CHAPTER VI

THE FAMILY TREE

I. ARE MONKEYS PEOPLE?

Nobody was ever humiliated by the seventh verse of the second chapter of Genesis, which says, “God formed man of the dust of the ground.” But when Darwin wrote,[106] “There can ... hardly be a doubt that man is an offshoot from the Old World simian stems; and that, under a genealogical point of view, he must be classed with the catarrhine division,”--when Darwin wrote that the offense was general. Why? Certainly a catarrhine ape is higher in the scale of being than is the dust of the ground.

But the Bible account had added, “And [God] breathed into his nostrils the breath of life.” Darwin left out any saving addition. So those who say today, “We came from the monkey,” invariably mean that we were contained in the monkey even as an oak is contained in an acorn.

As a matter of fact, the oak is not contained in the acorn. An acorn is merely the means through which an oak may eventually become manifest. It is an instrument which enables an oak to become. The substance of the oak is still widely scattered when the acorn which is to be its parent falls from the tree. Some of it is in the soil; some of it is in the air; some of it is far off in the sun. The acorn is like a lens through which light bends to a focus. It is something which brings together parts of the earth, the air and the sun and welds them into the body of a tree. That something which we call life uses the acorn as a business man uses a little shop, a going concern which he buys as the foundation of a great department-store. But the shop could never become the store did the business man add nothing to it. The question therefore is, was the catarrhine ape the lens through which the elements of man were brought together? And what, if anything, was added which were not added in the case of the ape itself?

So stated, Darwin’s theory loses most of its religious and therefore its popular significance. For the public in general is not interested in biology, it is interested only in God and in man’s relation to God. Even atheists are interested chiefly in God, or they would speak of other matters and spend less time in denying Him. Even biologists and psychologists are interested chiefly in God, not in their own subjects. Otherwise they would not be forever straining to make a theology, though but a negative or devil’s theology, out of what pretends to be science.

Whether it is orthodox to believe that we number monkeys among our ancestors, theologians must decide. Certainly the Church would not have to alter a single one of its major tenets nor a line of its ritual in order to include Darwinism among the articles of faith. Whether the dust of the ground evolved into ape before it evolved into man during those long periods which the laconic poetry of Genesis allows to slip by between the lines, or whether the change from dust to man was immediate, is immaterial to the doctrine of the Fall of Man, which concerns man’s subsequent history alone.

Darwin, himself, regarded his views of human descent as mere theories, useful for biological purposes. “Many of the views which have been [here] advanced,” he wrote[107] “are highly speculative, and some no doubt will prove erroneous.” Had the modesty of the great scientist been emulated by his disciples, we would have had no Scopes trial, and few of us would ever have heard of Evolution.

Even now that we have heard so much, few of us seem willing to take the trouble to find out what it is, or even to learn to distinguish between the theory of evolution in general and that particular theory of evolution which Darwin advocated. Considered broadly, evolution is merely the idea that living things--and even things which we do not ordinarily call living, including, perhaps, intangible things, like thoughts and feelings--appeared on earth in a certain order, the lower and simpler ones first. This idea is as old as the hills, and was fully set forth in Moses’ account of creation.

Moses held further that the upward climb was interrupted at a certain point, and that another cycle, another upward climb, then began. But as neither the Fall nor Redemption are supposed to be biological, this line of thought does not concern us here.

A more narrow view of evolution regards the resemblances to be noted among things as the resemblance of children to parents. According to this theory, the tie which binds the universe together is the tie of heredity. Nebulæ give birth to suns, suns to planets, planets to the lower forms of life, the lower forms to the higher. The notion is not so popular among astronomers as it used to be, but it is still dominant among scientists in general and biologists in particular. Nor can there be any doubt that evolution in this sense has been the supreme hypothesis of modern times. Curiously enough, the most extreme Darwinians among our literary scientists usually balk at it, holding that while man certainly must have had an ape for ancestor, thoughts, customs and sentiments can be generated spontaneously. They trace their brains straight back to the amœba, but claim to have minds which are brand new. They scorn any philosophy which cannot prove that it was born yesterday--or at least since the present period of prosperity began in the United States--and born out of nothing. “Men,” says Albert Edward Wiggam, in “The New Decalogue of Science,”[108] “have never been really righteous because they did not know how.” Meaning, of course, that they didn’t know how until the “New Decalogue” was published, which was in 1922.

Darwinism, itself, is the belief that the different species originated not only one from another, but that the difference now existing between one species and another is due to the slow accumulation of those minute particulars in which children do _not_ resemble their parents; and further that these differences were preserved and added one to another through succeeding generations because they were useful from the first, increasing the likelihood that their possessors would survive and breed; while those not born with these variations, or had variations which were useless or perhaps harmful, would be killed off in the struggle for existence. This selection of fortunate individuals in a world where there is not room enough for all is called “natural selection,” and variations which increase the chances of survival are said to have a “survival-value.” Darwin did not pretend to know what caused variations. Darwinism is merely the theory that species originate by the accumulation of useful variations through natural selection, and that intermediate forms then die out, leaving gaps. Were none of the links missing from the record Darwin believed that it would now be impossible to tell where one species began and another left off.

The hypothesis itself was but a variation of an older one. Lamarck had taught that species originated gradually, but he held that it was chiefly through the inheritance of “acquired characters.” Now an acquired character is something we are not born with, as for example, the ability to play the piano; and if it could have been proved that such acquirements descend from parent to child, Lamarckianism would have had smoother sailing.

But great pianists persist in having children born without the ability to play the piano, children who have to begin at the beginning just as the great pianists themselves did. Every effort has been made to demonstrate the contrary, but the facts are stubborn. The best that can be said for the theory of the inheritance of acquired characters is that, in some instances, if a single character is acquired by a sufficient number of generations there is a slight possibility that eventually it may begin to leave some trace of a hereditary nature. Hundreds of generations of rats have had their tails cut off without producing a natural-born tailless rat.

What looks like the inheritance of an acquired character always turns out to be a phenomenon which can be accounted for by early education. The Bach family was a family of wonderful musicians, but the Bach children all received the best of musical training from the moment they could begin to lisp.

But Darwinism, though it would profit greatly could the heritability of acquired characters be proven, was especially constructed to get along with the heritability of inborn characters. To be a Darwinian it is not necessary to believe that the giraffe originated by the neck-stretching of a lot of prehistoric calves anxious to feed as high as possible upon the trees of the pasture. It is enough to believe that the calves who happened to be born with the longest necks were the most apt to survive, and that they passed their longer necks on, minus any acquired stretch, so that in each generation the accidental or unaccountable long-neck variations could begin at a higher level--and so on down, or up, to the present.

