CHAPTER XXX

.

EULOGY OF ALEXANDER.

Whoever therefore reproaches Alexander as a bad man, let him do so; but let him first not only bring before his mind all his actions deserving reproach, but also gather into one view all his deeds of every kind. Then, indeed, let him reflect who he is himself, and what kind of fortune he has experienced; and then consider who that man was whom he reproaches as bad, and to what a height of human success he attained, becoming without any dispute king of both continents,[984] and reaching every place by his fame; while he himself who reproaches him is of smaller account, spending his labour on petty objects, which, however, he does not succeed in effecting, petty as they are. For my own part, I think there was at that time no race of men, no city, nor even a single individual to whom Alexander’s name and fame had not penetrated. For this reason it seems to me that a hero totally unlike any other human being could not have been born without the agency of the deity. And this is said to have been revealed after Alexander’s death by the oracular responses, by the visions which presented themselves to various people, and by the dreams which were seen by different individuals. It is also shown by the honour paid to him by men up to the present time, and by the recollection which is still held of him as more than human. Even at the present time, after so long an interval, other oracular responses in his honour have been received by the nation of the Macedonians. In relating the history of Alexander’s achievements, there are some things which I have been compelled to censure; but I am not ashamed to admire Alexander himself. Those

## actions I have branded as bad, both from a regard to my own veracity,

and at the same time for the benefit of mankind.[985] For this reason I think that I undertook the task of writing this history not without the divine inspiration.

THE END OF THE HISTORY OF ALEXANDER’S DEEDS.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Cf. Arrian (_Cynegeticus_, i. 4).

[2] See _Dio Cassius_, lxix. 15.

[3] Cf. Josephus (_Vita ipsius_, 76).

[4] Cf. Lucian (_Alexander_, 2).

[5] See _Dio Cassius_, lxix. 15.

[6] See _Anabasis_, i. 10, 4; ii. 14, 4; ii. 25, 3; vi. 1, 4; vii. 23, 7.

[7] _Anab._, vii. 25.

[8] _Life of Alexander_, chap. 76.

[9] See _Anab._, v. 5, 1; 6, 8; vi. 28, 6; _Indica_, 19, 21, 23, 32, 40 cc.

[10] See _Photius_ (codex 58); _Dio Cassius_, lxix. 15.

[11] Ptolemaeus, surnamed Soter, the Preserver, but more commonly known as the Son of Lagus, a Macedonian of low birth. Ptolemy’s mother, Arsinoe, had been a concubine of Philip of Macedon, for which reason it was generally believed that Ptolemy was the offspring of that king. Ptolemy was one of the earliest friends of Alexander before his accession to the throne, and accompanied him throughout his campaigns, being one of his most skilful generals and most intimate friends. On the division of the empire after Alexander’s death, Ptolemy obtained the kingdom of Egypt, which he transmitted to his descendants. After a distinguished reign of thirty-eight years, he abdicated the throne to his youngest son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. He survived this event two years, and died B.C. 283. He was a liberal patron of literature and the arts, and wrote a history of the wars of Alexander, which is one of the chief authorities on which Arrian composed his narrative. For his beneficence, see Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xiii. 12). Not only Arrian, but Plutarch and Strabo, derived much information from Ptolemy’s work, which is highly commended by Athenæus.

[12] Aristobulus of Potidaea, a town in Macedonia, which was afterwards called Cassandrea, served under Alexander, and wrote a history of his wars, which, like that of Ptolemy, was sometimes more panegyrical than the facts warranted. Neither of these histories has survived, but they served Arrian as the groundwork for the composition of his own narrative. Lucian in his treatise, _Quomodo historia sit conscribenda_, ch. 12, accuses Aristobulus of inventing marvellous tales of Alexander’s valour for the sake of flattery. Plutarch based his _Life of Alexander_ chiefly on the work of this writer. We learn from Lucian (_Macrobioi_, c. 22), that Aristobulus wrote his history at the advanced age of eighty-four. He was employed by Alexander to superintend the restoration of Cyrus’s tomb (_Arrian_, vi. 30).

[13] ἀναλέγομαι in the sense of reading through = ἀναγιγνώσκειν, is found only in the later writers, Arrian, Plutarch, Dion, Callimachus, etc.

