Part 4

Of the trial made towards the close of last century, a detailed account has been left on record by the Rev. Dr Somerville of Jedburgh. In consequence of the war with America, tobacco had continued to rise in price, till, in 1781, it reached the unprecedented price of two shillings the pound. Dr Jackson, a gentleman who possessed a small estate near Kelso, had for two years previous laid out a few acres in the culture of tobacco, the science of which he had learned from long experience in America. In 1781, his whole crop had been sold at the extraordinary rate of two shillings and sixpence a pound. His example and reputed success led others to follow in the same line. Even the minister of Jedburgh had five acres of his glebe laid out as a tobacco plantation; and his statement is that, in 1782, many thousands of acres in the counties of Roxburgh, Berwick, and Selkirk were planted with tobacco, nearly every farmer in these counties having devoted some considerable part of his arable land to this adventurous speculation. In Berwickshire, complaints were made that many acres of the best land were occupied with tobacco instead of being cropped with grain.

The year 1782 is notable as having been one of the most inclement seasons either in the eighteenth century or the present. Snow, which had fallen plentifully during the winter, remained so long on the ground that the sowing of grain was delayed at least a month after the ordinary time. The summer was uncommonly wet and cold; the harvest was so late that even in early districts corn was not cut down till October, while a great part of it was reaped only in November; and much of it in the higher grounds never ripened at all. Tobacco, like other crops, suffered from the cold rainy season; and its destruction was completed in the month of August by a thunderstorm of unusual violence, accompanied with a great fall of hail. The succulent leaves were riddled; many of the most luxuriant plants were destroyed; and the prospects of speculative farmers were seriously blighted.

The discomfiture of tobacco-planters, begun by the unpropitious season, was completed through the interference of Glasgow merchants. The tobacco trade in that city had gradually grown to large dimensions. It had begun in a small way soon after the union with England in 1707. At first, Glasgow merchants had no ships of their own, but were dependent on English vessels; and not till 1718 did the first Glasgow ship cross the Atlantic. Gradually the tobacco trade of Glasgow increased, till it roused the jealousy of merchants in London, Liverpool, Bristol, and Whitehaven, who made strenuous but unsuccessful efforts to crush those enterprising Scottish traders. The traffic continued to flourish till in 1775 there were fifty-seven thousand one hundred and forty-three hogsheads of tobacco imported from Virginia, Maryland, and Carolina. At the instance of these Glasgow merchants, the government officials came to understand that the revenue would suffer if tobacco grown in Scotland were carried free of duty into England. Accordingly, an Act was passed in 1782 permitting the use and removal of tobacco, the growth of Scotland, into England for a limited time under certain restrictions; but liable to duties similar to those due and payable on the importation of such tobacco, the growth and produce of the British colonies or plantations in America.

By a subsequent Act, provision was made for granting relief to the proprietors of such tobacco, in consideration of the inferior quality thereof, or any accident or defect that may happen in the growth or culture of the crop so as to render the same not marketable or worth the duties imposed thereupon. For this purpose, it was enacted that the Commissioners of Customs at Edinburgh might allow, and order to be paid to the owner or proprietor of such tobacco, out of any revenue under their management which is applicable to the payment of incidents, at the rate of fourpence for every pound-weight thereof, for which the owner or proprietor thereof shall refuse to pay the full duties imposed by the said recited Act, provided the commodity shall be given up and _burned_, the owners being compensated at the rate of fourpence a pound. Even at that moderate figure, it was said that thirteen acres in the parish of Crailing brought one hundred and four pounds sterling, or about eight pounds an acre. The return would have been three times as much, but for the Act of Parliament which fixed the rate of compensation so low. Altogether, the county of Roxburgh was believed to have lost fifteen hundred pounds by the arrangement. The experiment was not renewed in 1783, one reason for which is doubtless indicated in the announcement made on the 21st of March that year, that ‘tobacco has fallen fourpence a pound this week.’

The more recent experiments of growing tobacco near Kelso were, we understand, quite successful so far as plant-production of a good quality was concerned, but excise difficulties prevented the utilisation of the crop. It only remains for us to assure our readers that a tobacco plant, grown in a pot, is a pretty household ornament.

THE MONTH: SCIENCE AND ARTS.