The theory works very well with the giraffe. Every fractional inch of additional neck seems to have a survival value. But unfortunately for Darwin, this is not the case with all variations. Many are useless or positively harmful until their accumulation has gone on until a new and workable mechanism is formed, and it is beyond the imagination of man to devise a way in which they can have been accumulated by natural selection. Fabre, the great French naturalist, pointed out hundreds of instincts among insects which could have had no survival value unless they were complete at the start--whole chains of instincts, each link positively worthless in itself. We are forced to believe that all the links arrived on the scene simultaneously and in perfect working order.

The body of man, to take another example, is--in so far as it varies from an ape’s body--a variation in the direction of weakness. If the catarrhine, old world Simians began once upon a time to have children a little more human in body than the catarrhines themselves, they at that very moment began to have weaker and shorter-armed children, less well calculated to survive in the struggle for existence. It may be argued that the half-human children survived because they had better brains. And it may be argued further that it was the deflection of energy to the brain which caused the rest of the body to shrink. This is at least imaginable. What is lacking is any positive evidence that half-human children ever arrived upon the worldly scene through the genitals of monkeys. The theory is merely a working hypothesis which works somewhat less well every day.

Will Durant, writing of Bergson,[109] says that “all his (Bergson’s) criticism of Darwin has proved effective; the specifically Darwinian features of the evolution theory are now generally abandoned.” This is too sweeping a statement. Hilaire Belloc hews closer to the line of truth when, in “A Companion to H. G. Wells’ ‘Outline of History,’”[110] he names 41 outstanding scientists who hold with Bateson that “for men of clear intellect Darwinism has long been dead.” In other words, the old jolly row is still on, with the anti-Darwinians gaining ground but the pros still flying their flag. The flag, itself, however, shows some sign of accumulating variations.

This makes it the more surprising that Sir Arthur Keith should have seen fit, upon his election to the presidency of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1927, to say in his Inaugural Address, “So strong has his [Darwin’s] position become that I am convinced it can never be shaken.” A hypothesis which could not be shaken would be a unique thing in the history of science. And for his remark, Sir Arthur received the following congratulatory telegram: “We hail with joy your uncompromising championship of the ape ancestry of man. Your boldness and plain speaking will encourage atheists the world over.”

No, this is not a message from a learned society. It came from The American Association for the Advancement of Atheism, popularly known as “The Four A’s,” an incorporation parented by Charles Smith, an attorney of Oklahoma, and Freeman Hopwood, of New Jersey. It claims a number of branches or chapters among the undergraduates in various colleges--chapters bearing such names as “The Damned Souls,” of the University of Rochester; “The Devil’s Angels,” of Los Angeles, and the like. From time to time gems of thought reach the world from the Association’s Headquarters, such as: “Edison believes in a Supreme Intelligence, but is a vice-president of the Thomas Paine National Historical Association.” “Aristotle was what today would be called an atheist.” “No wonder people above the intellectual level of a paramecium don’t take any stock in Christianity.”

The reckless use of language makes strange bedfellows. Surely Sir Arthur must have been a little intoxicated with his new honors to speak so much in the manner of a Grand Kleagle. He even went on and compared vital activity to what takes place in an automobile factory. “In ... this factory,” he said, “there is no apprenticeship.... Every employee is born, just as a hive-bee is, with his skill already developed. No plans or patterns are supplied; every workman has the needed design in his head from birth.... There is neither manager, overseer nor foreman to direct and co-ordinate the activities of the vast artisan armies.... And yet there must be some method of co-ordination.”

This factory without patterns or overseer, co-ordinated by a “method” with nothing to carry it out, must have been located in Russia in the days of Lenin. Even there we have yet to see automobiles producing spontaneous variations of a survival value, or big trucks begetting little roadsters which grow upon gasoline till they reach the size of their ancestors. We therefore seem to be a long way from the factory of life. But instead of myself attempting to take Sir Arthur to task, I prefer to compile a little dialogue out of extracts from his speech interlarded with quotations from a review of it written by the biologist, Francis P. LeBuffe.[111]

_Keith_ (third paragraph of his address): “Owen ... cited evidence which suggested a much earlier date for the appearance of man on earth than was sanctioned by Bible records.”

_LeBuffe_ (who is a member of the Society of Jesus): “He [Sir Arthur] ought to know that whatever calculations as to the age of man have been made from ‘Biblical records’ are entirely problematical, and that the 6006 years so frequently adduced as Biblical is merely the inference of scriptural scholars years ago.”

_Keith_: “Darwin ... succeeded in convincing himself that, immeasurable as are the differences between the mentality of man and ape, they are of degree not of kind. Prolonged researches made by modern psychologists have but verified and extended Darwin’s conclusions. Huxley’s ‘Evidence of Man’s Place in Nature’ ... settled for all time that man’s rightful position is among the primates and that ... his nearest living kin are the anthropoid apes.”

_Le Buffe_: “That man is a primate is as true in the doctrine of immediate creation as it is in the theory of evolution; and while a non-evolutionist would dispute the statement that the ape is man’s nearest kin, he would admit that he is the animal that is the most like him.”

_Keith_: “The evidence of man’s evolution from an ape-like being obtained from the study of fossil remains is definite and irrefutable.”

_Le Buffe_: “Let us take up the ‘irrefutables’ one by one.”

And he does, describing minutely how the hunt for the “missing link” now stands. For brevity’s sake I paraphrase his text as follows:

First Irrefutable: _Pithecanthropus erectus_, “one time inhabitant of Java.” Irrefutable? Then why did Dr. Moir[112] state before the Berlin Anthropological Society that it did not differ essentially from other types of human skulls, and that it coincided very closely with that of Aurignacian man? Scott Elliot says, “The skull is considered a human skull by six ... celebrated authorities, who for the most part are English. It is thought to be a missing link by eight, mostly French. It is considered an ape’s skull by six others, mostly German. Only one authority makes the femur that of an ape, thirteen consider it human, and six make it out intermediate.”

Second Irrefutable: Dawson’s “Dawn Man.” Irrefutable? What have we here? A shattered, imperfect brain-case, part of the mandible and a canine tooth. Keith says that Sir Arthur Smith Woodward rightly recognized that the skull and jaw were part of the same individual. Then how do Waterson and Miller say that the jaw is a chimpanzee’s and does not belong to that skull? and Hrdlička that it is human, but again does not belong to that skull? and Ray Lankester, who wrote to one, H. G. Wells: “I think we are stumped, baffled?”

And so on, until we have Keith repeating with approval the words of G. Elliot Smith, “The difference between the human and the ape brain is only quantitative.”

