiardo, Matteo Maria, 11, 91, 92, 93, 94, 101-11, 120, 124, 125, 127, 159

Bouchet, Jean, 134

Boulanger, André, 163

_Bradamante_ (Garnier), 142

Brocardo, Jacopo, 63

Brome _Abraham and Isaac_, 136

Brown, H., 202_n_

Browne, Sir Thomas, 52

Bruni, Leonardo, 39, 214-17, 226

Buchanan, George, 17, 137-39, 179, 216, 226, 230, 231

_Bucolics_ (Vergil), 80, 165

_Bucolicum carmen_ (Petrarch), 82

Budé, Guillaume, 4, 22, 34, 207_n_

Bundy, M. W., 162

Caesar, 18, 216

Caesarius, Joannes, 55

Callimachus, 72, 79

Calpurnius, 87

Camillo, Giulio, 50, 55, 56, 170, 171, 188

Campion, Thomas, 183

Capranica, Cardinal, 39

_Carde of Fancie_ (Greene), 201

Carolingian cycle, 100, 101, 124

Cartier, Gabriel, 230_n_

Castelvetro, 176, 185, 189

Castiglione, Baldassare, 12, 30, 43, 53, 67, 114, 177, 223-25, 231

_Cathonet_, 10, 81

Cato, 58, 81

Catullus, 57, 58, 65, 66, 72, 86, 87, 170

Cavalcanti, Bartolomeo, 63, 195_n_

Caviceo, Jacopo, 39, 40

Caxton, William, 37, 96, 98, 130

_Certaine notes of instruction concerning ... verse or rime ..._ (Gascoigne), 180

Cervantes, 132, 213

Chamard, H., 8_n_

Champier, Symphorien, 93

_Chansons de geste_, 124

Chappuys, Gabriel, 195_n_

Charlton, H. B., 176_n_

Châteillon, Sébastien, 52

_Châtelaine de Vergi_, 194

Chaucer, 5, 13, 14, 15, 24, 37, 67, 70, 89, 96, 108, 121, 122, 153, 180, 181, 183, 198

Cheke, Sir John, 38_n_

Chemnicensis, 181

Chivalry, 11, 92, 124, 130, 131

Chronicles, 214

Chrysolaras, Manuel, 20

Cicero, 10, 15, 18, 26, 28, 30, 40, 41, 43-45, 53, 62, 63, 163, 164, 169, 175, 178, 188, 202, 214, 216, 223, 225, 230, 234, 238

Ciceronianism, 44, 45, 48, 49, 51, 53, 57

Cicero thesaurus, 46, 49

Cinthio, Giraldi, 29, 158-61, 188

Clark, D. L., 189_n_

Classicism, 3, 7, 9, 39, 45, 79, 187, 239

Claudian, 10, 72, 79, 87, 160, 174, 188

Colonna, Francesco, 25, 202, 209

Comedy, 133, 134, 146-54

_Comedy of Errors_ (Shakspere), 147

Comes, Natalis, _see_ Conti, Natale

_Compleint d’amour_, 118

_Concorde des deux langages_ (Lemaire), 31, 69

_Conflictus_, 43

Conti, Natale, 23

Cook, Albert S., 178

_Copia_ (Erasmus), 54

Corneille, 53, 145, 154

_Cornélie_ (Garnier), 141

Corpus Christi cycles, 135

_Cortegiano_ (Castiglione), 12, 43, 53, 223, 224

Cortesi, Paolo, 41, 48

Court shows, medieval, 133, 147

Croft, H. S., 227

_Cursus_, 42

Cuspidius, 211

Cyclical romances, 98, 100, 101, 119

_Cyropaedia_ (Xenophon), 93

Daniel, Samuel, 183

Dante, 5, 8, 13, 14, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 60, 66, 82, 87, 110, 114, 119, 132, 158, 162, 168, 169, 177, 179, 238

