CHAPTER XV

Peace and Reconstruction

To a far greater extent than in the United States, England, while the war was still in progress, looked ahead to the problems which would inevitably arise when the country shifted back to a peace basis.

As early as the summer of 1916 discussion of methods of adjustment from war to peace had begun. A “Ministry of Reconstruction” was created in August, 1917, succeeding a “Reconstruction Committee of the Cabinet,” which had been appointed over a year earlier. It is noteworthy that as time went on “the idea of reconstruction, of a simple return to prewar conditions, was gradually supplanted by the larger and worthier ideal of a better world after the war.”[267] The aim of the reconstruction movement came to be not simply to tide over the transition from war to peace but also to remedy the prewar evils which war experience had disclosed.

[267] Great Britain Ministry of Reconstruction, _Reconstruction Pamphlet_ No. 1, “The Aims of Reconstruction,” 1918, p. 4.

Many conferences discussed “reconstruction,” and a multitude of books and pamphlets kept the printing presses busy. The point of view of labor was put forward in that remarkable document, “Labour and the New Social Order,” later adopted as the platform of the reorganized Labor party. A “Joint Committee on Labour Problems after the War” representing the most important labor bodies also put out a number of pamphlets on special subjects. The Ministry of Reconstruction through numerous subcommittees dealt with a wide variety of concrete problems, such as shipping, finance, the allocation of raw materials, rural development, military demobilization, health, housing and education. The “Civil War Workers Committee,” the “Committee on Joint Standing Industrial Councils,” and the “Women’s Advisory Committee on the Domestic Service Problem,” were among those dealing with questions affecting the woman worker. But when the armistice came many plans were not complete, and in only a few cases had the machinery for putting them into effect actually been created. So in spite of the really remarkable extent of their attention to after war conditions the English had after all to trust in large part to hastily improvised schemes or to chance.

There were three principal problems affecting the woman worker which pressed for attention during the reconstruction period. First, the prevention of unemployment as the flood of war orders subsided was alone sufficient to tax the resources of the best statesmanship.[268] Second, there was the question of industrial opportunities for the “dilutees,” who had taken up work formerly reserved for skilled men under government pledges or unofficial agreements that pre-existing conditions would be restored at the end of the war. Third, equality of payment where men and women were doing similar work had become a burning issue, responsible for no small share of the labor unrest prevalent during the latter part of the war.

[268] The Women’s Employment Committee of the Ministry of Reconstruction held that the question of what disposition should be made of the national factories was also one of major importance. The committee suggested that work in these factories, if they were retained by the government, could be so regulated as largely to prevent unemployment by manufacturing goods for which an early demand could be foreseen. Great Britain Ministry of Reconstruction, _Report of the Women’s Employment Committee_ (Cd. 9239) 1919, p. 4.

While unemployment prevention, though no small problem, was merely a matter of industrial readjustment temporary in nature, action on the other two questions promised to lead to an extensive reconstruction of prewar conditions. In whatever was done it was necessary to take into account the fact that the labor movement was larger and more militant than before the war, with a definite program which would not be satisfied even with the best of working conditions, but which demanded a voice in the shaping of the whole conduct of industry.

_Postwar Unemployment among Women_

It was generally anticipated that an unemployment crisis would follow the cessation of war activities, in which, as at the beginning of the struggle, women workers would suffer more than men, since so large a proportion of them were working in war industries, taking the places of men only for the duration of the war. Among munition workers in the engineering trade “the great majority of male workers will probably continue,” said the Civil War Workers Committee, “but there can be little doubt that large numbers of women workers will be definitely discharged.”[269] It estimated that 420,000 women munition workers would lose their jobs at the end of the war. Public attention was forcibly called to the danger by the sudden discharge of several thousand women munition makers in the spring of 1917, on account of a change in the kind of munitions needed. The women were suddenly dismissed without the slightest provision for finding them new positions—“turned off,” said one writer, “with as little ceremony as one turns off the gas.” Although many women were then needed in other branches of munition work there was, for a time, much confusion and distress.

[269] Great Britain Ministry of Reconstruction, Civil War Workers Committee, _First Interim Report_, p. 5.

The official agency charged with developing a plan for the prevention of unemployment among war workers was the “Civil War Workers Committee” appointed by the Ministry of Reconstruction. The committee was authorized to “consider and report upon the arrangements which should be made for the demobilization of workers engaged during the war in national factories, controlled establishments, in other firms engaged in the production of munitions of war and on government contracts, or in firms where substitute labour has been employed for the duration of the war,” and its six reports outline such plans in considerable detail. Most of the recommendations applied to men and women alike. They included the aid of the government principally through its employment exchanges, in helping discharged war workers find other employment, two weeks’ notice or two weeks’ wages to all employes on government contracts, free railroad passes to those who had left home to work on munitions and encouragement to private employers, the government and foreign customers to place postwar orders before the end of the conflict. As soon as there was “a reasonable prospect of peace” the employment exchanges should canvass employers for peace time openings and register available employes. On the ground that it was impracticable to distinguish between war workers and others and impossible to select with assurance the trades most liable to unemployment during the reconstruction period the committee advised a general extension of the existing plan of unemployment insurance. On a scheme which had received considerable comment in certain quarters, that of granting every munition worker a month’s vacation with pay, the committee reported adversely by a vote of twelve to seven.

In reviewing the probable position of women workers after the war, the committee noted that outside the metal and chemical industries, the bulk were in commercial and clerical occupations. It recommended the establishment of still another committee to “consider the conditions of women’s employment” in these lines. A fairly comprehensive program for the “demobilization” of temporary clerks in government departments was laid out. A special employment exchange working with the Civil Service Commission, the arrangement of training courses, special consideration to the temporary clerks in making new appointments and determination of the future position of women in government employment were urged. But in behalf of clerical workers in private employment the only recommendation was the provision, when necessary, of advisory committees in connection with the employment exchanges. Women farm workers were not believed to need help in adjusting themselves and on the railways the future position of the women could be settled only by agreement between the companies and the unions.

Despite the protests of the workers and the efforts of official committees, anticipations as to widespread unemployment were all too accurately fulfilled. In the month before the armistice, October, 1918, the official _Labour Gazette_ reported the state of employment as “very good. Much overtime was worked in nearly all the principal trades.” But by December there was “a marked decline in employment, especially for women.” In the first week of the new year, nearly 225,000 women were receiving the weekly “donations” for unemployed war workers,[270] in contrast to 101,000 men. Four months later, in May, of the 63,930 persons receiving reduced donations after having been paid for thirteen weeks, nearly two-thirds were women. The number of civilians in receipt of “donations” rose each week until the first week in March, when it reached a total of 494,000 women and 234,000 men. From that time on the number of unemployed war workers gradually decreased, until on November 21, three days prior to discontinuance, there were only 34,271 female applicants for out-of-work donations.[271] Yet on the whole, even though there was for a few months an alarming amount of unemployment among women workers, officials held that British industry adjusted itself to peace more quickly than it had to war. A long list of factories which had changed from war to peace products, for instance from airplanes to furniture and from fuses to electric equipment, was given as early as February. Government control of raw materials was used to aid the transition, and priority was given to certain essentials in using the productive capacity set free from war work.

[270] _Vide_ p. 246.

[271] _Vide_ Appendix L for detailed figures on unemployment among women workers after the armistice.

The independence among women workers which had developed during the war was reflected in their attitude during the period of great unemployment. In the similar crisis at the beginning of the war they had been inarticulate. But on February 15, 1919, their organizations arranged a meeting in Albert Hall, London, attended by women representing nearly every trade, at which women speakers dwelt on the folly of unemployment while the country was in need of all kinds of manufactured articles. Resolutions were passed giving the three points of the “Women’s Charter”—“the right to work, the right to live and the right to leisure.” It was held that all workers by hand or brain should unite, and that work should be provided for the unemployed. An adequate living wage, an eight hour day and a forty hour week were advocated as standards for working conditions. A deputation was organized to take the resolutions to the Prime Minister, but apparently he did not reply to them.[272]

[272] United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, _Monthly Labor Review_, May, 1919, pp. 242-243.

The measures actually adopted by the government show many traces of the Civil War Workers Committee recommendations, though, hastily put in force as they were, they were much less complete, and in some cases widely different. The arrangements made but little distinction between men and women workers. The whole process of “demobilizing” war workers was put in charge of a “controller general” responsible to the Ministry of Labor, who controlled the employment exchanges, a new “Appointments Branch” for “men of office rank” and the labor departments of the Ministry of Munitions, the Admiralty and the War Office. The employment exchanges were made the center for the transfer of war workers. By the day after the armistice the recall of employment exchange officials from the army had been arranged. Staff and premises were enlarged and additional local advisory committees formed. Various efforts were made to provide raw materials and to hasten the change to peace time work by munition manufacturers. Instructions to manufacturers asked them to avoid an immediate general discharge of workers, to abolish all overtime and piece work at once, and to retain as many workers as possible on short time. If wages under this plan fell below certain levels, which were for women 25s. ($6.00) a week, the government agreed to make up the difference. In case of actual discharge, a week’s notice or a week’s pay was to be given, and free railway passes home or to new work places were provided. “The loyal and cordial cooperation of all employers” in carrying out the directions was invited, but nothing is at hand to show to what extent they were observed or how far they lessened unemployment. It will be noted that men and women workers were treated practically alike under this scheme. The “Waacs” and other women auxiliaries of the army and navy were demobilized under the same conditions as all members of the military forces, receiving, besides certain gratuities, a civilian outfit, four weeks’ pay and a railway pass.

Special provision for unemployed women through training courses was outlined in a pamphlet issued by the government in the spring of 1919.[273] It was stated that a large number of typical women’s trades, such as clothing, textiles, food manufacture and laundry work, would be covered by short training courses of from one to six months’ duration, usually three months. In addition a special course in housekeeping would be offered. The courses might be given in any suitable place, such as a factory, as well as in trade schools and the government instructional factories formerly used for training munition workers. Approved students were to receive 15s. to 25s. ($3.50-$6.00) a week while taking the course, with traveling fares if necessary, and an additional 10s. ($2.40) weekly if obliged to live away from home.

[273] _Vide The Common Cause_, May 9, 1919, p. 1.

When the government adopted for immediate action the plans for relieving unemployment previously outlined it also put forward certain other schemes for decreasing unemployment during the later reconstruction period, which included the stimulation of orders and contracts, public and private, an increase in public works and improvements and the extension of contributory unemployment insurance to practically all workers.

The chief reliance of the government in dealing with unemployment after the armistice was not a contributory insurance plan, but a system of unemployment “donations.” Before the war contributory unemployment insurance, paying 7s. ($1.68) a week to unemployed workers for fifteen weeks a year from a fund created through small weekly contributions for employers, employes and the government, covered 2,200,000 workers in six trades, almost all of whom were males. In 1916 the law was extended for a period of from three to five years after the end of the war to include most of the chief war industries with an additional 1,500,000 employes, including many women. But by an emergency order made within a few weeks after the armistice, the contributory insurance law was temporarily superseded by a scheme of “donations” applying also to all war workers not previously covered and all ex-soldiers and sailors. Free policies were issued, at first good in the case of civilians for six months beginning November 25, 1918, and in the case of soldiers, for twelve months from the date of demobilization. The policies provided their holders with donations while unemployed for thirteen weeks if civilians and twenty-six weeks if soldiers. The original scale was 20s. ($4.80) weekly for women workers, which was raised after a few weeks to 25s. ($6.00). Additional payments were made for dependent children, amounting to 6s. ($1.44) weekly for the first and 3s. (72 cents) for each succeeding child. A later amendment permitted payments to civilians for an additional thirteen weeks at a reduced rate, which was, for women, 15s. ($3.60) weekly. Later, in May, 1919, when according to the terms of the original order all donation policies held by civilians would have expired, they were renewed for an additional six months. Except for ex-service men and women, the system was finally discontinued on November 25, 1919. At this date 137,000 civilians were receiving donations, of whom 29,000 were females. All donations were paid through the employment exchanges and could be stopped if the recipients refused “to accept suitable employment.”

Undoubtedly the system of unemployment donations prevented much suffering among thousands of wage earners to whom the country was indebted for their war work. But as a whole its operation can not be said to have been satisfactory, particularly among women employes. An entire session of the House of Commons was devoted mainly to criticisms of the system and its defence by the Minister of Labor. Complaints of “slackers” who were taking a vacation at the taxpayers’ expense were met by charges that women were being forced to take places at sweated wages by refusals to pay the unemployment donations. In the five months ending April 25, 1919, claims for donations numbering 141,770 were disallowed, in 100,442 of which cases appeals to the referees were made. Only 27,536 of the appealed claims were finally allowed, 81 per cent of the women’s claims being denied, about half of them on the ground of “refusal to accept suitable employment.”[274]

[274] _Labour Gazette_, May, 1919, pp. 171 and 187.

The Ministry of Labor, which administered the unemployment donations, admitted that an unsatisfied demand for women workers existed in domestic service, laundries, the needle work trades and in some districts in the textile industry at the same time that half a million women were out of work. But the places open were either very highly skilled or grossly underpaid and unattractive. For one firm which needed 5,000 workers, the employment exchanges could find only fifty women who seemed qualified, of whom the firm hired only fifteen.