And Le Buffe responding: “Then why did Dr. Arthur S. Woodward say ‘We cannot of course go by the size, for the Neanderthal man has a larger brain cavity than some of us at the present day. It is quality not quantity that counts’? That is surely true, we hope, as the heaviest brain ever found (weight, 2850 grammes) was that of an epileptic idiot.”

Here is a true picture of the state of modern science as it relates to man--a few disputed bones and any quantity of disputed conjectures. Keith’s picture is obviously false. He should visit the excavations at Glozel, France, where the findings are declared by some savants, “_du mérite le plus incontesté_,” to be of the “_époque néolithique_”; and by other savants, “_dont les travaux font authorité dans le monde_,” to pertain not to the neolithic but to the “_époque néo-fumiste_.”

But what if someone were actually to find the missing link? It would be merely a skeleton intermediate between that of ape and man. It would prove nothing; settle nothing. What is needed is the spectacle of a female monkey in the act of giving birth to a human child; and as nobody claims that well-bred monkeys do that sort of thing nowadays, the prospect is not hopeful.

Yet Albert Edward Wiggam says in “The New Decalogue of Science”[113] that the “Darwinian generalization,” after a “battle with entrenched opinion, authority, prejudice and vested interests, has at last received the universal assent of practically all educated men.”

I do not see how a “universal assent” can include “practically all,” if by that is meant anything different from simply all. But this is tabloid, pre-digested science, with the hulls of opposing opinion carefully removed. The implication is that non-Darwinians, however eminent, are _ipso facto_, ignorant. Those who do not feel themselves properly brow-beaten must have thicker skulls than _Pithecanthropus erectus_. But I think Mr. Wiggam is here showing a variation from the paramecium of very doubtful survival-value.

Since Darwin many efforts have been made to improve his theory by supplementing it with others. Hugo DeVries, for example, believed that he had solved the problem of the survival of variations which need to be complete before they can be useful. He discovered a bank of evening primroses on an English hillside which seemed to be in the very act of producing new species--not by degrees but all at once. It was announced throughout the world that organic evolution had proved itself experimentally, though not along Darwinian lines. The variations here were too marked to be called variations, so they were called “mutations.”

But the primroses were but hybrids, and what had been seen was not the evolution of new species but the action of the law of mixed heredity long before formulated by Mendel. The new species were only throw-backs, revealing hereditary traits which had been latent in their immediate ancestors, as when a boy resembles not his father but his grandfather.

More recently a school of biologists has risen whose members call themselves “Emergent Evolutionists.” According to their idea, the finger of God occasionally “emerges” so plainly that man can see it. Here again we have the idea of sudden mutations, where the ordinary course of events seems at certain points to be broken by the impulse of a higher law--as when life, sensation, reason, or man first appeared. Alfred Russell Wallace, Darwin’s co-discoverer of the “law” of Natural Selection, laid the foundation for this conception as long ago as 1889. More recently men like Lloyd Morgan; General Smuts; Herbert Spencer Jennings, of Johns Hopkins University; Sir Bertram C. A. Windel, professor of anthropology in Saint Michael’s College, Toronto, and many others, have sought to give Emergency its place among the recognized hypotheses of science.

But, as far as I am aware, it has never yet been completely stated, nor any logical reason given why the emergence at one point in the evolutionary scale differs except in degree from the emergence of any event, even the most trifling. Once we accept the belief that matter is a mere instrument in the hands of something which is not matter, it seems necessary to regard all phenomena as the emergence either of the direct power of God or of the will of some creature to whom has been delegated a limited freedom. If this be the underlying idea, then a special emergence might be defined as one of so marked and rare an importance that it stands out from every day happenings, forming part of a broader rhythm whose beat is apparent only when all the great emergences of which we have evidence are taken together. Or it may go even beyond this, and stand as an event unique in man’s experience, constituting what we call a miracle.

The advantage of the theory of emergent evolution is that it furnishes the evolutionary process with a power capable of bringing it about, while the idea of matter evolving itself implies a universe trying to lift itself by its bootstraps. It also removes the difficulties of time (of which there is never enough for thoroughgoing Darwinians) and of finding survival value for half-developed mechanisms.

“_Bien des choses s’expliqueraient si nous pouvions connaître notre genéalogie véritable_,” wrote Flaubert--much more wisely than he knew. Perhaps not only many things but nearly everything will be explained from the moment our true genealogy is recognized. But it must be our true genealogy, not a part of it. Emergent Evolution permits us to have our place in the natural order, and yet remain children of God. The soul may be the greatest--or next to the greatest--emergence of all.

Is it such a distressing idea? That should not trouble the realists, for they notoriously attribute reality to things in proportion to the amount of unpleasant odor which things exhale. Thus they unite with the Hindus in considering life a curse. Matter taken by itself certainly is either painful or boresome, and if one wishes to stop with the half and consider only matter as real, I know of no way in which one may logically escape despair.

The trouble with the idea, then, is that it is not distressing. The moment we agree that something more divine may emerge through matter, or at least thrust up beneath it till matter rises here and there to a glorious psychic mountain peak (“emergence” is not quite the right word, for there still remains the material covering)--from that moment even evolution loses its repellent features. From that moment the greatest thinkers of all the ages are on our side--which is sometimes a comfort. We develop a strange capacity for happiness. Is this an evidence that we are fools?

“_Le malheur_,” says Paul Bourget in “_L’étape_,” “_démontre l’idée fausse, comme la maladie la mauvaise hygiène._”[114]

That probably is not conclusive reasoning if you are not convinced beforehand. But why is happiness any more apt to be the result of illusion than is misery? We do not say that the best body is the one which suffers the most pain. Have not the pessimistic philosophers accustomed us to some strange and monstrous inversion of thought?

Let emergence, then, have its way. We are no longer contained in our physical ancestors. The man is not even contained in the child. We change from day to day. There is a continuity, yet it is added to--or subtracted from. The soul accepts this and rejects that.

So Psyche rebuilds her house, continually tearing it down and reconstructing it. Sometimes the lighting system gets out of order. Fuses blow out--and we say she is mad. Sometimes the house falls, or burns, or succumbs to a flood--and we say she is dead. And from the dead house some conclude a dead Psyche, or that there never was a Psyche--which is like concluding that, if the telephone line goes dead, it proves that there never was anybody talking at the other end except the batteries and the wires.

No; monkeys are not people, no matter what kind of children they may have had. Nor are people monkeys--not to the extent which Mr. Wiggam seems to suppose.

