CHAPTER VI

THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS FOR HARD FIBRES

The different types of hard fibres for cordage are mentioned in Chapter III, page 17, and, although there are certain features which are more or less common to all, there are differences which make it advisable, if not necessary, to discuss each main type separately.

One of the best-known hard fibres is the Manila or Abaca fibre (obtained from the wild plantain, a variety of the banana plant) _Musa textilis_. It is an excellent cordage fibre and is largely used both in this country and in the United States of America. The plant, from which the fibre is obtained, is in many respects indistinguishable from the banana plant during the period of growth; the colour of the leaves of the banana plant is, however, usually of a darker green shade than that of the leaves of the _Musa textilis_, while the flowers and fruit of the banana are much more abundant than are those of the Manila plant. On the other hand, the fibre of the banana plant is very poor in quality, and practically valueless for cordage purposes.

The _Musa textilis_ is peculiarly indigenous to the Philippine Islands, indeed most of the attempts to cultivate this plant in other areas have been unsuccessful. Manila, Luzon and Cebu are three of the principle fibre-producing areas, and, because of the suitability of the soil and climate in these areas, the growth of the Manila industry has been extensive, and large quantities of high-grade fibre are produced annually in these three areas.

Cleared forest land is very suitable for the propagation of young plants which require a certain amount of shade to assist their growth in the early stages. During the period of growth a large number of suckers or young plants grow around the parent plant; these suckers are used in general to start a new plantation, while in other cases the young plants are raised from seed. In both cases, the young plants are set out so that from 500 to 600 may occupy an acre, and the distance between the plants is from 8 to 10 ft. If plants are propagated from seed it takes about one year before the shoots can be set out in the plantation, and they should be spaced in the same way as the suckers.

The ground should be kept clear of weeds at least during the first year; after this period, vigorous growth starts, if the usual moist season prevails, and during the three or four years of growth the plant attains a height of 8 ft. and upwards. Occasionally a plant grows to a height of 20 ft. After the lapse of three to four years, the fibre plant develops a flower, and then the plant should be cut down to obtain the best type of fibre.

Hilly land, and particularly volcanic slopes with a moist loose soil, are very well suited for the cultivation of these plants. Swamp lands, while satisfactory for certain types of plants, are unsuitable for the cultivation of Manila.

The work of harvesting and the extraction of the fibre are usually done on the contract system; a supervisor will take over the plantation upon which he starts his men on the dual process.

The fibre is produced in the sheathing leaf stalks which form a bundle 6 in. to 1 ft. or even more in diameter with a central stem or flower stalk about 3 in. in diameter. The flowers are near the upper part which may reach a much greater height than the leaves. The pistillate flowers are nearest the base and form fairly large fruits which are filled with black seeds.

The bundle of sheathing leaf stalks are cut off a few inches above the ground and split up into widths of about 5 to 6 in., after which the fibre can be extracted either by hand or by machine. When the hand method is practised, the stalks are first well beaten with wooden mallets, and then scraped with suitable instruments until the fibre is freed from the surrounding vegetable matter. The separated fibre is finally washed and dried, and made up into bales of 280 lbs. each.

It is very important that the substances which surround the fibres should be completely removed, and that the fibre should be thoroughly dried after it has been well washed. These operations completed, the dried fibre is conveyed to the premises of the owner of the plantation to be selected and valued. The approximate cost of extracting the fibre is half its market value, and this sum is often paid by the farmer to the men who perform the work.

The stripped and cleaned fibre is now graded by experts who are appointed by the Government of the Islands, and the various qualities are now much more uniform than they were formerly, see page 34.

In general, a yield of 2 to 3 lb. of fibre per plant is obtained, but this quantity may be doubled in some cases. With the average mentioned, approximately 12 cwt. of fibre per acre would be produced, but a considerably higher quantity could be obtained by more perfect machinery, as the loss of fibre in the operation of stripping amounts, in many cases, to 25 per cent. of the possible production.

The following table shows one method of grading the fibre, and the average price per ton during June, 1915. See also page 51.

Extra Fine Prime £56 to £58 Prime 52 „ 54 Superior Current 50 „ 52 Good Current 48 „ 50 Midway 44 „ 46 Current 41 „ 42 Seconds 38 „ 39 Brown 36 „ 38 Fair 37 „ 38 Medium 32 „ 33 Coarse 28 „ 29 Coarse Brown 27 „ 28

Another method of grading is by means of letters, and Fig. 10 is a photographical reproduction of fifteen different samples representing the general grading and marked A to M. There are also a few intermediate grades which are of similar classes of fibre but discoloured--a fault due to imperfect cleaning.