The association of laundrymen even appealed to the government to bring pressure to bear on the women to accept work, but apparently no action was taken in answer to the demand. The women workers themselves said that when the government had raised the rate of unemployment donations from 20s. to 25s. weekly on the ground that a single woman could not live on less, they could not be expected to enter laundries at 18s. ($4.32) a week.

Other less prominent difficulties of adjustment were the reluctance of soldiers’ wives to enter new kinds of work when they would retire from industry in a few months, and the unwillingness of women in general to go from the comparatively high wages of munitions to the low wages of learners and to factories lacking the conveniences of the new munitions plants.

Criticism of the system was so widespread that an official investigating committee was formed which issued two reports.[275] The committee concluded that there had been no widespread fraud, though under the plan as first put in operation it was possible legally for persons who were not genuinely seeking work to abuse the scheme. The committee felt, however, that the emergency had been great and that if the later safeguards had been introduced in the beginning the whole system might have broken down. They recommended, among other points, swifter prosecution of fraud, a contributory rather than a noncontributory plan, and discontinuance of allowances based on the number of dependents. They felt that applicants must not expect exactly the same sort of work or wage rates that they had had during the war, and that donations should be stopped if similar work was refused.

[275] Committee of Inquiry into the Scheme of Out-of-Work Donation. _Interim Report_ (Cmd. 196), _Final Report_ (Cmd. 305).

_The Domestic Service Problem_

Some of the main difficulties and the keenest discussion centered on the question of domestic service. That the Ministry of Reconstruction found it advisable to appoint a “Women’s Advisory Committee on the Domestic Service Problem,” which made a formal report, indicates the extent of agitation on the subject. It will be recalled that during the war the number of household servants decreased by 400,000. Householders seemingly expected that as soon as the war was over this shortage would be made up from the ranks of ex-munition workers. But this failed to occur. Some dissatisfaction with the wages offered, most frequently 10s. to 13s. ($2.40 to $3.12 a week, with board) was expressed, but the chief complaint was that of long hours and unsatisfactory personal treatment.

Various schemes for attracting workers by improving conditions were put forward, some of which involved radical changes from the usual customs. The majority of the official Women’s Advisory Committee, however, placed its chief emphasis in solving the problem merely on the provision of improved methods of training, notably a two year course to be entered by girls of fourteen. Other groups, such as the Fabian Women’s Group and the Women’s Industrial Council, advocated plans which in essence abolished all “living in,” and provided for hostels giving training which would send qualified workers into the homes for a fixed number of hours. By May the Young Women’s Christian Association was ready to open a hostel in London from which workers were to be sent out on an eight hour basis. Employers were to pay 10d. (20 cents) an hour to the hostel, and the workers were to receive 30s. ($7.20) for a forty-eight hour week, and to pay the hostel £1 ($4.80) weekly for board, for a guarantee against unemployment, for use of uniform and club privileges. If the hostel was successful, others were to be started.[276]

[276] _London Times_, May 1, 1919.

Meanwhile an active movement for union organization among domestic servants was begun, and forty branches having 4,000 members were formed in the four or five months after the armistice. The chief aim of the union was said to be the raising of the status of domestic service so that the workers would be proud of it. Its standards seemed to be comparatively modest—a minimum weekly wage of 12s. 6d. ($2.40) for general servants and 15s. ($3.60) for cooks, a ten hour work day during a fourteen hour period, part of Sunday and another half day off weekly and abolition of uniforms. This last demand perhaps represented the sharpest departure from prevailing customs. In Glasgow a “Mistresses’ League” was formed to cooperate with the union, and it was the general opinion of persons interested that both sides needed organizing.

Still “a house is not a factory,” and there were not wanting friends of the women worker to point out that domestic service must necessarily remain to some extent individual and unstandardized.

I am profoundly sceptical as to the various “industrialised” suggestions put forward—the introduction of shifts, etc. How could a household worker strictly on a shift system deal with the irregular incursion of visitors, children home for the holidays, measles, influenza, spring cleaning and other ills to which mortal flesh is heir?...

From the maid’s point of view, I take it the main disadvantages of domestic service are twofold; the question of free evenings and the uncertainty as to the type of household. Time off in the afternoon is naturally of less value than time off at night. Similarly a maid may find herself on taking a new situation in a comfortable home or very much the reverse.

In a house organized on proper lines, domestic service has compensations as well as drawbacks. A just mistress will arrange for adequate time off, even if the home can not be laid down each week with mathematical exactness. She will see that her maids are properly housed, that their food is adequate and properly cooked, that their work is organized on sensible lines and gives as much scope as possible for individual responsibility. In a household which lives literally as a family and is inspired with mutual consideration and good will “that servant problem” simply does not exist. When mutual consideration and good will are lacking neither corps, caps, correspondence nor conferences will create the cement by which a contented household is held together.[277]

[277] Violet Markham in _The Labour Woman_, June, 1919, p. 59.

It is difficult to tell how far these new schemes will change the conditions of housekeeping and lessen unemployment by attracting women to domestic service. But the fact that they were put forward is an interesting sign of the extent of the movement for reconstructing the national life on better lines.

_Dilution and Equal Pay_

The other two chief problems of the women workers in the reconstruction period, that of the “dilutees,” who had taken up men’s work during the war, and that of “equal pay for equal work” and an adequate standard of wages for women workers generally, were closely related to each other. Much of the opposition of the men workers to the entrance of women into new occupations was based on the fact that women’s wage standards were lower than those of men. In most cases, it will be remembered, dilution had taken place under promises that it would last only during the war. Parliament, by the Munitions Act, had given the government’s pledge that departures from prewar practices should be merely temporary in the establishments covered.[278] Similar clauses, often even more explicit, were found in practically all the substitution agreements made by private employers with labor organizations.[279] Meanwhile the fixing of women’s wages by law had been widely extended, and, in the opinion of close students of labor problems, “a removal of the statutory regulations might well be followed by a serious and immediate fall in wages.”[280]

[278] _Vide_ p. 55.

[279] _Vide_ p. 62.

[280] G. D. H. and M. I. Cole, _Regulation of Wages_, p. 17.

The government in several instances took action on matters connected with women’s wages and occupations after the war, but it is not too harsh to say that a disposition to tide over difficulties temporarily rather than to define any very clear line of policy was evident. Two laws were passed affecting the after war wages of women. The Trade Boards (minimum wage) Act was extended in 1918, before the close of the war, as a measure of preparedness for peace. “There is reason to fear that the after war dislocation of industry will make the problem of adequate wages for unskilled and unorganized workers, especially women, very acute,” said an official explanation of the changes in the act.[281] “Eight years’ satisfactory results of Trade Boards pointed to these as the best way of meeting the situation.” The new law provided that boards might be formed wherever wages were _unduly_ low, instead of _exceptionally_ low as in the original law. The general wage level for women workers was so low before the war that it had often been difficult to prove an “exceptional” condition. Provisions were also made to have minimum wage awards come into force more quickly. By the spring of 1919 new Trade Boards had been formed in eight industries.[282] They apparently fixed wages for women on the basis of the necessary cost of living for a single woman—28s. ($6.72) for a forty-eight hour week in laundries, for example.

[281] _Labour Gazette_, August, 1918, p. 307.

[282] Tobacco; aerated waters; boot and shoe repairing; paper bag making; brush and broom making; hair, bass, and fibre trade; laundries; corsets.

But the Trade Boards covered only a fraction of the industries of the country, and further measures were considered necessary to prevent a dislocation of wages. Following the advice of a committee appointed by the Ministry of Reconstruction, the Wages (Temporary Regulation) Bill was passed November 21, 1918. This act required employers to pay the “prescribed” or “substituted” rate which prevailed at the time of the armistice for a period of six months. In May, 1919, the provisions of the act were extended for another six months. Under this law an Interim Court of arbitration was set up which handled the arbitration of disputed wage cases. During the year of its existence it made 932 awards and advised on several others. On November 20, 1919, this Interim Court was displaced by the Industrial Courts Act, which in addition to its function of voluntary arbitration, extended certain parts of the Wages Temporary Regulation Act until September 30, 1920.[283] At the close of the war the greatest number of women were substituting for men on semi-skilled and repetition processes, and it was therefore semi-skilled men who were menaced most immediately by the danger of undercutting by the women. But in the rapid extension of specialized work during the war lay an evident threat to the position of the skilled worker. A right solution of the two questions, in which the interests of all the groups concerned would be safeguarded, would apparently involve a modification of prewar conditions, rather than a return to them.

[283] Great Britain, Ministry of Labour, _Labour Gazette_, December, 1919, pp. 514, 515.

Three points of view were evident in English opinion about women’s work and wages after the armistice. The first point of view was, briefly, that women workers would and should return to their prewar occupations. But little attention was given to the question of their wage level. Whether such a return was possible or just to the women themselves, or whether they might not be excluded for a time but remain potential competitors with low wage standards, thus bringing about the very danger they were trying to avoid—all this was seemingly not considered. Though relatively seldom expressed in print it was a viewpoint held widely and tenaciously. Government officials, visiting America in November, 1917, for instance, said that marriage, the return of married women to their homes and the revival of the luxury trades and domestic service, would relieve the situation. Many old line trade unionists also believed that women should not be allowed to remain in most of their new lines of work, and demanded the literal fulfilment of all pledges to that effect. The general secretary of the Postal and Telegraph Clerks’ Association, at a conference of “Working Class Associations” said as to the basis of suitable occupations:

My own view, for what it is worth, is that this problem could be solved with very little trouble. I think a careful study of the census returns for the last thirty years would help to solve the problem of the basis of suitability. We could safely conclude that the occupations which, according to the census, show a steady and persistent increase in the number of women employed are suitable occupations for the extension of women’s labour. I think we must face it ... that, as far as we can see at present, the prewar standard for fixing wages as between men and women is likely to remain.

A second point of view, which might be termed the “moderate” one, compromising between prewar and war conditions, advocated the retention of women in all “suitable” occupations, together with an extension of protective labor legislation, protection of the wage level by minimum wage fixing, and “equal pay for equal work” where men and women remained in the same occupations. This opinion was evident in the two chief official reports on women’s work which have been issued since the armistice, that of the Home Office on “Substitution of Women in Nonmunition Factories during the War” and that of the “War Cabinet Committee on Women in Industry.” The former described a fairly large range of new employments as “suitable” for women, including positions in scientific laboratory work, supervision and management, as well as factory processes. Even with all unsuitable occupations set aside, there remained “a body of industries and operations offering a hopeful field of fresh employment to women, where their war experience can be turned to account, and should prove a national asset of great value.” Among the approved trades were light leather tanning, fancy leather manufacture, box and packing case making, furniture, scientific instrument making, flint glass cutting and engraving, and cutlery, except scissors manufacture. The factors causing an occupation to be disapproved were the heaviness of the work, the use of dangerous machinery or poisonous substances, the presence of exceptional heat, wet or dirt and the necessity for night work or solitary employment.[284] Basing its conclusions on considerations of “efficiency” and relative output, the War Cabinet Committee decided that women would probably not remain in heavy manual labor and out door work. There had not been time during the war to judge of their effectiveness in skilled work, but in routine and repetition processes, into which the war had hastened their “normal” movement, they had been successful and were likely to stay permanently. Repetition work in the metal trades, light work in chemical plants, certain processes in printing, woodworking and manufacture, agriculture, commerce and government positions, and many of the new administrative and professional openings for educated women, were mentioned by the War Cabinet Committee as providing possibilities for the continued work of women.[285] But both reports recognized that many other factors besides suitability, notably the attitude of the trade unions, would play an important part in determining the position of the woman worker.

[284] _Vide_ Appendix M (p. 249) for list of “unsuitable” occupations.

[285] The report of the “Machinery of Government Committee” took a similar position, advocating in a rather guarded way the increased employment of women in the civil service, including the upper division, from which they had been excluded before the war.

The chief purpose of the investigations of the War Cabinet Committee was to decide on the proper relation between the wages of men and of women. The majority of the committee concluded that when men and women did radically different work, it was “not possible to lay down a relation between their wages.” However, for the protection of women workers they urged a universal minimum wage for adult women, sufficient to cover the necessary cost of living for a single woman. The extension and strengthening of protective labor laws was also endorsed, and the possibility of such regulation through international action was welcomed. But when the two sexes had entered the same occupations, the committee subscribed to the principle of equal pay for equal work, “in the sense that pay should be in proportion to efficient output.” The committee believed that piece rates should be equal and time rates should be fixed by trade union negotiation. In the frequent case in which a woman was doing part of a man’s job, the total rate should be unchanged, and the different workers should be paid in proportion to the value of their contribution. Where processes were simplified on the introduction of women, the women should be paid the unskilled men’s rate, unless it could be proved that their work was of less value.

