CHAPTER XVIII.

ON THE COMMERCE OF THE SEA OF AZOF.

Rostof, key to commercial system of Eastern Russia—A district of the Government of Ekaterinoslaf—Its gradual rise since 1835—Articles of export—Wheat—Linseed—Rye—Military stores sent hence to Sevastopol, &c.—Salt-fish—Caviare—Tallow—Wool—Iron—Iron foundries of Lugan—The system of advances on produce—Made through agents at Pavlosk—Exports paid for, not by imports, but by cash—Political reasons for high tariff—Attempt to make Kertch the emporium for the Sea of Azof—Failure of it—Lighters of the Azof—Passage of exports from the great producing countries of the North—By the Don and the Volga—Dubofka and Katchálin—Loss to Russia from high tariff—Commercial and peaceable disposition of Russian people—Advantages of free trade to them.

Rostof is the key to all the trade of the Sea of Azof and the south-eastern parts of the Russian empire.[269] It is a town of about 12,000 inhabitants, composed of Russians, Cossacks, Armenians, Greeks, and a few foreigners. The merchants generally have only their offices here, and live at Taganrok, which is 50 miles distant. They go to Rostof once or twice a week, and send there the orders for their purchases. Rostof is the capital of a district (Uezd) in the government of Ekaterinoslaf, and is the station of one of the two brigades of the reserve division of the army of the Caucasus. In the course of last year these troops were marched away to the Caucasus, and the town was left undefended, as it appeared in no danger of being attacked. Rostof has grown up from a small fishing village to its present importance, solely on account of its admirable geographical position with respect to trade, and so gradual has been its rise, that it would be difficult to say at what period it was first founded. It is since the year 1835 that its trade has undergone a marked yearly increase. Rostof enjoys no special privileges, and its flourishing state is entirely due to its convenient site, and to the large amount of foreign capital of which it is the centre, which has drawn to it the produce of the interior of the empire, and made it one of the most important commercial towns.

As Odessa is the outlet for the produce of the southern Polish provinces, and from this circumstance derives its importance, so Rostof is one of the principal débouchés for the agricultural produce of Great Russia, and consequently likely to become a place still more flourishing than it is at present. Great Russia, as the governments around Moscow are called, is the most thickly peopled and most productive part of the Russian empire, containing an industrious and active population, and the principal seats of agriculture and manufactures. It formerly sent its produce almost entirely to the Baltic for exportation, but of late years there has been a tendency in growers to avail themselves of the great arteries of the Don and the Volga, and shipments from the Azof and the other ports of southern Russia have consequently much increased.

Rostof from its situation may also compete with the North of Russia for a portion of the Asiatic trade, for it has a nearly complete water communication with the Caspian, and has likewise constant dealings with the northern parts of the Caucasus. Its great importance, however, arises from the fact that it stands at the point of communication between the widely extended river system of Great Russia and the Southern Seas.

The ports of the Azof are Taganrok, which is so intimately connected with Rostof, Mariopol, Berdiansk, and the nominal port of Yeisk. There is no import trade of any importance carried on in any of them, because of the high duties of the Russian tariff. The total amount of the imports at all the ports of the Sea of Azof was only 300,000_l._ for the year 1853, while the exports exceeded 3,350,000_l._[270] The imports consisted wholly of articles of luxury chiefly the produce of the Levant, such as fruits, oil, and wines, and the largest item was Greek wines, of which there was a demand for no less than 600,000 gallons. There can be no doubt that the imports are checked by the high tariff, for the exports have more than trebled in the last four years from 1850 to 1854, having increased from 1,100,000_l._ to 3,350,000_l._, while the imports in the same time have only increased 40,000_l._ It is true that the same population which finds it more convenient to export their produce by the Azof, may have the same reason for receiving their imports by Petersburg, and such to a certain extent is the case, for while the whole exports[271] from all Russia amounted in the year 1852 to nearly 18,000,000_l._, the imports in the same year were upwards of 16,000,000_l._, so that the sum which had to be paid in cash was about 1,800,000_l._, and on looking to the tables of the imports and exports of bullion, it appears that in the year 1852 there was imported in gold and silver 1,988,000_l._[272]

The principal articles of exportation from the Azof are wheat,[273] linseed, rye, wool, tallow, iron, and military stores. The stock of wheat, under ordinary circumstances, is comparatively small, as the vessels which carry it abroad reach the shipping port about the time when the chief supplies from the interior, either by water or by land, arrive. The wheat shipped from Rostof may be classed as follows:—First, the wheat from the country of the Line, that is, the districts occupied by the Line and Tchernomorski Cossacks, which are situated to the northward of the Terek and Kuban rivers, between the territory of the Don Cossacks and Circassia, and the Black and Caspian seas. Secondly, the wheat that is grown on the lands watered by the Don, which is superior to the former in quality and condition. Thirdly, the Volga wheat, which is with justice preferred to the Don and Line wheats, and is chiefly grown by the wealthy German colonies situated on both banks of the Volga and its tributary rivers northwards of Saratof. The bulk of the wheat shipped from the port of Taganrok consists of hard wheat which is principally consumed in the Mediterranean, where it is used for the manufacture of maccaroni, but a small quantity is imported into this country.

Hard wheat requires a virgin soil, and this accounts for its being in Europe almost entirely grown in the south of Russia.[274] It is remarkable for its bright yellow colour, heavy weight and hard grain. Of late years the proprietors, whose estates are situated in the vicinity of Taganrok, have directed their attention to the growth of soft wheat, and their crops have yielded a wheat whose quality has been found quite equal to that of Mariopol and Berdiansk. It is worthy of notice that in some districts, if the same wheat be sown for three or four consecutive years, it gradually loses its original character, and finally turns into hard wheat. The wheat, whilst in this state of transition, bearing at the same time the character both of hard and soft wheat, is called by the Russians, “Pererodka” (from the verb _perachadit_, to go over). The wheat shipped from Mariopol and Berdiansk is grown in the immediate vicinity of those towns by the German and Greek colonists, and likewise by the Russians. It is of a reddish colour, weighing on an average from 60 to 63 lbs. per bushel English, and commands a higher price than either the hard wheat of Taganrok, or the soft Polish that is shipped from Odessa. Most of it was formerly shipped to the Mediterranean, but of late years the English millers have learnt to appreciate the peculiar qualities it possesses, which principally consist in the strength of the flour it produces, and since 1851 and 1852 large quantities have been imported into this country.

The linseed, which is shipped from Rostof, is grown throughout those districts that are watered by the Don and the Volga, as far as the point where, making a bend in their course, these two rivers approach for a short space, within 45 miles of each other. The linseed plant is cultivated by proprietors, as well as by the peasantry. The plant is of a coarse kind, and the fibre is thrown away as useless;[275] but many good authorities consider, as the demand for flax is so great in Europe, that the stalk of the plant might be turned to account at least for the coarser kinds of linen.

Rye is grown over the whole country principally for home consumption in the shape either of flour or brandy. Russian brandy, “Vodka,” is extremely strong, measuring about 30°, which is nearly equal to common spirits of wine.[276] A small quantity of rye has been lately exported to Holland, for the manufacture of Schiedam. The Government are the chief purchasers for the rye brought to Rostof for exportation. They contract for it in the shape of flour, which comes down the river packed in mat bags, of which 500,000 or 600,000 Tchetwerts[277] are yearly received, and shipped from Rostof to the Crimea, and the coasts of Circassia. It is ground by windmills, and watermills high up in Great Russia.

Besides the rye flour, munitions of war, such as anchors, chains, cables, shells, shot, cannon, and ironware of every description, are shipped hence for Sevastopol and other places. The ammunition stores of metallic composition come firstly from Lugan, at the confluence of that tributary of the Don called the Donetse,[278] and the river Lugan about 100 miles from Rostof. Here are iron-works, and a cannon foundry belonging to the crown, which in the time of Dr. Clarke were all under the direction of an Englishman named Gascoigne, formerly superintendent of the Carron works in Scotland, whose improvements he betrayed to the Russian Government. “From thence,” says Dr. Clarke, “the Emperor’s artillery passes by water to the Black Sea. Mr. Gascoigne found excellent coal at Lugan, in consequence of which discovery, as well as its convenient situation for water carriage, the foundry was there established.” Probably some of the finer articles required for military use come from Toola, which is the Birmingham of Russia, and famous for its guns and pistols, and many articles are now supplied from some parts of Siberia.

The exports of wool from the Sea of Azof have not kept pace with the large increase which has taken place in other articles of export. The amount exported in 1853 was 5,196,708 lbs., being a decrease of nearly 2 millions of lbs. on the quantity exported in 1852, and an increase on that of the preceding years, the average exports of which seem to have been about 4 millions of lbs. The decrease may be ascribed to the great competition offered in the western markets by the shipments made from Australia, and by the increasing home consumption in Russia. In the trade carried on by caravans through Siberia, between Russia and China,[279] cloth is the chief article of barter, and the prices of the wool in the grease are less influenced by those which the exporter, guided by the state of the London market, is able to pay, than by the greater or lesser demand for Russian cloths at home and in China. There is little or none of the wool shipped in its original greasy state. It is either brook-washed previous to the sheep being clipped, which is accomplished by driving them through a stream, or hand-washed in warm and then rinsed in cold water. This latter operation, which cleanses the wool much more effectually than the former, is generally managed by the foreign merchants themselves, who for that object have large wash-houses established at Rostof and Kherson. The Merino fleeces require particular care, for previous to their being washed they have to be assorted according to the fineness of the hair. This process requires some skill and considerable experience, as a parcel of wool seldom consists of less than five or six assortments.

The common Russian sheep, which is raised as well by the rich landed proprietor as by the poorest serf, requires little care. Its wool is of a long staple, coarse and wiry, and at all times finds a ready demand in the English market, where it is particularly well suited for purposes where a long stapled wool is the chief requisite. The best wool of this kind is produced in the Cossack territories, and goes in the trade under the denomination of Donskoy. The Tatar broad-tailed sheep is generally of a brown greyish colour, and is found in all the steppes inhabited by the Nogais Tatars, Kalmuks, Khirgiz, and other eastern tribes. It produces a wool of considerably less value than Donskoy, which is used by the natives in the manufacture of coarse cloths and carpets. The Merino sheep was introduced into the south of Russia about forty years ago. The climate is not altogether favourable for the growth of fine wool, and the losses incurred during and after long and severe winters are great. The quality of the wool is generally good, and there are flocks which produce an article equal in texture and fineness to the best Silesian wool. The Merino sheep are spread all over the country, but are principally to be found in New Russia, and in the government of Saratof and others adjoining it. They require considerable care, and as the rearing of them is attended with great expenses they are only to be found on the lands of the German colonists and of wealthy Russian proprietors. The Merino sheep of South Russia is a descendant of the Saxon breed originally introduced into this country, which it still closely resembles. The Valachian sheep, otherwise called Zigay, has been successfully crossed with the Merinos, and the breed thus produced, which has retained much of the character of the Spanish sheep, generally goes under the name of Metis or Schlonsky.

The quantity of fine wool produced in Russia has not, I believe, increased of late years. Some five or six years ago, in the governments of Ekaterinoslaf and Kharkof, it was estimated that upwards of one-third of the Merino sheep reared in those governments had perished through disease and want of fodder. On the whole the proprietor of Merino sheep is exposed to greater risks and losses than those incurred in any other branch of husbandry. Cases often occur, when, in the course of a few days, the toil of many years is irrecoverably lost. A late spring, with frosty nights in April, is sometimes the cause of the greatest mischief; the fodder collected during the autumn proving insufficient for the maintenance of the sheep, and the frost killing the lambs the moment they are dropped by their mother. Most of the flocks are under the care of a German shepherd, and on many estates no expense has been spared in introducing in the management of the sheep every possible amelioration. Amongst the finest flocks in the south of Russia is that belonging to Don Baguer, the Spanish Consul-General at Odessa, and his brother, an establishment which dates from about the year 1839, and numbering lately 15,000 head of Merino sheep. In 1844 he shipped a cargo of rams to the Sultan, some of which were of the value of 40_l._, which presents a great contrast to the common price of sheep in Southern Russia, which is from 4_s._ to 6_s._ a-head. In well-managed flocks a regular register is kept of the rams and ewes and of the quality of their offsprings. Every sheep is branded with a number in the ear, and it is the art of the shepherd to take care that the breed is so mixed as to keep one uniform average in the wool and raise the standard. The lambing time is in April, shortly after the sheep quit the sheepfolds, in which they are sheltered during the winter.

The exports of tallow from the Sea of Azof in the year 1853 amounted to 35,926 cwt. In the south-east part of Russia the principal melting establishments are at Bachmut, Slavansk, and the neighbouring towns. In the early part of the spring the melters proceed to the various cattle fairs held in the governments of Ekaterinoslaf, Kharkof, the Tauride, and the lands of the Cossacks, to effect their purchases. After they have collected the quantity of cattle which their means allow them, their next care is to select and rent tracts of land on either side of the Sea of Azof for them to feed upon. Considerable experience is required in the selection of the pasturage grounds, for the profit which the melter derives, after his cattle have been converted into tallow, depends less on the price paid for them and the price he receives for the tallow, than on the fat state of the cattle and the amount of tallow which they consequently yield. Thus, in years of drought, when the cattle can but barely subsist on a scanty vegetation, and hundreds perish through want of water, the tallow-dealer incurs losses against which it is impossible to guard. In the beginning of September the herds of cattle quit their summer pasturages, and are slowly driven towards the melting stations, where the process of slaughtering and melting generally commences about the 10th of October.

The animal, after being killed and stripped of its hide, and after the head and the legs (at the knees) have been cut off and the inside taken out, is then divided into four parts, which are thrown into the cauldron. With the exception of two strips of flesh taken from off each side of the spine, the whole of the meat is converted into tallow. The bones are crushed, and a small quantity of fine tallow is collected from the marrow contained within them. Old sheep, especially of the Merino breed, whose wool deteriorates after they have reached their fourth or fifth year, are likewise converted into tallow, which may be valued at about 1_l._ less per ton than that produced from cattle. The average price of tallow on the spot is 25_l._ to 28_l._ per ton. There is a large home consumption for hides, and of late years very few have been shipped abroad, although the export duty has been considerably reduced. Oxen being found more valuable when used for draught, cows are principally used in the manufacture of tallow. Some twenty years ago there was hardly any tallow shipped from the Azof; all that was produced in the districts surrounding it being sent to the fairs which are held at Belgorod, where it was bought up by the Petersburg dealers, who sent it over land to the North.

The cattle in the South of Russia are of the same breed which is found in Bulgaria and the Danubian Principalities, of a uniform white-greyish colour, long horned and with large bones. The German colonists have imported cattle from their own country, and their cows are found, especially for dairy purposes, much superior to those of Russia. A Russian cow costs about 9 or 10 R. = about 1_l._ 10_s._; a German cow from 20 to 25 R. = from 3_l._ to 4_l._ In the South of Russia no cheese or butter is made beyond what is required for the wants of the inhabitants, but a considerable quantity of salt-butter is brought down the Volga and the Don from Siberia, and is shipped to Turkey and the Greek Archipelago.

Formerly wheat was the only article of importance shipped at Rostof for a foreign market. Linseed, wool, and tallow were first introduced as articles of export by the house of Messrs. William Yeames and Co., the only English merchants on the shores of the Sea of Azof.

The exports of Russia consist almost wholly of articles of raw produce, which are raised by the assistance of foreign capital. Of the whole exports of the empire, which of late years have reached a total of nearly 18 millions sterling, about 7 millions are yearly sent from this country as an advance upon goods that are to be delivered afterwards. Thus upwards of one-third of the price of the whole exports is paid from three to nine months before the merchant receives his goods.[280] This system is necessary because there is a great dearth of capital in Russia; and if money were not advanced to her beforehand by foreigners, she would not be able to pay the expense of raising and forwarding so large a quantity of agricultural produce as she at present exports. From the difficulty of communication in Russia, and the great distances that have to be traversed, the expense of carriage frequently forms a more considerable item in the price of the article at the port of shipment than the original cost paid to the producer. Thus a quarter of wheat which costs at Rostof in store 22_s._, its average price in ordinary years, has been bought of the grower of the wheat for about 10_s._ The expense of carriage has amounted to about 8_s._, so that about 4_s._ per quarter remains to the exporter as interest on his money, remuneration for his labour, and other incidental charges.