[Illustration: FIG. 10 MANILA FIBRES: ORDER OF GRADING]

The imports of Manila to the United Kingdom for the years 1911 to 1915 inclusive and the actual value appear in the following table, while the average value of one grade, Fair Current, appears alongside. See also page 34.

────────┬─────────┬───────────────┬──────────────────────────────── Year. │ Tons. │ Total Value. │ Price per ton of Fair Current. ────────┼─────────┼───────────────┼──────────────────────────────── 1911 │ 75,449 │ £1,647,542 │ £19 -- -- 1912 │ 83,313 │ £1,990,481 │ £21 10 -- 1913 │ 64,579 │ £1,600,450 │ £34 -- -- 1914 │ 54,206 │ £1,396,593 │ £27 15 -- 1915 │ 57,783 │ £1,760,471 │ £28 10 -- ────────┴─────────┴───────────────┴────────────────────────────────

SISAL.--This is a fibre which is almost of equal importance to Manila for the production of cordage. The plants, which are produced extensively in Mexico, Africa and the Bahama Islands, form a group termed the Agaves.

Those plants which are most extensively cultivated for fibre purposes have recently been classified, see page 8.

The particular Agave plant from which the Sisal fibre of commerce is obtained is the _Agave Sisalana_, or Henequen, natural order, _Armaryllidaceae_, the chief centres of production of which are Yucatan and Campeachy; the cities of Merida and Progresso are the centres of production of the fibre for the export markets.

The plants grow very successfully on waste and arid lands, and require very little attention after the preliminary operations of clearing the land and of planting out the young Agaves either as bulbules or “bulbils” produced from the creeping roots.

The stems of the plants are stumpy, and large fleshy leaves are produced which attain a height of 3 to 6 ft. The flowers are produced on a long stalk or pole which often rises to 30 ft. or more. The flowers appear in dense groups on lateral branches upon the axils of which develop bulbils; these grow to maturity and then drop to the ground where many of them take root and thus provide young shoots which may be replanted for another crop.

In the formation of new plantations for the production of fibrous plants, it is only necessary to clean the ground and dig the soil round where the young bulbils, suckers, or a mixture of both, are to be planted. They are so arranged that there is a greater space between the rows than there is between the plants in a row, say in the proportion of 8 to 6, and about 1,000 plants are spaced in an acre.

If the plants are taken from nurseries where the bulbils have been propagated for transplanting, it may be found advantageous to provide light tramways for their conveyance, as well as for the conveyance of the mature leaves in the opposite direction. The extra space between the rows is for facilitating such work by rails and other means. In fact, a plantation for the cultivation of Sisal plants and the production of the fibre should be laid out on a definite plan with provision, not only for successful cultivation, but for the subsequent operations of stripping, washing, cleaning and baling the fibre, while a desirable, if not absolutely necessary consideration, is the choice of ground in close proximity to a satisfactory district for labour.

A short time after the plants have been set it is advisable to clean and weed the ground periodically for at least two years to give the plants a favourable start; afterwards vigorous growth occurs, and no further attention in this line is necessary.

It will be evident that a more vigorous growth will obtain in warm climates than in cold climates, but at the same time these warm climates may be exceptionally suitable; indeed, it has already been proved that, in some of the more recently-established centres of cultivation such as Africa, a better fibre is being produced than in some of the older established centres, and, moreover, the growing period is shorter.

To make a fibre-production area a success, it is advisable to adopt a systematic extension of the plantation each season, so that a continuous supply of leaves will be obtained, and that the available labour supply can be fully utilized either with operations in cultivation or fibre extraction; in this way a regular supply of fibre could be placed on the market for manufacturing purposes.

After a plantation is completed, the first cutting of the leaves may take place in from two to four years, depending upon the situation of the plant and its state. It is not necessary to cut down the whole plant; the larger leaves are cut when at maturity, and others as they mature; successive cuttings may be at intervals of approximately six months, after which the plant may be cut down and the spot allowed to remain fallow for a year, when a new plant is introduced.

The yield of fibre from the plants will vary considerably from time to time, such variation being influenced by the district, the weather and by the degree of perfection of the methods employed for extracting the fibre from the leaves.

The usefulness of the Agave fibres has been acknowledged for some time, and their value has been enhanced by the production of superior fibres in various centres of Africa as already stated; improved methods of cultivation and the use of modern and efficient stripping and cleaning machines may lead to the production of this type of fibre which will compete successfully with many of our most valued fibres for cordage use.