[14] B.C. 336. He was murdered by a young noble named Pausanias, who stabbed him at the festival which he was holding to celebrate the marriage of his daughter with Alexander, king of Epirus. It was suspected that both Olympias and her son Alexander were implicated in the plot. At the time of his assassination Philip was just about to start on an expedition against Persia, which his son afterwards so successfully carried out. See Plutarch (_Alex._, 10); _Diod._, xix. 93, 94; Aristotle (_Polit._, v. 8, 10).

[15] It was the custom of the Athenians to name the years from the president of the college of nine archons at Athens, who were elected annually. The Attic writers adopted this method of determining dates. See Smith’s _Dictionary of Antiquities_.

[16] Alexander the Great was the son of Philip II. and Olympias, and was born at Pella B.C. 356. In his youth he was placed under the tuition of Aristotle, who acquired very great influence over his mind and character, and retained it until his pupil was spoiled by his unparalleled successes. See Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xii. 54). Such was his ability, that at the age of 16 he was entrusted with the government of Macedonia by his father, when he marched against Byzantium. At the age of 18 by his skill and courage he greatly assisted Philip in gaining the battle of Chaeronea. When Philip was murdered, Alexander ascended the throne, and after putting down rebellion at home, he advanced into Greece to secure the power which his father had acquired. See _Diod._, xvi. 85; _Arrian_, vii. 9.

[17] See _Justin_, xi. 2.

[18] “Arrian speaks as if this request had been addressed only to the Greeks _within_ Peloponnesus; moreover he mentions no assembly at Corinth, which is noticed, though with some confusion, by Diodorus, Justin, and Plutarch. Cities out of Peloponnesus, as well as within it, must have been included; unless we suppose that the resolution of the Amphictyonic assembly, which had been previously passed, was held to comprehend all the extra-Peloponnesian cities, which seems not probable.”—_Grote._

[19] Justin (ix. 5) says: “Soli Lacedaemonii et legem et regem contempserunt.” The king here referred to was Philip.

[20] See _Justin_, xi. 3; Aeschines, _Contra Ctesiphontem_, p. 564.

[21] The Triballians were a tribe inhabiting the part of Servia bordering on Bulgaria. The Illyrians inhabited the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, the districts now called North Albania, Bosnia, Dalmatia and Croatia.

[22] We learn from _Thucydides_, ii. 96, that these people were called Dii.

[23] The Nessus, or Nestus, is now called Mesto by the Greeks, and Karasu by the Turks.

[24] Now known as the Balkan. The defiles mentioned by Arrian are probably what was afterwards called Porta Trajani. Cf. Vergil (_Georg._, ii. 488); Horace (_Carm._, i. 12, 6).

[25] πεποίηντο:—Arrian often forms the pluperfect tense without the augment. διασκεδάσουσι:—The Attic future of this verb is διασκεδῶ. Cf. Aristoph. (_Birds_, 1053).

[26] The Agrianes were a tribe of Eastern Paeonia who lived near the Triballians. They served in the Macedonian army chiefly as cavalry and light infantry.

[27] Perhaps Neapolis and Eion, which were the harbours of Philippi and Amphipolis.

[28] This officer was commander of the royal body-guard. His father was Parmenio, the most experienced of Alexander’s generals.

[29] Thucydides says (Bk. ii. 96): “On the side of the Triballians, who were also independent, the border tribes were the Trerians and the Tilatæans, who live to the north of mount Scombrus, and stretch towards the west as far as the river Oscius. This river flows from the same mountains as the Nestus and the Hebrus, an uninhabited and extensive range, joining on to Rhodope.” The Oscius is now called Isker. It is uncertain which river is the Lyginus; but perhaps it was another name for the Oscius.

[30] Also named _Danube_. Cf. Hesiod (_Theog._, 339); Ovid (_Met._, ii. 249); Pindar (_Olym._ iii. 24).

[31] It is uncertain in what part of the Danube this island was. It cannot be the Peuce of Strabo (vii, 3). Cf. _Apollonius Rhodius_ (iv. 309); _Martialis_ (vii. 84); _Valerius Flaccus_ (viii. 217).

[32] These two generals are mentioned (iii. 11 infra) as being present at the battle of Arbela. Sopolis is also mentioned (iv. 13 and 18 infra).

[33] Bottiaea was a district of Macedonia on the right bank of the Axius.

[34] The classical writers have three names to denote this race:—Celts, Galatians, and Gauls. These names were originally given to all the people of the North and West of Europe; and it was not till Cæsar’s time that the Romans made any distinction between Celts and Germans. The name of Celts was then confined to the people north of the Pyrenees and west of the Rhine. Cf. _Ammianus_ (xv. 9); _Herodotus_ (iv. 49); _Livy_ (v. 33, 34); _Polybius_ (iii. 39).