Russia is a poor country; she has not had time and opportunity to lay up, as we have done, a vast amount of money, always seeking for employment in all parts of the world. With a rich soil and an industrious population, she has numberless opportunities of laying out money so as to bring in large profits, as is proved by the current rate of interest, which is about 12 per cent.[281]

Most of the purchases of Russian produce are made on contract during the autumn and winter months, when two-thirds, three-fourths, and sometimes even more, of the total amount is paid for in advance in hard cash. The foreign merchant established on the shores of the Sea of Azof reimburses himself for the produce he has shipped abroad by emitting bills at three months’ date; and as the import trade, as has been shown, is comparatively insignificant, and hitherto no banks have been established, he is obliged to send his bills for negotiation either to St. Petersburg or to Odessa. From thence the proceeds are remitted to him by post either in gold or silver. The commission and brokerage on the negotiation of the bills, and the insurance and postage on the transmission of the money, amount to about 1 per cent. Most of the bills drawn at Taganrok are negotiated at St. Petersburg, because the exchange there is generally more favourable than at Odessa. It frequently occurs that a whole month elapses from the time the bill is advised until the money which it has realised is received. The heavy stamp-duties now charged on bills are a serious if not an insurmountable obstacle to any improvement in the transaction of money operations.

Merchants now deal directly with the producers, through the agency of confidential clerks settled in various parts in the interior of the country. Pavlosk, on the Don, about 400 miles from Rostof, is the principal station for these agents. The great house of Ralli[282] has, besides their establishment at Pavlosk, a complete network of agencies over all the country situated to the east of Moscow, where such of the linseed and wheat as is shipped at St. Petersburg is chiefly produced.

I have now given a list of the principal articles of export from the Sea of Azof, and endeavoured to explain the manner in which so large an amount of agricultural produce is raised in so poor a country. The imports, as I have said, are kept out not because the population are unwilling to receive them, but solely by the high duties of the Russian tariff. These were reduced in 1850, but not low enough to create any sensible benefit. M. Tegoborski, in his answer to M. Léon Faucher, at once admits this fact, and says that the finances of the state would undoubtedly profit by a different policy. The reason for not relaxing the tariff is probably political. The manufacturers, whose trade has been created by protection, would undoubtedly cry out at any change, but the more powerful body of the consumers would be favourable to it, so that the Government would have little to fear from the hostility of the public feeling. It would have, however, a decidedly liberal political tendency. It would be impossible to admit foreign goods in large quantities and at the same time prevent a greater intercourse with foreigners, who would be chiefly the inhabitants of Western Europe. These would bring with them their own ideas, the results of unfettered reason, for which the natives of Russia, of all people in the world the most unprejudiced, feel a natural yearning. The Russian Government is too wise not to see that it would be impossible for it to keep up its present system under such altered circumstances; and therefore, although it admits the beneficial effects of larger foreign importations so far as an increase of wealth is concerned, yet, considering as indispensable the maintenance of its present military system, it is obliged consistently to refuse free trade.

The Don and the Volga are both frozen every year from about the beginning of December to the middle of March. When the navigation is no longer possible, very little produce arrives at Rostof, and the average quantity brought down by the sledges is insignificant, owing to the general unsteadiness of the weather. As the shallowness of the water makes the navigation of the Sea of Azof very difficult (by the Greeks and Romans it was called a marsh, and not a sea),[283] it has naturally been felt that the emporium of goods for exportation should be at some place to which large ships can have access, after the difficulties of its navigation in coming from the interior of Russia have been passed. This led to the establishment of the quarantine at Kertch, as has been explained in a former chapter. It was thought that goods would be brought at leisure down the Azof by lighters, and that stores would be erected there, as they have been at Odessa, for the raw staple articles of exportation. For reasons that have been detailed, this expectation was not realized; and while in the year 1852 no less than 1606[284] vessels with an average tonnage of about 250 tons passed the Straits of Kertch, and entered the Azof to take in their cargoes at some of its ports, a very small number stopped to be loaded at Kertch. As ships are obliged to stand out so far from the shore at the ports of the Azof, receiving their cargoes by degrees, and cannot be fully laden till they have passed the Straits of Kertch below Yenicáleh, there is a great employment of lighters in the Azof, which are manned chiefly by Cossacks of the Don and Little Russians. They are an inferior description of craft, and the rates they charge vary extremely according to the season.[285]

In years when an unusually large amount of trade has been carried on, great inconvenience has been felt from the inadequate means of conveyance by water. The delays also in the arrival of the lighters, which sometimes take six weeks to come down the Azof, cause a great waste of time and capital. A plan has often been set on foot for having steam-tugs on the Azof, which would cause a great saving in time and expense, and might easily be effected, because the anthracite mines are very near Rostof. The failure of this and other beneficial projects must be attributed to the extreme scarcity of capital, and the languor attending all efforts at improvement under the restrictive regulations necessary in a despotic monarchy.

Such are a few remarks on the passage of goods down the Sea of Azof from the great producing countries of the north. The way in which they reach Rostof from the interior is by the noble river of the Don, which rolls its full tide of waters through the governments of Toola, Tambof, Orel, Woroneje, and the vast and fertile territory of the Don Cossacks. Toola is only about 150 miles to the south of Moscow, and there is therefore water communication with all the seas of the world within a short distance of the capital of Great Russia.[286] But this is not the only river that feeds the commerce of Rostof. At about 125 miles from the mouth of the Don, by two happy bends in their course, the Volga and the Don approach within 45 miles of each other, and thus goods can be transported from the former to the latter river, and another vast circle of fertile regions can be drained of their produce for the southern market. As the Don runs through some of the most productive governments of Great Russia, so the Volga[287] sweeps in a larger circle to the north and east, and rising in the ancient government of Tver, becomes navigable at about an equal distance from Moscow as the Don, describes a quarter of a circle round the town, and then, bending northwards into the government of Jaroslav, passes through Kostroma and Nijni Novgorod. At this celebrated place of Oriental traffic it effects its junction with the Oka, another artery of Great Russia, and then rolling its increased volume directly eastward to Kazan, the Tatar capital, it there changes its course to the south till it nearly meets the Don. The two rivers run for a short distance parallel to one another, till, suddenly diverging at right angles, the one falls into the Azof and the other into the Caspian Sea. At the point where the rivers nearly meet, Dubofka on the Volga is about 45 miles from Katchálin on the Don, and vast quantities of merchandise are yearly carried across by bullock-carts from one river to the other. The importance of their junction of course fixed the attention of Peter the Great, and it was one of his projects which he did not live to execute. The canal he ordered has never been dug; and thus one link is wanting in this magnificent system of river communication. If it were made, a great saving to merchants in time and money would be effected, and commerce proportionately increased.[289]

From this short review of the countries which naturally depend upon Rostof as their port, and from the great lines of water communications which meet under its walls, it would appear that its commerce, although it has greatly increased, is not a twentieth part of what it ought to be, and that it is capable of an indefinite extension. The 40,000,000 of Slavonians round Moscow, which form the real heart and strength of the Russian Empire, send through it now a continually increasing portion of the produce of their labour, and would, if they could, receive through it innumerable articles which can be more advantageously produced in more civilised countries than their own. If free trade were allowed, this natural interchange would go on rapidly increasing to the benefit of both parties. At present the exports are great, but the Russian does not get nearly his full share of profit, owing to the necessity he is under of receiving to a considerable extent money instead of goods in payment. With this hard cash which he receives, for which Europe would gladly substitute manufactured goods, he is obliged to buy these latter articles made by his own countrymen of bad quality and high price. Thus a considerable amount of Russian labour and capital, which are so scarce in proportion to the opportunities for employing them, are consumed less profitably than they might be, in manufacturing these commodities, instead of developing the dormant resources of a most fertile soil.[290] Still in the face of all these checks to a natural system of exchange, agricultural production has greatly increased of late years, and the beneficial effects of the change in our navigation laws, and the abolition of the duties on corn, have been very distinctly felt. English capital flows willingly to Russia, and, while there is the greatest difficulty in getting a few hundred thousand pounds for India, millions find their way to Russia, so that I was informed by the late General Duplat, who was for many years our Consul-General at Warsaw, that two years ago he had officially conveyed the offer of capitalists in London to the Russian Government to lay out 12,000,000_l._ for the construction of railways in Russia upon very moderate terms. The whole of the exports of Russia are raw produce, consisting of articles of first necessity in Europe, of which she can never send us too much. Her people are essentially agricultural and commercial, and not a martial race, as is generally supposed. It is a mistaken notion to suppose that the Russians are a military or warlike nation. To the eyes of Europe their military despotic government, with its grasping tendency to increase its territories by conquest, has given them a character which they do not deserve. The serfs and the lower classes are forced by the conscription into the ranks of the army, which experience has taught them to consider as the hardest fate they can meet with. Of the higher classes of society few devote themselves from taste to the military profession, but in order to maintain their station in the nobility, and to preserve its privileges to themselves and their heirs, they are obliged to serve the state for a certain number of years, until they obtain at least a subordinate rank, such as that of lieutenant. Thus among the officers possessed of landed property or independent fortunes, it is not surprising that there are many who view with disgust any event, such as war, which obliges them to remain in the army longer than they otherwise would have done. Kept in the ranks against their inclination, it is natural that on the field of battle when facing the enemy they are not moved by the same martial and stirring spirit which animates the officers of other armies.

It is not intended by these remarks to impeach the bravery of the Russian officers and soldiers, which would be absurd in the face of their former conduct in the French wars, and recently of their gallant defence of Sevastopol, but to account for their want of success when made to face in the open field the soldiers of two free nations.

The Russian merchant conducts his commercial operations with intelligence, and amongst them are some, who, without being able either to read or write, transact with singular ability and success an amount of business which, in more civilised countries, would require an experienced manager, assisted by a staff of experienced clerks.[291] There is, likewise, no lack of enterprise in him; but the restrictive laws of the country, the obstacles placed in the way of intercourse with foreign lands, and the prohibitory duties charged on imports, prevent this spirit of enterprise from developing itself to its full extent. In no country do I believe would the effects of free trade be so rapidly felt, and tend more to ameliorate the physical and moral condition of the people.

All customs, all prohibitions, are drawbacks on the free or natural system of trade between nations; and it might even be contended that manufactures would be far more likely to spring up in Russia under such a system, than under the protective system now in force. If free trade were established, at first, undoubtedly, the Russians would buy foreign manufactures, but the price of all articles of consumption except the common necessaries of life would be immensely reduced, and an improved style of living would be possible among all classes. The agriculturists would get more for their produce, and be able to let us have it on cheaper terms; manufactures in our countries and agriculture in theirs would be much stimulated; roads would be made, the desert tracts cultivated; the population would be raised both morally and physically, and wealth gradually accumulated; until at first the coarser and then the finer manufactures were attempted in the natural progress of events, and with undoubted success. The Russian people, patient, laborious, admirable workmen, have nothing to fear from foreign competition. I have said elsewhere, that English masters find them inaccurate; but this I believe to proceed from no natural incapacity for accuracy, but from their not understanding the use of their work, from their want of general education, and the little inducement and encouragement that exist for improving their condition in their degraded social position.

* * * * *

It appears, then, from what I have said in this chapter, that the commerce of the Sea of Azof is rapidly increasing in importance; that the countries surrounding it are rich and, as yet, undeveloped; and that, from the fine system of river communication which reaches the sea at Rostof, it is constantly drawing towards it for shipment a larger portion of the productions of Great Russia. There cannot be a doubt that, when peace is restored, a great impetus will be given to its trade; that it will benefit by the increased movement that will probably take place on all the shores of the Black Sea; and, should the Russian Government wisely change its military policy, and allow its stout-hearted and enterprising subjects to pursue their natural industrious bent, capital and population will flock to the south, and Rostof and Kertch will rival the Tana and Panticapæum of ancient days. No restrictions will then be placed on those who wish to come and learn in Europe; no passports will be refused to enterprising young Russians who wish, in France or England, to gain that knowledge of the arts and sciences which is impossible in their own country; and no vulgar and ignorant censors will be placed at the gates of the empire to keep out books as the most dangerous enemies of the existing system, because the most valuable of them treat of truth and liberty. Russia will allow the fraternisation of her people with us, and admit the imports of more civilised countries as the surest way to increase her own commerce, and by these means she, as well as Turkey, will be really admitted into the European federation. Can it be said that she has been one of us as yet, when she has isolated her people, and kept gigantic armies hovering in what we may call with Ritter her territory of European Asia, to menace poor down-stricken, corrupted Germany on one, and the Asiatic nations on the other side? If she will really, once for all, fix the limits of her empire, and give up her menacing attitude and aggressive tendencies, she will not require a million of bayonets in time of peace; and we ought not to believe that she has changed her policy unless she consents to reduce her armies. This we know that on former occasions she has positively refused to do; let her be obliged to diminish them when peace shall be made, as the best guarantee for its future maintenance. If the peace party in England really wish for peace, they ought to urge this point, which will be far more useful than motions for the reduction of our own forces. For how can we safely reduce, with the enormous standing armies on the Continent, and how can the continental Powers reduce their forces, with a million of men always hovering over them, and ready to fall upon them without notice? Russia has said by her ambassadors that her position is exceptional, and for that reason she cannot reduce like other powers. Why is her position exceptional? This she has not condescended to tell us. Her people is the most peaceable in the world, and the troops cannot be wanted to coerce them. Indeed, it is notorious that there are hardly any troops in Great Russia, the most thickly peopled and important part of the empire. There is only one infantry corps stationed at Moscow out of ten corps which compose the whole army. Where are the rest of her forces stationed? There where she expects to make conquests. They are distributed fan-shape round the European edge of the Russian empire, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, that they may overawe Germany, and advance to support one another in any move upon Turkey; while 170,000 men are kept in the Caucasus to root out the principles of liberty and extend Asiatic conquests.[292] Can any man believe that 400,000 men are kept in Poland merely to coerce the shattered, prostrate form of that unfortunate kingdom? Is there not a sufficient guarantee for Russian possession of it in the share which Austria and Prussia accepted of the spoil? When Austria and Prussia offered to reduce their armies, and Russia refused to reduce hers, was it because she wanted so large a force for self-defence? This was evidently impossible; and the army in Poland was required, not to prevent a rising of the Poles, but to support a Russian influence in Germany which has been most detrimental to the best interests of that country. If we wish, then, for permanent peace, the Russian army ought surely to be reduced, and who would benefit more by this measure than the inhabitants of Russia themselves? See how they hate the army; look at the miseries which the conscription entails upon them; observe how large a portion of the resources of the empire is wasted to support it, and think if those millions of capital created yearly by human labour were laid out in permanent improvements instead of being unproductively consumed, how great would be the increase to Russia in wealth and intelligence! There is, I believe, no good result from war which may not better be brought about by peace; but, as we are engaged in this tremendous contest, let us hope, when peace shall at length be made, and perhaps the last great knot in human affairs resolved which prevents the even progress of the world to its destined termination, that as many nations will be freed as are able to enjoy a rational liberty, and that peace may be secured on such a basis, with such guarantees for its continuance, that future difficulties may be resolved by some form of national arbitration.

APPENDIX.

(A.)

LIST OF THE RUSSIAN NAVAL FORCE IN THE BLACK SEA IN JANUARY, 1853.