As the leaves are cut down from the plants, they should be removed at once to the stripping machine. The original name for such a machine was “Raspadore,” and supposed to be an invention of a Franciscan friar. The modern English word for the purpose is “Decorticator,” and, although the term “leaf-crusher” or “scutcher” appears to be more in keeping with the operation to be performed on Sisal leaves, than that of “decorticator,” a more extensive meaning has been given to the latter term which is now taken to indicate the mechanical operation for the separation of the pith and surrounding vegetable structure from the fibrous layers in practically every type of plant.

Two distinct machines, one for crushing the leaves, and the other for finishing the stripping, are made by Messrs. David Bridge & Co., Ltd., Castleton, Manchester, and these provide an excellent system for treating the leaves as they are delivered from the field of growth.

[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ FIG. 11 BRIDGE’S “ACME” GRAVITY PATENT SISAL BREAKER]

The crushing machine, termed Bridge’s “Acme” Gravity Patent Sisal Breaker, is illustrated in Fig. 11. The leaves of the plant are placed on the travelling endless cloth between the wooden side guides on the right-hand side of the illustration. They ultimately come into contact with the first pair of corrugated rollers which are so set that there is a minimum of ¼ in. between the surfaces of the opposing corrugations. After the leaves have been crushed between these rollers and carried forward by them, they pass between a second but smooth pair of rollers the nearest distance between the surfaces of which is 3/16 in. On emerging from these rollers, the leaves pass down the delivery table on the left. The upper roller in each pair is acted upon and pressed downwards by spiral or coil springs which not only yield slightly to the varying thicknesses of the leaves, but which will allow the roller to rise fully ⅞ of an inch in case any foreign substance should enter between the rollers.

[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ FIG. 12 BRIDGE’S “CLIMAX” PATENT SISAL DECORTICATOR]

The crushed ribbons from the foregoing machine are now taken to Bridge’s “Climax” Patent Sisal Decorticator, illustrated in Fig. 12. As in the crushing machine, the material is fed into the rollers by an endless cloth; the ribbon-shaped lengths are exposed to the action of opposed drums on the same principle as that embodied in the original raspadore, the result being that the remains of the objectionable matter which accompanied the fibrous layer from the crushing machine is scraped off and a maximum amount of fibre delivered. The Decorticator is provided with all the latest improvements for a maximum production, and both machines, together with the washing tanks, Fig. 13, and the necessary power plant for driving the whole system can be housed in or near a simple structure somewhat as illustrated in Fig. 14.

[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ FIG. 13 WASHING TANKS]

[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ FIG. 14 HOUSING FOR POWER PLANT]

[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ FIG. 15 CUMMINS’S PATENT HORIZONTAL HYDRAULIC BALING PRESS]

The fibre, having been extracted, washed and dried, is conveyed to the rapid baling press, Fig. 15, which is an illustration of Cummins’s Patent Horizontal Hydraulic Baling Press. Here the fibre is packed by hydraulic pressure into a small space ready for exportation to those countries where the fibre is to be manufactured. The above type of baling press is now largely used, not only for Sisal fibres, but also for China jute, cotton and other textiles, and it is capable of compressing the fibre to a density of 60 lb. per cubic foot.

After the third year’s growth, the annual production of fibre reaches about one ton per acre. The production of fibre from the various countries has been greatly increased during recent years, and that for 1914, which will be found in the table on page 52, may be taken as a good indication of the quantities placed on the market.

There has not yet been any considerable competition between Sisal and Manila fibres for the manufacture of similar types of cordage, but with improved methods of cultivation and of cleaning the Sisal product, a greater competition may be expected.

A large quantity of Manila fibre is used in this country for binder twine, whereas Sisal is used for the same purpose in the American centres. As a matter of fact, the U.S.A. markets of different kinds absorb 90 per cent. of the total Sisal crop which amounted in 1914 to 220,000 tons.

A new method of marketing the Sisal fibre from Yucatan has been introduced through a Committee or Commission who will be responsible for the grading and marketing of the fibre and will, with the sanction of the Government, deal entirely with the financial arrangements.

The Commission will receive all the graded fibre, and on receipt of this a payment will be made to the farmer. The fibre will be placed on the market at current rates, and every five years the accounts will be balanced and the surplus, if any, will be divided _pro rata_ amongst the producers. In the case of loss, the deficit will be met by the Commission.