The third position regarding women’s wages and women on men’s jobs was clear cut and uncompromising and was perhaps typified in a minority report to the War Cabinet Committee by Mrs. Sidney Webb. In this report Mrs. Webb expressed the belief that existing relations between men’s and women’s employment were harmful to individuals and to the nation. All occupations should be opened to qualified persons regardless of sex, at the same standard rates and under the same working conditions. “Equal pay for equal work” was an ambiguous and easily evaded phrase. A national legal minimum wage should also be fixed, in which “there should be no sex inequality.” As a corollary to the proposals Mrs. Webb believed that some form of public provision for the needs of maternity and childhood should be established. “There seems no alternative—assuming that the nation wants children—to some form of state provision, entirely apart from wages.”[286]

[286] Great Britain, _Report of the War Cabinet Committee on Women in Industry, Minority Report_, p. 255.

Eighteen months after the signing of the armistice it was still hardly possible to know definitely what the after war wages and occupations of the woman worker would be. After war industrial conditions in themselves naturally stimulated some return of women to their former occupations. Many of the women substitutes were found in munition making which was immediately curtailed, while the luxury, the needle and other “women’s” trades, depressed during the war may be expected to revive in time. The reluctance of women to enter these trades under the prevailing wage standards was very pronounced, however. Another important factor in forcing women back to prewar lines of work was the carrying out of certain war time substitution agreements. For example, the newly formed industrial council of the wool textile industry, representing employers and employes, adopted on February 3, 1919, the substitution agreement made between employers and work people of the West Riding of Yorkshire three years before. By the terms of this agreement, the returning soldiers were to get their places back when fit for employment. Women were not to be employed on men’s work if men were available and were to be the first discharged if there was a shortage of work. As long as women substitutes remained in the industry they were to be paid on a basis equivalent to that of men workers.

But in other cases, even though similar agreements exist, it appears probable that they will be modified to allow women to keep at least some of their new jobs. Although the Amalgamated Society of Engineers had the legal sanction of the Munitions Acts for excluding women from engineering at the end of the war, at a conference between employers and the union for drafting an after war trade agreement their president expressed his willingness to allow women to remain in semi-skilled repetition work. According to this official much of this kind of work would be carried on in munition plants converted into factories for the manufacture of articles formerly imported. Officials expect the so-called “Whitley” industrial councils of employers and employes to make many similar adjustments, but it has been noted that the council in the woolen industry merely reverted to prewar conditions and arranged to shut out the women. Moreover, in many new occupations, notably clerical and commercial work, which women entered without conditions, and where their efficiency has been demonstrated, it seems almost certain that they will remain. The awakened spirit among women workers and the growth of labor organizations among them, which will give voice to their demands, must also not be forgotten in judging whether women will not continue to occupy at least a part of their new field of work. The radical point of view, that there should be no barriers against their continuing all their new occupations has attracted much attention from its logical presentation and the new note that it strikes.

The position of the government on “dilution” is not wholly clear. During the Parliamentary campaign of December, 1918, Lloyd George, in answer to questions from Lady Rhondda of the Women’s Industrial League, stated that he intended to carry out the terms of the Treasury Agreement of 1915, which promised to restore prewar practices. But “the government had never agreed that new industries come under the Treasury Agreement.” Women could find employment in these, which were already extensive, and in their prewar occupations. The Prime Minister also stated that he was “a supporter of the principle of equal pay for equal output. To permit women to be the catspaw for reducing the level of wages is unthinkable.” In his stand at this time, Lloyd George appeared to approach the middle-of-the-road compromising position of the majority of the War Cabinet Committee on Women in Industry.

A somewhat similar stand was taken in the “Restoration of Prewar Practices Act” of August 15, 1919, which arranged for the fulfilment of pledges made in the Treasury Agreement. It required the owners of the establishments covered—mainly those engaged in munitions work—to restore or permit the restoration of prewar trade rules and customs, and to allow such prewar practices to be continued for a year.

Rules laid down by the Ministry of Labour are quoted, however, which would turn out all the “dilutees,” both male and female, and give back to the skilled men their former monopoly. The rules state that wherever a part of the force must be discharged, the “dilutees” must go first and that if a skilled man applies for work, a “dilutee” must be discharged if necessary.[287] It is probable that these rules apply only to establishments covered by the Munition Acts, but, as far as they go, they leave the women nothing of their war time gains.

[287] _Scientific American_, June 7, 1919.

On the other hand, in assenting to the recommendations of the national Industrial Conference, the government agreed with those who argued for the same protective legislation for both sexes along with state maternity provisions. This national industrial conference, representing employers and employes was called in the spring of 1919 during great labor unrest. It urged legislation for a forty-eight hour week and a universal minimum wage for both sexes, and such bills were pending in Parliament in September, 1919.

The conference also proposed that public provision for maternity care be extended and centralized under the Ministry of Health to whose creation the government was pledged. Maternity protection will undoubtedly hold a prominent place in legislation during the next few years. The successful strike of the women bus workers for equal pay, supported as they were by their male coworkers and by the public, gave hope for the coming of industrial equality between men and women. Such equality immediately raises the question of pay for the services which married women render to the state. The rearing of healthy children is of vital national importance and the endowment of motherhood, provision of milk and proper food for pregnant and nursing mothers and the extension of maternity centers and hospitals with medical and nursing care, are already under consideration by the newly created Ministry of Health.

_Child Workers After the War_

On the needs of children there was much more general agreement. The most pressing problem was prevention of unemployment during the readjustment from war to peace time production. The larger issue lay in greater public control over the first years of working life, to the end that the young workers might grow into better citizens. Both problems were undoubtedly made more difficult by the harm done to boys and girls in body and character by the war. But at the same time the war had roused a greater appreciation of the value of these future citizens and a greater determination to improve their chances.

Alarming forecasts were made as to the probable extent of unemployment among boys and girls at the end of the war by a committee of enquiry appointed by the Ministry of Labour at the suggestion of the Ministry of Reconstruction.[288] A number of munition firms which were canvassed said that they intended to discharge nearly half their boys and three quarters of their girls when peace was declared. It was estimated that 60,000 out of the 200,000 working boys and girls in London would be thrown out of a job. Acute unemployment was predicted in occupations that had engaged more than three-tenths of all working girls—the metal, woodworking and chemical trades, government establishments, transport and perhaps commerce.

[288] _The Labour Gazette_, December, 1919, p. 524.

It was likewise anticipated that it would be particularly difficult for boys and girls dismissed at the end of the war to find new places. Not only would openings be few and the numbers of adults seeking work be large, but the high wages children had received for repetition work on munitions would make them unwilling to learn trades or to accept lower pay. When a number of boys were discharged from munition plants in 1916-1917, although labor at that time was very scarce, great difficulty was found in getting them new places because of their unwillingness to accept ordinary wages. To meet the crisis the Ministry of Reconstruction committee suggested a comprehensive program for unemployment prevention. The discharge of war workers should be regulated and placement centered in the employment exchanges, whose juvenile employment committees were to be strengthened. Government establishments should hold back dismissals until notified that places were open. A canvass for possible openings and for probable dismissals should be made in advance of the end of the war.

The second point in the committee’s plan was keeping newcomers out of industry. The exemptions allowing children under fourteen to leave school should be abolished, scholarships provided for many capable children at secondary schools, and the working weeks for all under eighteen reduced to forty-eight hours. For those still uncared for, training during unemployment should be provided. Training centers should be opened in all towns of over 20,000 population and allowances made to parents whose children attended. For the boys most demoralized by war work it might even be necessary to open residential training camps where they could remain at least six or eight weeks.

The third main point in the program was the improvement of working conditions, including for all occupations a week of forty-eight hours for work and continuation school together, the abolition of night work, and a searching physical examination before entering industry. A novel recommendation was that it should be made a legal offence to employ young persons under conditions “impeding their training.”

But as was the case with the women workers, the comprehensive plans worked out under the Ministry of Reconstruction had not been adopted when the armistice was signed, and juvenile workers were helped through the unemployment crisis only by the incomplete makeshifts hastily adopted in the first few days after November 11. Chief among these was the provision of unemployment donations, the payment of which was conditional on attendance at a training center wherever one was available. The donations were payable for the same period as those for adults, that is, for thirteen weeks during the first six months of peace, later extended for a second six months, but were less in amount, being 14s. 6d. ($5.48) weekly for boys and 12s. 6d. ($3.00) for girls. During the first few months of 1919, about 50,000 young persons received the donations.

The number receiving donations steadily declined until on November 21, 1919, when civilian donations ceased, there were 8,000 boys and 2,287 girls on the Labor Exchange donation lists.[289] By February of that year 116 training centers had been opened, providing nearly sufficient in London, and a smaller number elsewhere. More were opening daily, but it was hard to find teachers and rooms. The centers were managed by the Board of Education, in close cooperation with the employment exchanges. About 13,500 boys and girls were in attendance daily.[290]

[289] _The Labour Gazette_, December, 1919, p. 524.

[290] Great Britain Ministry of Reconstruction, _Pamphlets on Reconstruction Problems, No. 15_, “Juvenile Employment,” 1919, p. 19.

The Fisher Education Law is, to date, the chief constructive measure looking toward a permanent improvement in the condition of juvenile workers. This measure was the result of proposals made by 1917 by an official committee on “Juvenile Education in Relation to Employment after the War,” which were strikingly like those put forward by a number of workers’ organizations. All exceptions allowing children to leave school before the age of fourteen were abolished. Any gainful employment by children under twelve was forbidden, and children between twelve and fourteen might work only on Saturdays and for a few hours after school. Attendance at continuation schools by all young workers was required, and the age limit will be eighteen years when the law goes into full effect. Eight hours a week and two hundred and eighty hours a year must be given to continuation school, the time for attendance being taken out of working hours. Unfortunately, those who in some ways most need the protection of the law, namely, the boys and girls who left school for work prematurely during the war, do not come under its provisions. Two special sections exempted those who had already left school from returning, and those fourteen years old or more when the law was passed, from attendance at continuation classes. Nevertheless by the enactment of this law the final effect of the war on English child labor standards should be to lift them to a higher level than ever before.

Even at this time of writing it is difficult to measure the final effects of the war upon the economic conditions of the women and children. Too many unfinished plans and unfulfilled pledges still remain for action by the government. Far reaching changes are, however, in prospect and some of them actually under way. Foremost among these is the aroused spirit among the workers, who are demanding and peacefully securing a real share in the management of industry. In this awakening the woman worker has fully participated. The disadvantages of war work, in long hours, overstrain, the disruption of home life, may pass as industrial conditions return to normal. The gains in the way of better working conditions, higher wages and a wider range of occupations seem likely to be more permanent. Most important of all is the fact that because of her broader and more confident outlook on life, the woman worker is able consciously to hold to the improved economic position to which the fortunes of war have brought her.

APPENDICES

Appendix A

The following table, from a “Report to the Board of Trade on the State of Employment in the United Kingdom,” of February, 1915, compares the number of males and females on full time, on overtime, on short time, and unemployed, between September, 1914, and February, 1915.

STATE OF EMPLOYMENT IN SEPTEMBER, OCTOBER AND DECEMBER, 1914, AND FEBRUARY, 1915

(Numbers Employed in July = 100 per cent.) ------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ | September, 1914 | October, 1914 | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ | M | F | M | F | Full time | 60.2 | 53.5 | 66.8 | 61.9 | |3,913,000|1,337,500|4,342,000|1,547,500| | | | | | Overtime | 3.6 | 2.1 | 5.2 | 5.9 | | 234,000| 52,500| 338,000| 147,500| | | | | | Short time | 26.0 | 36.0 | 17.3 | 26.0 | |1,690,000| 900,000|1,124,500| 650,000| | | | | | Contraction in | 10.2 | 8.4 | 10.7 | 6.2 | Nos. employed | 663,000| 210,000| 695,000| 155,000| | | | | | Enlisted | 8.8 | ... | 10.6 | ... | | 572,000| ... | 689,000| ... | | | | | | Net displacement | | | | | (-) or | -1.4 | -8.4 | -0.1 | -6.2 | replacement (+) | -91,000| -210,000| -6,500| -155,000| ------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ | December, 1914 | February, 1915 | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ | M | F | M | F | Full time | 65.8 | 66.6 | 68.4 | 75.0 | |4,277,000|1,665,000|4,446,000|1,875,000| | | | | | Overtime | 12.8 | 10.8 | 13.8 | 10.9 | | 832,000| 270,000| 897,000| 272,500| | | | | | Short time | 10.5 | 19.4 | 6.0 | 12.6 | | 682,500| 485,000| 390,000| 315,000| | | | | | Contraction in | 10.9 | 3.2 | 11.8 | 1.5 | Nos. employed | 708,500| 80,000| 767,000| 37,500| | | | | | Enlisted | 13.3 | ... | 15.4 | ... | | 864,500| ... |1,010,000| ... | | | | | | Net displacement | | | | | (-) or | +2.4 | -3.2 | +3.6 | -1.5 | replacement (+) | +156,000| -80,000| +243,000| -37,500| ------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

Appendix B

The following table indicates some of the processes formerly reserved for men on which the factory inspectors found women employed by the end of 1915:

INDUSTRY PROCESSES ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Linoleum Attending cork grinding and embossing machines, machine printing, attending stove, trimming and packing. Woodworking— Brush making Fibre dressers, brush makers and on boring machinery. Furniture Light upholstery, cramping, dowelling, glueing, fret-work, carving by hand or machine, staining and polishing. Saw mills On planing, moulding, sand-papering, boring, mortising, dovetailing, tenoning, turning and nailing machines. Taking off from circular saws; box making, printing and painting. Cooperage Barrel making machines. Paper mills In rag grinding and attending to beating and breaking machines, and to coating machines, calenders and in certain preparations and finishing and warehouse processes. Printing Machine feeding (on platen machines and on guillotines) and as linotype operators. Wire rope On stranding and spinning machines. Chemical works Attending at crystallising tanks and for yard work. Soap As soap millers and in general work. Paint At roller mills, filling tins and kegs, labeling and packing. Oil and cake mills Trucking, feeding and drawing off from chutes, attending to presses. Flour mills Trucking. Bread and biscuits Attending to dough-breaks, biscuit machines, and at the ovens assisting bakers. Tobacco Leaf cutting, cigarette making, soldering, trucking and warehouse work. Rubber At washing machines, grinding mills, dough rolls, solutioning, motor tube making. Malting Spreading and general work. Breweries Cask washing, tun-room work, beer bottling and bottle washing. Distilleries In the mill and yeast houses. Cement Attending weighing machines, trucking. Foundries Core making, moulding. Tanning and At the pits, in finishing and drying, and in currying oiling, setting up, buffing and staining. Woolen mills Beaming and overlooking, attending drying machines, carding, pattern weaving. Jute mills On softening machines, dressing yarn, calendering. Cotton mills In blowing room on spinning mules, beaming, twisting and drawing, and in warehouse. Hosiery Folding and warehouse work. Lace Threading. Print, bleach and dye works Beetling, assisting printers at machines, warehouse processes.