_Daphnis and Chloe_ (Longus), 23, 79, 90

Dati, Agostino, 39

_De arte poetica_ (Vida), 155-58

_Débat_, 42

_Débat de Folie et d’Amour_ (Labé), 71

_De bello italico adversos gothos gesto historia_ (Bruni), 215

_Decameron_ (Boccaccio), 14, 60, 194, 195

_De causis corruptarum artium_ (Vives), 54

_De contemptu mundi_, 10

_De elegantiae linguae latinae_, 8, 19

_Defence of Ryme_ (Daniel), 183

_Defense of Poesy_ (Sidney), 89, 178-80

_Defense of Poetry_ (Lodge), 179_n_

_Deffense et illustration de la langue française_ (Du Bellay), 32

_De imitatione_ (Ricci), 50, 57

_De inventione_ (Cicero), 10, 45

_De jure regni apud Scotos dialogus_ (Buchanan), 230

_De laudibus D. Eusebii_ (Dati), 39

_De linguae gallicae origine_ (Périon), 33

Delivery, 54

Deloney, Thomas, 202

Demosthenes, 21, 26, 28, 63

Denores, Jason, 185

_De oratore_ (Cicero), 15, 43, 44, 45, 53, 225

_De poeta_ (Minturno), 13, 15, 164-67; excerpt, 4

_De ratione dicendi_ (Vives), 54

_De re publica_ (Bodin), 230_n_

_De senectute_ (Cicero), 208

_De studio literarum_ (Budé), 4

De Tournes, 13

_De tradendis disciplinis_ (Vives), 54

_Dialogo delle lingue_ (Speroni), 26

Dialogues, 6, 39, 42, 225

_Dialogus Ciceronianus_ (Erasmus), 49

_Diana_ (Montemayor), 186_n_

_Dictamen_, 42

Diomedes, 10

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 158

_Discorsi dell’ arte poetica ..._ (Tasso), 176-78

_Discorsi ... intorno al comporre de i romanzi, delle commedie, e delle tragedie_ (Cinthio), 158-61; excerpt, 29

_Discourse of English Poetrie_ (Webbe), 180

_Discussions of Tuscan_ (Tomitano), 59

Discussions on politics and society, 223-32

_Dispositio_, 54, 60, 64, 176

_Divina Commedia_ (Dante), 5, 132, 158, 168

Dolce, Lodovico, 30

Donadone, E., 125

Donati, Edouardo, 180

Donatus, 10

_Don Quixote_ (Cervantes), 132, 213

Dorat, Jean, 72, 163

Drama, 12, 87, 133-154, 190

Dramaturgy, 6, 134, 137

Dryden, 13, 132

Du Bellay, _see_ Bellay

_Due trattati_ (Camillo), 55

Eclogues, 81 ff.