-------------------+------+----------+----------+------------------------ Names of Ships. |No. of|When Laid | When | Observations. |Guns. | Down. |Launched. | -------------------+------+----------+----------+------------------------ [293]Silistria | 84 |Dec. 1833|Nov. 1835|} Unmanned, not being Sultan Mahmoud | 84 |Feb. 1835|Oct. 1836|} fit for service. [293]Tri Svetiteli | 120 |Dec. 1835|Aug. 1838|{ Docked for repairs Tri Hezarhef | 84 |Nov. 1836| ” ” |{ in 1852. Gabriel | 84 |Aug. 1838|Nov. 1839|} Selafael | 84 | ” ” |July 1840|} [293]Uriel | 84 | ” ” |Oct. ” |} Twelve Apostles | 120 |Oct. ” |June 1841|} Varna | 84 | ” ” |July 1842|} [293]Yagudil | 84 |Sept. 1839|Sept. 1843|} All ships of the [293]Rostislaf | 84 |May 1843|Nov. ” |} line are built Sviatolaf | 84 | ” ” | ” 1845|} at Nicolaief. Hvabri | 84 |June 1841|July 1847|} Tchesnie | 84 |July 1842|Oct. 1849|} Paris | 120 | ” 1847| ” ” |} Grand Duke | | | |} Constantine | 120 |May 1850|Sept. 1852|} Empress Maria | 84 |Oct. 1849|On the |} | | | stocks |} Bosphorus | 120 |Sept. 1852|Ditto. |{ Screw steamer; engines | | | |{ ordered in England. —— | 120 | | |} To be laid down during —— | 120 | | |} the year.

FRIGATES.

Flora | 44 |Nov. 1837|Sept. 1839| Built in Nicolaief. Messembria | 60 |Oct. 1838|Oct. 1840| Ditto. | | | |{ Built in Sevastopol; [293]Sizopoli | 54 | ” ” |March 1841|{ docked in 1852 for | | | |{ thorough repair. Medea | 60 |July 1840|Sept. 1843| Built in Nicolaief. Kagul | 44 |Oct. ” | ” ” | Ditto. Kovarna | 52 |March 1841| ” 1845| Built in Sevastopol. [293]Kulefehi | 60 | ” 1844| ” 1847| Built in Nicolaief.

CORVETTES.

Raylades | 20 |Oct 1838|June 1840| Built in Nicolaief. Andromache | 18 |June 1840|July 1841| Ditto. Calypso | 18 | ” 1841|Sept. 1845| Ditto. Orestes | 18 |Dec. 1845|Oct. 1846| Ditto. Ariadne | 20 |Jan. 1847|Aug. 1853| Sevastopol.

BRIGS.

Mercury | 18 |Jan. 1819|May 1820| Argonaut | 12 |Feb. 1837|Sept. 1837| Sevastopol. Temistocles | 16 |Oct. 1838|Nov. 1839| Nicolaief. Perseus | 18 |June 1839|June 1840| Ditto. Endymion | 12 |Sept. 1839|Nov. ” | Ditto. Nearchus | 12 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto. Euroas | 16 |June 1840|July 1842| Ditto. Ptolemy | 18 |July 1842|Sept. 1845| Ditto. Theseus | 18 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto. Achilles | 16 |From the Baltic. | Orpheus | 16 |Dec. 1842|Sept. 1845| Sevastopol. Jason | 12 |Jan. 1847|Oct. 1850| Ditto.

SCHOONERS.

Gonetz | 16 |Sept. 1834|March 1835| In Nicolaief. Latoshka | 16 |Feb. 1837|June 1838| Ditto. Smelaya | 16 |Oct. 1838|May 1839| Sevastopol. Drotig | 16 |Nov. 1837|June 1839| Nicolaief. Zabiaka | 16 |Oct. 1838|Aug. ” | Ditto. Urcilaya | 8 |March 1844|Sept. 1845| Ditto. Skulchwaya | 8 | ” ” | ” ” |} Built in Nicolaief. Opil | 16 |Oct. 1849| ” 1852|} Soudjuk Kalé | 10 |Formerly Vixen, taken in 1837.

CUTTERS.

Struya | 12 |Sept. 1834|July 1835| Built in Nicolaief. Lutch | 12 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto. Legki | 12 | ” ” |Sept. ” | Ditto. Nerok | 10 |Oct. 1838|July 1839| Sevastopol. Skori | 12 |March 1844|Sept. 1845| Nicolaief. Pospeshnoy | 10 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto. Provornoy | 10 | ” ” | ” ” | Ditto.

YACHTS.

Strela | 10 |Sept. 1834|April 1835| Built in Nicolaief. Oriánda | 10 |July 1836|May 1837| Ditto.

BOMBARD.

Peroun | — |June 1839|July 1842| Built in Nicolaief.

STEAMERS.

----------------+------+------------------------------------------------- Names of |Horse | Observations. Steamers. |Power.| ----------------+------+------------------------------------------------- Wladimir | 400 | From England in 1848. | | Bessarabia | 260 | } Gromonosetz | 260 | } Crimea | 260 |} Line steamers } From England in 1843. Odessa | 260 |} between Odessa and } Chersonesus | 260 |} Constantinople. } | | Elbrus | 250 |{ Line steamers { From England in 1848. Yenikale | 180 |{ between Odessa, { Taman | 180 |{ Crimea, and { Ditto in 1849. | |{ Soukhoum Kalé. { | | Bayetz | 136 |} Employed on } Mogutchi | 136 |} the coast of } From England in 1839. Molodela | 136 |} Circassia and } Cholchis | 120 |} for the forts } Ditto in 1837. | |} on the coast. | | Grozni | 120 | Built in Nicolaief, 1842. Sevenain Zvezon | 120 | Ditto, in 1834. | | Peter the Great | 100 | From England in 1834. | | Andi | 100 | } From England in 1845. Dargo | 100 | } Packet boats. | | Danube | 100 | } From England in 1851. Pruth | 100 | } River boats. | | Berdeansk | 90 | } From England in 1845. Taganrog | 90 | } Packet boats. | | Inkerman | 90 | From England in 1838. | | Molni | 80 | } Built in { 1840. Meteor | 60 | } Nicolaief. { 1838. Ordinaretr | 60 | } Tug boats. { 1847. Skromni | 40 | } { 1842. | | Argonaut | 40 | From England in 1851. | | Vogin (Warrior) | 250 | } Now building in the Vitiaz (Hero) | 250 | } Thames; screw steamers. ----------------+------+-------------------------------------------------

GUN-BOATS.

Twenty-eight gun-boats built between 1841 and 1852 for service in the Danube.

TRANSPORTS.

Thirty vessels, measuring 10,627 tons, built from 1837 to 1852.

The Empress Maria, 84 guns, was launched on the 21st of May, but will not be rigged for some months.

The Bosphorus, 120 guns, has not been advanced since the day her keel was laid down, nor are the slips made for the two other three-deckers that are to be commenced this year.

There is no timber grown near Nicolaief; it comes down the Dniepr, and is employed in its green state.

(B.)

FIELD MARSHAL COUNT ALEXANDER VASSILIAVITCH SUVÓROF’S DISCOURSE UNDER THE TRIGGER.[294]

BEING

A SERIES OF INSTRUCTIONS DRAWN BY HIMSELF, FOR THE USE OF THE ARMY UNDER HIS COMMAND, AFTER THE TURKISH WAR; AND SINCE TRANSMITTED BY ORDER OF THE RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT TO EVERY REGIMENT IN THE SERVICE. IT IS COMMONLY CALLED SUVÓROF’S CATECHISM.

(_The General is supposed to be inspecting the Line and addressing the Troops._)

Heels close! Knees straight! A soldier must stand like a dart! I see the fourth—the fifth I don’t see. A soldier’s step is an archine[295]—in wheeling, an archine and a half. Keep your distance well!

Soldiers, join elbows in front! First rank three steps from the second—in marching, two!

Give the drum room!

Keep your ball three days: it may happen for a whole campaign when lead[296] cannot be had!

Fire seldom—but fire sure!

Push hard with the bayonet! The ball will lose its way—the bayonet never! The ball is a fool—the bayonet a hero! Stab once: and off with the Turk from the bayonet! Even when he’s dead you may get a scratch from his sabre.

If the sabre is near your neck, dodge back one step, and push on again. Stab the second! Stab the third! A hero will stab half-a-dozen.

Be sure your ball’s in your gun! If three attack you, stab the first, fire on the second, and bayonet the third! This seldom happens.

In the attack there is no time to load again. When you fire, take aim at their guts; and fire about twenty balls. Buy lead from your economy[297]—it costs little! We fire sure—we lose not one ball in thirty; in the light artillery and heavy artillery not one in ten.

If you see the match upon a gun, run up to it instantly—the ball will fly over your head—the guns are yours—the people are yours! Down with ’em upon the spot! pursue ’em, stab ’em! To the remainder give quarter—it’s a sin to kill without reason; they are men like you. Die for the honour of the Virgin Mary—for your mother[298]—for all the royal family! The Church prays for those that die; and those who survive have honour and reward. Offend not the peaceable inhabitant! he gives us meat and drink—the soldier is not a robber. Booty is a holy thing! If you take a camp, it is all yours! If you take a fortress, it is all yours! At Ismael, besides other things, the soldiers shared gold and silver by handsful, and so in other places; but, without order, never go to booty!

* * * * *

A battle on the field has three modes of attack.

1st. _On the Wing_

Which is weakest. If a wing is covered by wood, it is nothing; a soldier will get through. Through a morass, it is more difficult. Through a river you cannot run. All kind of intrenchment you may jump over.

2nd. _The Attack in the Centre_

Is not profitable—except for cavalry, to cut them in pieces—or else they’ll crush you.

3rd. _The Attack behind_

Is very good, only for a small corps to get round. Heavy battle in the field, against regular troops. In squares, against Turks, and not in columns. It may happen against Turks, that a square of 500 men will be compelled to force its way through a troop of 6000 or 7000, with the help of small squares on the flank. In such a case, it will extend in a column. But till now we had no need of it. There are the God-forgetting, windy, light-headed Frenchmen—if it should ever happen to us to march against them, we must beat them in columns.

_The Battle, upon Intrenchments in the Field._

The ditch is not deep—the rampart is not high—Down in the ditch! Jump over the wall! Work with your bayonet! Stab! Drive! Take them prisoners! Be sure to cut off the cavalry, if any are at hand! At Prague the infantry cut off the cavalry; and there were three-fold, and more, intrenchments, and a whole fortress; therefore, we attacked in columns.

_The Storm._[299]

Break down the fence! Throw wattles over the holes! Run as fast as you can! Jump over the palisades! Cast your faggots (into the ditch)! Leap into the ditch! Lay on your ladders! Scour the columns! Fire at their heads! Fly over the walls! Stab them on the ramparts! Draw out your line! Put a guard on the powder-cellars! Open one of the gates! The cavalry will enter on the enemy! Turn his guns against him! Fire down the streets! Fire briskly! There’s no time to run after them! When the order is given, enter the town! Kill every enemy in the streets! Let the cavalry hack them! Enter no houses! Storm them in the open places where they are gathering! Take possession of the open places! Put a capital guard! Instantly put picquets to the gates, to the powder-cellars, and to the magazines! When the enemy has surrendered, give him quarter! When the inner wall is occupied, go to plunder!

* * * * *

There are three military talents.

1st. _The Coup d’Œil._

How to place a camp. How to march. Where to attack, to chase, and to beat the enemy.

2nd. _Swiftness._

The field-artillery must march half or a whole verst in front, on the rising ground, that it may not impede the march of the columns. When the column arrives, it will find its place again. Down hill, and on even ground, let it go in a trot. Soldiers march in files, or four abreast, on account of narrow roads, streets, narrow bridges, and narrow passes, through marshy and swampy places; and only when ready for attack draw up in platoons, to shorten the rear. When you march four abreast, leave a space between the companies. Never slacken your pace! Walk on! Play! Sing your songs! Beat the drum! When you have broken off ten versts[300] the first company cast off their load, and lie down. After them the second company; and so forth, one after the other. But the first never wait for the rest! A line in columns will, on the march, always draw out. At four abreast, it will draw out one and a half more than its length. At two abreast, it will draw out double. A line one verst in length will draw out two. Two versts will draw out four; so the first companies would have to wait for the others half-an-hour, to no purpose. After the first ten versts, an hour’s rest. The first division that arrived (upon the coming of the second) takes up its baggage, and moves forward ten or fifteen paces; and if it passes through defiles on the march, fifteen or twenty paces. And in this manner division after division, that the hindmost may get rest. The second ten versts, another hour’s rest, or more. If the third distance is less than ten versts, halve it, and rest three-quarters, half, or a quarter of an hour, that the children[301] may soon get to their kettles. So much for infantry.

The cavalry marches before. They alight from their horses and rest a short time, and march more than ten versts in one stage, that the horses may rest in the camp. The kettle-waggons and the tent-waggons go on before. When the brothers[301] arrive the kettle is ready. The master of the mess instantly serves out the kettle. For breakfast four hours’ rest, and six or eight hours at night, according as the road proves. When you draw near the enemy, the kettle-waggons remain with the tent-waggons, and wood must be prepared beforehand.

By this manner of marching soldiers suffer no fatigue. The enemy does not expect us; he reckons us at least a hundred versts distance, and when we come from far, two hundred, or three hundred, or more. We fall all at once upon him, like snow on the head. His head turns. Attack instantly with whatever arrives,[302]—with what God sends. The cavalry instantly fall to work, hack and slash! Stab and drive! Cut them off! Don’t give them a moment’s rest!

3rd. _Energy._

One leg strengthens the other! One hand fortifies the other! By firing many men are killed! The enemy has also hands, but he knows not the Russian bayonet (alluding to the Turks)! Draw out the line immediately; and instantly attack with cold arms (the bayonet). If there is not time to draw out in line, attack, from the defile, the infantry with the bayonet; and the cavalry will be at hand. If there be a defile for a verst, and cartridges over your head, the guns will be yours! Commonly the cavalry makes the first attack, and the infantry follows. In general, cavalry must attack like infantry, except in swampy ground; and there they must lead their horses by the bridle. Cossacks will go through anything. When the battle is gained, the cavalry pursue and hack the enemy, and the infantry are not to remain behind. In two files there is strength: in three files, strength and a half.[303] The first tears, the second throws down, and the third perfects the work.

_Rules for Diet._

Have a dread of the hospital! German physic stinks from afar, is good for nothing, and rather hurtful. A Russian soldier is not used to it. Messmates know where to find roots, herbs, and pismires. A soldier is inestimable. Take care of your health! Scour the stomach when it is foul! Hunger is the best medicine! He who neglects his men—if an officer, arrest; if a sub-officer, lashes;[304] and to the private, lashes, if he neglects himself. If loose bowels want food, at sunset a little gruel and bread. For costive bowels, some purging plant in warm water, or the liquorice-root. Remember, gentlemen, the field physic of Doctor Bellypotski.[305] In hot fevers eat nothing, even for twelve days,[306] and drink your soldier’s quas[307]—that’s a soldier’s physic. In intermitting fevers neither eat nor drink. It’s only a punishment for neglect if death ensues. In hospitals, the first day the bed seems soft; the second comes French soup; and the third the brother is laid in his coffin, and they draw him away! One dies, and ten companions around him inhale his expiring breath. In camp, the sick and feeble are kept in huts, and not in villages: there the air is purer. Even without an hospital you must not stint your money for medicine, if it can be bought; nor even for other necessaries. But all this is frivolous: we know how to preserve ourselves. Where one dies in a hundred with others, we lose not one in five hundred in the course of a month. For the healthy, drink, air, and food; for the sick, air, drink, and food. Brothers, the enemy trembles for you! But there is another enemy, greater than the hospital,—the damned “_I don’t know_.”[308] _From the half-confessing, the guessing, lying, deceitful, the palavering, equivocation, squeamishness, and nonsense of_ “_Don’t know_,” many disasters originate. Stammering, hackering,[309] and so forth; it’s shameful to relate! A soldier should be sound, brave, firm, decisive, true, honourable! Pray to God! from Him come victory and miracles! God conducts us! God is our general! For the “_I don’t know_” an officer is put in the guard; a staff-officer is served with an arrest at home. Instruction is _light_! Not instruction is _darkness_! The work fears its master.[310] If a peasant knows not how to plough, the corn will not grow! One wise man is worth three fools! and even three are little, give six! and even six are little, give ten![311] One clever fellow will beat them all, overthrow them, and take them prisoners!