Appendix C

The following tables from the second report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science bring out in detail, first, the gradual disappearance of unemployment and short time and the increase of women’s numbers in industry from September, 1914, to April, 1916; second, the changes in numbers of women in the various occupations, both industrial and nonindustrial in December, 1915, and April, 1916, compared with July, 1914, and, third, similar details as to the number of women who were undertaking “men’s work.”

STATE OF EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN AT VARIOUS DATES SINCE THE OUTBREAK OF WAR, COMPARED WITH STATE OF EMPLOYMENT IN JULY, 1914

(“Industrial” employment only. Numbers employed July, 1914 = 100 per cent.)

Sept., Oct., Dec., Feb., Oct., Dec., Feb., April, 1914 1914 1914 1915 1915 1915 1916 1916 Contraction (-) or expansion (+) in numbers employed -8.4 -6.2 -3.2 -1.5 +7.4 +9.2 +10.9 +13.2

Employed on 2.1 5.9 10.8 10.9 13.9 14.5 12.8 ... overtime

Employed on 36.0 26.0 19.4 12.6 5.6 6.1 4.6 ... short time

EXTENSION OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN DECEMBER, 1915 AND APRIL, 1916

--------------------------+-----------------+---------------------- | Estimated | Increase (+) or | Industrial | Decrease (-) Occupations Group | Population. | of Females in | July, 1914, +----------+----------- | Females |Dec., 1915|April, 1916 +-----------------+----------+----------- Building | 7,000 | + 3,600 | + 6,400 Mines and Quarries | 9,000 | + 800 | + 2,300 Metal Trades | 144,000 | +71,700 | +126,900 Chemical Trades | 40,000 | +19,400 | + 33,600 Textile Trades | 851,000 | +29,700 | + 27,800 Clothing Trades | 654,000 | + 6,700 | + 11,700 Food Trades | 170,000 | +31,700 | + 30,900 Paper and Printing Trades | 169,000 | ... | - 900 Wood Trades | 39,000 | + 7,400 | + 13,200 Other Trades | 96,000 | +25,400 | + 35,700 +-----------------+----------+----------- All “Industrial” | | | Occupations | 2,180,000 | +196,500 | +287,500 +-----------------+----------+----------- Commercial | 474,500 | ... | +181,000 Professional | 68,500 | ... | + 13,000 Banking and Finance | 9,500 | ... | + 23,000 Public Entertainment | 172,000 | ... | + 14,000 Agriculture | ... | ... | ... Transport | 9,500 | ... | + 16,000 Civil Service | 63,000 | ... | + 29,000 Arsenals, Dockyards, etc. | 2,000 | ... | + 13,000 Local Government | | ... | (incl. Teachers) | 184,000 | ... | + 21,000 Domestic Service | ... | ... | ... +-----------------+----------+----------- Total for “Nonindustrial” | | | Occupations | 983,000 | ... | +310,000 +-----------------+----------+----------- Total for all Occupations | 3,163,000 | ... | +597,500 --------------------------+-----------------+----------+-----------

EXTENT OF SUBSTITUTION OF FEMALE FOR MALE WORKERS IN DECEMBER, 1915, AND APRIL, 1916.

-----------------------------+----------------------------------- |Estimated number of Females on work | in substitution of Males’ work +------------------+---------------- Occupations Group | December, 1915 | April, 1916 -----------------------------+------------------+---------------- Building | 6,100 | 8,800 Mines and Quarries | 2,700 | 4,400 Metal Trades | 70,300 | 117,400 Chemical Trades | 9,600 | 16,200 Textile Trades | 57,600 | 73,400 Clothing Trades | 30,400 | 42,300 Food Trades | 29,500 | 35,000 Paper and Printing Trades | 22,500 | 23,600 Wood Trades | 11,400 | 17,400 Other Trades | 27,000 | 37,400 +------------------+---------------- All “Industrial” Occupations | 267,100 | 375,900 +------------------+---------------- Commercial | ... | 189,000 Professional | ... | 16,000 Banking and Finance | ... | 25,000 Public Entertainment | ... | 32,000 Agriculture | ... | ... Transport | ... | 18,000 Civil Service | ... | 31,000 Arsenals, Dockyards, etc. | ... | 13,000 Local Government | | (incl. Teachers) | ... | 37,000 Domestic Service | ... | ... +------------------+---------------- Total for “Nonindustrial” | | Occupations | ... | 361,000 +------------------+---------------- Total for all Occupations | ... | 736,900 -----------------------------+------------------+----------------

Appendix D

The following table, compiled from the quarterly reports in the _Labour Gazette_ and a special report of the Board of Trade, gives the increase in the employment of women between April, 1916, and July, 1918, for the most of the important occupational groups. It can not be compared directly with the similar tables, previously given, prepared by the British Association for the Advancement of Science, because of slight differences in the estimates of the numbers employed in July, 1914.

EXTENSION OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, APRIL, 1916-JULY, 1918

(Classified by employers’ position, not by nature of work.) -------------------+---------+-------------------------------------------+ |Estimated| Estimated increase since July, 1914 | |No. Empl +-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+ | July, | April,| July, | Oct., | Jan., | April, | | 1914 | 1916 | 1916 | 1916 | 1917 | 1917 | -------------------+---------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+ Industrial | | | | | | | Occupations[291] |2,176,000|275,000|361,000|393,000| 423,000| 453,000| Government | | | | | | | Establishments[292]| 2,000| 25,000| 79,000|117,000| 147,000| 198,000| Commercial | 496,000|166,000|240,000|268,000| 274,000| 307,000| Professional | | | | | | | (mainly clerks) | 50,500| 13,000| 14,000| 15,000| 18,000| 21,000| Banking, Finance | | | | | | | (mainly clerks) | 9,500| 23,000| 32,000| 37,000| 43,000| 50,000| Hotels, Theaters | 181,000| 12,000| 20,000| 16,000| 10,000| 13,000| Agriculture | | | | | | | (perm. labor | | | | | | | Gt. Britain) | 80,000|-14,000| 20,000| 500| -14,000| ... | Transport | | | | | | | (not municipal) | 17,000| 23,000| 35,000| 41,000| 51,000| 62,000| Civil Service | 66,000| 39,000| 58,000| 67,000| 76,000| 89,000| Local | | | | | | | Government[293] | 198,000| 21,000| 30,000| 34,000| 44,000| 47,000| Other | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | -------------------+---------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+ Total |3,276,000|583,000|889,000|988,500|1,072,000|1,240,000| -------------------+---------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+

[291] Not owned by government.

[292] Includes arsenals, docks, government shell filling factories, etc.

[293] Includes teachers and transportation workers for municipalities.

-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------- | Estimated increase since July, 1914 |Per cent of |---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+increase | July, | Oct., | Jan., | April, | July, |July, 1914- | 1917 | 1917 | 1918 | 1918 | 1918 |July, 1918 -------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------- Industrial | | | | | | Occupations[294] | 518,000| 529,000| 533,000| 537,000| 565,000| 26.0 Government | | | | | | Establishments[295]| 202,000| 211,000| 207,500| 197,000| 223,000|11,200.0 Commercial | 324,000| 333,000| 343,000| 354,000| 364,000| 73.4 Professional | | | | | | (mainly clerks) | 20,000| 50,000| 50,000| 57,000| ... | 4.0 Banking, Finance | | | | | | (mainly clerks) | 54,000| 59,000| 61,000| 63,000| 65,000| 687.0 Hotels, Theaters | 22,000| 28,000| 26,000| 25,000| 39,000| 21.5 Agriculture | | | | | | (perm. labor | | | | | | Gt. Britain) | 23,000| 7,000| -6,000| 9,000| 33,000| 41.3 Transport | | | | | | (not municipal) | 72,000| 77,000| 76,000| 78,000| ... | ... Civil Service | 98,000| 116,500| 124,000| 159,000| 168,000| 255.0 Local | | | | | | Government[296] | 49,000| 51,500| 51,500| 53,000| 52,000| 26.5 Other | ... | ... | ... | ... | 150,000| ... -------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------- Total |1,382,000|1,462,000|1,466,000|1,532,000|1,659,000| 50.6 -------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------

[294] Not owned by government.

[295] Includes arsenals, docks, government shell filling factories, etc.

[296] Includes teachers and transportation workers for municipalities.

Appendix E

The following table, compiled from the _Labour Gazette_, and a special report of the Board of Trade, gives a quarterly estimate of the number of women replacing men for the period between April, 1916, and April, 1918.

NUMBER OF FEMALES SUBSTITUTED FOR MALE WORKERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN CERTAIN OCCUPATIONS, BY QUARTERS, APRIL, 1916-APRIL, 1918

-------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+ | April,| July, | Oct., | Jan., | April, | | 1916 | 1916 | 1916 | 1917 | 1917 | -------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+ Industrial | | | | | | Occupations[297] |213,000|264,000|314,000| 376,000| 438,000| Government | | | | | | Establishments[298]| 13,000| 79,000|117,000| 139,000| 187,000| Commercial |152,000|226,000|264,000| 278,000| 308,000| Professional | | | | | | (mainly clerks) | 12,000| 15,000| 15,000| 17,000| 20,000| Banking, Finance | | | | | | (mainly clerks) | 21,000| 31,000| 37,000| 42,000| 48,000| Hotels, Theaters | 27,000| 31,000| 30,000| 31,000| 35,000| Agriculture | | | | | | (perm. labor, | | | | | | Gt. Britain) | 37,000| 35,000| 20,000| 23,000| 32,000| Transport | | | | | | (not municipal) | 24,000| 35,000| 41,000| 52,000| 64,000| Civil Service | 30,000| 41,000| 64,000| 73,000| 83,000| Local | | | | | | Government[299] | 18,000| 26,000| 31,000| 40,000| 41,000| -------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+ Total |547,000|783,000|933,000|1,071,000|1,256,000| -------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+---------+

[297] Not owned by government.

[298] Includes arsenals, docks, government shell filling factories, etc.

[299] Includes teachers and transportation workers for municipalities.

(A) = Per cent No. of substitutes in April, 1918, is of total No. employed in July, 1914 -------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+------- | July, | Oct., | Jan., | April, | (A) | 1917 | 1917 | 1918 | 1918 | -------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+------- Industrial | | | | | Occupations[300] | 464,000| 490,000| 503,000| 531,000| 24.4 Government | | | | | Establishments[301]| 191,000| 202,000| 197,000| 187,000|9,350.0 Commercial | 328,000| 337,000| 342,000| 352,000| 70.9 Professional | | | | | (mainly clerks) | 21,000| 22,000| 22,000| 22,500| 44.5 Banking, Finance | | | | | (mainly clerks) | 53,000| 55,000| 57,000| 59,500| 626.3 Hotels, Theaters | 38,000| 44,500| 45,000| 44,500| 24.5 Agriculture | | | | | (perm. labor, | | | | | Gt. Britain) | 43,000| 33,000| 31,000| 40,000| 50.0 Transport | | | | | (not municipal) | 74,000| 78,500| 78,000| 79,500| 21.3 Civil Service | 99,000| 107,000| 123,000| 153,000| 231.8 Local | | | | | Government[302] | 43,000| 44,000| 44,000| 47,000| 23.7 -------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+------- Total |1,354,000|1,413,000|1,442,000|1,516,000| 46.2 -------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-------

[300] Not owned by government.