_Education of Children_ (Montaigne), 233

Egger, Émile, 21_n_, 23_n_, 202

_Elizabethan Critical Essays_ (Smith), 180

Elizabethan drama, 12, 133, 144 ff., 152, 190

_Elocutio_, 54

Elyot, Sir Thomas, 227, 231

Empedocles, 184

Encomium, 55, 72, 75, 90, 111, 112, 131, 188

_Endymion_ (Lyly), 152

English language, 36-38

English lyric, 66

_Epithalamion_ (Spenser), 74, 77

Erasmus, 17, 40_n_, 42, 49, 54, 57, 63, 83, 98, 173, 204, 226, 231

_Essay on Satire_ (Dryden), 132

Essays, 223-39

_Estrif_, 42

Étienne (printers), 9

Étienne, Henri, 21, 23, 34

_Etymologiae_ (Isidore of Seville), 10

_Euphues_ (Lyly), 200

Euphuism, 198, 200, 222

Euripides, 53, 61, 138, 139, 144, 165

Euryalus, 157

Eusebius, 39

Everaerts, Jan, _see_ Secundus

_Exempla_, 131, 194, 196, 231, 232

_Exordium_, 60

_Fabliau_, 109, 120, 134, 190, 194, 196

Fabri, Pierre, 68

_Fabrica del mondo, Della_ (Alunno), 31

_Faerie Queene_ (Spenser), 77, 123, 128-32, 152

Fenton, 198

_Fiammetta_ (Boccaccio), 60

Fichet, Guillaume, 7

_Fons Bandusiae_, 72

Fracastoro, Girolamo, 162, 163, 170, 179

_Frame of the World, The_ (Alunno), 31

French language, 31-36

Gaguin, Robert, 7

Gallus, Cornelius, 87

Garnier, Robert, 53, 139-44, 150, 151, 153

Gascoigne, George, 180

_Gawain and the Green Knight_, 96

_Genealogia deorum gentilium_ (Boccaccio), 23

Geoffrey of Monmouth, 9

George of Trebizond, 53

_Georgics_ (Vergil), 165

Gerlandia, Johannes de, 15

_Gerusalemme liberata_ (Tasso), 7, 53, 123, 124-27

_Gestes ensemble la vie du preulx chevalier Bayard_ (Champier), 93

Giovanni di Virgilio, 82

Giraldi Cinthio (Giovan-Battista Giraldi), 195-97

Golden Age, 87, 89

_Golden Ass_ (Apuleius), 93

_Golden Legend_, 9

Googe, 181

_Governour, The_ (Elyot), 227

_Grande et vraie art de pleine rhétorique_ (Fabri), 68

Gray, Thomas, 74

Greek dramaturgy, 6, 134, 137

Greek exiles in Italy, 20

Greek language, revival, 5 ff., 19-27, 35

Greek Literature, 7, 78, 79, 90, 137, 145, 179, 188

Greek oratory, 40

Greene, Robert, 201

Grotesque, 101, 106

Gryphius, 9, 13

Guarini, 148 ff.

Guarino da Verona, 20, 210

Guicciardini, 228

_Gyrone il cortese_ (Luigi Alamanni), 96

Harvey, Gabriel, 183

_Hecatommithi_ (Giraldi Cinthio), 195-97

Heinsius, 138

Heliodorus, 79, 188

_Henry V_ (Shakspere), 146

_Heptameron_ (Marguerite de Navarre), 14, 194

Hermes Trismegistus, 20

Hermogenes, 21, 55, 63, 79, 160, 170, 171, 188

Herodotus, 92, 214

Hesiod, 181

Hippocrates, _Aphorisms_, 211

_Hippolyte_ (Garnier), 141

_Historiarum florentini_ (Bruni), 214-17

History, 213-22

History plays, 144-46

_History of King Richard the Thirde, The_ (More), 217-20, 226

Homer, 7, 20, 22, 58, 96, 156, 157, 160, 165, 168, 173, 184, 185

Hooker, Richard, 52, 220

Horace, 65, 71, 72, 73, 86, 87, 114, 131, 156, 160, 161, 166, 168, 169, 170, 174, 179, 180, 181, 182, 189; “Ars poetica,” 10, 15, 133, 155, 158, 161, 163, 164, 165, 171, 186, 188