In the last campaign the enemy lost 75,000 well counted men—perhaps not much less than 100,000. He fought desperately and artfully, and we lost not a full thousand.[312] There, brethren, you behold the effect of military instruction.

Gentlemen, officers, what a triumph!

* * * * *

N.B. This translation has been rendered perfectly literal, so that effect is often sacrificed to a strict attention to the real signification of the words, instead of introducing parallel phrases.

(C.)

ON THE TIMBER TRADE OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN RUSSIA.[313]

Most people will acknowledge it to be a matter of some difficulty to turn the habitual course of trade into any new channel. For a century the forests of Lithuania exported by the Duna from Riga timber, and more especially masts; supplying thereby all the dockyards of Europe. The value of this branch of commerce amounted to about 2,000,000 roubles per annum. Each piece of timber passed through the hands of two sorters, who are an incorporated body, and are responsible, by their oath, for the quality of the article. These qualities varying in different countries, the merchants are in the habit of sending their orders to the principal sorters, naming the quantity and the quality which they require. These men then despatch a cutter to the spot, to select and appropriate the timber according to the orders which they receive; and the timber so selected is inspected afresh at Riga previous to shipment. This sorting or surveying is a joint-stock affair, the profits upon which go to a general fund, and are divided at the end of the year. There are two modes of bargaining with the wood-growers: either by purchasing of them a certain number of trees, chosen by a competent judge, or by taking an entire wood on lease, with the right of felling such trees as may from time to time suit the lessee; in which latter case the price is regulated according to the quantity of timber removed, charging so much for masts and so much for planks. The time for felling the trees is in the months of October and November; and although it would be better to postpone it until the sap shall have left the trees, yet, at a further period of the season, the snow would render the woods almost inaccessible: and it is necessary to avail one’s self of the drawing or sledging, just in time to bring away the timber already cut. Nevertheless, the felling sometimes continues until the month of January, or even February. Despite the care of the surveyor, 10 per cent. may reasonably be deducted from the original cost of timber on account of the occasional felling of trees that are objectionable; which are left on the land. It is commonly understood that masts of this description shall be left to the land-owner, and that no more shall be paid for than are taken away. The timber intended for Riga is all lopped and trimmed on the spot; and upon the breaking up of the ice in the Dniepr or in the Beresina (near to which rivers the greater part of the woods are situated) the timber is launched, in order afterwards that it may be sent down the Duna to Riga. It is only from the nearest forests that timber can be delivered at Riga in the same year in which it is felled; for with reference to the more distant, a second land-carriage betwixt the Dniepr and the Duna becomes indispensable. It often happens that, the time to complete the squaring of the timber during the first winter being insufficient, advantage is taken of the delay caused by the frost, in the breaking up of the ice of the Duna, to complete it. By this means the timber arrives at Riga in the fine season, and is fit for immediate shipment.

The thinning of the forests of Lithuania has compelled the fellers to move gradually farther and farther southward. Even now but few maiden forests are to be found near the river in the government of Minsk; and the supplies of timber are now chiefly furnished by the government of Tchérnigof and of Kief. The timber trade must, therefore, necessarily be driven into the hands of the Southern Russians. In lieu of transporting the timber, as before, against the current of the Dniepr, and of a long journey over land, it is now abandoned to the stream, and thus floats rapidly down to Kherson, where it arrives between May 15 and July 1.

The masts and bulks are commonly fastened together in rafts of 100 pieces each, and are managed by four or five men. Planks and staves are conveyed by means of large barks, manned with fifteen or sixteen men. The expense of water-carriage is about 25 roubles each for large masts. The vessels that are without decks cost as much as 1200 roubles; those that are decked are worth double this sum; but owing to their inability to reascend the river, are usually sold at Kherson for a few hundred roubles each. The merchants of Odessa have not as yet directed much of their attention to the timber trade; either because grain chiefly occupies their attention, or because of the want of proper experience on the part of the speculators; the first purchases of masts at Kherson, for the arsenals at Toulon and at Carthagena, proved disastrous in their results. Nevertheless, as Odessa possesses some very rich houses, with whom it is become almost a point of duty to open fresh outlets to the commerce of the country, and since bad harvests have obliged other houses to direct their capital to articles till then almost unknown, the timber trade at Kherson has progressed very rapidly. In 1833 the value of the timber and wood exported from that place amounted to 1,000,000 roubles, or nearly 180,000_l._ In 1834 many ships loaded with masts and staves for France and Spain. The great saving effected in the charges of transportation to ports of shipment, as well as on freights, will render it impossible for the trade of Riga, henceforward, to compete with that of the Black Sea, in supplying the south of Europe, where the consumption (of staves more particularly) is very great. _Kherson is able to obtain timber from the very same forests which supply Riga, at from 20 to 30 per cent. cheaper_, owing to the loss of interest on the capital employed, six months being the intermediate time of its arrival at Kherson, whilst the passage to Riga occupies at least twenty months. Besides, on landing the timber from the Dniepr, it remains a long time exposed to the air before being again launched in the Duna, which cannot fail to injure it. A sorter, or surveyor, from Riga, is already established at Kherson, for the purpose of placing the timber trade on the same footing as in the former city. He is accompanied by twelve Lithuanian labourers, practised in the trimming of masts, which are prepared on the spot where they are felled. A skilful workman will not be able to trim a large mast in less than a week. Excepting pine planks, which are sawn in the town, all other sorts of timber are sent to Kherson ready trimmed. The largest masts shipped hence are not more than about 20 palms in diameter, and about 85 feet in length. Those of larger dimensions, being purchased chiefly for Holland, are sent of course to Riga, but there is no doubt of the possibility of conveying them to Kherson with as much facility as to the former place. Even the smaller masts, which are all very cheap, are very superior in quality to, and much more durable than, those of Moldavia, Tuscany, and the Adriatic. The Oak, on the contrary, like that of Moldavia, is too soft for ship-building; nevertheless for staves it is certainly superior to that of the Romagna. These staves are cut from six to eight feet in length, and six inches broad, by two and a half to three inches thick. They are sold in lots of sixty, called shocks, the cost of one of which shocks, at Kherson, of six feet, was, in 1834, about 37 roubles. They can, however, be had of all dimensions, by apprising the seller beforehand in the months of August and September.

In addition to the timber destined for ship-building, wood of almost every shape is brought from the greatest part of Southern Russia for building, and for other purposes. This trade is in the hands of speculators from Kherson, and is carried on at places where the timber is felled; it is only the timber intended for foreign shipment, and certain sorts, that would find but a very limited sale at home, that are ordered beforehand. Igren and Kakhóvka, the one above, the other below, the cataracts of the Dniepr, are important places for the trade in wood. At these places, the carmen of the environs, who fetch fish and salt from the ports of the Sea of Azof, load the wood that has come down the Dniepr; in this manner it comes to the same price as that which is brought down the Volga and the Don in small quantities. But it is probable that, in time, the oak of Kasan, which now supplies the shipyards of the North, will be obtainable by this last-mentioned route. The forests, with which the mountains of the Crimea are covered, furnish to the shipyard of Sevastopol excellent building timber and much firewood; Odessa, in particular, which procures it from the north of Bessarabia, likewise consumes a great deal of it; still, as a great part of this latter province is entirely stripped of wood, it is under the necessity of supplying itself from Moldavia, especially from the district of Kiatra, which is very woody, and which exports wood also to Constantinople. Bessarabia derives from thence only firewood; but building-timber, masts, planks, and staves, are sent down the Seret (a river which separates Moldavia from Wallachia), and find a vent at Galatz, whence they are sent off in great rafts to Constantinople; and, before the Sultan prohibited it, these articles were sent from thence into Egypt. In 1832 the value of these exports amounted to more than 500,000 francs. The masts of Moldavia are of a very inferior quality compared with those of Russia; but many vessels buy them at Constantinople, because they are so very cheap. Neither is the oak for ship-building so hard as that of Bulgaria, which, on this account, is generally preferred. In general, a great quantity of timber is imported from Bulgaria into Ismail and into Reni, as, for the last five years, that article has not been burthened with any duty, and it forms one of the most important branches of commerce at both places. Roumelia likewise exports a considerable quantity of timber, especially staves, from the port of Bourgas.

(D.)

COMMERCE OF PORTS OF CRIMEA, 1852.[314]

I. PORT OF EUPATORIA.

There was imported into this port in 1852—

Goods 132,902 S. R. Coin 2,240 S. R. ------- Total 135,142 S. R.

Exports—

Russian produce 266,719 S. R.,

and no coin.

31 foreign vessels entered the port of Eupatoria.

The coasting trade presented the following numbers:—Arrivals, 189—of which, 1 from Petersburg. Departures, 188—of which, 5 for Petersburg.

II. AKMÉSHED.—III. SEVASTOPOL.—IV. BALACLAVA.—V. YALTA.

These four ports have only a coasting trade.

-----------+------------------------- | Number of Coasters. +-----------+------------- | Arrivals. | Departures. +-----------+------------- Akméshed | 5 | 5 Sevastopol | 452 | 466 Balaclava | 7 | 10 Yalta | 66 | 62 -----------+-----------+-------------

Besides, steamers anchored 49 times in the port of Yalta.

The coasters brought and discharged in these four ports, besides provisions for the state, goods of the following value:—

-----------+-----------+----------- | Brought. | Took away. +-----------+----------- | S. R. | S. R. Akméshed | | 3,883 Sevastopol | 1,051,451 | 107,793 Balaclava | | 749 Yalta | 137,408 | 130,315 -----------+-----------+-----------

VI. THEODOSIA.

The imports into the port of Theodosia in 1852 were—

Goods 137,822 S. R. Coin 10,841 S. R. ------------- Total 144,663 S. R.

Exports—

Goods 57,237 S. R.

+----------------+-----------+-------------+ | | Arrivals. | Departures. | | +-----------+-------------+ |Foreign vessels | 97 | 14 | |Coasters | 144 | 229 | +----------------+-----------+-------------+

The coasters brought goods, 150,823 S. R.; and loaded to a value of 96,862 S. R.

VII. KERTCH.

1852: Foreign Imports Goods 40,395 S. R. Coin 2,900 S. R. ------ Total 43,275 S. R. Exports 41,386 S. R.

and no coin.

113 foreign vessels arrived, and 73 left: of these 113 arrivals, 52, after passing quarantine at Kertch, entered the Sea of Azof. The coasting trade had 1111 arrivals, and 1094 departures.

The coasters brought, in 1852—goods, 834,671 S. R., besides stores to the account of the state. They loaded goods 359,418 S. R.; of salt from the Lakes of Kertch, 1,464,140 poods were sent from the Lakes of Kertch to the ports of the Sea of Azof; 91,435 poods to the Black Sea; and 74,775 poods to Petersburg:—total, 1,630,360 poods; which makes 911,445 poods more than in 1851, and 576,020 poods more than in 1850. This is the largest exportation of salt that has ever been made; for even in 1837 the exports only reached 1,431,975 poods.

The reduction of the excise, and the permission to pay for it in the ports of the Sea of Azof, are the causes of this increase in the export of salt to the interior of the empire.

_Résumé._

It results, from the accounts given above, that the commerce of the Crimea was more important in 1852 than in 1851. The reason was the good harvest of 1852. The export of its production was on a larger scale, and consequently the import was larger; more cottons and mixed Turkish silks were imported into Theodosia; more fruits and tobacco to Eupatoria; more coal to Kertch. The export of wheat and other grains was also larger; also of walnut-wood from Theodosia, and more linseed and wool, and tallow and butter, from Eupatoria. The increase in commercial affairs, of course, occasioned activity in the shipping.

* * * * *

The coasting trade, always more important in the Crimean ports than foreign commerce, has continued slowly to improve, as may be seen from the following tables for 1851 and 1852.

I. FOREIGN COMMERCE.

+------------+---------------------------------------+ | | Value of Goods. | | +-------------------+-------------------+ | | Importations. | Exportations. | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ | | 1851. | 1852. | 1851. | 1852. | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ |Eupatoria | 119,289 | 132,902 | 126,070 | 266,719 | |Balaclava | 648 | | | | |Theodosia | 94,832 | 133,822 | 44,933 | 57,237 | |Kertch | 35,353 | 40,395 | 21,677 | 41,386 | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ | Total | 250,122 | 307,119 | 192,689 | 365,342 | +------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

Less coin was imported in 1852 than in 1851; it was 15,981 S. R. More was exported.

+------------+---------------------------------------+ | | Navigation. | | +-------------------+-------------------+ | | Arrivals. | Departures. | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ | | 1851. | 1852. | 1851. | 1852. | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ |Eupatoria | 22 | 30 | 14 | 31 | |Balaclava | 3 | | | | |Theodosia | 56 | 97 | 10 | 14 | |Kertch | 108 | 113 | 64 | 73 | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ | Total | 189 | 240 | 88 | 108 | +------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

II. COASTING TRADE.

+------------+-----------------------------------------------+ | | Value of Merchandise. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | Importations. | Exportations. | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | | 1851. | 1852. | 1851. | 1852. | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Akméshed | | | 380 | 3,883 | |Eupatoria | 243,097 | 116,878 | 199,799 | 262,410 | |Sevastopol | 757,920 | 1,051,451 | 143,522 | 107,793 | |Balaclava | 4,162 | | 2,190 | 749 | |Yalta | 177,290 | 137,408 | 85,153 | 130,315 | |Theodosia | 94,832 | 150,823 | 44,933 | 96,862 | |Kertch | 877,285 | 834,671 | 266,378 | 359,419 | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | Total | 2,154,586 | 2,291,231 | 742,355 | 961,431 | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

+------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | Departures. | Arrivals. | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | | 1851. | 1852. | 1851. | 1852. | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Akméshed | 2 | 5 | 1 | 5 | |Eupatoria | 195 | 188 | 187 | 189 | |Sevastopol | 463 | 466 | 483 | 452 | |Balaclava | 15 | 10 | 12 | 7 | |Yalta | 84 | 62 | 96 | 66 | |Theodosia | 247 | 229 | 201 | 144 | |Kertch | 1,038 | 1,094 | 1,053 | 1,111 | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | Total | 2,044 | 2,054 | 2,033 | 1,974 | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

(E.)

ADVANTAGES LIKELY TO ACCRUE TO THE TRADE OF THE DANUBE FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A FREE PORT AT THE ST. GEORGE’S MOUTH OF THE RIVER.

The subject of the opening of the Danube is so intimately connected with the countries about which I have written, that I think it will be interesting to the public to read the following memorandum which has just been sent home by Mr. Cunningham, the English Consul at Galatz, and a merchant at that port.

MEMORANDUM.

As the navigation of the Danube forms one of the Four Points to be settled between the Allies and Russia, there can be little doubt that the present war will not terminate without the navigation of that river being placed on a clear, secure, and lasting footing, and such as to encourage the investment of capital in mercantile enterprises in the vicinity of this river. Further, that those nations interested in the trade and navigation of the river will adopt proper means not only to remove all material impediments to the navigation in the first instance, but also that they will provide a permanent fund, by a tax on vessels frequenting the river or otherwise, to keep the channels in the best state for the security and despatch of shipping; and will further make such arrangements as shall appear most conducive to the extension of the trade of the countries situate along its banks.

No one measure would conduce more to the facility of the trade and navigation of the river, to the prosperity of the countries on the Lower Danube, and to the extension of their agriculture, than the formation of a free port at the mouth of the river Danube.