[35] Arrian is here speaking, not of Alexander’s time, but of his own, the second century of the Christian era. The Quadi were a race dwelling in the south-east of Germany. They are generally mentioned with the Marcomanni, and were formidable enemies of the Romans, especially in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, when Arrian wrote. This nation disappears from history about the end of the fourth century.

[36] The Marcomanni, like the Quadi, were a powerful branch of the Suevic race, originally dwelling in the south-west of Germany; but in the reign of Tiberius they dispossessed the Boii of the country now called Bohemia. In conjunction with the Quadi, they were very formidable to the Romans until Commodus purchased peace from them. The name denotes “border men.” Cf. Cæsar (_Bel. Gal._, i. 51).

[37] The Iazygians were a tribe of Sarmatians, who migrated from the coast of the Black Sea, between the Dnieper and the Sea of Azov, in the reign of Claudius, and settled in Dacia, near the Quadi, with whom they formed a close alliance. They were conquered by the Goths in the fifth century. Cf. Ovid (_Tristia_, ii. 191).

[38] Called also Sarmatians. Herodotus (iv. 21) says that these people lived east of the Don, and were allied to the Scythians. Subsequent writers understood by Sarmatia the east part of Poland, the south of Russia, and the country southward as far as the Danube.

[39] These people were called Dacians by the Romans. They were Thracians, and are said by Herodotus and Thucydides to have lived south of the Danube, near its mouths. They subsequently migrated north of this river, and were driven further west by the Sarmatians. They were very formidable to the Romans in the reigns of Augustus and Domitian. Dacia was conquered by Trajan; but ultimately abandoned by Aurelian, who made the Danube the boundary of the Roman Empire. About the Getae holding the doctrine of immortality, see _Herodotus_ (iv. 94). Cf. Horace (_Carm._, iii. 6, 13; _Sat._, ii. 6, 53).

[40] The Scythians are said by Herodotus to have inhabited the south of Russia. His supposition that they came from Asia is doubtless correct. He gives ample information about this race in the fourth book of his History.

[41] Herodotus (iv. 47) says the Danube had five mouths; but Strabo (vii. 3) says there were seven. At the present time it has only three mouths. The Greeks called the Black Sea πόντος εὔξεινος, _the sea kind to strangers_. Cf. Ovid (_Tristia_, iv. 4, 55):—“Frigida me cohibent Euxini litora Ponti, Dictus ab antiquis Axenus ille fuit.”

[42] The _sarissa_, or more correctly _sarisa_, was a spear peculiar to the Macedonians. It was from fourteen to sixteen feet long. See Grote’s _Greece_, vol. xi. ch. 92, Appendix.

[43] Son of Parmenio and brother of Philotas.

[44] The parasang was a Persian measure, containing thirty stades, nearly three and three-quarter English miles. It is still used by the Persians, who call it _ferseng_. See _Herodotus_ (vi. 42) and Grote’s _History of Greece_, vol. viii. p. 316.

[45] Son of Neoptolemus. After Alexander’s death Meleager resisted the claim of Perdiccas to the regency, and was associated with him in the office. He was, however, soon afterwards put to death by the order of his rival.

[46] Son of Machatas, was an eminent general, slain in India. See vi. 27 infra.

[47] The Macedonian kings believed they were sprung from Hercules. See _Curtius_, iv. 7.

[48] The Adriatic Sea.

[49] Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xii. 23); _Strabo_, vii. p. 293; Aristotle (_Nicom. Ethics_, iii. 7; _Eudem. Eth._, iii. 1):—οἷον οἱ Κελτοὶ πρὸς τὰ κύματα ὅπλα ἀπαντῶσι λαβόντες; _Ammianus_, xv. 12.

[50] The Paeonians were a powerful Thracian people, who in early times spread over a great part of Thrace and Macedonia. In historical times they inhabited the country on the northern border of Macedonia. They were long troublesome to Macedonia, but were subdued by Philip the father of Alexander, who, however, allowed them to retain their own chiefs. The Agrianians were the chief tribe of Paeonians, from whom Philip and Alexander formed a valuable body of light-armed troops.

[51] Bardylis was a chieftain of Illyria who carried on frequent wars with the Macedonians, but was at last defeated and slain by Philip, B.C. 359. Clitus had been subdued by Philip in 349 B.C.