[301] Includes arsenals, docks, government shell filling factories, etc.

[302] Includes teachers and transportation workers for municipalities.

Appendix F

ESTIMATED NUMBER OF FEMALES DIRECTLY REPLACING MALES IN VARIOUS BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY IN JANUARY, 1918.

(Compiled from the Report of the War Cabinet Committee on Women in Industry.)

_Trade_ Metal 195,000 Chemical 35,000 Textile 64,000 Clothing 43,000 Food, Drink and Tobacco 60,000 Paper and Printing 21,000 Wood, China and Earthenware, Leather 23,000 Other 62,000 Government Establishments 197,000 ------- Total 700,000

ESTIMATED NUMBER OF FEMALES DIRECTLY REPLACING MALES IN VARIOUS BRANCHES OF COMMERCE IN APRIL, 1918.

(Compiled from the Report of the Board of Trade on the Employment of Women in April, 1918.)

Wholesale and Retail Drapers, Haberdashers, Clothiers, 41,000 Wholesale and Retail Grocers, Bakers, Confectioners 92,000 Wholesale and Retail Stationers and Booksellers 16,000 Wholesale and Retail Butchers, Fishmongers, Dairymen 30,000 Retail Chemists 12,000 Retail Boot and Shoe Dealers 8,000 ------- Total (including some not specified above) 352,000

Appendix G

ESTIMATE BY THE BRITISH WAR CABINET COMMITTEE ON WOMEN IN INDUSTRY ON AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS OF WOMEN IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS AT THE END OF THE WAR.

Earnings under 25s. weekly: Dressmakers, milliners (first five years), laundry workers, pottery workers (most grades), knife girls and kitchen hands in refreshment houses.

Earning between 25s. and 30s. weekly: Cutlery workers, soap and candle makers (unskilled), corner tenters (cotton), woolen and worsted weavers, backwashers (Scotch Tweed), dyers and cleaners, biscuit makers, cigarette makers, pottery workers (certain grades), waitresses in refreshment depots.

Earning between 30s. and 35s. weekly: Ammunition makers (women’s work), chainmakers, salt packers, fine chemical workers, soap makers (most operations), card-room operatives (cotton), clothing machinists, workers in grain milling and brewing, cigar makers, shop assistants (co-operative).

Earning between 35s. and 40s. weekly: Workers in the light casting trade, chemical laborers, big tenters and ring-spiners (cotton), wool combers, tailoring fitters and cutters, boot operatives, bakery workers, jigger women in potteries, tanners, shop assistants (large stores).

Earning between 40s. and 45s. weekly: Workers in engineering, chemicals (shift work) and explosives; textile dyers, tobacco machinists, motor drivers (for shop), railway carriage cleaners, telephonists, railway clerks.

Earning between 45s. and 50s. weekly: Cloth lookers (cotton), hosiery machinists, web dyers, gas index readers and lamp-lighters, railway porters, ticket collectors, telegraphists.

Earning between 50s. and 60s. weekly: Ledger clerks, Civil Service clerks (Class I).

Earning over 60s.: Women on skilled men’s work in engineering omnibus conductors (London), gas workers (heavy work for South Metropolitan Gas Co.).

Appendix H

NUMBER OF ORDERS MODIFYING THE LABOR LAWS, ISSUED FROM AUGUST 4, 1914, TO FEBRUARY 19, 1915

(_Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops for 1914_, p. 56.)

Textile: Wool 748 Hosiery 231 Cotton 159 Flax 28 Hemp and jute 29 Silk 8 Dyeing and finishing 37 Leather and leather equipment 105 Canvas equipment 137 Munitions 151 Shipbuilding 15 Electrical supply 35 Metal accessories 141 Machinery 57 Wood 44

Clothing: Uniforms 514 Fur coats 9 Boots 245 Caps 28 Shirts 73 Bedding 33 Surgical dressings 21 Tobacco 10 Food 37 Tin boxes 37 Camp equipment 52 Wire and wire netting 34 Wagons, etc. 34 Rubber 16 Miscellaneous 73 ----- Total 3,141

Appendix I

The following list of modifications of the hour laws in 1915 was compiled from the _Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops for 1915_.

_Industry_ _Persons Affected_ _Latitude_ Munitions. Women. As in 1914. Boys over 14. Girls over 16.

Woolen and worsted Women and young 6 hours weekly overtime, (from May). persons. in 2-hour shifts on 3 days or 1½ hours on 4 days. No overtime on Saturday.

Weaving (July-Nov.). Women and young 8 hours weekly overtime persons over 16. in 2-hour shifts on 4 days.

Hosiery. Protected persons. 1½ hours overtime on 4 days, or 1 hour on 5 days, but not on Saturday or Sunday.

Cotton. Protected persons. 6 hours overtime weekly.

Margarine. Not stated. Not stated.

Window shades. Not stated. Not stated.

Flax. Not stated. Not stated.

Rope walks. Not stated. 6 hours overtime weekly.

Bleach and dye works Not stated. 6 hours overtime weekly. (surgical dressings; raising and finishing flannelette).

Tanning and currying. Women. 4 hours overtime weekly. Boys over 14.

Canvas equipment. Not stated. 5 hours overtime weekly.

Shipbuilding. Boys over 14. (a) Overtime, 5 hours a week for boys under 16; 7½ hours for those over 16. (b) Eight hour shifts. (c) Day and night shifts.

Bread baking. (a) Boys 17. (a) Night shift (not exceeding 9 hours). (b) Boys 15 and (b) Any period of 9 hours over. between 4 a.m. and 8 p.m.

Pastry baking (a) Women and boys (a) Night shift (not (Scotland). of 17. exceeding 9 hours). (b) Boys 15 and (b) Any period of 9 hours over. between 4 a.m. and 8 p.m.

Chocolate.[303] Women. When necessary, on account of hot weather, between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m. for two spells of 4 hours each, one in the morning and one in the afternoon. Leather Women and young Overtime 1½ hours per day. equipment.[304] persons over 16.

Aerated waters.[305] Women. Extension of overtime allowed by S. 49.

Glass. Boys over 13 Extension of S. 55. (educationally qualified).

Oil and cake mills. Women and boys 8-hour shifts, or day and over 16. night shifts.

Flour mills. Women and boys 8-hour shifts, or day and over 16. night shifts.

Toys and games.[306] Women. Overtime as allowed by S.49 and night shifts during the Christmas season.

Dairies. Women and young 5 hours on Sundays, with persons. weekly limit of 60 hours. No other overtime during the week.

Paper mills. Women. 8-hour shifts, or day and night shifts.

Pottery. Not stated. Suspension of certain regulations.

Sandbags.[307] Women and young Overtime, 3 hours persons. per week.

Cement Women. Night shift. (Essex and Kent).

Waterproof capes Women and young (1) Overtime, 4½ hours (War Office persons per week. contracts).[308] over 16. (2) Permission for Christians to work on Saturday and Jews on Sunday.

Manchester warehouses. Women and boys Overtime, 2 hours on not over 16. more than 4 days a week and on not more than 12 days in any 4 weeks.

Lace and patent net Women, girls (1) Different periods factories (processes over 16; boys of employment for of threading, brass over 14. different workers. bobbin winding, (2) Where (1) is impractic- jacking off able overtime 1½ hours and stripping). per day, but with a weekly limit of 60 hours exclusive of meal times.

Non-textile works Women, girls Rearrangement of the engaged on work for over 16; boys statutory hours but the Crown, or on over 14. period of employment work required in not to exceed 14 hours the national on any one day, or 60 interest.[309] hours (exclusive of meal times) in any week.

[303] The order expired and was not renewed.

[304] The order expired and was not renewed.

[305] The order expired and was not renewed.

[306] The order expired and was not renewed.

[307] The order expired and was not renewed.

[308] The order expired and was not renewed.

[309] A new order, which was allowed in all nontextile works not otherwise provided for. It allowed greater elasticity than was provided by the Factory Acts, and permitted, for example, such moderate overtime during the week as could be compensated by an earlier stop on Saturdays.

Appendix J

GENERAL ORDER REGULATING OVERTIME ISSUED BY THE HOME OFFICE SEPTEMBER 9, 1916.

The following is the full text of the parts of the order applying to women:

Scheme A. (Three Shifts.)

This scheme applies to women and female young persons of 16 years of age and over, and male young persons of 14 years of age and over. Three shifts, none of which may be longer than 10 hours, may be worked in each period of 24 hours, subject to the following conditions:

(1) Each worker shall have one break of 24 hours or more in every week, or of 32 hours or more in every alternate week, or of 40 hours or more in every third week.

(2) Each worker shall have an interval of two unemployed shifts between each two shifts of employment.

(3) An interval of not less than half an hour shall be allowed if the shift is 8 hours or less, and an interval of not less than one hour if the shift is more than 8 hours.

Provided that the superintending inspector of factories may authorize, subject to compliance with condition (1) and to such other conditions as he may impose, different arrangements as regards hours of work and breaks at the week end for the purpose of changing over the shifts.

Scheme B. (Two Shifts.)

This scheme applies to women and female persons of 16 years of age and over and male young persons of 14 years of age and over, provided that the employment in the night shift of girls under 18 or boys under 16 years of age shall be subject in each case to the approval of the superintending inspector of factories. Two shifts of 12 hours each may be worked, subject to the following conditions:

(1) No person shall be employed more than 6 turns by day or more than 6 turns by night in any week.

(2) Unless otherwise sanctioned by the superintending inspector no person shall be employed on Sunday except in a night shift commencing on Sunday evening or ending on Sunday morning.

(3) The total hours worked per week (exclusive of meal times) shall not exceed 60 provided that in the case of male young persons 16 years of age and over the total hours worked per week (exclusive of meal times) may be 63.

(4) Intervals for meals amounting to not less than 1½ hours shall be allowed in the course of each shift, of which in the case of the night shift one-fourth of an hour or more shall be allowed as a break within 4 hours of the end of the shift.

(5) Each worker shall have an interval of one unemployed shift between each two shifts of employment.

Providing that the superintending inspector may authorize, subject to such conditions as he may impose, a system of one long shift, not exceeding 13 hours with a corresponding reduction in the other shift, so that the average weekly total of hours shall not exceed the limits specified above in paragraph (3).

Scheme C. (Rearrangement of Statutory Hours.)

This scheme applies to women and female young persons of 16 years of age and over, and male young persons of 14 years of age and over.

In the case of such women and young persons the hours of work and intervals for meals allowed by the (factory and workshop) act may be arranged, subject to the following conditions:

(a) The total hours worked per week (exclusive of intervals for meals) shall not exceed 60.

(b) The daily period of employment (including overtime and intervals for meals)—

(1) Shall not commence earlier than 6 a.m. or end later than 10 p.m. (2) Shall not exceed 14 hours.

(c) Intervals for meals amounting to not less than 1½ hours shall be allowed during the period of employment, with an additional half an hour if the period of employment is more than 13½ hours.

(d) No overtime shall be worked on Saturday.

Naval Ship Repairing Work.

In cases of special emergency women, female young persons of 16 years of age and over, and male young persons of 14 years of age and over, employed on repair work for His Majesty’s ships may be employed for special hours on any day of the week on the express instructions of the senior naval officer in charge and subject to such conditions as he may lay down as regards intervals for meals and rest, provided that in any case—

(1) No male young person over 16 years of age shall be employed for more than 67½ hours in the week (exclusive of intervals for meals and rest).

(2) No other young person or woman shall be employed for more than 65 hours in the week (exclusive of intervals for meals and rest).

Miscellaneous Provisions.

No woman or young person shall be employed continuously at any time for more than five hours without an interval of at least half an hour, except that where not less than one hour is allowed for dinner, an afternoon spell of six hours may be worked, with an interval of quarter of an hour only for tea, if the factory inspector is satisfied that adequate provision is made for the worker to obtain tea in the works and for tea to be actually ready for them as soon as they stop work.

If work commences before 8 a.m. and no interval is allowed for breakfast, an opportunity shall be given to take refreshment during the morning.

A woman or young person shall not be allowed to lift, carry, or move anything so heavy as to be likely to cause injury to the woman or young person.

Different schemes of employment may be adopted and different intervals for meals fixed for different sets of workers.

Employment on night shifts shall be subject to the provision, to the satisfaction of the factory inspector, of proper facilities for taking and cooking meals, and in the case of female workers, for their supervision by a welfare worker or a responsible forewoman.

Circular letter 198802 to accompany Home Office Order of Sept 9, 1916.

No requirement is laid down in the order that workers on the night shift shall change periodically to the day shift. The matter is left to the individual employers to determine in consultation with their work people. Care should be taken in selecting women and young persons for night work. They should not be put on night work indiscriminately.