In order to understand the advantages which a free port at the mouth of the Danube would confer on the trade of the river, it is necessary to state how it is carried on at present, and the difficulties it has to contend with, particularly in the export trade in grain.

All the grain of Wallachia is exported from Ibraila.

All the grain of Moldavia is exported from Galatz.

All the grain of Bulgaria which goes out by the Danube is exported from Matchin.

NOTE.—In spring, when the water in the Danube is high, some small sea-going vessels go up to Silistria to load Bulgarian wheat, and to Giurgevo to load Wallachian wheat.

All the grain of Bessarabia which goes out by the Danube is shipped from Reni and Ismail.

The grain, the produce of one of these provinces, cannot be brought to any other province, not even for shipment, but the vessel must go to the port where the grain is in order to receive it.

This state of things causes much trouble, inconvenience, and expense to the merchant, as the merchant residing in one of the towns mentioned (generally in Galatz) may be shipping grain from all these ports at one time, without being able to ascertain the quality or condition of the grain he is shipping at any port excepting at the place where he resides. It is also inconvenient and expensive to shipmasters, who must first call at Galatz for orders, and may afterwards be sent to any of the ports mentioned.

Galatz and Ibraila are called free ports by their respective governments, but most improperly so: first, grain and tallow cannot be brought from Wallachia into Galatz, nor from Moldavia into Ibraila; the importation of these two articles into Moldavia or Wallachia from any quarter whatever, even for exportation, is prohibited. It follows therefore that the grain of Turkey cannot be warehoused in Galatz or Ibraila for exportation. As grain forms nine-tenths of the export trade of the Danube, it follows that the name of Free Port is altogether illusory.

Excepting the above two articles, and salt, all other articles may be brought into Galatz and Ibraila, and exported without payment of duty, provided the following forms be observed. On introducing the article it must be declared for exportation, and it must not be sold. If sold, the buyer must pay duty on exporting the article. But it must be observed that all articles the production of Moldavia and Wallachia are brought into Galatz and Ibraila respectively by land without payment of duty, and the duty is only paid on being exported by water from the so-called free port.

It is scarcely necessary to add that as in Turkey and Russia there is no pretension to a free port, the duty on all articles sent into either of these countries would have to be paid on entering, and again on being exported. The introduction of grain into Russia is prohibited.

It must be evident that it would be very advantageous to the export trade of the Danube, which is at present almost entirely confined to grain, to have some one point where the grain from all the different shipping ports could be brought forward in river craft, and there loaded on board of sea-going vessels. This can only be effected by having a free port established. But this free port would be equally advantageous for imports, which, being brought to one place, could be more conveniently sent forward to their various ports of destination along the Danube.

As steam power for river navigation has such an evident advantage over sailing vessels, it is quite behind the age to take sailing vessels 100 miles up a river for cargo, when the cargo can be brought down more easily and economically to the mouth of the river by steam; it is therefore apparent that, in seeking to establish _a free port on the Danube for the first time_, it ought to be placed as near as possible to the sea. For this reason the free port should be placed either at the Sulina mouth or at the St. George’s mouth. As, however, Sulina consists only of a narrow strip of land between the river and a marsh, and as that strip is subject to be overflowed, Sulina is not suited for the site of a town. At the St. George’s mouth, on the right bank of the river, the land is high and well suited for the erection of a town, therefore the free port should in preference be placed there. It is probable that, on application being made, the Turkish Government would grant the rights of a free port to the whole of the island Ruselm formed by the Danube, the branch called Donnawitza, the lake Ramsim, and the sea. Even on the left bank, on the island of St. George, the ground is much higher than at Sulina. At the outset the St. George’s mouth presents a difficulty in comparison to that of Sulina, namely, whereas the Sulina mouth has only a single bar of about 150 yards broad, the St. George’s mouth has banks extending out fully a mile; _but, as the entrance into the St. George’s has never been carefully surveyed_, it is not known whether a channel may not extend all the way out, which only requires to be marked out by buoys; but in every case there can be no doubt that a channel could be opened up and kept open, at an expense which would fall very light on the number of vessels likely to enter it, in comparison to the heavy lighterage which they have hitherto had to pay at Sulina. The St. George’s branch is much finer than the Sulina; it discharges at least ten times more water than the Sulina does, and this should render it easy to make a deeper channel than at Sulina; it is much broader, and therefore would afford more accommodation for shipping. It may be asked why, when the St. George presents so many advantages over the Sulina, no attempt has been made to render these advantages available? but when it is considered that Russia only held the left bank of this branch, while Turkey held the right bank, whereas Russia held both sides of the Sulina branch, it is evident that it was for the advantage of Russia to keep the St. George closed, and thus have the whole trade of the Danube under her control.

To show precisely the disadvantage of having to ascend the river with sailing vessels to receive cargo, it may be stated that sailing vessels seldom arrive from Sulina at Galatz in less than fourteen days, and not unfrequently they take a month to come up. Again, in going down, what between putting part of their cargo into lighters in order to go over the shoals in the river, and what by grounding and getting the vessel off again, three weeks or a month are frequently consumed between Galatz and Sulina. But the best proof is in the rates of freight, as a vessel, obtaining 12_s._ per quarter from Galatz to England, would take cargo from the mouth of the Danube to England for 8_s._ per quarter.

No doubt a vessel might save much time by being towed up the river by a steamer; but there would always be danger of the vessel grounding, and part of the cargo would always have to be put into lighters. The steamer could bring down four times more grain in proper barges than the vessel could carry, and in less time.

The uncertain political position of the Danube, and the difficulties and delays caused by quarantines, have hitherto prevented steam navigation from taking any considerable extension in that river; in fact, there have not yet been any steamers exclusively for the trade of the Principalities and Bulgaria. The steam navigation on the Lower Danube at the commencement of the present war with Russia was as follows:—The Imperial Royal Danube Steam Navigation Company of Vienna despatch a steamer weekly from Vienna to Galatz, and _vice versâ_. A steamer went weekly both up and down between Galatz and Turno Severin, on the Wallachian side of the river; and a steamer weekly between Galatz and Skella Cladova, on the Turkish side of the river. Besides these steamers, this Company had occasionally tugsteamers between this place and Calafat; and within the last four years it has had a number of iron barges, called _shlepfs_, on the Lower Danube, to be towed by steamers, for the conveyance of grain and other merchandise. The Austrian Lloyd’s Steam Company of Trieste had steamers performing six voyages monthly between Galatz and Constantinople: this Company also kept a steamer plying between Galatz and Ibraila. The Russians had a steamer performing two voyages monthly between Galatz and Odessa.

When, however, the trade and navigation of the Danube shall have been placed on a satisfactory and permanent footing, there can be little doubt that the companies having steamers on the Danube will increase their number, so as to meet the requirements of trade; or, should such not be the case, other companies will be established, as capital cannot be long wanting for an investment which offers at once security and good returns.

Until the war between Russia and Turkey in 1828, grain and tallow from the Principalities could only be sent to Constantinople. Certain Turkish commissioners came yearly to the provinces and purchased grain, fixing their own price for it, and that price was so low as not to be remunerative to the cultivator. Consequently, very little grain was then grown in the Principalities, and it was harvested and brought to market in a most careless manner, having a great deal of earth and dirt mixed with it, and the quality was very bad.

By the Treaty of Adrianople, the Russians gave free trade to the Principalities and the cultivation of grain was extended. So soon as the exportation of grain from the Principalities began to take a certain extension, the Russian Government perceived the double error it had committed, and endeavoured to correct it: this double error was, first, the trade of the Principalities was increased, and the attention of Europe was thereby called to them; secondly, the grain exported from the Principalities came into competition and lowered the price of the grain of the Russian ports on the Black Sea. For this end the Russians prevented the establishment of a general entrepôt on the Danube; they imposed vexatious quarantine regulations on shipping and merchandise; and they prevented the removing of banks and shoals and other impediments to the navigation of the river.

Notwithstanding all these discouragements and impediments, the exportation of Moldavia and Wallachia by Galatz and Ibraila down the Danube in the year 1852 had reached the following quantities:—

+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | | Galatz. | Ibraila. | Total. | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ | | Quarters. | Quarters. | Quarters. | |Wheat | 187,555 | 343,584 | 531,139 | |Indian Corn | 329,279 | 725,259 | 1,054,538 | |Rye | 96,900 | 1,296 | 98,196 | |Barley | 468 | 80,278 | 80,746 | |Millet | — | 5,180 | 5,180 | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ | Total | 614,202 | 1,155,597 | 1,769,799 | +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

The exportation of grain from Turkey, and consequently from Bulgaria, was prohibited until the year 1839, when the exportation was allowed by the treaty of commerce made between Turkey and England in that year. The exportation of grain from Bulgaria by the Danube has made very little progress hitherto, and not more than 200,000 quarters of grain of all sorts have been exported by the Danube in any one year.

There are many reasons no doubt for this want of progress; among which are, the improper interference of the Turkish Government, which has already forbidden the exportation of grain four different times, under pretext that there was a scarcity of grain in Turkey; the interference of pashas and other Turks in authority, who are always endeavouring to have a monopoly of the grain trade of their districts; also the insufficient protection of the cultivators. But another reason, and which had great influence, was the want of a proper place for shipping on board of sea-going vessels, as there is no place on the Turkish side of the Danube with suitable warehouses, and Turkish grain was not allowed to be warehoused in Wallachia or Moldavia.

Little doubt can be entertained, that inquiry will be made into the causes which prevent the extension of agriculture in Turkey for the purpose of removing them, and that, in consequence, the exportation of grain from Bulgaria will increase rapidly.

Grain of Bessarabia is exported from Reni and Ismail on the Danube, but by far the larger portion of the produce of that province goes to Odessa for shipment, being attracted to that place by the lower rate of freights which prevails there than on the Danube. Were the freights from the Danube reduced to the same rates as those from Odessa, there can be little doubt that nearly the whole of the grain produced in Bessarabia would be brought to the Danube for shipment. The quantity of grain exported from Ismail is larger than what is exported from Reni; in the year 1852 the quantity exported from these two ports may have amounted, to 400,000 quarters. It is proper to observe, that although Ismail is situate on the Kilia branch of the Danube, yet the vessels at present frequenting that port enter and go out by the Sulina branch, and would consequently go by the St. George’s were it rendered more commodious.

From what has been stated it results that the quantity of grain exported from the Danube in 1852 was:—

Imperial Quarters. From Galatz 614,202 ” Ibraila 1,155,597 ” Bulgaria (about) 200,000 ” Bessarabia 400,000 --------- 2,369,799 =========

But the production of Moldavia and Wallachia goes on increasing at the rate of about five per cent. yearly, and should this free port be obtained, a further impetus will be given to the exportation by the reduction of freights. For the same reason it may be expected that the exportation of Bessarabia by the Danube will be greatly increased, as produce, in place of being carried to Odessa, will be brought to the Danube for shipment. Then as regards Bulgaria, taking into account internal impediments to cultivation, which may be expected to be removed, and facilities to exportation and lower freights, it cannot be doubted that the production and exportation of grain from Bulgaria will increase very rapidly. For these reasons it may safely be reckoned, that ten years after the establishment of peace, and a convenient free port near the mouth of the Danube, the following quantities of grain will be exported from the Danube:—

Imperial Quarters. From Wallachia 2,000,000 ” Moldavia 1,000,000 ” Bulgaria 1,500,000 ” Bessarabia 1,000,000 --------- 5,500,000 =========

Regarding the present manner of bringing forward grain for shipment on board of sea-going vessels, it is to be observed that all the grain shipped from Galatz comes forward to that place by land. Of that shipped from Ibraila, not over one-fifth comes forward by land; the rest is brought down the Danube by river craft, called _kerlatze_, from Calafat, Islas, Giurgevo, Calarrach, &c. Latterly, the Vienna Danube Steam Navigation Company has occasionally brought down grain from Upper Wallachia in shlepfs or iron barges. Of the grain shipped from Bulgaria, a portion is shipped from Silistria by small vessels, which go up to that place in spring when the water is high; the remainder is brought down, by kerlatze, from Widdin, Sistove, Rustchuk, &c., to Matchin, for shipment. At Matchin some warehouses have lately been built. The grain shipped from Bessarabia is all brought forward to Reni and Ismail by land.

The rate of freight, by kerlatze, from Calafat to Ibraila, in the course of the last four years, has ranged from P. 60-P. 120 of the G. S. per 1000 okes, equal per quarter to 2_s._ 2_d._ to 4_s._ 3_d._; but P. 80 per 1000 okes may be taken as the usual freight, or per quarter 2_s._ 10_d._, for conveyance the distance of 300 miles English. The freight charged by the Austrian Danube Steam Company for conveying grain in iron barges, towed by steamers from Calafat to Ibraila, varies according to the season and demand, but may be taken on an average at 30 kreutzers per 100 funti, 4_s._ per imperial quarter. The kerlatze, or river craft, perform a voyage from Ibraila up to Calafat, empty and back with a cargo of grain, in about two months. A steamer towing shlepfs can perform the same voyage in ten days.

The freight from Galatz to England may be taken as 50 per cent. higher than the freight from Odessa to England; thus, when freight from Odessa is 7_s._ per quarter, the freight from Galatz is 10_s._ 6_d._: these are low freights. But were there a port at the St. George’s mouth, the freight from thence to England could never be more than from Odessa, but would probably be 10 per cent. less. Thus allowing 1_s._ or 1_s._ 6_d._ per quarter for freight from Galatz to St. George, there would be a saving, when freights were low, of at least 2_s._, and when freights were high 5_s._ to 6_s._ per quarter, in favour of bringing grain to the ships, in place of sending the ships to the grain.

There would also be a great saving on the Insurance, and in the time of sending the merchandise to market.

CHARLES CUNNINGHAM.

_Galatz, April 4, 1855._

LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING CROSS.

[Illustration: THE CRIMEA, WITH THE NORTHERN SHORES OF THE BLACK SEA AND SEA OF AZOV.

_Published by John Murray Albemarle Sᵗ. February 1855._

_Ford & West. Lithʳˢ._]

FOOTNOTES

[1] Voyage autour du Caucase, par Frédéric Dubois de Montpereux. 6 vols. with an Atlas. Paris, 1839.

[2] Études sur les Forces Productives de Russie, par M. L. de Tegoborski, Conseiller Privé et Membre du Conseil de l’Empire de Russie. 3 vols. Paris, 1852-54.

[3] Les Steppes de la Mer Caspienne, le Caucase, la Crimée, et la Russie Méridionale. 3 vols., with an Atlas. Paris, 1845.

[4] This was the strength of the army in 1846, when I left it.

[5] I do not reckon as a war the short period of misunderstanding with them in the reign of the Emperor Paul.

[6] He was a Mussulman, but all the rest of his family are Christians.

[7] As this is a point of some importance, I think it right to state that my authority for this statement is Mr. Carruthers, late Consul, and Mr. Lander, late a merchant, at Taganrok.

[8] This name appears for the first time in Theophanes, page 316. He says, “Justinian remembering the plot against him of the Chersonites, the Bosphorians, and the inhabitants of the other Klimata.” Some authors supposed it to refer to the southern coast, but Dubois applies it to the northern slopes of the Tauric chain (the same country which was called Doru by the earlier writers), principally from the following passage in Constantine Porphyrogenitus:—“One part of the nation of the Patzinakes is found next to the Chersonites, of whom they are the carriers. They always treat them well, as it would be easy for them to ravage and destroy Cherson and the Klimata.” He adds, “From Cherson to the Bosphorus are the castles of the Klimata.” Dubois, Voyage autour du Caucase, chez les Tcherkess Abkhazes, en Calchide, en Georgie, en Arménie, en Crimée: ouvrage qui a remporté le prix de la Société de Géographie de Paris, 1838: vol. v. p. 5.

[9] That is, passing through Bereslaf; for, by going straight from Perecop to Kherson by Adeski, it is only 332 miles, but this road is not always practicable, on account of the difficulty of crossing the Dniepr.