2. BURBANKING THE HUMAN RACE

The effect of Darwinism has been to popularize an exaggerated idea of the importance of heredity. Darwin, of course, depended quite as much upon environment to select his variations as he did upon heredity to hand them down. But it is from Herbert Spencer, not Darwin, that most people have acquired their Darwinism, and it so happens that Spencer was not primarily a Darwinian but a Lamarckian. “The Origin of Species” was not published until Spencer was a middle-aged man.

Therefore an immense amount of confusion has arisen in the minds of amateur biologists, and a tendency to believe in heredity as the destiny which shapes our ends. Hence the Eugenists. Hence this Mr. Albert Edward Wiggam, already referred to.

The idea of dominant heredity is flattering to parents, who like to think that they live again in their children; who are unwilling to grant that children have souls of their own. It pleases those scientists who still hope to prove that acquired characters are handed down. It pleases determinists, who see here another way of making us slaves to something. It pleases those naturalists, who have acquired their ideas of man from the study of animals, plants and insects. And as animals, plants and insects form the readiest subject for experiment, it pleases materialistic biologists in general.

But reasoning from lower forms of life to higher is reasoning by false analogy. Luther Burbank, a great artist with plants, worked wonders in his garden; and in his book, “The Harvest of the Years,” he expresses the regret that his methods could not at once be applied to human beings. But Burbank was not a scientist, not a thinker, but merely a super-gardener, incapable even of keeping an accurate account of his innumerable experiments. So it is not remarkable that he failed to realize that when we say what is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander we are speaking of beings of the same order, while man and plants are not of the same order.

If heredity be dominant in the garden, it does not follow that it is dominant even in the menagerie, let alone in the street. Conclusions arrived at in the study of insects are not necessarily true of Indians. Indeed, there is every reason to believe that man, because of his long period of infancy, is much less determined by heredity than is any other form of life. This in itself knocks the foundation from under nine tenths of the arguments we hear upon the subject.

Even profound changes in the body may be produced by (or with the aid of) environment. The third generation of immigrants to America are said to have higher cheek-bones--that is, to be more like redmen--than the immigrants themselves. The discovery of the functions of the ductless glands shows how food, or the manner of life, may be at work in cases where germ-plasm used to get all the credit. The notion that heredity is destiny has altogether broken down.

[Illustration: ALBERT EDWARD WIGGAM

The Devil take the hindmost!]

Says Professor Herbert S. Jennings, of Johns Hopkins, in an article entitled “Heredity and Environment” in the _Scientific Monthly_ for September, 1924: “Clearly it is not necessary to have a characteristic merely because one inherits it. Or more properly, characteristics are not inherited at all; what one inherits is certain material that under certain conditions will produce a particular characteristic; if those conditions are not supplied, some other characteristic is produced.” Thus heredity becomes a mere capacity--and that we do inherit certain capacities need not be denied.

The fundamental laws of heredity were first made known in 1866, when Gregor Mendel, a monk of the Augustinian order, read his now world-famous paper upon heredity in plants before the Naturalists’ Society of the little town of Brünn, in Moravia. He had made more than 10,000 observations upon the peas growing in the garden of his monastery--wonderful observations. Their results, too complicated to be fully described here, may be sufficiently summarized in a few words--and in order that there may be no mistake, I shall take the words from Mr. Wiggam himself,[115] omitting only his running comment:

“If you cross tall peas with dwarf peas the offspring will be as tall as the parents. The dwarfness has completely vanished. If you cross these tall offspring back with a dwarf, one-half of the offspring of this cross will be dwarfs and one-half will be talls. However, instead of crossing the talls back with dwarfs, if you place capsules over their blossoms so they will not get crossed, and then sow their seeds, one-fourth--not one-half--of their seeds will come up dwarf and three-fourths will come up tall.”

In this case, tallness, because it supercedes dwarfness in the first generation, is called a “dominant” trait, and dwarfness, because it disappears, is called a “recessive” trait. As Wiggam correctly says,[116] the fundamental principle is that “the units contributed by two parents separate in the offspring without having had any influence on each other,” or practically none. A trait either shows in the offspring, or it does not show. And where the inheritance is hybrid, the reappearance or disappearance of traits may be calculated, given a sufficient number of instances, by application of the law of greatest probability.

Everybody knows that one may inherit a Roman nose from a grandfather even though one’s father’s was a snub and one’s mother’s retroussé. The mathematical implications are amazing. But all that I wish to call attention to is the fact that we all are hybrids, and that unless our ancestry for many generations back is known to the minutest detail it is utterly impossible to calculate the hereditary phenomena to be looked for in our children.

Mendel believed in unit characters, but it has been found that unit characters, such as blue eyes, are far from being units and are made up of an unknown number of smaller units. This greatly increases the difficulty of even guessing what hereditary possibilities the children of any given couple will receive. Nevertheless, twenty-three states have already, at the behest of eugenists, passed laws permitting the sterilization of the “unfit” by means of enforced surgical operations. And under these laws, 6244 operations have actually been performed--and my statistics are of the year 1927 and not complete at that! What is the idea? I will let Mr. Wiggam explain.

“The Nordic elements of our population are being forced out by other races whose representatives in this country are of distinctly lower average mental alertness and of less social coherence and political capacity.”[117]

“This race has contributed a vast share of all political wisdom and scientific discovery to the modern world. It is probably the one race on earth which has steadily advanced in these respects for the past several thousand years.”[118]

“Cattell has shown that in America not a single day laborer’s son has become a man of scientific distinction. The wholesale rise of the masses to power may be the death knell of their biological progress. Like a bottle of old wine, which, when uncorked, for a time sparkles and fumes with life but soon becomes inert and stale, so it seems that men, when freed from oppression for a time, bubble with genius. But ambition is sterilized by its own success. Indeed, without biology as the basis of social processes, success spells failure and achievement brings decay. Like caged animals, those who rise cease to breed.”[119]

“There were one hundred two Pilgrims who came over in the _Mayflower_.... No finer stock to found a great national breed of men and women ever set out to sea.”[120]

“The genealogy of 12,722 New England wives of the old Colonial stocks. In one hundred twenty years their blood has been vanishing from the racial stream as follows: 1750-1799, children per family, 6.43 ... 1870-1879, children per family, 2.77.... There is the story of the decline of the old American stock.”[121]

“In 1920 the school-teachers of America who had had any children had given birth to 2.2 children per family; the bootblacks had come within one-tenth of giving birth to four!... This crude birth rate, however, does not measure to the full the relative contributions of bootblacks and school-teachers to the citizenship of tomorrow. Nearly all bootblacks marry and have children, while scarcely half our school-teachers ever marry at all.”[122]

“In this same year, 1920, the lawyers and judges of America who had families had 2.2 living children, while janitors and sextons had 3.4; authors, editors and reporters had 2.1, workers in stone quarries and gravel pits 3.6.”[123]

“Every school child knows that Burbank, Schull, Hanson, Davenport and others achieve their triumphs solely by selecting the best specimens as parents. Farmers ever since Eden have done the same thing.... But, suppose they bred chiefly from their worst! Well, that is precisely what America ... is doing.”[124]

There is the situation. School teachers are practicing either celibacy or birth-control; bootblacks are not. Janitors and sextons and workers in gravel pits are breeding lawyers, editors, authors and reporters off the map. The masses are rising, like an uncorked bottle of old wine and bubbling with genius. Up till now they have not produced their first distinguished man of science, but there is no saying what may happen if the bubbling continues. Fecundity is passing from New England wives, from the captain’s lady, and descending to Mrs. O’Grady. The radio, invented by the “Nordic” Marconi sends out the S.O.S. What is to be done?