The Japanese sanitarium, Kusatsu, possesses such important remedial properties that it is believed that when its reputation becomes more widely known in Western countries, patients will flock to it from all parts of the globe. Here, in the volcanic soil, are a series of natural baths of different temperatures, the waters of which are charged with sulphur, arsenic, copper, alumina, magnesia, in various proportions. To these baths come the halt, the maim, and even those who are as far blind as that too common disease ophthalmia can make them. They bathe here in waters which are described as caustic and evil-smelling, some of which consist of little else than dilute sulphuric acid. This treatment, owing to the great temperature and searching action of the different chemicals dissolved in the water, is often most agonising to the patients, who can only bear it for several minutes at a time. But its efficacy in various species of disease is said to be most thorough, even incurable maladies being mitigated by these wonderful waters.

The _Builder_ calls attention to the careless construction of flues and party-walls in houses, which constitutes a common cause of houses being burned down. The evil is best described by showing what occurred at a private house in London not many weeks ago. A smell of fire was detected, luckily in the daytime, when people were about and able to seek the cause. Upon examination of a certain flue, it was found that ties of fir covered with lead passed on each side of it. These ties had ignited, and had communicated their fire to a library bookcase. Although the Building Act forbids this mode of construction, there are many houses which were built before it became law, and doubtless a large proportion of them have wood in dangerous proximity to their flues. Although at the time of building, such woodwork may have been partially protected, the modern method of sweeping a chimney is apt to knock off projections and to move bricks out of place, thereby giving a ready means of access to fire.

At a recent meeting of the Academy of Sciences, Paris, a paper was read by M. Pasteur on his Treatment of Hydrophobia. As Pasteur’s work has recently been much criticised, sometimes not too kindly, it may be as well briefly to state the results which he has recorded after inoculating nearly 2500 patients. Of these, 80 were English, 52 Austrians, 9 Germans, 107 Spaniards, 10 Greeks, 14 Dutch, 165 Italians, 25 Portuguese, 191 Russians, 1726 French and Algerians, and 54 of other nationalities. Confining his remarks to the French cases, as being, we presume, those only the subsequent history of which could be followed, M. Pasteur said that out of the large number stated, the inoculation had proved ineffectual in ten cases only. Six of these ten were children, and one a woman seventy years old. As a result of studying these failures, M. Pasteur came to the conclusion that for deep wounds his treatment was insufficient. He has now modified it by making the action more rapid and energetic for all cases, and he considers that this alteration has already been productive of very favourable results.

A Russian doctor says that he has successfully treated with cantharides some patients who were bitten by a rabid wolf. Three men were badly bitten by the animal in various parts of the body, and cantharides plasters were applied to the wounds. At the same time, powdered cantharides was administered to each in doses of one grain each day, until certain well-known symptoms were exhibited. These patients have now been in perfect health for eight months since the bites were given, and it is hoped that cantharides has thus proved a successful remedy to the dire disease with which they were threatened.

A petroleum engine has been invented by Herr Siegfried Marcus of Vienna, and adopted by the German government as a motor for torpedo boats. It is said to be far more powerful than a steam-engine of equal bulk, while its fuel takes up much less space than coal. The engine is said to work well and without any risk of explosion.

We are always glad to note anything new in the way of utilising waste products, for such saving represents a distinct gain to the country. The last item of this kind that has been recorded is a method, which has been patented, of making use of spent dye liquors for the manufacture of writing-ink. The spent liquor of bichromate of potash, or soda, such as may have been used for mordanting wool, &c., is boiled with the waste logwood liquor from dyeing-vats. The result, after certain additions have been made, is a non-corrosive and permanent ink.

A successful attempt has recently been made, near Liverpool, to acclimatise a beautiful variety of carp called the ‘Golden Orfe,’ a fish which comes from Bavaria. The ornamental gold-fish which are commonly seen in aquaria in our own country will not, as a rule, breed here, and if they do, their descendants are black rather than golden. But these Bavarian fish, while quite as beautiful, will breed freely, and their young will retain the colour of the parents. The fish is about one foot in length, and is said to attain a weight of six pounds. It will be valued by anglers for the reason that it will rise to a fly in waters which are inclosed, so that by its help fly-fishing may be still further enjoyed in landlocked waters. Some ponds near Liverpool have been stocked with this hopeful fish; and if present anticipations are realised, its culture will no doubt be taken up in other parts of the country.