[10] Its old Russian name was Belaio Veja, and it was called Kiz Kerman, or the Girl’s Castle, by the Tatars (Vsevolovski, Dict. Hist. Géog. de la Russie).

[11] The following is the account Herodotus gives of this river:—“The fourth is the river Borysthenes, which is the largest of these after the Ister, and, in my opinion, the most productive, not only of the Scythian rivers, but of all others, except the Egyptian Nile; for to this it is impossible to compare any other river, but of the rest the Borysthenes is the most productive. It affords the most excellent and valuable pasture for cattle, and fish of the highest excellence and in great quantities; it is most sweet to drink; it flows pure in the midst of turbid rivers; the sown land near it is of the best quality; and the herbage, where the land is not sown, is very tall; at its mouth abundance of salt is crystallized spontaneously; and it produces large whales, without any spiral bones, which they call Antacæi, fit for salting, and many other things that deserve admiration. The Borysthenes continues flowing near the sea, and the Hypanis mingles with it, discharging itself into the same morass.” Lib. 4.

[12] About 1801 the English, French, Dutch, and Prussians obtained permission for their mercantile navy to pass the Bosphorus.

[13] 1791.

[14] 877 miles from Moscow, and 1362 miles from St. Petersburg.—Lyell.

[15] Castelnau.

[16] Strange to say, stores are always scanty here, perhaps because many kinds deteriorate by keeping. Even timber is wanting for ship-building, and is used green, and never seasoned. A part of the ‘Twelve Apostles’ was rotten when she was launched.

[17] This fact is noticed by Herodotus.

[18] Lyell’s Travels.

[19] There used to be many governor-generals in Russia, and there is still one for the Ukraine, which comprehends the governments of Kharkow, Tchérnigof, and Pultava.

[20] See Hist. of the Precopian Tatars, London, 1693; also Peyssonel, Commerce de la Mer Noire, in which there is a Dissertation on the Tatars, from information gained among them by the author, who was French consul at Baktchéserai, the capital of the khan in 1773. The Tatars first appeared in Crimea in 1226.

[21] Fletcher’s Hist. of Poland, p. 69 and 70.

[22] Tanquam nidulo aliquo affixi.

[23] See Fletcher’s History of Poland, p. 68, from which this account is taken. The original authorities are Chevalier’s work on the Cossack war, published 1663, and the Relazione di Polonia in the Harleian Collection.

[24] From “Tchorny,” black, and “Moré,” the sea, in Russian.

[25] From about A.D. 1560-1783.

[26] The country between the Dniestr and the Pruth, called Bessarabia, used to be an integral portion of Moldavia, and is still inhabited by Moldavians. It was torn from Turkey and given up to Russia in 1812, by the treaty of Bucharest, which was concluded by Sir Stratford Canning, then a very young man, who rose into notice from his services on this occasion.

[27] See ‘Études sur les Forces productives de la Russie,’ par M. de Tegoborski, Membre du Conseil de l’Empire de Russie. Paris, 1852. Vol. i. p. 33.

[28] “Step” is a Russian word. The following is the account of the Steppes taken from Von Hammer’s History of the Ottoman Empire:—“These Steppes are called by Oriental geographers ‘the fields of Hëihat:’ they extend from east to west from the banks of the Aksou (river Bug) and the Ouron (river Dniepr) to those of the Ten (river Don) and the Tel (river Wolga); northward as far as Astrakhan, and southward as far as the banks of the Kuban (river Hypanis): situated between the Caspian and Black Seas, they cover a superficies of 1000 parasangs (one parasang is about four miles). These immense Steppes, which Timour, in marching against Tóktamish, traversed in 180 days, are covered in winter with snow as high as the grass in summer, and are inhabited by the Nogais and Kalmouks.” Vol. ii. p. 109.

[29] Hylè means “wood” in Greek.

[30] Tegoborski, vol. i. pp. 34-36.

[31] Geology of Russia in Europe, by Sir Roderick Murchison, vol. i. p. 559.

[32] Well known in the English markets under the name of “the country of the Line.” The production has much decreased of late years, owing to so many of the Cossacks being employed for warlike purposes.

[33] This account is taken from a paper by M. Teetzmann, steward of the estates of the Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, near Bereslaf. See Tegoborski, vol. i. p. 38.

M. Teetzmann says, that on his domain, in the 10 years from 1832 to 1841, rye and wheat produced on the average 6 times, barley 7 times, and millet 23 times the amount sown. In this time there were some years when the rye gave 16 times, wheat and barley 15 times, and millet 64 times the amount sown; but there was also one year when the crops entirely failed, and others when they did not give more than the amount sown. This was in a country which M. T. ranks among the “Eternal Steppes.”

[34] The post-carts are found at every post station throughout European Russia, from Archangel to the banks of Erasas, on the borders of Persia, and are called “pavosk,” or “telega,” or “pereclodnoi;” they are very low, have a seat for the driver in front, and will, with difficulty, hold two persons inside: they have no springs and no seat, and the traveller sits on his luggage. In this way, couriers and officers perform journeys of 1000 and 2000 miles without stopping, except to change at each station. I have myself performed a journey of 1200 miles from Tiflis to Odessa in this manner, and have frequently known Russians to have travelled 12,000 to 13,000 miles within the year.

[35] “It would be tedious to notice on every occasion the extraordinary number of tumuli which appear during the whole route (_i. e._ from Kasankaia to Tcherkask): I wish the reader only to keep in mind the curious fact of their being everywhere in view.”—Clarke’s Travels, part i. p. 254.

[36] Mus citillus of Buffon.

[37] See Clarke’s Travels, part i. ch. 12. Recently rewards have been offered for the destruction of the suslics on account of the great injury they do to the crops and fields. They make the steppe very dangerous for riding.

[38] Nat. Hist., cap. 26.

[39] This name is said to be derived either from Horus and Kapou (and it would then mean the gate of Horus or the frontier), or from the Tatar word “Or,” or “Ore,” meaning fire. Von Hammer.

[40] In the name of Beresin is preserved the ancient name of the isle Boristhenis, which, like the island of Leuké, at the mouth of the Ister, was devoted to the races in honour of Achilles; and the “Kil” in Kilboroún probably comes from Achilles, the sovereign of Pontus, although the Tatars explain the word as meaning a promontory as fine as a “hair,” since “Kil” means hair in their language.—Page 362.

[41] Von Hammer, Hist. de l’Empire Ottomane, vol. xiv. p. 360-364.

[42] The whole account of the coasts and soundings is taken from the ‘Pilot of the Black Sea and the Azof,’ by M. Taitbout de Marigny. Constantinople, 1850.

[43] P. 60.

[44] P. 51.

[45] P. 53, 54.

[46] Gloubok means “deep” in Russian.

[47] For a further account, see Chap. VI.

[48] This was in about the year 1838. See H. de Hell.

[49] Crimea was divided into 48 kadilics.

[50] Peyssonel, de la Commerce de la Mer Noire, vol. i. p. 252.

[51] Dubois, vol. v. p. 390.

[52] One verst, equal to about three-quarters of an English mile; 108 Russian versts = 1 degree; 69 English miles = 1 degree.

[53] De la Motraye, 3 vols. fol. illustrated by Hogarth: vol. ii. p. 42. The temperature of the water is 10° Réaumur, 54° Fahrenheit. See R. P. Koeppen, uber 130, Tauriens Quellen, p. 13. See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 325.

[54] The following is the translation of the Tatar inscription on this fountain:—“Glory to God most High! the face of Baktchéserai is made glad by the beneficent care of glorious Prince Geray Khan. With a prodigal hand he has satisfied the thirst of his country, and he will spread other blessings if God lends him his assistance.

“By care and trouble he has opened this excellent spring of water. If there exist such another fountain, let it come! We have seen the towns of Cham (Damascus) and Bagdad, but nowhere have we seen such a fountain. The author of this inscription is called Cheiki. If any man, fainting from thirst, reads these words across the water which escapes trickling from the slender pipe, what do they tell him? Come: drink this limpid water that flows from the purest of springs; it gives health!”

The last three words, when reduced into figures, give the date 1176 (A.D. 1762).—Dubois, vol. vi. p. 328.

[55] See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 331.

[56] He was poisoned in A.D. 1769.

[57] Hommaire de Hell, Travels in the Steppes of the Caspian, p. 360, English edition.

[58] Dubois (Voyage du), vol. vi. p. 337.

[59] The population of Tchoufout Kaleh in 1830 was composed of 492 men and 617 women, altogether 1109 Jewish inhabitants. P. de Koeffen, Baktchéserai zur Zeit der Cholera, 1830.—See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 340. Hommaire de Hell says, in 1842, they were gradually leaving, to settle in Baktchéserai: p. 364.

[60] Henderson, p. 314.

[61] Also Hothinger, Albringrus, Triglandius, and others. See Henderson.

[62] The name Karaim comes from the Hebrew word “Kara,” Scripture. They are also frequently called “Bene Mukra,” sons of the text, and “Baala Mikra,” masters or possessors of the text. Henderson’s ‘Biblical Res. in Russia,’ p. 316.

[63] She died A.D. 1437-38—year of the Hedgra, 841.

[64] The name “Tchoufout” applied to the Jews, is said by Pallas to be derived from “Cifutti,” which was a term of reproach applied to them at Genoa. There are many Genoese words in the Tatar language.

[65] Kirkor is first mentioned by Abulfeda (1341), under the name of Kerkri, and he says it was then inhabited by the As. Kerkor was probably the capital of the Khans of Crimea from about 1400 to 1480 A.D.—Dubois’ Voyage, &c., vol. vi. p. 343.

In 1396 “the Khan of Kirkel” is found fighting on the banks of the Don, against Vitort, Grand Duke of Lithuania. Pallas and Clarke think the Genoese possessed this place, as well as Mangoup and Eski Crim, but Dubois doubts this fact.

[66] The question as to who built the crypts is fully discussed in Dubois, vol. vi.

[67] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 347.

[68] Whenever the Russians say Tatars and Kalmucks, the ethnologists I have chiefly followed say Turks and Mongols.

“Ethnologically viewed, the ‘Tatars’ or ‘Tartars’ were a tribe nearly allied to the Mongols in race, who dwelt near the lake Bougir, to the eastward of Mongoliei. They were among the first of the Mongol conquests, and they took afterwards so conspicuous a place in the army of Zingis Khan that their name became synonymous with that of the Mongols. Their proper name was Tatars. It was said to have been changed into Tartars in consequence of an expression of St. Louis, who, when the devastations of Zingis Khan were heard of with horror in Western Europe, is reported to have exclaimed, ‘Let this heavenly consolation, O Virgin Mother, sustain us if they come, that either we will drive the Tartars, as we call them, back to their Tartarean (infernal) seats, whence they have sprung, or they shall raise us all to heaven.’”—_Dr. Smith’s Note, Gibbon_, vol. iii., p. 294.

[69] Or the Great Khan.

[70] Karamsin, vol. v. p. 83.

[71] Tóktamish was descended from Touschi, son of Zingis Khan, the Mongol hero. Tamerlane was a Turk, but claimed to be descended by the females from Zingis Khan. He was born 1335; d. 1405.

[72] After being four times khan, he died in 1704.—_Von Hammer’s Genealogical Tables._

[73] Discourse on the Precopian Tatars. London, 1693, _passim_.

[74] Travels in the Steppes of the Caspian: see p. 369, English edition.

[75] Douvankoi means the Valley of Prayer (see ‘Pallas’s Travels’).

[76] This is the name of the fort and suburb on the north side of the bay of Sevastopol. “Sievarna” means northern in Russian.

[77] ‘Pallas’s Voyage,’ ii. 46, in Dubois.

[78] ‘Pallas’s Voyage:’ see Dubois, vol. vi. p. 26.

[79] Sevastopol, or Sebastopolis, is composed of two Greek words, “Sebastos” meaning Augustus, and “polis” a city; and it was the name of a Greek city of the Lower Empire on the eastern coast of the Black Sea in Abkhazia.

[80] The ancient Greek city of Kherson was close to Sevastopol, but in the time of the Empress Catherine it was supposed to have stood near the mouth of the Dniepr, and the new city she founded there was therefore called by that name.

[81] Clarke, in 1800, ii., page 98; Reuilly in 1803; Castelnau in 1817; Montandon in 1833.

[82] The wooden telegraph thus carries messages from Sevastopol to Odessa, whence there is the electric telegraph to Petersburg.

[83] In 1834 there were 1500 working with the chain, without counting the other prisoners.

[84] “Black rivulet” in English. Large reservoirs were formed at a distance in the mountains to supply the canal, but they gave way. The river was insufficient, and a steam engine was lately erected to pump sea water into the docks.

[85] This is taking the paper rouble at the same value as the franc, but it is really rather more.

[86] It is but justice to Col. Upton, who is now no more, to observe, notwithstanding the reports lately circulated about certain faults in the early part of his life, that he enjoyed a good reputation among his own countrymen in Russia, and was considered a honest and faithful servant of his employer, while he has left monuments of his talents of which we may be proud.

[87] Naval Gunnery, 4th ed., p. 619.

[88] Toola, besides the Government, has many private establishments, and is considered as the Birmingham of Russia.

[89] For all these details see Tanski, Tableau du Système Militaire de la Russie. Paris, 1833, p. 295-7.

[90] For many years all the harbours of the Crimea were shut to commerce on the plea of there being no quarantines.

[91] He writes in 1852.

[92] Haxthausen, Études sur la Russie, vol. iii. p. 477-479.

[93] ‘Histoire de la Russie,’ tom. ii. p. 624, par Mons. Chopin, Paris, 1838. This gentleman was for many years an employé in Russia.

[94] The first part of this chapter is based upon Haxthausen, vol. iii.

[95] Will of Peter the Great, transmitted by the Chevalier d’Eon, French Ambassador at Petersburg, to his court in 1757, and soon after made public. See ‘Geschichte Peters des Grossen,’ by Peters, published at Leipsic.

[96] _Equipage_ is the French for “crew.”

[97] See Appendix C., on the Timber Trade.

[98] Hommaire de Hell, vol. ii. p. 383, French edition.

[99] See App. (A).

[100] See Sir H. Douglas’s ‘Naval Gunnery,’ from which I have borrowed all this account of the Paixhans system, p. 289-291.

[101] This chapter is based upon the account of the Russian army by M. Haxthausen, and a great portion of it is borrowed from him. He had access to Russian official records.

[102] M. Tegoborski, the mouthpiece of the Government of St. Petersburg, states that the estimate of the regular army alone in 1854 was from 800,000 to 900,000 men, and that it may be raised to 1,250,000 men in 1855. ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ Nov. 15, 1854, p. 802.

[103] Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 335.

[104] See his will, which has been often published.

[105] Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 331.

[106] Nestor was a monk of Kieff, and ceased to write about A.D. 1016.

[107] Chroniques de Nestor, French translation, c. 3, p. 54.

[108] Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 348.

[109] Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 340.

[110] “The bankers of Berlin in 1853 refused the 5 per cent. Russian loan at 83, with a bonus of 17 per 100 on the nominal capital. For the last twenty years Russia has been borrowing, to cover the deficit left in her budget by her enormous military preparations.”—Léon Faucher, ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ Nov. 15, 1854, p. 809.

The position of Russia is well described by M. Léon Faucher:—“How can the riches of a country be spoken of, which is still on so many sides a desert to clear and people? There are scarcely 11 inhabitants to the square kilomètre (⅔rds of a mile). The average of life is only 20 years (less than half that of the inhabitants of London, which is 43), and this presents very precarious resources for recruiting immense armies. The middle classes in Russia are scarcely born; the nobles are in debt; the peasants are reduced to a state of serfdom, or live in a kind of communism which is the actual practice of the most immoral and barbarous theories; manufacturing industry is an artificial creation by high protective tariffs; agriculture, with the exception of the kingdom of Poland, is in a rude and patriarchal state. The forests, the steppes, and the marshes occupy ⅚ths of the empire; and can it be supposed that a soil thus badly prepared can furnish the means of successfully resisting the powers of the West, who have in abundance what Russia has a dearth of, or will soon have a dearth of, namely, men and money.”—Id. p. 318. These are home truths, and we have only to thank our late rulers that Russia is not already so far reduced as to be obliged to accept any terms that we chose to impose upon her.