The remedy is very simple. Castrate as many of the masses as may be necessary to enable the biologically “superior” to keep up in the race of life with biologically (and socially) “inferior.”

No, Mr. Wiggam does not openly advocate any such crudely frank measure. In the first place, the operation is called asexualization, and leaves the subject free to uplift the morals of the community by sexual activity complete in every detail except the minor one of fruitfulness. And in the second, the choice of life-imprisonment is to be offered in certain instances to the eugenically condemned.

Who is to do the condemning? And what are the requirements for passing the examination?

“Unless you can measure men you cannot select them,” says Mr. Wiggam.[125] “It is often said that eugenics is hopeless because it does not know what it wants in human nature--it has no ideal. To this Dr. Morton Prince of Boston aptly replied: ‘Yes it has; it wants such men as William Graham Sumner and William James.’ This certainly sets a lofty ideal.... Yet, in all soberness it is doubtful if we want a whole race of such men. Men like these would doubtless clean our streets and remove our garbage a hundred times better than it is now done, but they could not at the same time be teachers, writers, lecturers and philosophers, unless perchance a society of such men would be so perfect that the street cleaner and philosopher would willingly interchange their tasks from hour to hour or from day to day. Pending such a possibility, however, eugenics is content with a much less but more inclusive ideal, namely, the increase of health, sanity and energy.”

This is a little obscure to me. It is difficult to picture William James (or Henry, for that matter) as a superlative street-cleaner. But the goal of the eugenist seems clear--health, sanity and energy. These are excellent things. But as Mr. Wiggam estimates--by what method I do not know--that we owe to heredity fully nine-tenths of what we are, it would not seem advisable that the name of an invalid should be made to perish from the land of the living until we are able to know much more than we can as yet possibly know of the quality of the “germ-plasm” we are dealing with.

Energy presents another difficulty. The rattlesnake possesses considerable energy, and is usually in good health. Chicago’s gunmen are energetic enough in all conscience. Obviously the direction of energy will have to be taken into consideration. And here again we are confronted by the question, Who is to decide what directions are right and what directions are wrong?

“Let us,” says Mr. Wiggam,[126] “see to it that those to whom our sympathies have extended the privilege of a happy life instead of sounding for them the death knell of the jungle, shall not have the high biological privilege, which should always run parallel with social privilege and always be under social control, namely, the privilege of reproduction.”

Never before in the history of the world has the idea of special privilege reached such heights as this. Through our “sympathies” we have, it appears, extended to certain persons we do not approve of the “privilege” of a happy life instead of killing them outright as we perhaps should have done. But we are not to allow our sentimentality to carry us so far that these persons shall have the further “privilege” of reproduction.

In “The Fruit of the Family Tree,”[127] Mr. Wiggam, speaking to women voters, says that he does not care to outline for them “any complete eugenical program.” Then he continues: “The very nature of the vast problems themselves ... indicate what such a program is bound to be. As one first plank in her program, most assuredly, the woman voter should advocate a survey of the human family.... The pedigree of every family in America should be put on record.... These family histories would be among the most priceless archives of the nation, for it is upon the biological assets of the nation that all truly statesmanlike legislation must be based.”

Legislation again! Mr. Wiggam does not favor the Eighteenth Amendment--for the curious reason that he believes alcohol dangerous to but a small fraction of the population and that indulgence by all would tend to exterminate those weaklings who do not carry their liquor well--doubly curious reasoning considering the splendid efficiency of prohibition liquor as an exterminator. He thinks (as I do, for that matter) that Prohibition was a great mistake. Yet he is doing more than any other one man in America today to further another prohibition movement compared with which Volsteadism is a mere trifle. His books sell by the tens of thousands. He has become one of the signs of the times. And he wants legislation to make the “privilege” of having children run parallel with “social privilege.” Family histories doubtless contain much interesting information--they have even been known to contain manufactured information. When they become the _sine qua non_ of full citizenship the artificial growing of suitable family trees will doubtless make bootlegging look like a very minor member of our great national industries.

But we begin to see who is to do the choosing.

“Another plank in woman’s eugenic platform should be the establishment in every state of a State Board of Heredity and Eugenics. This board would work in cooperation with the State University, the Boards of Charities and Correction, the State Prison Board, the Department of Public Health and indeed with every agency of social uplift and advancement. It would have on its staff expert psychologists [Freudians or Behaviorists?] biologists and statisticians for the direction of measures of public mental hygiene, the mental survey of schools and the prescription of minimum mental requirements for marriage.”[128]

And these agencies (with of course the coöperation of the Eugenic Society) will measure our health, sanity and energy. The opportunities for graft are so staggering that it seems impossible that the more energetic among us will rest content till the whole plum is theirs--for as yet eugenic legislation applies only to the inmates of public institutions, like jails, poor-houses and asylums. Mr. Wiggam has shown the way to a mine that ought to be worth a mountain’s weight in solid radium.

Under such circumstances it is perhaps idle to ask what is the biological warrant for this worship of heredity? We are face to face with a political and social, not a scientific, movement.

Yet Mr. Wiggam is a good biologist--at least he is able to quote a great deal of good biology. And so long as he confines himself to observed facts he is both instructive and interesting. But biology mingles with the bread of its facts an intolerable deal of the sack of deduction, guessing, theory and surmise. Mr. Wiggam seems to state facts merely for the privilege of reveling in subsequent “reasoning.” And his reasoning is of such a character that for a long time I mistook him merely for one of those sprightly writers from whose mental equipment the handicap of logic has been happily left out. But I wronged him. There is method in his madness. He wishes, I believe, to camouflage the strong meat of his doctrine so that we babes may not too abruptly recognize what sort of cuts are being offered us.