Sisal fibres are graded as under--

_Special_: perfectly clean and absolutely white fibre, free from stains or adherent pulp.

_Superior Clean_: perfectly clean fibre of creamy or yellowish tint, free from stain or pulp.

_Current Clean_: well scraped, whitish or greenish colour, 5 per cent. dust permitted. This is the standard grade for price.

_Stained_: also well scraped but with dark or red streaks. No more than 25 per cent. dark and no adherent pulp.

_Inferior Stained_: must be free from adherent pulp, but may contain as much as 75 per cent. of dark fibres.

NEW ZEALAND HEMP OR FLAX.--The botanical name of this plant is _Phormium Tenax_, natural order, _Liliaceae_. The plant has long, peculiarly-shaped leaves, the roots of which send out creeping rhizomes on which the leaves 6 to 10 ft. in height, are produced in clumps. Maturity is reached in about four years, and propagation is obtained by the growth of the rhizomes, and also by the self-sown seeds which are produced in large numbers from the flowering and fruiting stage.

Large quantities of this useful fibre are used, and it can be produced cheaply and in large quantities from otherwise unproductive lands, such as the drained swamp lands in the neighbourhood of the Manawatu river in New Zealand. In this district the plants grow in dense masses, and although more than 20,000 acres are under cultivation, additions are gradually taking place. Through this area are laid about fifty miles of light railway tracks. The plantations require little attention beyond that of careful drainage; over-drainage may cause as much damage as under-drainage. Wellington is the principal shipping port, but shipments are also made from Auckland and other ports when the value of the fibre makes such a course profitable.

_Phormium Tenax_ has also been cultivated on a comparatively large scale in St. Helena, and the results, both financially and otherwise, are satisfactory. The selected lands in this island are now well drained, and tramways are laid for the rapid conveyance of the leaves after they are cut down to the stripping mills. Sometimes aerial railways are used when a river has to be negotiated. It will be quite well understood that a cheap and rapid transport is a desideratum.

Only well-matured leaves must be cut down, and these are conveyed to the stripping mills; in the Manawatu district of New Zealand about fifty such mills are in existence, and the introduction of improved machinery for this stripping operation will certainly lead to the extension of the cultivation of these plants and to the after processes.

Much has been done to introduce an efficient machine for stripping the leaves, and many premiums have been offered by the New Zealand Government for a perfect machine. One now under trial gives promise of good results.

The greatest difficulty in connection with the stripping of _Phormium Tenax_ leaves is due to the peculiar shape of the lower end of the leaf. A very deep midrib extends for some distance and gets more pronounced as the lower end of the leaf is reached. A large quantity of the fibre is collected in this rib, the shape of which makes it difficult for mechanical parts to treat successfully, and necessitates a larger amount of labour than in the case of straight or flat leaves of the ordinary type.

In former methods of stripping and cleaning it was found necessary to paddock and bleach the stripped fibre, but the claims of the new invention, if sustained, will render these processes unnecessary.

The production of the fibre may reach 13 cwt., and 2½ cwt. of tow per acre during the life of the plants, while the stripper can produce from 20 to 25 cwt. of fibre per day.

The colour of the fibre is light yellow to brownish, but it is rather soft and dirty at the top end. It is graded as below--

91 to 100 marks = Superfine, 81 to 90 „ = Fine, 71 to 80 „ = Good Fair, 61 to 70 „ = Fair, 51 to 60 „ = Common.

OTHER FIBRES.--The chief hard fibres are augmented by the use of the “Maguey” plant which is cultivated largely in the Philippine Islands in districts bordering on the Manila centres, while Mauritius fibre is produced largely in the Islands from an Agave, the _Furcroea Gigantea_, order, _Amaryllidaceae_, known in Mauritius as “Aloes.” The plant, see Fig. 16, is somewhat similar to the Sisal plant, while the fibre obtained from it is of a soft nature, and is usually sent to this country in an imperfectly-cleaned state. The dust which accompanies the fibre emerges from it in the processes of manufacture, and is very disagreeable to the operatives. Owing, however, to its good light colour, and the softness and pliability of the goods made from it, the fibre is often preferred to the other hard fibres for certain types of work.