[111] I believe Count Radetski has also received this decoration since his Italian campaigns.

[112] Perhaps the light division of cavalry of reserve and its light artillery (24 light pieces) should be considered quite independent of this second corps.—Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 287.

[113] I have already mentioned the diminution in the quantity of linseed and wheat brought into the English market from “the Line country,” in consequence of the demands upon the Cossacks for men.

[114] “Sotni” comes from the Russian word sto—a hundred; “sot nic” means a captain.

[115] If M. Haxthausen estimates so highly these Caucasian auxiliaries, if they could be brought to aid the Russians, why have we not long ago arrayed them against their natural enemies?

[116] See Haxthausen, vol. iii. p. 458.

[117] Haxth. vol. iii. p. 460.

[118] Napoleon’s opinion of the Cossacks was not high. In the celebrated 29th bulletin of the Grand Army, he says of these gentry, “Even the Cossacks became formidable—that contemptible cavalry that, under ordinary circumstances, could not have penetrated a company of Voltigeurs.” I quote from memory.

[119] Haxth. vol. iii. p. 301.

[120] _First Levy._—9 battalions of grenadiers, 3 battalions of carbineers, 86 battalions of infantry of the line, 36 battalions of chasseurs of the line, and 134 battalions of infantry; 52 squadrons, and 24 batteries of infantry; representing a total of 98,000 men, and 192 cannons.

_Second Levy._—12 battalions of the guard, 12 battalions of the grenadiers and the carbineers; 72 battalions of infantry of the line, and the chasseurs; _in toto_, 96 battalions of infantry, 62 squadrons, 24 batteries of infantry, 11 batteries of cavalry, and 2½ battalions of sappers: presenting in round numbers 115,000 men and 280 cannons.—See Haxthausen, vol. iii. ch. on the Russian army.

[121] See ‘Kreutz Zeitung,’ Feb. 1, 1855, a Prussian newspaper, generally considered to have good information on Russian subjects. This paper also states, that, exclusive of the corps of the Caucasus and two divisions of the fifth and sixth corps detached in Asia, the Russian active forces now amount to 607 battalions, 562 squadrons, and 1712 field-pieces, which on paper represents 637,000 infantry, 95,000 cavalry, and 42,000 artillery; and that no more than 10 per cent. is to be deducted for non-effectives. This would give a total of nearly 700,000 men.

[122] For this Chapter see Dubois, vol. vi.

[123] This name is derived from _In_ and _kerman_, a castle.

[124] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 264.

[125] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 266. Some say Keffe Kil means “froth earth.” Clarke says that it is from this earth that the famous meerschaum (froth of the sea) pipes are made.

[126] The date of the earliest tomb of the Karaim Jews at Mangoup is the year of the world 5034 (A.D. 1274). P. de Koeppen Sbornik, p. 29.

[127] Dubois, vol. v. p. 19.

[128] Hommaire de Hell.

[129] As measured by Clarke. See Travels.

[130] A French guard is now placed to protect it.

[131] After A.D. 30.

[132] Sauromates V., A.D. 282.

[133] Rurik is a common name of Scandinavian heroes.

[134] The title of Tzar, says Karamsin, was used in Russia as early as the reign of Ysiaslaf II. and Dmétri Donskoi (1363-1389). This word is not an abridgment of the Latin Cæsar, as some learned men have supposed. It is an ancient Eastern name, which became known to the Russians through the Slavonic translation of the Bible, and was given by them first to the Emperor of the East and then to the khans of the Tatars. It signifies in Persian “a throne,” “the supreme authority,” and is observed in the names of the kings of Assyria and Babylonia, as in Phala_ssar_, Nabona_ssar_. John III. (1462-1472), was the first grand prince who took the title of Tzar in writing to foreign powers, and in his public acts he gave to his empire the name of “White Russia,” that is to say, great or ancient, according to the acceptation of this word in Oriental languages.—_Karamsin_, vi. 438.

In one of the chronicles of Novgorod it is said that Vladimir assumed the title of Tzar, 978. “Sic unus (Vladimir) serum Russiæ politus, auxit se titulo Tzaris et magni ducis atque autocratoris Russorum, sedemque ducatus Novogordiensis Kioviam transtulit.”—M.S. quoted in the notes to French translation of Nestor.

[135] Nestor.

[136] Clarke says that he obtained some copper coins of Vladimir in the Chersonese with a V upon them, probably marking the era of his baptism.

[137] Nestor, French translation, viii. 133.

[138] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 147. M. F. Adelung, die Korsüncher Thüren in der Cathedral Kirche zur heilg. Sophia in Novgorod. Berlin, 1823.

[139] Karamsin, Histoire de Russie, vol. v. p. 16.

[140] Bronovius, Desc. Tartariæ, pp. 258-261.

[141] A plan of these is given by Clarke in a vignette.

[142] B. iv.

[143] St. George is the principal patron saint of Russia, and the ancient arms of Moskow, when it was an independent principality, were this saint mounted on a white horse on a red field. When Moscow became the capital of the Grand Princes of Russia they adopted these arms. The vanquished dragon was added in 1380, after the victory of Koulikof, gained by Dmétri Donskoi over the Tatars. Ivan IV. in adopting in 1580 the double-headed eagle of the Greeks did not on that account renounce the horseman and the dragon, and the Russian eagle is charged in the heart with the scutcheon of Koulikof.

The ancient sovereigns of Russia, after embracing Christianity, took for their arms three circles in a triangle. In one of the circles was an inscription about the Trinity, in another the name of the prince to whom the letter was addressed, and in the third the titles of the Grand Prince.—Notes to French translation of Nestor, p. 71; Strahlemberg, Description de l’Empire Russe, vol. i. p. 240. Amst. 1757.

[144] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 194.

[145] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 201.

[146] See St. Simon, Mémoires de l’Arménie.

[147] For all this account of the crypts see Dubois, vol. vi. p. 314-319.

[148] Toira in Assyrian means a mountain, a chain of mountains; _Tyrou_ in Chaldean; _Tourou_ in Syrian. With the Turk races _Tau_ means a mountain, a round or high building, a rampart; and _or_ a façade. In Greek _oros_ means a mountain. See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 12.

[149] The remainder of this chapter is abstracted from Hommaire de Hell, vol. ii. ch. 19.

[150] See Dubois, vol. vi. p. 222.

[151] The history of the Goths in the Crimea, an obscure but interesting subject, has been investigated in a recent German work, which I have not seen.

[152] Clarke’s Travels, vol. i. App. 3.

[153] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 110. A great part of the following account of Balaclava is translated from this author.

[154] K. Ritter, die Vorhalle Europäischer Völkergeschichten vor Herodotus, um den Kaucasus und an den Gestaden des Pontus. Berlin, 1820, p. 8. A very curious and interesting work, although considered too speculative by some scholars.

[155] Pallas, vol. ii. p. 131.

[156] Ibid., vol. ii. p. 130; see also Strabo.

[157] MS. Travels of Nicholas Barti, of Lucca, into Tatary, Circassia, and Mingrelia, from 1632-1639.

[158] Clarke’s Travels, vol. i. p. 507.

[159] Pallas, vol. ii. p. 132-3.

[160] Pallas, vol. ii. p. 89-99.

[161] This account of the valley of Baidar and the Tatars and their dwellings is borrowed from Clarke, vol. ii. p. 514-520. The manners of the Tatars are the same as those of other nations of Western Asia; and this account has been inserted, because, although written a long time ago, it is still believed to give a faithful picture of them.

[162] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 92.

[163] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 93.

[164] P. de Koeppen, Krimskii Sbornik, p. 23, quoted in Dubois.

[165] As, for instance, Mangoup, Biassala, Katchikalene, Mangouche, and Lec.

[166] Cape Saritch is the name of the sailors for Mount Aia.

[167] General Potier was one of, I think, eight engineer officers lent by Napoleon after the peace of Tilsit, to form the Russian engineers on the French model, and to establish an École Polytechnique.

[168] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 97.

[169] The village of Kutchuk Koi, four versts from Kíkineis, was buried in February, 1786. The following is the account of this catastrophe from Professor Pallas’s work, written shortly after the event:—“On the 10th of February, 1786, the surface of the earth about the deep glens before mentioned, and in another still further to the eastward, began to burst, and to exhibit rocks or clefts; so that, on the same day, the brook which had hitherto turned two small mills, constructed by the native Tatars, entirely disappeared. Two days afterwards, the soil having become entirely disengaged, and the frightened inhabitants of the adjacent village having removed their cattle, carried off their effects, and abandoned their habitations, the whole tract between the hollows above described, from the lofty bank of rocks by the sea-shore, fell in about midnight with a dreadful noise; and this sinking continued till the 28th of February, so as to occasion a terrific abyss from ten to twenty fathoms deep, in which only a large parallel ridge of hard rock and two smaller crests remained projecting at the bottom. The ground thus fallen extends about a mile and a half in length, and six hundred yards in breadth. In proportion as one part of the steep declivity was detached from the rock, the whole mass pressed downwards, and the strand was removed further into the sea to a distance of from one hundred to two hundred yards.”—Pallas’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 142.

[170] Pallas’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 150. It is a pity Professor Pallas has given no specimen of the language of these people. By the original inhabitants of the Crimea, I suppose he means the Tatar population, who arrived in the Crimea with Batou Khan.

[171] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 85.

[172] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 82.

[173] It was measured trigonometrically by Mr. Chatillon, and found to be 3798 pieds de roi.—Dubois, vol. vi. p. 77.

[174] Castelnau, Hist. de la Nouvelle Russie, quoted by Dubois, vol. vi. p. 81.

[175] The Russian loss at Borodino in killed and wounded was—generals, 30; officers, 1,600; men, 42,000.—_MS. Memoir._

The French loss was—generals, 40; officers, 1,800; men, 52,000, as shown by the papers of Marshal Berthier, subsequently taken at Wilna.

[176] “Namesnik” in Russian—a very high office, seldom conferred. The holder of it corresponds directly with the Emperor, and not through the Ministry.

[177] The army of the Caucasus in 1847 was about 170,000 men.

[178] The history of these three ladies is admirably told by the graceful and vigorous pen of Madame de Hell, in the chapter entitled ‘Trois femmes célèbres.’ It is worth reading in the original French, as all the charm of the writing is lost in the published English translation.

[179] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 73.

[180] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 59.

[181] The E. India Company have a similar establishment on the Neilgherry Mountains in the South of India.

[182] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 55.

[183] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 24.

[184] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 26.

[185] The early writers on the coast of the Crimea are Herodotus, B.C. 469; Scymnus of Chio, B.C. 100; Strabo, A.D. 29; Arrian, A.D. 110; Ptolemy, _A.D._ 211; Procopius, A.D. 550. The anonymous Periplus translates into prose the verses of Scymnus.

[186] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 9.

[187] Scymnus of Chio, B.C. 100. See Hudson, Geo. Min.

[188] Dubois, vol. vi. p. 7.

[189] Dubois, vol. v. p. 450.

[190] Dubois, vol. v. p. 451.

[191] Ai for “agio,” holy, in Greek; and “thodor,” corruption of “Theodoro.” Thus, “Ai Petri” for St. Peter.

[192] Dubois, vol. v. p. 455.

[193] Dubois, vol. v. p. 446.

[194] Dubois, vol. v. p. 429.

[195] See H. de Hell, vol. ii. p. 484.

[196] Dubois, vol. v. p. 350-360.

[197] Maharab is a kind of pulpit, generally in stone-work, on which the “imam” or “mollah” stands in every mosque, and it is always turned in the direction of Mecca: thus in Africa it would look towards the east, in India towards the west, and in the Crimea nearly due south.

[198] See Dubois, vol. v. p. 355-358.

[199] The following account of the vines of the Crimea and the prices of land is translated from Dubois, vol. v. p. 330-350.

[200] Bronovius, Desc. Tartariæ.

[201] ‘Recueil de quelques antiquités trouvées sur les bords de la Mer Noire, par L. D. Waxel,’ No. 4, Clarke, Voyage, p. 117. It is now in the Museum of Nikolaief.

[202] Mount Simeonkaia and Mount Kisilkaia.

[203] Dubois, vol. v. p. 413.

[204] Aian is a contraction for Agio Joannes, or St. John. Dubois, vol. v. p. 417.

[205] Dubois, vol. v. p. 418.

[206] Dubois, vol. v. p. 407.

[207] Dubois, vol. v. p. 411.

[208] Ibid., vol. v. p. 412.

[209] Dubois, vol. v. p. 412.

[210] Id. p. 375.

[211] Pallas, vol. ii. p. 271, 387; Peyssonel, Commerce de la Mer Noire, vol. ii. p. 269; Dubois, vol. i. p. 271.

[212] Dubois, vol. v. p. 280.

[213] From this point the greater part of the rest of this chapter is translated from H. de Hell’s work. Vol. ii. ch. 18.

[214] Dubois, vol. v. p. 284.

[215] See Dubois, vol. v. p. 293.

[216] Dubois, vol. v. p. 287.

[217] A celebrated Armenian city in the Pashalic of Kars.

[218] Dubois, vol. v. p. 296.

[219] One ancient Armenian church exists at Zvainiets, near the Dneistr, in Podolia; the interior walls are hewn stone, covered with carving of very fine execution. This little church dates from the end of the 15th century. At Jaslovitz in Gallicia, the seat of the famous Polish family of Konietzpolski, is the residence of the Armenian bishop of that place. The indignities heaped upon them afterwards obliged the Armenians to quit that town, and they retired to Leopol or Lemberg, whose riches and importance date from that time. Dubois, vol. v. p. 297, note.

[220] He gives a picture of it in his work.

[221] Clarke’s Travels, vol. i. p. 446.

[222] The Russians took this town in 1771, and restored it at the peace of Kainardji, in 1774. Chahin Geray, the reigning Khan, then transferred here the seat of government, till he was forced to yield up his country to Catherine in 1784; he then passed into Russia, and at last was strangled at Rhodes in 1787. He lived like an European, had a European cook, ate all kinds of meat, and his servants wore a livery. He drove in his carriage instead of riding, and hid his beard under a black silk cravat—a daring thing for a Mussulman at that epoch. He had a corps of 200 Cossacks, dressed in a red and black uniform, under the command of an English officer.—See ‘Essai Hist. sur la Mer Noire,’ by a very intelligent French merchant of Kherson. Paris, 1805.

[223] See Clarke, vol. i. p. 451, note, for authorities in support of this opinion.

[224] Dubois, vol. v. p. 218.

[225] Dubois, vol. v. p. 242.

[226] Hommaire de Hell, Vol. ii. p. 505.

[227] Dubois, vol. v. p. 104.

[228] Id. p. 108.

[229] Pallas. Voyages dans les Gouvernements Méridionaux, vol. ii. p. 298.

[230] The quarantine here is probably only a political measure to keep away foreigners.

[231] The last “t” is pronounced like a “tz,” and the word as if written “Constitutzia.”

[232] Dubois, Voyage, vol. v. p. 113-117.

[233] The remainder of this chapter is abstracted from Dubois’ detailed account, vol. v. p. 113-239.

[234] Smith’s Geog. Dict., Art. ‘Bosphorus.’

[235] Reskóuporis I., Mithridates III. and his wife Ghepaipyris, and T. J. Reskóuporis.

[236] Dubois, vol. v. p. 137.

[237] Dubois, vol. v. p. 151-184.

[238] See Genesis, chap. 24.

[239] See Sir W. Hamilton’s collection of Etruscan Vases, Naples, about 1766.

[240] A roof in which the stores go on projecting in layers till they nearly meet at the top.