Thus he says,[129] “Eugenics is ... not killing off the weaklings. Not a scheme for breeding supermen.... Not a scheme for breeding human beings like animals.... Not a departure from the soundest ideas of sex morals.”

Then what is it?

“Eugenics is a method ordained of God and seated in natural law for securing better parents for our children.... Modernizing the definition of its great founder, Sir Francis Galton [who was a cousin of Darwin], eugenics is the study and guidance of all those agencies that are within social control which will improve or impair the inborn qualities of future generations.”[130]

“Guidance,” again--i. e. legislation. But the bitter pill has been presented in a sugar-coating. And in another place in this same book he goes so far as to say, “Had Jesus been among us, he would have been president of the First Eugenics Congress.”[131]

If I may be permitted to extend this gratuitous blasphemy so as to connect it with facts, I wish to point out that when Christ did live he was crucified by precisely the healthiest, sanest and most energetic of his contemporaries, measuring these qualities by eugenic standards. A bill declaring Him both insane and criminal could unquestionably have been put through the Jewish Sanhedrim without a dissenting vote.

What is insanity? The sterilization of the insane is the strongest appearing plank in the whole eugenic platform. Yet even here troubling questions arise, bidding us stay the knife. And what is crime? For eugenists are sterilizing criminals also--and in at least one instance the crime was “drunkenness.”

I once wrote to a prominent eugenist in hopes of finding out what makes a crime a crime--and I did find out. He told me that the essence of crime was non-conformity. He had hit the nail squarely on the head. That is the essence of crime exactly, non-obedience to some law. But what law? Here my correspondent showed himself to be entirely at sea. He could refer to nothing but the statute law momentarily in effect in the place where the crime was committed.

Are we to preserve one sort of germ-plasm in California and another in Massachusetts? A willingness to conform to any and every statute which a legislature anywhere may see fit to pass is certainly a curious test of human virtue, of the right to leave an impress on future generations.

As to the nature of insanity, my correspondent was willing to leave it to the doctors--more especially as Prof. Lombroso, then quite prominent, had lately identified it with genius. Mr. Wiggam has a theory of both crime and insanity which at least removes all vagueness from the terms. Whose germ-plasm is to be allowed to go on down the ages? The germ-plasm of those who have been able to get named in “Who’s Who!”

3. SALVATION BY WHO’S WHO

I admit that this is an exaggeration--at the present moment. Eugenists assure us that they mean to be very temperate. But we know from experience how temperate a reform movement is likely to become, once it is fairly launched.

In substance, the “Who’s Who” theory of unnatural selection is actually developed in a series of articles by Mr. Wiggam reviewing Professor Lewis M. Terman’s “Genetic Studies of Genius,” which appeared in _The World’s Work_ during 1926. As usual, Mr. Wiggam beguiles us for a time with pleasant writing. In this instance it deals with the old legend of the poor country-boy and his supposed chance of becoming distinguished. A formidable array of statistics is brought out to show that it is not much of a chance. The advantage, it seems, all lies with city-children--stimulated, as they no doubt are, by breathing the fumes of gasoline.

Three per cent of the people (and these belong to the “professional classes”) have in America produced nearly one-half of our artists, we are told. One third of the population (described as being “above early struggles”) have been responsible for three-fourths of America’s writers. Something must be the matter. Too much struggle it would appear. Writer-bearing strata are to be pampered. Good!

Some, of course, will say that what American literature is waiting for is a few more words from the two-thirds of the population who are not above early struggles--that even some of our rich and famous authors wrote better when they were young and poor. But as I do not know the pedigree of these objectors I shall pass them by and follow the Wiggam argument as he finds it in Terman.

“Superior intelligence,” says Professor Terman, himself, “is approximately five times as common among children of superior social status as among children of inferior social status.”

The flaw in the argument here is of course forgetfulness of the fact that, whether intelligence descends or not, tradition undoubtedly does. This same flaw emasculates the eugenic argument everywhere. It saps the force from Mr. Wiggam’s eulogy of the Edwards family in the first chapter of “The Fruit of the Family Tree.” He himself admits that in Doctor Winship’s study, which he makes the foundation of his own, “the factor of heredity has not been completely separated from the factor of environment.”[132] And he goes on:

“One can readily imagine that the twelve college presidents that have been in the [Edwards] line of descent might not all have been men who were really great educators or executives. Some of them may have attained the official position by the fact that their relatives may have been trustees of the various colleges, and simply voted them into office. Yet an immense part of the distinction of the Edwards family, beyond question, has been due to their superior natural qualities. We know this partly from the great achievements of many of the members; and also we know from studies of other families, where the factors of heredity and environment have been adequately separated.”

Great achievements? Certainly. But does not family tradition, pride and culture play its part in great achievement? Did not Harry Leon Wilson’s immortal Bunker Bean do wonders spurred on by the mere illusion that he was descended from an Egyptian mummy? And who has “adequately separated” the factors of heredity and environment in the history of any family? If Freud and Watson have done nothing else, they have shown the immense importance of _very early_ training. The technic which will separate the effects of blood from those of education and example has yet to be devised. And tradition, or the lack of it, must be taken into account before we draw conclusions from the history of so-called “degenerate” families, the Kallikaks and the Jukses. Who can pretend to interpret the heredity of such unfortunates when the very point of the whole argument is the fact that they were prostitutes and thieves?

Family tradition derives from the inexhaustible springs of human shame and human pride. The blood even of the super-man tends to get thin, very thin, through successive generations. “Conification” doubtless thickens it, for conification is the tendency of like to marry with like. Mr. Wiggam advocates cousin-marriages to help conification along. Logically he should advocate incest pure and simple. In discussing the Pharaohs he does have a good word to say for it, but he warns us that it is baneful when practiced by any but the best families.

But one’s chief objection to the eugenist’s argument is its deficiency in good faith. Wiggam admits that he has presented only “star cases.” What he does not admit is that he has presented them incompletely. Thus of Elizabeth Tuthill, first wife of Richard Edwards, the Connecticut lawyer who founded the distinguished branch of the Edwards clan, he says only[133] that she was “a marvelous girl.” Horatio Haskett Newman, professor of Zoology in the University of Chicago, in chapter XLIV of his “Evolution, Genetics and Eugenics,”[134] adds the following details:

“Elizabeth Tuttle [so he spells the name], grandmother of Jonathan Edwards ... is described as ‘a woman of great beauty, of tall and commanding appearance, striking carriage, of strong will, extreme intellectual vigor and mental grasp akin to rapacity, but with an extraordinary deficiency in moral sense.’ She was divorced from her husband on the ground of adultery and other immoralities. The evil trait was in the blood, for one of her sisters murdered her own son and a brother murdered his own sister. Richard Edwards married again after his divorce and had five sons and one daughter, but none of their numerous progeny rose above mediocrity.”