Howard, Henry, Earl of Surrey, 13, 37, 67, 180, 181

Hugh of St. Victor, 9

Humanism, 14, 17-19, 30, 39, 71, 82, 137, 138

Humanistic Latin tragedy, 139

Humbert, Louis, 34_n_

_Hypnerotomachia_ (Colonna), 25, 202, 209

_Idea del theatro, L’_ (Camillo), 56

_Ideas_ (Hermogenes), 55

_Idylls of the King_ (Tennyson), 93

Imaginary addresses, 40

_Imitatio Christi_, 52

Imitation, 19, 39-90, 187

_Imitatione poetica, Della_ (Partenio), 169-71

_Inventio_, 53, 54, 60, 63, 176

Isidore of Seville, 10

_Isocolon_, 200

Isocrates, 21

_Isopet_, 10, 81

_Istorie fiorentine_ (Macchiavelli), 220-22, 224

Italian language, 27-31, 35

Italian orations, 40

_Jardin de plaisance, Le_, 10

Jean d’ Arras, 95

_Jephthes_ (Buchanan), 138, 139

_Jerusalem Delivered_ (Tasso), 7, 53, 123, 124-27

John of Salisbury, 8, 42, 45

Johnson, Samuel, 42, 212

Jonson, Ben, 89

_Juifves, Les_ (Garnier), 143

Junta, 9

Kelso, Ruth, 162

Labé, Louise, 13, 71

Ladislaus, King, 39

Lancaster, H. C., 142_n_

Landriani, Gherardo, 44

Latin language, 6, 7, 14, 17, 26, 27, 46, 155, 216, 232

Latin literature, 5, 17-19, 39, 41, 45, 46, 65, 79, 134, 138, 139

Lemaire, Jean, 31, 65, 68, 69, 71

Letters, 39, 41, 42

Libanius, 21

_Liber Theoduli_, 82

Livy, 21, 63, 213, 214

Lodge, 179_n_

Longueil, Christophe de (Longolius), 46, 50, 57, 59

Longus, 23, 79

Loyola, 210

Lucan, 10, 79, 174

Lucian, 93, 226

Lucretius, 26, 58, 87, 236

Lumby, J. R., 217

Lydgate, John, 67

Lyly, John, 38, 152, 153, 181, 200

Macchiavelli, 10, 12, 178, 213, 216, 220-24, 229, 231, 232

Macrobius, 188

Maggio, Vicentio, 159

Mair, G. H., 62

Malory, Sir Thomas, 11, 36, 37, 91-99, 103, 105, 107, 130

Manilius, 58

Mantuan (Baptista Spagnolo), 82, 88, 89, 180

Manuals, 15, 53

_Marc-Antoine_ (Garnier), 141

Marguerite de Navarre, 14, 194

Marionettes, Carlomagno, 100

Marlowe, Christopher, 137, 146

Marot, Clement, 65, 67, 70, 75, 90

Martial, 70

Martianus Capella, 10

Matthieu de Vendôme, 10

_Medea_ (Euripides), 138, 139

Medici, Cosimo dei, 12

Medici, Lorenzo de’, 147_n_

Melanchthon, 179, 228

Melodrama, 12, 144

_Mélusine_ (Jean d’ Arras), 9, 95

_Memoria_, 54

Menander, 170

_Merchant of Venice_ (Shakspere), 146

_Metamorphoses_ (Ovid), 185

_Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem_ (Bodin), 228

Metric, 180

Michael Angelo, 29

_Midsummer Night’s Dream_ (Shakspere), 153

Migne, 42_n_

_Mignonne_ (Ronsard), 77

Milton, 132, 144

Minturno, 13, 15, 44_n_, 164-69

_Miracle_, 133, 134, 135

Miracle plays, 7

Montaigne, 18, 23, 178, 232-39

Montano, Cola, 222

Montemayor, 186_n_

More, Sir Thomas, 17, 37, 217-20, 226

_Morgante maggiore_ (Pulci), 100-102

_Morte d’Arthur_ (Malory), 92, 98-99

Mortier, Alfred, 152_n_

Muret, Marc Antoine, (Muretus), 41, 50, 179

Muzio, 161-62

_Mystère_, 133, 134, 135

_Mythologiae_ (Conti), 23

Mythology, 23, 77, 87, 147, 198

_Naenia_ (Pontano), 66

_Narratio_, 60, 64, 220

Narrative, prose, 190-222

_Nativity_ (York), 137

Navagero, 67, 170

Nemesianus, 87

Neo-Platonists, 7, 20

Nepos, Cornelius, 93

Nicoli, Nicolao, 12

“Nizolian paper books,” 46

_Novella_, 14

_Novelle_ (Bandello), 190-94, 198-99

_Observations on Petrarch_ (Alunno), 31

_Observations on the Vernacular_ (Dolce), 30

_Ode to Michel de l’Hospital_ (Ronsard), 73

_Ode to the King on the Peace_ (Ronsard), 73

Odes, Pindaric, 72 ff.