The experimental crop of tobacco grown at Sydenham, close by the Crystal Palace, by Messrs Carter & Co., has, so far as cultivation and preparation for market are concerned, proved a decided success. The experiment shows that the fragrant weed can be produced and prepared by hands unused to the work, in an uncertain climate such as ours. The total crop raised by Messrs Carter covered only three-quarters of an acre of ground, and its estimated weight is about fifteen hundredweight, having a market value of forty-two pounds, or at the rate of fifty-six pounds per acre. This estimate is of course the value of the raw material free of all duty. The operations involved in tobacco-growing are such as could be undertaken by small cultivators, and it remains to be seen whether the government will allow this new kind of farming to be tried on a more extensive scale. Their decision should come quickly, so that farmers may have time to prepare their ground for the new crop.

A new method of preserving polyzoa and other low forms of life has been discovered by Dr A. Fottinger. Crystals of chloral hydrate are dropped into the vessel of water in which polypes have been placed, and in a short time the creatures become insensible, when they can be placed in alcohol. The advantage claimed for this method is that the polypes will remain expanded, and can therefore be preserved when exhibiting all their beauty of structure. The chloral acts, it would seem, in much the same manner as it affects higher organisms—that is, as a narcotic.

The extended use of the electric light in America seems to be by no means an unmixed blessing. It is said that in every town over a certain size the Companies are stringing their wires over the streets to the danger of the inhabitants. But this danger does not arise from the risk of broken wires, so much as from wires which are so imperfectly insulated that the electric energy can escape to neighbouring telephone and telegraph lines. This is especially the case in storms, when the wires are swayed to and fro in the wind, and are often knocked together. The result of this is often a fire at the telephone or telegraph offices, sometimes leading to loss of life. It is said by telephone operators that it is not an uncommon thing to find, upon opening the office in the morning, that a telephone has been burned up during the night, its charred remains having fallen on the floor. It is evident that such accidents are preventable; but special legislation may be necessary to compel the Companies to adopt proper precautions against their occurrence.

Last month, we noticed certain improvements which have been made in the Electric Safety-lamp invented by Mr Swan of Newcastle. Another lamp of the same type has been contrived by Mr Miles Settle of Bolton. Mr Settle’s lamp is an incandescent electric globe which floats in another glass globe of water. Should the glass, from any cause, break, the electric connection is broken too, and the lamp goes out. It is made in two sizes—one for main roads, and one for ordinary use. It gives a brilliant light, and is adapted for use in powder-magazines as well as in mines. Mr Settle is also the inventor of a water-cartridge which can be exploded in a fiery mine, or in one charged with coal-dust, without any fear of the surrounding medium catching fire. Both inventions have lately been subjected to experiments, which clearly prove their efficiency.

In view of the wonderful advances which have been recently made in the field of astronomical photography, it has been proposed by the Paris Academy of Sciences that an International Conference shall be held in the spring for the purpose of making arrangements for obtaining a complete chart of the heavens. This photographic map would be combined from many hundreds of photographs taken at ten or more observations in different parts of the globe. We shall have occasion again to refer to this important and deeply interesting subject.

It has long been admitted that if Britain is to retain her commercial position among the nations of the world, her workmen must have the advantages of technical education. Much has been done in this direction in recent years, but much more remains to be done. It would be as well if the various Institutes throughout the country were to follow the lead of the Finsbury Technical College, London. Here, a course of lectures on Electric Bells has been so well attended that it will shortly be repeated. Another course on Electro Deposition of Metals, with special reference to Nickel Plating, has been commenced. Following this will come the subject of Solders and Soldering. The intelligent working-man comes to these lectures, for he knows that he must learn something more than his father was master of, and that ‘rule of thumb’ must in these days give place to something more definite.

It is to be hoped that the conduct of an official at Bedford in deliberately handing to the public analyst a sample of beer which had been purposely doctored with a poisonous drug, with a view to showing that customary analysis would not discover the addition, will not lead the unthinking to assume that chemical analysis is valueless. In examining a sample of beer, the analyst looks only for such ingredients as are liable to be used for its sophistification, such as sugar, added water, &c. In examining bread in like manner, he would look for alum or potato; in coffee, for chicory; and so on. But it would be quite outside his province to look for a mineral poison, unless he were told beforehand that the presence of such a poison was suspected. If it were the duty of the public analyst to search every sample of food submitted to him for all the poisons known to the world, each analysis would be an affair of many weeks, and his work would practically come to a stand-still.

At the beginning of the year, a certain number of the new Enfield-Martini rifles were issued to our troops, and several adverse reports concerning their efficiency were the result. The weapons were returned to headquarters, and have now been reissued to Portsmouth, Aldershot, and the School of Musketry at Hythe. Those into whose hands they are placed are required to answer several questions as to the efficiency of various parts of the weapon, and general observations upon its merits or demerits are invited. It is thought in many quarters that it is now time that a magazine or repeating rifle should become the arm of the infantry. But it has long become the fashion for Britain not to lead, but to follow the lead of other countries in these matters. The plan has the advantage of benefiting by the experience of others, but it can be carried too far.