Mr. Wiggam agrees with this latter estimate, for he says, “Later in life Richard Edwards married Mary Talcott. She was an ordinary, every-day, commonplace woman. She had ordinary, every-day, commonplace children. The splendid heredity of Richard Edwards was swamped by the mating.”[135]

So, if the eugenists had been in control three hundred years ago, Mary Talcott would have been allowed to marry. But Elizabeth Tuthill would have been refused a marriage license even had she escaped a worse fate. Crime and insanity seemed to have marked her for their own. And yet it was from her, not from the normal Mary Talcott, that descended (I quote from “The Fruit of the Family Tree,” page 17): “Timothy Edwards, one of the founders of Yale University. He was the father of Jonathan Edwards. From Jonathan Edwards, who married also a wonderful woman, Sarah Pierpont, have descended 12 college presidents, 265 college graduates, 65 college professors, 60 physicians, 100 clergymen, 75 army officers, 60 prominent authors, 100 lawyers, 30 judges, 80 public officers--state governors, city mayors and state officials--3 congressmen, 2 United States senators and 1 vice-president of the United States.” And he goes on to mention other notables in this line of the family, including Aaron Burr; Mrs. Eli Whitney; Winston Churchill; Edith Carow [widow of Theodore Roosevelt and mother of his daughter Ethel and of his four sons]; Robert Paine: the Marchioness of Donegal; the Fairbanks brothers (of platform-scales fame); Melville W. Bigelow; Morrison R. Waite (former Chief Justice of the United States); Bishop Vincent (founder of the Chautauqua movement); George Vincent (head of the Rockefeller Foundation); Grover Cleveland; and U. S. Grant.

The only thing which Mr. Wiggam omitted was the trifling circumstance which shows that The Eugenics Society would, if it could, have inadvertently prevented each and every one of these notables from coming into being.

Yet he thinks that he has discovered a way of distinguishing between the influences of heredity and of environment--when applied to families.

“Environment,” he says,[136] “is important in determining character, but precisely how important I doubt very much if we have any means at present for determining, when it comes to one individual, whether we consider one particular act or the sum total of his character.... I doubt if we shall ever be able to determine whether a particular act by a particular individual, say whether he takes a drink of alcohol ... or whether he commits a crime, is due to his heredity or to his environment. The causes are so hopelessly intertwined that no one so far as I am aware has presented the slightest hope of measuring the relative influence of the two forces _within the individual_.... For all we know a man may commit a particular crime or take a particular drink entirely from environment.... But when it comes to the question as to which one of two individuals is the more likely to commit a crime at some time in his life or take to excessive drink, we are in reality dealing with a different set of scientific problems. And when we come to the question as to which family is likely to have more members who, in any one age of the world, will be unable to adjust themselves to sound social behavior ... we are in a field where we can measure the factors involved by fairly exact methods.”

That is to say, we can measure results--after they have happened. It may even be granted that we can calculate roughly a family’s likelihood of producing distinguished descendants, basing the calculation on past performance. But obviously this in no way decides between the relative importance of environment and heredity. The question as to whether the family’s distinction came from its blood or from its traditions remains precisely where it was. Mr. Wiggam’s reasoning is quite of a piece with his reliability. He himself exclaims[137] about “the very, very few people in the world who can think ... the enormous number of people who cannot think, but who think they can think, and who mistake their mystical half-knowledge for social wisdom and act upon it.”

What “mystical half-knowledge” may be I do not know. Mystical knowledge, being intuitive knowledge of God, is by its very definition complete knowledge or nothing. One must accept or reject it _in toto_. Mr. Wiggam also uses this word as a term of reproach when[138] he says, “Vitalism usually leads its adherents to mysticism.” But he declares himself to be no mechanist. “I have no personal objection to a purely mechanistic description of the life process itself. I have been so far unable to see, however, how stimuli which are inconsistent and unrelated can build up consistent and controlled behavior.”[139] And he adds: “While I believe biology has triumphantly demonstrated the mechanistic nature of the life processes themselves, it has hopelessly failed so far to explain to me thought and behavior. I see no explanation of this except some sort of dualistic conception ... a universe in which there is something which is not aimless mechanical force. We can call this substance ‘mind’ or ‘spirit’ or any other convenient term.”[140]

This is his perfectly valid objection to Watsonian behaviorism. But he does not seem to see that the use of such convenient terms as mind or spirit is in its very essence mystical, nor that admitting a mystic vitalism puts in his hand a means for freeing himself from the tyranny both of environment and heredity. If there be spirit, man may have a soul. It may be the choice of this very soul which controls the strange selection of traits from the parental “chromosomes,” or carriers of heredity, which he so eloquently describes. That this choice follows in the long run the law of the greatest probability is what such a hypothesis would lead us to expect. Thus Psyche would not only build and rebuild her house, but in a measure select her building materials from the very start. Mr. Wiggam thinks that the idea of a dominant environment flatters parents, just as I think that the idea of a dominant heredity flatters them. Perhaps we can both unite in believing that the idea of power-owning individual souls in children flatters nobody and appeals to something much higher than the instinct of self-regard.

According to a statement prepared by Professor Irving Fisher, of Yale,[141] the Second International Congress of Eugenics appointed as long ago as 1921 a committee (of which he was chairman) to organize the eugenics movement in the United States. Since then the movement has been competently engineered, its avowed objects being education, selective immigration laws, the elimination of defectives, the “proper direction of research,” and the securing of legislative and administrative aid.

Professor Fisher says, “The Eugenics Society would like to see every school, college and Chautauqua give regular courses in eugenics.... Some laws need to be passed and a eugenical code established.... This depends very largely upon education of the legislators.”

So “education” does not mean a campaign for human betterment through education. It means a campaign to educate people to vote for human betterment through eugenic means--such as “the elimination of defectives,” “selective immigration” and “proper” research. “By cutting off the defectives,” says Professor Fisher, “the general average of our people can ... be raised.” We know without telling, from memories of the prohibition campaign, how legislators can be “educated.” A “eugenical code” would naturally provide conditions under which marriage licenses would be granted. We are dealing here with no chimera but with a party with plenty of power, influence and money already at its disposal. The question of “who is to choose” seems already to have been settled. Further to determine who is to be chosen, we may go back for a moment to the “Who’s Who” method.