[Illustration: _By permission of Messrs David Bridge & Co., Ltd._ FIG. 16 MAURITIUS FIBRE PLANT]

COIR.--Coir fibre is obtained from the husks of cocoa nuts. The extraction of the fibre from these nuts forms native industries in many parts of India and Ceylon. The husks are soaked in water for a time, and then beaten with sticks or mallets; the separated fibres are then dried and spun by hand with the aid of very simple appliances. Afterwards, two of these single yarns are combined or twisted together to make what is known as two-ply or two-fold twist. The twist is then made up into short lengths, rolled into small hanks and baled for export. Of later years, much longer lengths have been made and done up into coils, while small “dolls” or rolls are made up for sale in small quantities, particularly for use on farms.

Coir fibre has been very widely used for many purposes in the rope and cordage trade, principally for the manufacture of mooring ropes, spring ropes and lashing cords, while large quantities of the imported yarns are used for matting and farming purposes.

It is a very useful fibre when properly made up, and is of great importance for purposes where it is necessary for the manufactured article to be exposed to variation of climate and to wet, while the life of the manufactured article is greatly extended if it is steeped in oil.

SUNN HEMP (Bengal Hemp).--Sunn Hemp or _Crotalaria Juncea_, natural order, _Leguminosae_, is used on a smaller scale and for certain goods such as cheap grade ropes and box cord. The plants grow in several parts of India, _e.g._, near Bengal, Allahabad and Benares in which the cheaper grades are produced, and in some districts of Western Bengal where a better class of fibre is obtained. All are of the same family, the difference being due to the variation of the soil and the method of retting. (This is really a bast fibre, but it is used almost solely along with the hard fibres.) The fibre is harsh and very irregular in the lower grades; in the better grades it can be used to mix with other fibres for the production of tow yarns.

The other hemps obtained from India, particularly from Madras, are not so high grade as to warrant them being used alone to any great extent, so it is usual to mix them with other low-grade hemps of higher tensile strength, or these Indian hemps may be combined with scutching and hackling tows. The scutching and hackling tows are sometimes used to produce twines and cords suitable for box cords and for parcel tying yarns.

CHINA JUTE.--Although this is a bast fibre, its use is mostly confined to purposes for which the hard fibres are applied, and hence its introduction amongst them. It is a product of Hankow and Teintsin in China, and is largely imported to Great Britain. When suitably treated it forms a satisfactory fibre for the manufacture of box cords or similar goods where great tensile strength is not essential. The fibre is of a good light colour, and little or no waste is incurred in its transformation into cordage.

The following details of the production of fibres and relative costs are given so that the normal values, as well as the normal quantities may be judged, and also compared with the abnormal conditions which have prevailed during the great world’s war.

Italian and Naples hemp is imported to these islands in large quantities as will be seen from the following particulars for ten seasons--

Season. Italian. Naples. 1903-04 62,000 tons 28,000 tons 1904-05 40,000 „ 23,000 „ 1905-06 12,000 „ 27,000 „ 1906-07 58,000 „ 30,000 „ 1907-08 58,000 „ 31,000 „ 1908-09 41,000 „ 20,000 „ 1909-10 55,000 „ 24,000 „ 1910-11 50,000 „ 27,000 „ 1911-12 33,000 „ 30,000 „ 1912-13 58,000 „ 31,000 „ ─────── ─────── 10)467,000 10)271,000 46,700 average 27,100 average ═══════ ═══════

Average price P.C. Italian, £39 11s. 3d. per ton „ „ P.E. Naples, £41 9s. per ton „ „ F.S.P.R.H. Russian, £31 17s. per ton

The prices since these dates have gradually increased, and the present prices are approximately as under--

P.C., Italian £190 per ton P.E., Naples £200 „ „ F.S.P.R.H., Russian £170 „ „ China Hemp £154 „ „

The following table illustrates the grading of Manila fibre for June, 1917, together with the number of bales for that month, and the percentage quantity of each grade. In addition, the last two columns give the prices; that for 1917 is the market price, while that for 1918 is the controlled price. Fig. 10 might be studied along with this table.