Appendix K

DISTRIBUTION OF YOUNG PERSONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT EMPLOYMENTS IN JULY, 1914, OCTOBER, 1917, AND JANUARY, 1918

(Compiled from Ministry of Reconstruction, _Juvenile Employment During the War and After_, pp. 10, 11, 77.) --------------------------+----------------------------------+ | Total Boys and Girls Under 18 | +----------+-----------+-----------+ |Estimated | Estimated |Increase or| | numbers | numbers | decrease | | employed |employed in|July, 1914-| |Oct., 1917|Jan., 1918 |Jan., 1918 | --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ Building | 50,000| 48,000 | -12,300 | Mines and Quarries | 168,000| 178,000 | +11,300 | Metal Trades | 404,000| 409,000 | +173,800 | Chemical Trades | 47,000| 48,000 | +22,300 | Textile Trades | 329,000| 324,000 | -15,000 | Food, Drink and Tobacco | 96,000| 96,000 | +7,200 | Clothing Trades | 169,000| 169,000 | -19,600 | Paper and Printing | 75,000| 74,000 | -11,700 | Wood Trades | 54,000| 55,000 | +10,000 | Other Industries | 80,000| 81,000 | +10,000 | --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ Industries Total | 1,472,000| 1,482,000 | +176,000 | --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ Municipal gas, water, | | | | electricity | 4,000| 3,500 | +2,000 | Government establishments | 32,000| 30,000 | +27,000 | Agriculture | 136,000| 130,000 | -9,000 | Transport | 101,500| 102,500 | +25,100 | Finance and commerce | 427,000| 416,000 | +94,000 | Professional occupations | 29,000| 27,000 | +8,000 | Hotels, cinemas, theaters | 30,000| 32,000 | +7,000 | Postoffice | 24,000| 23,000 | -4,000 | Other civil service | 13,500| 14,500 | +11,400 | Local government | | | | (including education, | | | | but excluding Municipal | | | | trams, water, gas, | | | | electricity) | 18,000| 17,500 | +4,500 | --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ Grand Total | 2,287,000| 2,278,000 | +342,000 | --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+

--------------------------+----------------------------------+ | Total Boys Under 18 | +----------+-----------+-----------+ | Estimated| Estimated |Increase or| | numbers | numbers | decrease | | employed|employed in|July, 1914-| |Oct., 1917|Jan., 1918 |Jan., 1918 | --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ Building | 44,000| 42,000| -17,000| Mines and Quarries | 164,000| 174,000| +9,000| Metal Trades | 296,000| 303,000| +113,000| Chemical Trades | 22,000| 22,000| +7,500| Textile Trades | 116,000| 114,000| -10,000| Food, Drink and Tobacco | 43,000| 43,000| +3,000| Clothing Trades | 45,000| 45,000| -3,000| Paper and Printing | 30,000| 30,000| -10,000| Wood Trades | 34,000| 34,000| -500| Other Industries | 43,000| 44,000| -1,000| --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ Industries Total | 837,000| 851,000| +91,000| --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ Municipal gas, water, | | | | electricity | 3,000| 3,000| +1,500| Government establishments | 22,000| 21,000| +18,000| Agriculture | 118,000| 113,000| -14,000| Transport | 89,500| 90,500| +14,400| Finance and commerce | 224,000| 216,000| -22,500| Professional occupations | 18,000| 17,000| +3,000| Hotels, cinemas, theaters | 17,000| 19,000| +6,500| Postoffice | 10,000| 9,000| -7,800| Other civil service | 4,500| 4,500| +1,500| Local government | | | | (including education, | | | | but excluding Municipal | | | | trams, water, gas, | | | | electricity) | 10,000| 10,000| +2,400| --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ Grand Total | 1,353,000| 1,354,000| +94,000| --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+

--------------------------+----------------------------------+ | Total Girls Under 18 | +----------------------+-----------+ |Estimated | Estimated |Increase or| | numbers | numbers | decrease | | employed |employed in|July, 1914-| |Oct., 1917|Jan., 1918 |Jan., 1918 | --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ Building | 6,000| 6,000| +4,700 | Mines and Quarries | 4,000| 4,000| +2,250 | Metal Trades | 108,000| 106,000| +60,800 | Chemical Trades | 25,000| 26,000| +14,850 | Textile Trades | 213,000| 210,000| -5,000 | Food, Drink and Tobacco | 53,000| 53,000| +4,200 | Clothing Trades | 124,000| 124,000| -16,550 | Paper and Printing | 45,000| 44,000| -1,750 | Wood Trades | 20,000| 21,000| +10,500 | Other Industries | 37,000| 37,000| +11,000 | --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ Industries Total | 635,000| 631,000| +85,000 | --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ Municipal gas, water, | | | | electricity | 1,000| 500| +500 | Government establishments | 10,000| 9,000| +9,000 | Agriculture | 18,000| 17,000| +5,000 | Transport | 12,000| 12,000| +10,700 | Finance and commerce | 203,000| 200,000| +116,500 | Professional occupations | 11,000| 10,000| +5,000 | Hotels, cinemas, theaters | 13,000| 13,000| +500 | Postoffice | 14,000| 14,000| +3,800 | Other civil service | 9,000| 10,000| +9,900 | Local government | | | | (including education, | | | | but excluding Municipal | | | | trams, water, gas, | | | | electricity) | 8,000| 7,500| +2,100 | --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ Grand Total | 934,000| 924,000| +248,000 | --------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+

Appendix L

POSTWAR EMPLOYMENT

(Tables Compiled from _Labour Gazette_, May, 1919, pp. 287-288; October, p. 418; November, p. 473.)

1. Number of Out-of-Work Donation Policies Outstanding Weekly for Ten Months of 1919.

-------------+------------------------------------------+ | Civilians | Week +--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ Ending | Men | Boys | Women | Girls| Total | -------------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ Jan. 3 | 101,390| 16,988| 224,955| 13,374| 356,707| Jan. 10 | 119,315| 16,462| 265,479| 16,365| 417,621| Jan. 17 | 139,113| 18,131| 303,813| 18,018| 479,075| Jan. 24 | 156,671| 20,543| 343,742| 22,259| 543,215| Jan. 31 | 177,361| 22,562| 399,864| 25,362| 625,149| Feb. 7 | 191,371| 24,538| 427,734| 26,790| 670,433| Feb. 14 | 212,205| 26,752| 452,810| 28,183| 719,950| Feb. 21 | 218,278| 28,195| 470,294| 31,544| 748,311| Feb. 28 | 227,836| 28,019| 494,471| 32,037| 782,363| Mar. 7 | 234,402| 27,356| 494,365| 34,398| 790,521| Mar. 14 | 208,540| 26,327| 485,784| 31,070| 751,721| Mar. 21 | 207,973| 27,567| 474,452| 28,082| 738,074| Mar. 28 | 209,486| 26,461| 488,655| 29,380| 753,982| Apr. 4 | 214,263| 26,148| 469,550| 30,189| 740,155| Apr. 11 | 217,538| 26,093| 455,736| 30,134| 729,501| Apr. 18 | 210,119| 23,882| 452,144| 29,279| 715,424| Apr. 25 | 215,687| 23,679| 443,941| 28,964| 712,271| May 2 | 214,761| 23,040| 422,890| 29,242| 689,933| May 9 | 191,651| 19,175| 366,536| 20,871| 598,233| May 16 | 178,284| 16,845| 312,373| 17,023| 524,525| May 23 | 164,569| 14,988| 250,010| 14,869| 444,436| May 30 | 150,250| 12,912| 207,897| 13,231| 384,290| June 6 | 135,317| 10,405| 169,621| 9,880| 325,223| June 13 | 123,134| 8,439| 146,578| 7,910| 286,061| June 20 | 116,158| 7,551| 132,649| 7,491| 263,849| June 27 | 106,661| 6,615| 113,462| 6,544| 233,282| July 4 | 100,270| 5,905| 100,576| 6,077| 212,828| July 11 | 96,472| 5,341| 91,413| 6,155| 199,381| July 18 | 92,762| 4,985| 83,755| 5,707| 187,209| July 25 | 93,828| 5,226| 72,813| 5,354| 177,221| Aug. 1 | 100,228| 6,529| 73,878| 6,176| 186,811| Aug. 8 | 98,298| 6,245| 64,029| 5,673| 174,245| Aug. 15 | 94,863| 6,669| 61,065| 6,093| 168,690| Aug. 22 | 92,345| 6,267| 55,526| 5,182| 159,320| Aug. 29 | 83,035| 5,006| 49,038| 4,053| 141,132| Sept. 5 | 72,113| 4,008| 40,701| 3,041| 119,863| Sept. 12 | 66,686| 3,236| 36,230| 2,471| 108,623| Sept. 19 | 63,557| 3,111| 34,448| 2,334| 103,450| Sept. 26 | 62,435| 3,151| 32,915| 2,230| 100,731| Oct. 17[310]| 70,589| 4,371| 29,622| 2,586| 107,168| Oct. 24 | 86,036| 6,551| 30,396| 2,672| 125,655| Oct. 31 | 94,058| 7,349| 30,940| 2,838| 135,185| -------------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+ | Demobilized Members of H. M. Forces Week +--------+-------+--------+------------ Ending | Men | Women | Total | Grand Total -------------+--------+-------+--------+------------ Jan. 3 | 23,938| 50| 23,988| 380,695 Jan. 10 | 31,543| 88| 31,631| 449,252 Jan. 17 | 40,400| 131| 40,531| 519,606 Jan. 24 | 47,209| 170| 47,379| 590,594 Jan. 31 | 53,316| 238| 53,554| 678,703 Feb. 7 | 63,277| 380| 63,657| 734,090 Feb. 14 | 84,298| 394| 84,692| 804,642 Feb. 21 | 132,471| 841| 133,312| 881,623 Feb. 28 | 165,429| 828| 166,257| 948,620 Mar. 7 | 200,686| 1,025| 201,711| 992,232 Mar. 14 | 235,737| 1,161| 237,898| 988,619 Mar. 21 | 264,257| 995| 265,252| 1,003,326 Mar. 28 | 305,251| 1,012| 306,263| 1,060,245 Apr. 4 | 336,570| 961| 337,531| 1,077,686 Apr. 11 | 347,895| 917| 348,812| 1,078,313 Apr. 18 | 369,992| 1,013| 371,005| 1,086,429 Apr. 25 | 379,799| 1,258| 381,057| 1,093,328 May 2 | 402,151| 1,316| 403,467| 1,903,400 May 9 | | | 409,959| 1,008,192 May 16 | | | 403,356| 927,881 May 23 | | | 402,036| 846,472 May 30 | | | 386,921| 771,211 June 6 | | | 385,652| 710,875 June 13 | | | 378,768| 664,829 June 20 | | | 381,247| 645,096 June 27 | | | 372,843| 606,125 July 4 | | | 366,197| 579,025 July 11 | | | 365,768| 565,149 July 18 | | | 362,982| 550,191 July 25 | | | 363,663| 540,884 Aug. 1 | | | 366,671| 553,482 Aug. 8 | | | 362,741| 536,986 Aug. 15 | | | 361,833| 530,523 Aug. 22 | | | 350,755| 510,075 Aug. 29 | | | 336,952| 478,084 Sept. 5 | | | 326,751| 446,614 Sept. 12 | | | 311,959| 420,582 Sept. 19 | | | 305,253| 408,703 Sept. 26 | | | 302,272| 403,003 Oct. 17[311]| | | 337,948| 445,116 Oct. 24 | | | 343,672| 469,327 Oct. 31 | | | 344,242| 479,427 -------------+--------+-------+--------+------------

[310] Figures for Oct. 3 and 10, on account of special arrangements made during the railway strike of these weeks, are not given.

[311] Figures for Oct. 3 and 10, on account of special arrangements made during the railway strike of these weeks, are not given.

2. Number of Unemployed Women and Girls by Industries.

a. In Insured Industries.

---------------------------------+-----------+----------+----------- | Number | Number | Number | Insured |Unemployed|Unemployed Trade |January 12,| April 25,|October 31, | 1919 | 1919 | 1919 ---------------------------------+-----------+----------+----------- Building | 6,152 | 950 | 55 Construction of Works | 1,825 | 46 | 1 Shipbuilding | 8,810 | 522 | 21 Engineering and Ironfounding | 419,524 | 35,614 | 1,426 Construction of Vehicles | 17,577 | 6,336 | 107 Sawmilling | 812 | 331 | 17 Other | 171 | 1 | ... +-----------+----------+----------- Total Insured Under Act of 1911| 454,871 | 43,800 | 1,627 | | | Iron and Steel Manufacture | 12,805 | 400 | 18 Tinplate Manufacture | 3,550 | 92 | 23 Wire Manufacture | 9,431 | 828 | 46 Anchors, Chains, Nails, Bolts, | | | Nuts, Rivets, etc. | 12,690 | 2,888 | 169 Brass | 8,413 | 219 | 6 Copper, Tin, Lead, Zinc, etc. | 10,561 | 738 | 62 Hardware and Hollowware | 49,749 | 5,437 | 228 Tools, Files, Saws, Implements, | | | Cutlery | 6,432 | 827 | 64 Clocks, Plate, Jewelry | 6,175 | 388 | 27 Needles, Pins, Typefounding, | | | Dyes, etc. | 6,664 | 336 | 15 Electrical, Scientific, etc., | | | Appliances and Apparatus | 28,866 | 2,152 | 151 Miscellaneous Metal | 5,185 | 1,455 | 70 Ammunition and Explosives | 197,128 | 5,818 | 100 Chemicals | 34,071 | 2,631 | 193 Leather and Leather Goods | 31,313 | 2,679 | 162 Brick, Tile and Artificial | | | Building Material | 9,804 | 1,172 | 59 Sawmilling, Machined Woodwork and| | | Wooden Cases | 30,176 | 2,049 | 51 Rubber and Manufactures Thereof | 35,319 | 2,369 | 151 +-----------+----------+----------- Total Insured Under Act of 1916| 496,332 | 32,478 | 1,595 +-----------+----------+----------- Grand Total | 951,203 | 76,278 | 3,222 ---------------------------------+-----------+----------+-----------

b. In Uninsured Industries.