_Odyssey_ (Homer), 185

_Old Wives’ Tale_ (Peele), 152

_Oratio in expositione Homeri_ (Poliziano), 22

_Orationes clarorum virorum_, 40

_Orationes obscurorum virorum_, 40_n_

Orations, 39, 40, 41, 61

_Orator_ (Cicero), 44, 45

_Orfeo_ (Poliziano), 147

_Orlando furioso_ (Ariosto), 111-23, 142, 168

_Orlando innamorato_ (Boiardo), 93, 102-11

Ovid, 23, 58, 65, 71, 72, 79, 86, 87, 160, 174, 180, 181, 185

Padelford, F. M., 171_n_

Pagan terms used for Christian religion, 49

Pageantry, 87, 133

_Paladini di Francia, I_, 100

_Pantagruel_ (Rabelais), 207, 211

_Paradise Lost_ (Milton), 132

_Parison_, 200

_Parlement of Foules_ (Chaucer), 70

Parody, in Rabelais, 204

_Paromoion_, 200

Partenio, Bernardino, 169-71, 188

_Partitiones oratoriae_ (Brocardo), 63

Pastoral, 78-90, 146-54

_Pastor fido, Il_ (Guarini), 148 ff.

Patrizzi, Francesco, 61, 184

Peele, 152, 153

Peletier, Jacques, 163-64

Pellissier, Georges, 186

Périon, 33

_Petite Pallace of Pettie His Pleasure, A_ (Pettie), 199

Petrarch, 5, 6, 13, 20, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 37, 60, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 82, 87, 114, 161, 162, 168, 170, 177, 179, 188, 222, 237

Petrus Comestor, 10

Pettie, William, 199

_Pharmaceutria_, 58, 81

Pico, 170

_Piers Plowman_, 131

_Pilgrim’s Progress_, 52

Pindar, 71, 72, 79, 168, 179

Pindarics, 72 ff.