─────────┬──────────────────┬─────────┬────────┬──────────┬────────── Grade │ Grade. │ Bales. │ % of │ 1917. │ 1918. Letter. │ │ │ Total. │ Market │ Market │ │ │ │ Price │ Price │ │ │ │ per ton. │ per ton. ─────────┼──────────────────┼─────────┼────────┼──────────┼────────── A │ Extra Prime │ 899 │ 0·7 │ │ B │ Prime │ 2,182 │ 1·6 │ │ C │ Superior Current │ 6,852 │ 5·0 │ £150 │ £155 D │ Good Current │ 10,020 │ 7·3 │ £145 │ £150 E │ Midway │ 17,358 │ 12·7 │ £135 │ £135 S¹ │ Streaky 1 │ 1,865 │ 1·4 │ £130 │ £130 S² │ Streaky 2 │ 3,937 │ 2·9 │ £120 │ £120 S³ │ Streaky 3 │ 2,935 │ 2·1 │ £115 │ £115 F │ Current │ 22,284 │ 16·3 │ £125 │ £130 G │ Seconds │ 3,908 │ 2·8 │ £115 │ £115 H │ Brown │ 1,886 │ 1·4 │ £105 │ £105 I │ Good Fair │ 12,791 │ 9·3 │ │ £120 J │ Fair │ 13,561 │ 9·8 │ £85 │ £100 K │ Medium │ 4,226 │ 3·1 │ £80 │ £95 L │ Coarse │ 12,780 │ 9·2 │ £78 │ £93 M │ Coarse Brown │ 5,140 │ 3·7 │ £76 │ £80 DL │ Coarse │ 7,153 │ 5·2 │ £75 │ £75 DM │ Coarse Brown │ 4,306 │ 3·2 │ £73 │ £73 OYT │ │ 3,159 │ 2·3 │ │ │ ├─────────┼────────┤ │ │ │ 137,242 │ 100·0 │ │ ╵ ╘═════════╧════════╛ ╵

The standardizing of the grades has been rendered necessary by the large amount of inferior fibre which was being produced, and by the irregular baling of the fibre. The gradual improvement of the fibre as a whole may be gleaned from the undermentioned particulars of the number of bales which were graded into four of the lowest types. These numbers referred to what were allocated in August and September, 1917, and it will be seen that there was a much smaller percentage of these low marks in September than in August.

────────┬────────────────┬─────────────────── Grade. │ Bales: August. │ Bales: September. ────────┼────────────────┼─────────────────── L │ 10,548 │ 7,462 M │ 4,553 │ 3,201 DL │ 5,775 │ 2,960 DM │ 2,290 │ 952 ────────┼────────────────┼─────────────────── │ 23,166 │ 14,575 ╘════════════════╧═══════════════════

The shipments of Manila and other fibres for six years, 1910 to 1915 inclusive, appear below--

───────┬───────────────┬───────────────┬─────────────┬─────────── Year. │ Manila bales. │ Mexican Sisal │ New Zealand │ Mauritius │ │ bales. │ bales. │ bales. ───────┼───────────────┼───────────────┼─────────────┼─────────── 1910 │ 1,272,000 │ 582,142 │ 103,750 │ 9,990 1911 │ 1,332,297 │ 713,008 │ 96,850 │ 9,161 1912 │ 1,466,110 │ 859,000 │ 96,360 │ 8,697 1913 │ 964,000 │ 876,000 │ 140,445 │ 14,404 1914 │ 943,000 │ 982,000 │ 98,510 │ 8,947 1915 │ 1,160,440 │ 950,000 │ 116,100 │ 6,838 ───────┴───────────────┴───────────────┴─────────────┴───────────

The three columns in the following table show the prices which ruled in 1915 and 1916 and the current prices for 1918.

──────────────────────────┬────────┬────────┬──────── Type of Fibre. │ 1915. │ 1916. │ 1918. ──────────────────────────┼────────┼────────┼──────── │ £ │ £ │ £ P.C. Italian Hemp │ 55 │ 90 │ 190 F.S.P.R.H. Russian Hemp │ -- │ -- │ 170 China Hemp │ -- │ -- │ 154 Manila (Fair) │ 37 │ 54 │ 100 New Zealand Hemp │ 32 │ 86 │ 99 Mexican Sisal │ 28 │ 77 │ 97 Java Sisal │ -- │ 95-100 │ 99 Mauritius │ -- │ 70 │ 95 Maguey │ 30 │ 70 │ 74 ──────────────────────────┴────────┴────────┴────────

The controlled Government price (U.S.A.) for Sisal fibre for June (1918) is as follows--

19 cents per lb. for fibre 23 „ „ „ for 500 feet of binder twine

Since one sheaf of corn requires about one yard of twine, and since the expected requirements for the Continent of America are 200,000 tons of binder twine, it follows that this weight of yarn will provide the binding material for 71,680,000,000 sheaves--almost an incredible quantity.

[Illustration: FIG. 17 BALES OF MANILA, NEW ZEALAND AND SISAL FIBRES]

Fig. 17 shows three distinct methods of baling--

(_a_) Manila Hemp with rattan canes.

(_b_) New Zealand Hemp with ropes made from New Zealand fibre.

(_c_) Sisal Hemp with wire.