---------------------------------+-------------------------------- | Number of Policies of Trade |Women and Girls Remaining Lodged +--------------+----------------- |April 25, 1919| October 11, 1919 ---------------------------------+--------------+----------------- Agriculture | 1,956 | 152 Conveyance of Men, Goods and | | Messages | 11,932 | 962 Mines and Quarries | 982 | 78 Cotton | 81,635 | 1,171 Woolen and Worsted | 4,670 | 162 Other Textiles, including | | Printing, Dyeing, etc. | 35,835 | 1,951 Commercial | 24,124 | 8,616 Food, Drink and Tobacco | 19,926 | 1,818 Dress | 26,519 | 2,924 Domestic Offices and Services | 84,529 | 7,348 General Laborers, Factory | | Workers, etc. | 56,900 | 3,740 Other Uninsured Industries | 48,877 | 5,632 +--------------+----------------- Total | 397,885 | 34,554 ---------------------------------+--------------+-----------------

Appendix N

AVERAGE WAGES OF WOMEN AND GIRLS IN NON-MUNITION TRADES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

(Calculated from Monthly Returns made by Employers to the Department of Labour Statistics.)[312]

------------------------------------------------------------- LAST WHOLE WEEK IN EACH MONTH. --------------------+--------+----+------+-----+-----+------+ |Ordinary|May-|Sept.-|Jan.-|May- |Sept.-| Industry |week in |Aug.| Dec. |April|Aug. | Dec. | | 1906 |1915| 1915 |1916 |1916 | 1916 | --------------------+--------+----+------+-----+-----+------+ | s. d. |s. d|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.| Cotton | 16 2 |17 1|17 0 |17 11|18 4|18 9 | Woolen and worsted | 12 1 |15 3|15 6 |16 1|16 8|17 11 | Linen | 9 9 |10 7|10 10 |11 3|11 11|12 5 | Jute | 12 5 |18 4|18 10 |18 10|19 2|20 2 | Hosiery | 12 3 |15 9|15 10 |16 8|17 2|17 1 | Lace | 11 7 |13 3|13 6 |14 0|14 4|14 10 | Silk | 9 9 |12 0|12 5 |12 11|13 5|13 7 | Carpet | 11 10 |16 8|16 4 |17 1|17 0|17 8 | Bleaching, etc. | 11 0 |14 5|15 0 |15 7|15 9|17 3 | Boot and shoe | 10 6 |15 4|14 10 |14 7|16 3|16 7 | Shirt and collar | 11 4 |13 7|13 7 |14 1|14 7|14 10 | Ready-made tailoring| 10 10 |15 2|14 2 |14 10|15 7|16 0 | Printing | 9 8 |12 3|12 7 |13 7|13 6|14 5 | Bookbinding | 10 2 |12 3|12 8 |13 0|13 0|14 3 | Pottery | 10 1 |12 2|12 5 |12 3|12 10|13 1 | Glass | 8 6 |10 3|11 2 |10 9|11 1|11 9 | Food preparation | 10 0 |14 5|14 10 |15 2|15 2|17 6 | | | | | | | | Total | 12 8 |14 9|14 10 |15 4|15 10|16 8 | --------------------+--------+----+------+-----+-----+------+ -----------------------------+------+-----+------+-----+------- |Jan.- |May- |Sept.-|Jan.-|May- Industry |April |Aug. | Dec. |April|Aug. |1917 |1917 | 1917 |1918 |1918 -----------------------------+------+-----+------+-----+------- |s. d. |s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d. Cotton |19 7 |20 7|21 5 |23 3|24 1 Woolen and worsted |19 8 |19 9|21 9 |22 8|25 3 Linen |13 8 |15 4|17 1 |18 8|20 4 Jute |20 4 |22 7|23 9 |24 4|24 7 Hosiery |18 5 |20 0|20 7 |22 6|23 10 Lace |15 6 |16 9|17 11 |18 6|19 2 Silk |14 9 |15 7|17 2 |18 7|20 5 Carpet |18 9 |20 4|21 3 |22 11|24 4 Bleaching, etc. |18 6 |20 10|22 3 |23 10|24 9 Boot and shoe |17 6 |19 6|20 6 |22 3|22 10 Shirt and collar |15 9 |17 2|18 3 |19 11|21 5 Ready-made tailoring |17 4 |18 9|21 5 |23 2|25 8 Printing |15 9 |16 4|18 2 |19 10|21 8 Bookbinding |15 2 |16 1|17 11 |19 11|21 6 Pottery |13 8 |16 11|17 7 |19 1|21 7 Glass |12 1 |13 9|14 9 |15 6|16 10 Food preparation |18 3 |20 2|21 7 |23 0|24 5 | | | | | Total |17 8 |19 1|20 5 |21 10|23 6[313] -----------------------------+------+-----+------+-----+-------

[312] Great Britain Ministry of Reconstruction, _Report of the Committee on Women’s Employment_, p. 82.

[313] Includes “Paper Making.”

Appendix M

List of trades in which women have been substituted for men during the war, but “which from their nature and other conditions of work appear in the main unsuitable for female labor in normal times.”

(Compiled from the British Home Office report on the “Substitution of Women in Nonmunition Factories during the War,” pp. 16-26.)

Sawmilling Rope and Binder Twine Wood Wool Manufacture Heavy Edge Tools India Rubber Scythes and Sickles Heavy Chemicals Wire Ropes (heavy) Oil and Seed Crushing Shale Oil Refining Glasshouse processes Cement Manufacture (most processes) Flint Glass Feltmongering Glass Bottles Matting Papermaking Linoleum Manufacture Flour and Corn Milling (except a few light processes) Sugar Refining Paints and colours Gas Manufacture China and earthenware

INDEX

Accounting, women employed in, 47. Addison, Christopher, 140, 152. Agriculture: employment of women in, 3, 14, 29, 33, 36, 40, 45, 47, 73; wages paid, 5, 34, 72, 117; Board of, 71, 73; efforts to substitute women’s labor in, 63, 70-74; Women’s Farm and Garden Union, 73; Women’s National Land Service Corps, 73; Women’s Land Army, 74; establishment of training courses in, 85; employment of children in, 171. Adjustments, postwar, 215. Aeroplanes, employment of women on work on, 35. Airedale of Gledhow, Lord, 121. Amalgamated Society of Engineers, 51-53, 56, 90, 100, 222. Ammunition industry, employment of women in, 30. _See also_ Munitions industry. Anderson, Miss, 40. Armature winding, employment of women in, 42. Arsenals, employment of women at, 37, 60. Aves, Ernest, 104.

Baillie, G. H., 60. Bakers, employment of women as, 38, 42, 61. Banks, employment of women in, 33, 39-40, 42, 45. Bleaching, employment of women in, 61. Bill posters, employment of women as, 42. Billeting of Civilians Bill, 165. Blast furnaces, employment of women in, 42. Boot and shoe trade, employment of women in, 30, 61. Boys, employment of. _See_ Children, employment of. Boys’ Welfare Association, 184. Brewing, employment of women in, 37. Brick making, employment of women in, 38, 67. British Association for Advancement of Science, 28, 32, 34, 120. Brush making, employment of women in, 61. Building trades, employment of women in, 38. Butchers, employment of women as, 38.

Cement work, employment of women in, 38. Cemetery laborers, employment of women as, 42. Central Committee for Prevention and Relief of Distress, 21. Central Committee on Women’s Employment, 23. Central Labor Supply Committee, 56, 101, 106. Chauffeurs, employment of women as, 42. Chemicals industry, employment of women in, 34, 37, 42. Children: Fisher Education Law, iv, 12, 226; employment of, on war work, 2, 4, 17; legislation regulating employment of, 12, 18-19; compulsory schooling, 18; effects of war on employment of, 167-190; demand for labor of, 167; relaxation of child labor and compulsory education laws, 170; numbers employed, 168, 170; illegal employment of, 174; supervision of, 176; wages of, 177; hours of, 178; Boys’ Welfare Association, 184; effects of work on, 185; postwar employment of, 224. China making, employment of women in, 38, 61. Cinema operators, employment of women as, 42. Civil service. _See_ Government work. Civil War Workers Committee, 206. Clerical and Commercial Employments Committee, 69-70. Clerical work: employment of women in, 33; training courses in, 85. Clothing industry, employment of women in, 30, 35, 42, 61, 67. Clyde strike, 51. Cole, G. D. H., 114. College women in agricultural work, 73. Comfort, legislation providing for, 7. _See also_ Safety, health and comfort. Commercial occupations, employment of women in, 29, 39, 45-46. Competition in securing workers, efforts to avoid, 80. Conference of Working Class Associations, 218. Construction work, employment of women in, 42. Control of workers: controlled establishments, 55; under Munitions Acts, 92; prohibition against strikes, 92; leaving certificates, 93. Copper works, employment of women in, 42. Core makers, employment of women as, 42. Cork cutters: employment of women as, 42. Corn Production Act, 117. Cost of living, effect of, on wages, 112. Cotton trade, dilution in, 61, 67. Crane drivers, employment of women as, 42. Cranes, electric, employment of women on, 38. Currying, employment of women in, 67.

Delinquency, juvenile, 9, 188. Dilution, 50-74; made possible by Munitions Act, 6, 51; “Treasury Agreement” concerning, 52; attitude of trade unions toward, 90; complete, 122; group, 123; dilution bulletins, 153; children used in, 175; return of soldiers to former positions, 221; postwar results of, 215; table showing processes on which women were employed, 232; extent of, in December, 1915, and April, 1916, 235; numbers substituted, April, 1916-April, 1918, 236; table of direct substitution, January and April, 1918, 238; table showing average weekly earnings, 239; list of trades in which women have been substituted but which appear unsuitable in normal times, 248. _See also_ Substitution. Diseases, occupational: munitions work, 154. Distress, Central Committee for Prevention and Relief of, 21. Distribution of young persons between different employments in July, 1914, October, 1917, and January, 1918, 245. Docks, employment of women at, 37. Domestic service: employment of women in, 3, 14, 29, 36, 38, 42; postwar problems of, 213; wages, 213. Donation system for unemployed after the war, 10, 208, 211. Dressmaking trade: employment of women in, 14, 36, 38; wages, 118. Dyeing industry, employment of women in, 61.

Earthenware making, employment of women in, 38, 61. Educational work: employment of women in, 29, 47; National Federation of Women Teachers, 88. _See also_ Schooling. Effects of war work: signs of injury to health not generally apparent, 8; on children, 9, 167, 190; on home life, 9, 199; increase in juvenile delinquency, 9, 188; on women, 191-203; development of personality, 9, 200. Efficiency, relative, of men and women workers, 120. Efforts, organized, to recruit women’s labor, 50. Electric motor building, employment of women in, 38. Electric welding, employment of women in, 42. Engine cleaners, employment of women as, 42. Engineering industry: employment of women in, 30; restrictions against employment of women, 51; dilution introduced in, 56-61; Committee on Production in Engineering, 51. Equal pay question, 119; postwar problems regarding, 215. Extension of employment of women, 28; tables showing, 29, 236; voluntary registration, 65.

Fabian Society, 21. Fabian Women’s Group, 214. Factory work, employment of women in, 29. Farm and Garden Union, Women’s, 73. Farm work. _See_ Agriculture. Federation of Women Workers, 96. Fisher, Herbert, 2, 169-170. Fisher Education Act, iv, 12, 226. Flour making, 67. Food industry, employment of women in, 35, 38. Food Production, Department of, 73. Forge works, employment of women in, 42. Foundry work, employment of women in, 42. Furniture manufacturing, employment of women in, 38.

Gardeners, employment of women as, 42. Garrod, H. W., 161. Gas meter inspectors, employment of women as, 42. Gas works, employment of women in, 40. Gauging tools, employment of women in, 38. General Federation of Trades Unions, 20. Girls, employment of. _See_ Children, employment of. Glass decorating, employment of women in, 61. Glass making, employment of women in, 38, 42. Government work, employment of women in, 14, 29, 39-40, 47-48. Grain milling, employment of women in, 37.