Plantin, Christophe, 9

Plato, 7, 20, 25, 26, 43, 44, 62, 63, 165, 178, 179, 226

Platonic dialogue, 43, 61

Platonism, 25, 61

Plattard, J., 210_n_, 211_n_, 212_n_

Plautus, 58, 134, 147, 151

Plays, sacred, 134-37

Pléiade, 32, 37, 65, 69, 70, 71, 74, 119, 163, 175, 183, 186, 204

Pliny, 26, 198

Plutarch, 23, 63, 140, 179, 208, 238

_Poema eroico_ (Tasso), 176

Poetic, confusion with rhetoric, 15, 188

_Poetic_ (Aristotle), 15, 25, 158, 164, 176, 189, 238

_Poetica_ (Scaliger), 4, 171-75

_Poetica_ (Trissino), 67, 158

_Poetica dialogus_ (Fracastoro), 162

_Poetica di Francesco Patrici ..._, 184

_Poetica di Jason Denores_, 185

Poetics, sixteenth-century, 155-89

Politics, discussions on, 223-32

Poliziano, 22, 41, 47-49, 50, 57, 87, 166, 226

_Pollio_ (Vergil), 81

Pontano, 58, 66, 72, 170, 179

_Pontus and the Fair Sidoine_, 9, 95

Porcari, Stefano, 221

_Porcie_ (Garnier), 139

_Praelectio_, 41, 47, 50

_Preëminence of the French language_ (Étienne), 34

_Principe_ (Macchiavelli), 223

Printers, 9

Printing, effect on literary progress, 5, 9, 30, 231

Priscian, 10

_Project du livre entitulé De la précellence du langage françois_ (Étienne), 34

_Pronuntiatio_, 54

Propertius, 87

_Prose_ (Bembo), 28

Prose forms, imitation of, 39-64

Prose narrative, 190-222

_Prosopopoeia_, 40

_Prothalamion_ (Spenser), 74

Provençal, 28, 36, 66

_Proverbia_ (Alain de Lille), 10

Publishers, 9, 13

Pulci, Luigi, 100-102, 109

Puttenham, 182, 183

Quintilian, 15, 47, 53, 55, 62, 63, 163, 164, 236_n_, 238

Rabelais, François, 22, 25_n_, 37, 202-13, 239

_Ragionamenti della lingua toscana_ (Tomitano), 59

Raphael, 29

_Ratio studiorum_, 64

Religion, in Tasso and Spenser, 123, 124

_Rerum scoticarum historia_ (Buchanan), 216

_Retorica, Della_ (Patrizzi), 61

_Retorica, La_ (Cavalcanti), 63

Rhetoric, confusion of poetic with, 15; of Hermogenes, 188; recovery of Cicero’s works on, 44; Renaissance preoccupation with, 41

_Rhetoric_ (Aristotle), 62, 63

_Rhetoric_ (Soarez), 64

_Rhetorica_ (Joannes Caesarius), 55

_Rhetorica_ (George of Trebizond), 53

_Rhetorica ad Herennium_, 10, 45, 63

Rhetorics, 53-64

_Rhétoriques_, 68

_Rhétoriqueurs_, 65, 68

Rhythm, English tradition of, 180

Ricci, Bartolomeo, 40, 40_n_, 50, 57

_Richard III_ (More), 217-20, 226

_Richard III_ (Shakspere), 146

_Riches of the Vernacular, The_ (Alunno), 31

_Rime diverse del Mutio Iustinopolitano ..._ (Muzio), 161-62

Robinson, Edwin Arlington, 93

Robinson, Ralph, 226

Romance, 91-132; Arthurian cycle in Malory, 98; Carolingian cycle, 100, 101, 124; Greek, 7, 90, 179, 188; separate romances, 95-98

_Roman de la Rose_, 70

Romantic contrast, 91-95

Ronsard, Pierre de, 10, 21, 23, 34, 35, 65, 67, 71-75, 77, 113, 119, 163, 175, 179, 188, 238

Round Table stories, 98, 108

Rouville, 13

Ruddiman, Thomas, 230_n_

Ruskin, John, 62

Rustic and pastoral comedy, 146-54

Ruzzante (Angelo Beolco), 150 ff.

Sacred plays, 133-37

_Sacre rappresentazioni_, 134

Sallust, 18, 58

_Samson Agonistes_ (Milton), 144

Sannazaro, Jacopo, 83-87, 165, 170, 179

Sansovino, Francesco, 40

Sappho, 87

Satire, of Rabelais, 207

Scaliger, Joseph, 137, 138, 188, 216

Scaliger, Julius Caesar, 4, 23, 171-75, 179

Scève, Maurice, 13

_Schemata_, 200

Scholars, gentlemen, 187

_Scholemaster_ (Ascham), 38_n_

_Scotorum historiae_ (Boece), 216

_Secunda Pastorum_, 137, 150

Secundus, Joannes, 66, 72

Seneca, 10, 21, 87, 133, 134, 137, 142, 144, 145, 146, 158, 159, 165, 166, 179, 234, 238