[241] The peacock is supposed to have been brought from India by the companions of Alexander the Great, and in the wild state is not known west of India.

[242] I found, curious to say, a somewhat similar tradition prevailing near Chingleput, in Southern India. There the entrance was said to be guarded by two gigantic wasps.

[243] Dubois, vol. v. p. 89.

[244] Dubois, vol. v. p. 194-288.

[245] Electrum is a mixture of gold and silver.

[246] For bows and arrows together, called oistiodoche.

[247] Boiled mutton is a common dish in Persia. An immense cauldron of it is made about midday in the villages in some parts of Persia, and persons sending may buy a portion. I have sometimes bought some in travelling, but found it indigestible on account of the fat sheep’s tails boiled up with it.

[248] The _toura_ is an animal in the Caucasus like a wild bull, with enormous horns, and a very thick skull, as it throws itself down precipices on its head. It is the favourite game of the Mingrelian and Ossete princes.

[249] Strabo, lib. xi. p. 486.

[250] Dubois, vol. v. p. 223.

[251] This medal is among those published by Sestini.—Musée Chaudoir, tab. i., figs. 5 and 6. Consult Dubois, vol. v. p. 225.

[252] Hagemeister, Com., see p. 147.

[253] See Scymnus of Chio, B.C. 100.

[254] Meleti and Sanson, geographers of the 17th century, say that Caffa was built of material from Tousla, which is now the name of a village near Opouk, and, according to Chardin, means salt-works. Krimskii Sbornik, p. 106; Carte du Voyage de Chardin, en 1672; Dubois, vol. v. p. 263.

[255] Nearly the whole of this chapter is taken from the Pilot of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azof, by the late M. Taitbout de Marigny, who for many years employed his time in exploring these seas in his yacht. A 3rd edition of his little work was printed in English with Maps, at Constantinople, 1850.

[256] Tonka means “narrow.”

[257] _Kamish_ means “a reed” in Russian.

[258] _Bielo_ means “white” in Russian, and _serái_ “a palace” in Tatar.

[259] _Obriv_ means “a cliff” in Russian.

[260] _Dolgoi_ means “long” in Russian.

[261] _Staroi_ means old in Russia.

[262] It is sometimes called “Mertvoi Donetse.” Mertvoi means “dead” in Russian.

[263] All the coals used are Russian coals, which come down the river.

[264] No masts are, however, shipped from Taganrok.

[265] Dictionnaire Géograph. Historique de l’Empire Russe. 1823. Art. Taganrok.

[266] Cape Bielo-Serái is called Cape Bilestav by the Greeks and Italians.

[267] See Blue Book, p. 73. The exact numbers are, 1853, Imports, S. R. 48,110; Exports, S. R. 6,243,774.

[268] See Appendix, on the country between Yénitchi and Perecop.

[269] Rostof is not mentioned as one of the principal towns of Russia in the Russian Government Tables of Population, &c., translated and published this year by the Board of Trade (Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries, Part I., 1855); I believe, however, that I am correct in the importance which I attribute to it.

[270] See Blue Book, Stat. Tables of Foreign Countries, 1855, Part I., p. 70-72.

[271] Blue Book, p. 29.

[272] Id. id.

[273]

_Wheat._—Quarters 72 = Tchetwerts 100 of ten poods weight each. _Linseed._—Quarters 83 = Tchetwerts 100 ditto 1 pood = 40 lbs. Russian = 36 lbs. English.

[274] There is a small portion grown in the Danubian Principalities and in Italy, but of an inferior quality.

[275] This is also the case with Indian linseed.

[276] That is when manufactured, but not when it is sold to the public, after having passed through the excise. The excise is farmed in Russia according to governments, and is let by auction for short terms of years. Mr. Tegoborski states, that last autumn (1854) the farms were relet, and that there was no diminution in the biddings, on account of the war. It has been for some time in contemplation to do away with the farming of the excise, and to introduce a system somewhat similar to our own.

[277] This word has the same meaning in Russian, as “quarter” in English, _Tchetwert_ being derived from _Tchetíri_, four.

[278] Dr. Clarke makes also the following observations on the name of this river, which, being of considerable size, runs through the Government of Kharkof, and meets the Don at some distance above Tcherkask, and from which the Greeks, he thinks, took the name of Tanais, which they applied to the Don. He says, “I must request the reader to suppose himself entering the mouth of the Don, and proceeding up the river to the distance of about 99 miles, above its embouchures, and rather more than 46 above the town of Tcherkask. He would here find the Danaetz falling into the Don, by two mouths, separated from each other by a distance of 10 or 12 miles. But the people here have, from time immemorial, entertained a notion that it leaves the Don again before it reaches the sea, and, taking a north-westerly direction, falls into the Palus Mæotis, to the north of all the other mouths of the Don, of which it is, in fact, one. This northernmost mouth of the Don, on account of the river whose waters its channel is supposed peculiarly to contain, is called Danaetz, and to express either its sluggish current, or its exit into the sea, _Dead Danaetz_. The Greeks, steering from the Crimea towards the mouth of the Don, and, as their custom was, keeping close to the shore, entered first this northernmost mouth of the river. It bore then, as it does now, the name of _Danaetz_, _Idanaetz_, or _Tanaetz_, whence the word _Tanais_ would be easily derived.”—Clarke, i. 257. It must be remarked, however, that a gentleman from Taganrok informs me that the word is distinctly pronounced _Donetz_, as the Germans write it.

[279] The importation of Russian woollens into China must be very large to supply the extensive demand which exists for them in the north and centre of China. The thick heavy kinds, which the Chinese call “hala,” after the Russian name for wrappers or outside coverings, which are often made from cloths of this description, are chiefly in request, and are much used for cloaks and travelling dresses: those of red and green hues are much esteemed, on account of the superior depth and brightness of the Russian colours. These cloths are from 20 to 30 yards long, and from 62 to 64 inches broad. Belgian and Saxon cloths are also received through Russia. Small parcels of Russian woollens are brought to Canton, where they enter into competition with English goods, to the disadvantage of the latter. Russian blue cloth may be bought at 2½ dollars per yard, and in the interior it is a dollar cheaper: other kinds, except scarlet, are cheaper. The Chinese could not sell at these prices, unless they obtained them at rates even lower than the cost of production; and there is little doubt that the Russians part with them at a loss, but are eventually remunerated by the high profits they are able to realise on teas. Kiachta and Mae-mae-Chin are the well known towns on the Russian and Chinese borders respectively, where the trade between the two countries is carried on. It is purely a barter trade; no money is allowed by the Chinese to pass. The measure of value is bricks of tea, averaging about 3 lbs. in weight; and the chief staple of exchange on the side of the Russians is cloth. Tea is the principal article given by the Chinese, of which it is calculated that 18,000,000 lbs., of the value of 5,300,000 dollars, are taken by the Russians. The Russians have of late begun to ship teas from the eastern part of China, and taking in the tea sent through Europe, they receive about 2,000,000 lbs. by water; so that their total consumption may be put at about 20 millions of lbs., and is rapidly increasing. It is a disputed point whether the Russian caravan tea is the same kind as that we drink, or whether its undoubtedly superior quality arises from the land journey. Mr. Parkes thinks that the tea is the same, but Mr. Hill was told at Kiachta that it came from different provinces. (Hill’s ‘Siberia,’ vol. i. 1854.) Kiachta is 4000 miles from Moscow, and 1000 from Pekin. The cost of transport of tea from Kiachta to Moscow is computed at 40_l._ a ton, or 4¼_d._ per lb.; Chinese transport is 3¼_d._ per lb.; total cost of transport per lb., 7½_d._; cost of water transport from China to Russia, 2½_d._ Price of best tea in Russia, 2_l._ 2_s._ per lb., which appears enormous to us in England.—(See Parkes’ Rep., Journal of R. Geog. Soc., vol. xxiv. p. 306.) The Russian estimate of the value of the cloth exported to China is about 400,000_l._, and total exports to China, 850,177_l._—See Blue Book, p. 57.

[280] The time of year for advancing the money varies considerably, according to the nature of the goods, the place of production, and the class of people from whom they are bought. For the goods, consisting principally of linseed and wheat, purchased on the Volga, the Don, and its tributaries, most of the money is advanced as early as September on produce to arrive the next year in June. On tallow to be delivered in April the advances are generally made in the winter, and on that to be delivered in October the advances are made in April and May. For such of the fine wools as are purchased on the estates of the producers, the advances are made about January or February, and sometimes the greatest portion of them is purchased for ready money at the fairs.

[281] The rate of interest in South Russia varies from 8 to 14 per cent. At Galatz and Ibrail money may be safely laid out at from 15 to 18 per cent.

[282] The Greek consul-general in London, M. Ralli, is the head and founder of this house of Ralli Brothers, who have branch establishments in all the great towns in Europe and Asia as far as the eastern limits of the Persian empire. They have recently opened a branch house in Calcutta, where other Greeks have now established themselves.

[283] “Limné Mœoticé” in Greek, “Palus Mæotis” in Latin.

[284] The total tonnage was 393,096 tons.—Blue Book, p. 27.

[285]

Assign. Robles. Per Tchetwert, for wheat 1 0c. to 1 50c., or 10_d._ to 15_d._ Rostof to Taganrok 0 50c. to 1 50c., or 5_d._ to 15_d._ Taganrok to Kertch 1 0c. to 5 0c., or 10_d._ to 4_s._ 2_d._ From Katchálin to Rostof 1, or 10_d._

[286] I am not certain of the exact place at which the Don becomes navigable.

[287] The Volga was called Rhao by the ancients; the Tatars called it _Idél_, _Adel_, or _Edel_, which signified _abundance_, _generosity_, _riches_. The name of Volga, or Wolga, has the same origin as Boulgar or Bulgarian, and this name was given to the river because the early seats of the Bulgarians were situated on its banks before they moved to their present country on the south bank of the Danube. It rises in the district of Ostachof, in the government of Tver. Its course to the mouth of the Kama is from west to east, and thence it runs to the south into the Caspian Sea. It passes through the governments of Tver, Jaroslav, Kostroma, Nijni Novgorod, Kazan, Simbirsk, Saratof, and Astrakhan, and throws itself into the sea by 70 mouths, forming a multitude of islands. Its course is about 2500 miles (4000 versts) long. It passes several important towns, such as Tver, Ouglitch, Romanof, Jaroslav, Kostroma, Balakhna, Nijni Novgorod, Kousmodemiansk, Tcheboksar, Kazan, Simbirsk, Syzran, Saratof, Tsaritzine, and Astrakhan. It waters fertile regions, and is ornamented on its lower course with fine forests. Its principal navigation begins at Tver. The Volga has the advantage of having no cataracts, or any dangerous passage; but its depth gradually diminishes from time to time, so as to give reason to fear that it may become unnavigable even for vessels of a moderate size. At the beginning of the eighteenth century the salt vessels of Siberia could carry from 130,000 to 150,000 poods[288] of salt; now they cannot carry more than 90,000 poods. Fish is most abundant in it; the principal kinds are the beluga, sturgeon, biella ryba, sterlet, &c.—Vsevolovski, _Dict. Géog. Hist. de l’Empire Russe_, art. ‘Volga.’

[288] One pood = about 40 lbs. English.

[289] The project of uniting the Volga and the Don, so as to complete the communication between the Baltic, Black, and Caspian Seas, is very ancient. Seleucus Nicanor, then Selim II., and afterwards Peter the Great, undertook the execution of it, and, if it has not yet been effected, the delay must be attributed to other circumstances than to the difficulty of the enterprise. If the Tlavlia, which falls into the Don, and the Kamitchiaka, which falls into the Volga, were rendered navigable, the distance necessary to unite these two mighty streams would only be 3 miles. The difficulty which Peter the Great encountered was, that the level of the Don was higher than that of the Volga by a distance which the academician Lovitz found to be 300 feet. The celebrated Pallas then suggested a junction below the Tlavlia, where the Don, making an angle, approaches the Volga within 50 versts (about 35 miles), and the ground is a bed of sandstone easy to work. They might also be joined by a canal from the Karpovka, on the left bank of the Don, and the Sarpa, a tributary of the Volga; and this would be easy, because of deep ravines and valleys near a convenient point of junction.

Peter the Great, however, united the Voroneje, which falls into the Don, with the Niaza, by a canal; and as the last river flows into the Racovna, the Racovna into the Oka, and the Oka into the Volga, it is possible to navigate from Moscow into the Oka, and thence into the Don.—Vsevolovski, _Dict. Hist. de l’Empire Russe_, art. ‘Don.’

[290] In spite of the protection afforded by all but prohibitory duties, and the great expense incurred by the nation to support a fictitious system, the manufacturers of Russia are always in a depressed state, and do not gain by this state of things, although their countrymen lose.

[291] This is confirmed by Tegoborski. “The thing,” he says, “which struck me the most during my short stay at Nijni Novgorod in 1852 was the simplicity, and I might almost say the apparent carelessness, with which commercial affairs were ordinarily carried on without the agency of brokers (courtiers). Considering that there were sales to the amount of 10,000,000_l._ in the short space of three or four weeks, I was surprised to see the Exchange almost always deserted. Many important affairs were concluded without any formality, on the simple word of the parties, in the cafés and restaurants. This method of conducting business is generally in use in Russia, and constitutes a characteristic trait of our commerce. Few persons are aware that at Moscow there is much more business done at the restaurant of the Troitsk (troitski troetir) than at the Exchange. Sometimes, no doubt, a merchant becomes embarrassed and unable to fulfil his engagements, but it is rare that any man of tolerable credit frees himself in regular bad faith from a bargain concluded without the formalities which would render it legally binding.”—_Études_, vol. iii., p. 287.

[292] This was the number of the corps of the Caucasus when I left the country in 1846, and it was afterwards, I believe, increased.

[293] Sunk on the 24th of September, 1854, at the entrance of the port of Sevastopol.

[294] Published in the Appendices to Dr. Clarke’s Travels.—A discourse under the trigger is the harangue made by a general to his troops when the line is drawn out and the soldiers rest their pieces.

[295] The Russian archine is 28 inches.

[296] The Russian soldiers buy their own lead.

[297] The treasury of the mess.

[298] The name given by the Russians to the empress.

[299] It is impossible in this translation, consistently with fidelity, to preserve the brevity and energy of the original Russian.

[300] This is a Russian mode of expression. To proceed ten versts, they say, To break off ten.

[301] Children and brothers: appellations given by Suvórof to his troops.

[302] Whatever arrives. Suvórof began the attack as soon as the colours arrived, even if he had but half a regiment advanced.

[303] Strength and a half. A common mode of expression in Russia. Suvórof aimed at the style and language of the common soldiers, which rendered his composition often obscure.

[304] Lashes: the literal translation is sticks.

[305] Professor Pallas supposed this to have been a manual of medicine, published for the use of the army.

[306] Here he endeavours to counteract a Russian prejudice, that is favourable to immoderate eating during fevers.

[307] A sour beverage, made of fermented flour and water.

[308] Suvórof had so great an aversion to any person saying “I don’t know,” in answer to his questions, that he became almost mad with passion. His officers and soldiers were so well aware of this singularity, that they would hazard any answer instantly, accurate or not, rather than venture to incur his displeasure by professing ignorance.

[309] The words here are some of them not to be translated, and seem to be the coinage of his own fancy. The Russians themselves cannot affix an explication to them.

[310] A Russian proverb.

[311] Here Suvórof is a little in his favourite character of the buffoon. He generally closed his harangues by endeavouring to excite laughter among his troops; and this mode of forming a climax is a peculiar characteristic of the conversation of the Russian boors. In this manner:—“And not only of the boors, but of the gentry; and not only of the gentry, but the nobles; and not only of the nobles, but the emperors.”

[312] A slight exaggeration of Suvórof’s.

[313] From Hagemeister’s Report on the Commerce of New Russia. London, 1836, p. 120.

[314] Trade and Navigation of the Crimea for 1852, from the ‘Journal de St. Pétersbourg.’