Health Insurance Medical Research Committee, 198. Health of women war workers, 191; legislation protecting, 7, 16, 19. _See also_ Safety, health and comfort. Health of Munition Workers Committee, 8, 82, 135, 146-147, 178, 182-183, 191. Hat making, employment of women in, 61. Hay balers, employment of women as, 42. Home life, effects of war work on, 199. Hosiery industry, employment of women in, 30, 61. Hotels, employment of women in, 29, 45. Hours: legislation concerning, 7, 16; for children, 19, 178; in workrooms established to relieve unemployment, 26; chapter on, 126-145; prewar legislation regarding, 126; demand for overtime, 126; in munitions industry, 127; working hours in 1915, 129; establishment of shifts, 130; complaints against overtime, 131-134; report on effects of overtime, 134-135; control of, by Ministry of Munitions, 139; recommendations concerning, of Committee on Women’s employment, 145; improvement in working conditions necessitated by, 146; increase in accidents attributed to long, 193; modification of laws concerning, 241. Housing conditions: establishment of hostels, 163; Billeting of Civilians Bill, 165. Howard Association of London, 9. Hutchins, B. L., 30.

Illegal employment of children, 174. Improvement in working conditions, plans for, 39. Increase of women in industry, 2, 28. Industrial Courts Act, 217. Industry, employment of women in, 2, 28-29. Independent Labour Party, 21. Insurance agents, employment of women as, 42. Insurance offices, employment of women in, 33. Interdepartmental Hours of Labour Committee, 138. Interim Court of Arbitration, 217.

Joint Committee of Industrial Women’s Organizations, 117. Juvenile employment: increase of delinquency due to, 9, 188; Committee on, 170, 177, 185. _See also_ Children, employment of.

Keeling, Frederic, 17. Kent, A. F. Stanley, 134. Kitchener, Lord, 28, 129.

Labor: control of, by Munitions Acts, 7; removal of Trade Union restrictions, 6, 50, 55; child, 17; attitude at outbreak of war, 20; attitude of women’s labor organizations toward war, 20; protest against substitution, 31; agreements concerning dilution, 50-61; organized efforts to recruit women’s, 50; Women’s Labor Department, 73; number of orders modifying labor laws, 240; unions, _see_ Trade Unions. Laboratory assistants, employment of women as, 42. Labor Advisory Committee, 54. Labor Regulation Department, 56. Labor Supply Department, 56. Labor Party, attitude of, at outbreak of war, 20. Lace making, 61. Lamplighters, employment of women as, 40. Land Army, 73-74, 85, 117. Laundry work, employment of women in, 38. Lawrence, Susan, 104. Leather industry, employment of women in, 30, 61-62, 67. Leaving certificates, 7, 93; injustice of, to workers, 94; opposition of trade unions to, 96; amendments regarding, 97. Leeson, Cecil, 9, 188. Legislation: Fisher Education Act, iv, 12; Munitions Acts, 7, 50-51, 54-55, 92; restricting hours, 7; providing safety, health and comfort, 7; Minimum Wage (Trades Boards) Act, 11, 216; prewar protection through, 16; prewar, concerning child labor, 17; providing compulsory schooling, 18; to avoid competition in securing workers, 80, 89, 126; Corn Production Act, 117; affecting hours, 139; Police, Factories, etc., Act of 1916, 147-150; Billeting of Civilians Bill, 165; relaxation of child labor and compulsory education laws, 170; Wages (Temporary Regulation) Bill, 217; Industrial Courts Act, 217; Restoration of Prewar Practices Act, 1919, 223; number of orders modifying labor laws, 240; modification of hour laws, 241-243. Lift attendants, employment of women as, 42. Lockouts prohibited by Munitions Act, 92. Lloyd George, David, 52, 54, 58-59, 101, 122. Lorry drivers, employment of women as, 42.

Macarthur, Mary, 24, 89. Machinists, employment of women as, 42. Maharajah Sandia of Gwalior fund, Prince of, 166. Manufacturing industries, number of women engaged in before the war, 14. Married women, entry of, into industry, 76. Marine engineering, employment of women in, 42. Markham, Violet, 69. Messengers, employment of women as, 40. Metal trades, employment of women in, 34-35, 37, 42, 60. Military hospitals, employment of women in, 47. Military supplies, employment of women in manufacture of, 42. Millers, wages of, 118. Minimum Wage (Trades Boards) Act, 11. Mining, employment of women in, 38. Mistresses League, 214. Moulders, employment of women as, 42. Munitions Acts: of July 2, 1915, 54; First Munitions Amendment Act, 7, 55, 139; abrogation of trade union restrictions through, 50-51; control of women workers under, 92. Munitions work: employment of women in, 30, 32, 35, 37, 42, 49; organized efforts to recruit women’s labor for, 50; efforts to increase production, 51-52; dilution, 56-61; training for, 84; governmental regulation of wages, 99; wages, 108-113; criticism of governmental fixing of wages, 110-113; hours, 127-128; diseases contracted in, 154; employment of children in, 168. Munitions tribunals, 7, 92, 97.

National Advisory Committee, 56. National Federation of Women Teachers, 88. National Federation of Women Workers, 24, 87-89, 104-105. National Service Department, 68. National Union of Women Workers, 86. Night work, effects of, on women, 196. Nonessential industries, transfers of workers from, 75. Nonindustrial occupations, employment of women in, 33, 39. Nurses, demand for, 47.

Optical instruments, women engaged in skilled work on, 38. Overtime work: demand for, 126; effect of, on women, 196; general order regulating, 243. Oxy-acetylene welders, employment of women as, 88.

Painters, employment of women as, 42. Pankhurst, Mrs, 101. Pankhurst, Sylvia, 100. Paper industry, employment of women in, 35, 42. Parks, employment of women in, 40. Peace and reconstruction, problems of, 204-227. Phillips, Marion, 203. Pipe plasterers, employment of women as, 42. Police, Factories, etc. (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act of 1916, 147-150. Police women, employment of, 40. Postwar conditions: prevention of unemployment, 205; unemployment, 206; adjustments, 215; approved trades for women, 219; employment of children, 224; table showing postwar employment, 246. Postwomen, employment of, 33, 42. Power machine operating, training courses in, 85. Power stations, employment of women in, 40. Prewar conditions: number of women and children employed, 14. Prewar legislative protection, 16. Prince of Wales, The, 21. Printing industry, employment of women in, 35, 42, 61. Professions, number of women engaged in, 14, 45, 47.

Quarrying, employment of women in, 38. Queen’s Work for Women Fund, 24.

Railway service: employment of women in, 33, 39, 42, 46; agreements as to wages by unions, 115. Reconstruction, problems of, 204-207. Recruiting of new workers, 5. Red Cross hospitals, employment of women in, 47. Registration, voluntary, 63-64, 69. Relief, Central Committee for, 21. Restoration of Prewar Practices Act, 1919, 223. Rhondda, Lady, 222. Rowntree, B. Seebohm, 149, 156. Royal Ordnance Factories Trade Lads’ Association, 184.

Safety, health and comfort: legislation providing for, 7, 16; organized efforts for, 147; Police, Factories, etc., Act of 1916, 147-150; occupational diseases contracted in munitions work, 154; welfare supervision, 155; attack on welfare movement, 158; improvements in conditions outside factory, 161; provisions for children, 182. Sawmill laborers, employment of women as, 42. Scavengers, employment of women as, 40. Schooling: Fisher Education Act, iv, 12, 226; legislation providing compulsory, 18; relaxation of compulsory education laws, 170. Schools, training, establishment of, 84. Scientific instrument making, employment of women in, 61. Sewage farms, employment of women at, 40. Sheet metal working, employment of women in, 42. Shipbuilding, Committee on Production in Engineering and, 51. Ship engineering, employment of women in, 42. Shipyards, employment of women in, 38, 42. Shoe trade: employment of women in, 30; training courses in, 85. Shops Committee, 69. Smith, Constance, 186. Society of Incorporated Accountants, 47. Solderers, employment of women as, 42; voluntary registration, 63-64, 69. Sources of workers: transfers from non-essential industries, 75; transfers between districts, 79. Special Arbitration Tribunal, 104, 106, 109, 125. Spelter works, employment of women in, 42. Steel works, employment of women in, 38. Stokers, employment of women as, 38. Street cleaners, employment of women as, 40. Street traders, child, 4. Strikes prohibited by Munitions Act, 92. Substitution: in munitions work, 3; “equal pay” principle, 5; protest of labor unions against, 31; total number of women substituted for men workers, 40; objections to, 41; substitution officers, 68. _See also_ Dilution. Sweated labor, government provision against, 101. Sweated trades, wage fixing in, 113.

Tables: extension of employment of women during four years of war, 29; increase or decrease in number of women employed since July, 1914, 39; extension of employment of females in industry during four years of war, 44; number of women engaged on government orders in private concerns, April, 1917, and April, 1918, 45; increase in employment of women in commerce, July, 1914-April, 1918, and percentage of firms reporting a shortage of female labor in April, 1918, 46; number of females employed by steam railways, 46; number of females employed by government departments, 48; prewar occupations of 44, 137; females insured against unemployment in January, 1917, 79; number of Women Trade Union members, 88; _see also_ “Appendices,” 229-249. Tailors’ pressers, employment of women as, 42. Teachers, women, 47; National Federation of, 88. Technical schools, establishment of, 84. Telephone repairers, employment of women as, 42. Tennant, Mrs. A. J., 69. Testing dynamos, employment of women in, 38. Textile industry: employment of women in, 14, 35, 38, 42, 61, 65; organized workers in, 87. Theaters, employment of women in, 29, 45. Tinsmiths, employment of women as, 42. Tobacco industry, employment of women in, 61. Toy making, training for, 85. Trades, approved, for women after the war, 219. Trades Boards: Minimum Wage Act, 11, 216; wage fixing by, 113. Trade League, Women’s, 87, 105. Trade Unions: General Federation of, 20; restrictions of, removed, by Munitions Acts, 50, 55; “Treasury Agreement,” 52-53; agreements allowing dilution, 61; women and the, 87; women not admitted to some, 87; increase of women members, 87; number of women members in, 88; reasons for growth of women members in, 89; difficulties to interest women in, 89; postwar effect on number of women members in, 91; opposition of, to leaving certificates, 96; agreements effecting wage changes, 114. Trades Union Congress, 20. Training: establishment of training centers, 84; for unemployed women, 210. Tramway service, employment of women in, 39, 42. Transferred workers, 81-82. Transfers of workers: from non-essential industries, 75; from domestic service, 76; between districts, 79. Transport work, employment of women in, 29, 39-40, 45. Transportation problems of workers, 162. “Treasury Agreement,” 52-56; wage regulations contained in, 100, 110; arrangements for fulfilment of pledges in, by Restoration of Prewar Practices Act, 223. Tuberculosis, increase in, among women, 198.

Unemployment: postwar, 10; donation system, 10, 208, 211; proportion of occupied to unoccupied women before the war, 14; at outbreak of war, 21; efforts to relieve, 23; prewar occupations of women insured against, 79; of children, 167, 225; prevention of postwar, 205; training courses to relieve, 210.

Violations of Munitions Acts, penalties for, 55. Vocational courses, establishment of, 85.

“Waacs,” 4, 48, 69. Wages: raises in, due to war conditions, 4; “equal pay” principle, 5, 100, 119; effects of peace on, 11; Minimum Wage (Trades Boards) Act, 11, 216; prewar, 15, 18; legislation governing prewar, 16; of children, 18, 117; in workrooms established to relieve unemployment, 26; fear of trade unions that employment of women would undercut rates of, 31-32; in agriculture, 34, 72, 117; dilution, 62, 64; chapter on, 99-125; fixing of, 99, 102-104, 106-108, 113; governmental provision against sweated labor, 101; Special Arbitration Tribunal, 104; for woodworkers, 108; effect of cost of living on, 112; changes under trade union agreements, 114; settlement of disputes, 125; postwar, 209, 215; Interim Court of Arbitration, 217; Industrial Courts Act, 217; Wages (Temporary Regulation) Bill, 217; recommendations concerning postwar, 220; table showing average weekly earnings, 239; table showing average wages of women and girls in nonmunitions trades, 249. Waiters Union, admission of women to, 90. War Cabinet Committee on Women in Industry, iv. War Emergency Workers National Committee, 23, 26, 63. War Register, 64-65. Webb, Sidney, 15, 18. Webb, Mrs. Sidney, iv, 110, 113, 116, 169, 220. Welfare work: “outside welfare officers,” 6; legislation providing for, 8; for transferred workers, 81-83; improvements in working conditions result of, 146-166; welfare supervision, 155; attacks on, 158; supervision of children, 176; outside of working hours, 199. “Whitley” industrial councils, 222. Woman’s Freedom League, 63. Woman’s Army Auxiliary Corps, 48. Women’s Cooperative Guild, 65. Women’s Industrial Council, 214. Women’s National Land Service Corps, 73. Woodcutting, employment of women in, 42. Wood trades, employment of women in, 42. Woodworking industry, employment of women in, 34-35, 37, 61; wage awards, 108. Woolen and worsted industry, employment of women in, 30, 61. Woolwich Arsenal, employment of women in, 60; welfare work in, 66. Working Class Associations, conference of, 218. “Wrafs,” 4, 48. “Wrens,” 4, 48.

Young Women’s Christian Association, 65.