_Sententiae_, 221

Shakspere, 145, 146, 147, 150, 153, 196

Shaksperian sonnet, 68

_Shepherd’s Calendar_ (Spenser), 88-90

Sidney, Sir Philip, 46, 77, 89, 90, 178-80, 181, 188, 189, 202

Sidonius, 10, 188

Silius Italicus, 174, 188

_Six Livres de la république, Les_, (Bodin), 230

Skelton, 37, 67, 202

Smith, G. Gregory, 180, 182

Soarez, 64

Solerti, Angelo, 87, 176

Sonnet, 66, 68, 77

Sophistic, 21, 40, 53, 55, 188, 200

Sophocles, 20, 21, 61, 142, 144, 165

Spagnolo, Baptista (Mantuan), 82, 88, 89, 180

_Speculum_ (Vincent of Beauvais), 10

Spenser, 9, 13, 14, 24, 37, 73, 74, 75, 77, 88-91, 111, 123, 127-32, 152, 180, 181, 183

Speroni, Sperone, 26, 43, 59, 60

Sprague, Arthur C., 183_n_

Statius, 10, 47, 87, 142, 174, 185, 188

_Status_, 54

Stephen of Tournay, 42_n_

Stoer, Jacobus, 228

Story-tellers, street, 100, 101

Story-telling, _see_ Tales

Strowski, F., 233_n_

Style, literary preoccupation with, 18, 29, 52, 137

_Suppositi, I_ (Ariosto), 147

Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of, _see_ Howard, Henry

Tacitus, 41, 50, 213, 214, 223

Tales, 190-202

_Tamburlaine_ (Marlowe), 146

Tasso, 7, 30, 52, 87, 91, 123-27, 148, 150, 153, 176-78, 184, 185, 189, 238

Tatius, _see_ Achilles Tatius

Tennyson, 93

Terence, 58, 134, 147, 170

Theocritus, 58, 79, 81, 86, 87, 88, 173

_Theodulus_, 82

Thesaurus, 46

Three styles, 15, 165, 166, 177

Thucydides, 21, 63, 213, 214

Tibullus, 87

_Timone_ (Boiardo), 93

_Tobias_ (Matthieu de Vendôme), 10

Tolomei, Claudio, 40

Tomitano, Bernardino, 59

Tournes, Jean de, 163

Towneley Plays, _Secunda Pastorum_, 137, 150

Tragedy, 133, 134, 137-45

Tragicomedy, 133, 142, 148

_Trattato della imitatione_ (Camillo), 50

_Trimerone_ (Patrizzi), 184

_Trionfi_ (Petrarch), 168

Trissino, Giovan Giorgio, 67, 158, 159, 177

_Troade, La_ (Garnier), 141

_Troilus and Criseyde_ (Chaucer), 15, 24, 96, 122

Turnebus, 137

Tuscan, 28, 30

Tusser, 181

_Urbium dicta Maximilianum_ (Caviceo), 40

_Utopia_ (More), 226

Valla, Lorenzo, 8, 19

Varro, 58

Vauquelin de la Fresnaye, 186, 188, 189

_Venatio_ (Adrian), 24

Vérard, Antoine, 68

Vergil, 18, 26, 30, 53, 56, 58, 63, 65, 71, 72, 79, 80, 82, 84, 86, 87, 88, 96, 98, 110, 114, 122, 123, 155, 156, 157, 160, 162, 163, 165, 166, 170, 173, 174, 177, 179, 181, 236, 238; _Aeneid_, 102, 104, 114, 121, 126, 127, 165, 185

Vernaculars, 5, 17, 27-38, 68-78

Verse, English discussion of, 180-84

Verse narrative, medieval, 7, 10, 91, 96

Vespasiano, 12

Vida, Marco Girolamo, 155-58, 163, 170, 172

Villon, 10, 68

Vincent of Beauvais, 10

Vinea, Gabriel, 13

Vittorino, 210

Vives, Juan Luis, 54, 210

Vopiscus, 50

Webbe, William, 180, 183

Weston, G. B., 100_n_

Wiat, Sir Thomas, 13, 67

Wilson, Thomas, 62

Witherspoon, A. M., 144_n_

Wolff, Samuel Lee, 202_n_

Wyatt, Sir Thomas, _see_ Wiat, Sir Thomas

Xenophon, 93

York Plays, _Nativity_, 137