Dr. Cyril Burke, the English psychologist, devised a problem (described by Mr. Wiggam in his review of the Terman volume already referred to) which he put before various classes of school children. Slum children required an average of 123 seconds to arrive at a solution, while merchants’ children took but 91, and “the children of professors and bishops” (presumably Anglican bishops) only 74. Nor do I wish to conceal the fact that “in the general run of people there is one eminent man out of every four thousand,” while “among the sons of English judges there is one eminent man out of every eight.” Ought we not to import some germ plasm from the British Bench? Anyway, all of the famous biologists and psychologists and sociologists upon whose findings the Wiggam arguments are based, took their successful men either from “Who’s Who,” from some dictionary of biography, or measured it frankly in dollars and cents.

It might be suggested that not all desirable human traits are those which lead to wealth or conspicuous position. No Lives of the Saints are consulted to show the effect of poverty and self-denial upon the growth of holiness--holiness, presumably, not being hereditary, perhaps not even eugenic. Prof. Terman does say that nearly all gifted children come from good homes. But what is a good home? One which tends to produce Christians, or Mohammedans, or Methodists, or Christian Scientists, or Poets, or Plastic Dancers?

Anyway, under democracy, according to Mr. Wiggam, the poor are being bled white and ever whiter through the opportunity given to the best of them to mount the ladder to something better still, leaving the residua to their poverty and shame. “Nothing on earth,” he says in the course of the _World’s Work_ articles, “would improve the condition of the poor as much or so permanently as decreasing their numbers.... Just in so far as democracy works successfully in giving the masses opportunity, it defeats its own end, biologically.... Democracy and liberalism will fail and plunge men back into a social and intellectual Dark Ages unless they have the will and vision to provide a constant and adequate eugenical remedy for the biological disaster brought about by their own success.”

And in “The New Decalogue” (G. Stanley Hall says “one lays it down with the feeling that biology is the basis of a new decalogue as important and as authentic as the old one.”): “Your wise men are searching for a cure for tuberculosis, insanity, etc.... Should they find such a panacea ... every biologist would apply it without a moment’s hesitation. But if you apply that panacea and do nothing else you will wreck the very race you have saved.”[142]

What else must we do, then? It appears that we must first make the environment hard, so as to kill off the unfit, and then make it easy for the survivors. Do you get the point? And it is going to be made selectively difficult for those not approved of by the Eugenics Society. An easy environment is safe only for those who have passed their examinations.[143]

Mr. Wiggam is planning for an army in which all are generals. Poverty, inconspicuousness, slummishness, are relative terms. No sooner have you eliminated one grade than you are logically bound to eliminate another. There will remain no hewers of wood and drawers of water--as if the world could exist for a day deprived of these blessed and humble “failures.” But in the eugenic utopia no more shall it be said, “if one cannot paint, one must grind the colors.” All must paint, or become as the barren fig-tree.

But if the poor are to be eliminated, why not the recalcitrant? Why not those, who, in the old phrase of Grover Cleveland, show “offensive partisanship”--for some cause not approved of by the ruling party? Granted the principle, why should Protestants tolerate Catholics? Or Baptists Presbyterians? Or Old-School Baptists New-School Baptists? Why, even, should Professor Terman and Mr. Wiggam tolerate J. B. Eggen, who has written, “The long-standing problem of heredity versus environment has been solved in favor of environment?” Or, for that matter, Professor Terman Mr. Wiggam himself? If we are to have uniformity of this sort, let us have it. Let there be a driving from life’s stage of those who would presume to raise any chickens but Plymouth Rocks, and may the devil take the hindmost.

Personally, I have nothing to fear. I am myself descended from our early English settlers--though, as I watch the antics of some of my remote cousins, I sometimes am anything but proud of the fact. Nor do I like to think that my blood shall flow down through the generations by any “privilege” granted by Mr. Wiggam and his ilk.

He speaks of sanity as a test for survival, and then speaks of “the kind of peace that came to Nietzsche, bravest soul since Jesus.”[144] Does he not know that the only peace that ever came to Nietzsche was the peace of final mental decay? And what does he mean when he dares to exclaim:[145] “Oh, for a Socrates, a Seneca, a Pasteur, a Huxley, a Nietzsche, a Jesus in every nursery and school-room?” A Nietzsche and a Jesus! Has Mr. Wiggam never heard of that scourge of small cords which was once used upon the backs of those who sought to make of the Father’s house a den of thieves?

FOOTNOTES:

[106] _Vide_ “The Descent of Man,” second edition, Collier and Son, 1905, vol. I, p. 205.

[107] “The Descent of Man,” p. 780.

[108] “The New Decalogue of Science,” p. 18.

[109] “The Story of Philosophy,” p. 506.

[110] _Vide_ the appendix, pp. 115 to 117.

[111] _Vide_ _America_, September, 17, 1927.

[112] Cf. _Journal of the American Association_, April 22, 1922.

[113] “The New Decalogue of Science,” p. 91.

[114] “Unhappiness indicates wrong thinking, just as ill health a bad regimen.”

[115] “The Fruit of the Family Tree,” pp. 22 and 23.

[116] _Op. cit._, p. 30.

[117] “The New Decalogue of Science,” by Albert Edward Wiggam, p. 35.

[118] _Loc. cit._

[119] _Op. cit._, p. 38.

[120] _Ibid._, p. 179.

[121] _Ibid._, p. 180.

[122] “The New Decalogue of Science,” p. 172.

[123] _Ibid._, p. 173.

[124] _Ibid._, p. 173.

[125] _Op. cit._, p. 136.

[126] “The Next Age of Man,” p. 126.

[127] “The Fruit of the Family Tree,” p. 300.

[128] “The Fruit of the Family Tree,” p. 301.

[129] “The New Decalogue of Science,” p. 100.

[130] _Ibid._, pp. 100-101.

[131] _Ibid._, p. 110.

[132] “The Fruit of the Family Tree,” p. 20.

[133] _Ibid._, p. 16.

[134] Page 602. He is quoting in substance from “Human Conservation from Genetics,” by Herbert E. Walter.

[135] “The Fruit of the Family Tree,” pp. 16-17.

[136] “The Fruit of the Family Tree,” pp. 332-333.

[137] “The New Decalogue of Science,” p. 275.

[138] “The Next Age of Man,” p. 133.

[139] _Ibid._, p. 132.

[140] _Ibid._, p. 134.

[141] _Vide_ “The Fruit of the Family Tree,” appendix.

[142] “The New Decalogue of Science,” p. 68.

[143] See “A parable of Wheat and Men,” “The Next Age of Man,” p. 21.

[144] “New Decalogue of Science,” p. 253.

[145] _Ibid._, p. 278.