It was recently pointed out in an article which appeared in the _Times_ how little we are indebted to native talent for the more deadly and exceptional implements of war. The Gatling, Gardner, Hotchkiss, and Maxim machine guns are due to American ingenuity, and the practical conception of the turret ship comes from the same source. Nordenfelt with his machine gun and his submarine boat is a Norwegian. But what will prove perhaps the most deadly thing of all is the dynamite cruiser, which is about to be built for the American navy. This is a boat two hundred and thirty feet in length, with engines which will insure a speed of twenty knots. She is to be built of steel, and furnished with twin screws. Her armament is to consist of three guns, seventy feet in length, to fire dynamite shells, propelled by compressed air. This form of gun was invented and tried with success some months ago, and at the time we described its construction as being similar to that of a pea-shooter. The cartridge of the gun is a copper drum containing two hundred pounds of dynamite, and its flight of two or three miles through the air is rendered steady by the attachment of a wooden shaft, which acts towards it as a stick does to a rocket. It is certain that no ship afloat could withstand the explosion of such a terrible projectile.

The Germans have found a new use for Professor Hughes’s microphone in the detection of leaks in water-mains. The apparatus required consists of a steel rod, in addition to the microphone, telephone, and battery. The rod is placed upon the stopcock in the neighbourhood of which a leak is suspected; and by listening to the telephone placed in circuit with it and the microphone, the slightest leakage is detected. If the stopcock is a good one and there is no leak, no sound is heard; but the least leakage causes a vibration, which is rendered audible by the microphone. The operation is so simple that it is readily acquired by unskilled hands.

As Mr Watts, the eminent Academician, has announced his intention of bequeathing his valuable paintings to the nation, more than ordinary interest must centre round the nine pictures which he has sent to the Kensington Museum as what he calls ‘samples’ of his work. These include several of his more recent productions. We may mention, too, that the collection of fifty-five pictures by the same hand, which for some months have been exhibited in Birmingham, is now removed to the Museum galleries at Nottingham Castle. Mr Watts’ works will thus be rendered familiar to many thousands of people.

We hear of a very ingenious and valuable improvement upon the construction of the steam-engine, for which various patents have recently been issued. This invention, which hails from the Dunfermline Foundry Company, N.B., consists of a steam-valve of entirely original design, which can be moved with the greatest ease, as there is no steam-pressure on any of its working parts, causing considerable friction, as in the case of the slide-valve at present in use. Apart from the simplification of the steam-engine, where quick stoppage and reversing are important considerations, its great value lies in the certainty of its preventing various kinds of accidents of a mortal character. Thus, where miners are being hoisted to the pit-mouth, there is always a danger that the engineman may lose control of the stopping arrangements, and a case of ‘overwinding’ is the result. The new valve, however, is so easily stopped, that the ‘indicator’ can be adjusted, so that when the cage reaches the platform at the pit-mouth, the steam is instantly cut off and overwinding rendered impossible. At sea, also, this valve will be most valuable, as the most powerful engines can be stopped and reversed with the greatest ease, and this cannot be said of the engines of the present day. The same remarks apply to locomotives. The valve has also been adapted to steam-winches, and here another advantage presents itself, inasmuch as, should the winch be stopped while the load is upon the chain, the load remains suspended without the application of a brake; in other words, the winch does not run away, because the ‘exhaust’ steam does not leave the cylinder, but is inclosed as a steam-brake, keeping the piston immovable.

In the neighbourhood of the mining village of Broxburn, about twelve miles west of Edinburgh, are several large shale-oil works. In making a new bore in connection with one of these works lately, a petroleum spring was struck at one hundred and fifteen fathoms from the surface. In driving a mine at a later date, petroleum was observed coming out of the rocks. In a deep bore made in 1884 the same appearances of petroleum oozing from the rock were observed. It was the discovery of a petroleum spring at Alfreton, Derbyshire, by the late James Young, which set him thinking and experimenting, and led up to his famous discovery of the distillation of oil from shale. In Scotland, this industry has flourished in recent years, the annual output of shale for this having reached the enormous quantity of two million tons.

OCCASIONAL NOTES.

MILK-DIET FOR INFANTS.