[52] This Glaucias subsequently afforded asylum to the celebrated Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, when an infant of two years of age. He took the child into his own family and brought him up with his own children. He not only refused to surrender Pyrrhus to Cassander, but marched into Epirus and placed the boy, when twelve years of age, upon the throne, leaving him under the care of guardians, B.C. 307.

[53] The Taulantians were a people of Illyria in the neighbourhood of Epidamnus, now called Durazzo.

[54] These were an Illyrian people in the Dalmatian mountains.

[55] Cyna was the daughter of Philip, by Audata, an Illyrian woman. See _Athenæus_, p. 557 D. She was given in marriage to her cousin Amyntas, who had a preferable claim to the Macedonian throne as the son of Philip’s elder brother, Perdiccas. This Amyntas was put to death by Alexander soon after his accession. Cyna was put to death by Alcetas, at the order of Perdiccas, the regent after Alexander’s death. See _Diodorus_, xix. 52.

[56] The capital of Macedonia. On its site stands the modern village of Neokhori, or Yenikiuy. Philip and Alexander were born here.

[57] A tributary of the Axius, called Agrianus by Herodotus. It is now called Tscherna.

[58] This city was situated south of lake Lychnitis, on the west side of the chain of Scardus and Pindus. The locality is described in _Livy_, xxxi. 39, 40.

[59] Now called Devol.

[60] The use of καίτοι with a participle instead of the Attic καίπερ is frequent in Arrian and the later writers.

[61] The Hypaspists—shield-bearers, or guards—were a body of infantry organized by Philip, originally few in number, and employed as personal defenders of the king, but afterwards enlarged into several distinct brigades. They were hoplites intended for close combat, but more lightly armed and more fit for rapid evolutions than the phalanx. Like the Greeks, they fought with the one-handed pike and shield. They occupied an intermediate position between the heavy infantry of the phalanx, and the peltasts and other light troops. See Grote’s _Greece_, vol. xi. ch. 92.

[62] The heavy cavalry, wholly or chiefly composed of Macedonians by birth, was known by the honourable name of ἑταίροι, Companions, or Brothers in Arms. It was divided, as it seems, into 15 ἴλαι, which were named after the States or districts from which they came. Their strength varied from 150 to 250 men. A separate one, the 16th Ilē formed the so-called _agema_, or royal horse-guard, at the head of which Alexander himself generally charged. See _Arrian_, iii. 11, 13, 18.

[63] In addition to his other military improvements, Philip had organized an effective siege-train with projectile and battering engines superior to anything of the kind existing before. This artillery was at once made use of by Alexander in this campaign against the Illyrians.

[64] Perdiccas, son of Orontes, a Macedonian, was one of Alexander’s most distinguished generals. The king is said on his death-bed to have taken the royal signet from his finger and to have given it to Perdiccas. After Alexander’s death he was appointed regent; but an alliance was formed against him by Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy. He marched into Egypt against Ptolemy. Being defeated in his attempts to force the passage of the Nile, his own troops mutinied against him and slew him (B.C. 321). See _Diodorus_, xviii. 36. For his personal valour see Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xii. 39).

[65] Coenus, son of Polemocrates, was a son-in-law of Parmenio, and one of Alexander’s best generals. He violently accused his brother-in-law Philotas of treason, and personally superintended the torturing of that famous officer previous to his execution (_Curtius_, vi. 36, 42). He was put forward by the army to dissuade Alexander from advancing beyond the Hyphasis (_Arrian_, v. 27). Soon after this he died and was buried with all possible magnificence near that river, B.C. 327 (_Arrian_, vi. 2).

[66] The Cadmea was the Acropolis of Thebes, an oval eminence of no great height, named after Cadmus, the leader of a Phoenician colony, who is said to have founded it. Since the battle of Chaeronea, this citadel had been held by a Macedonian garrison.

[67] Amyntas was a Macedonian officer, and Timolaüs a leading Theban of the Macedonian faction.

[68] Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xii. 57).

[69] These were two provinces in the west of Macedonia.

[70] Two divisions of Epirus.

[71] A town on the Penēus in Hestiaeotis.

[72] A town in Boeotia, on the lake Copais, distant 50 stades north-west of Thebes.

[73] It seems from Plutarch, that Alexander was really wounded in the head by a stone, in a battle with the Illyrians.

[74] This Alexander was also called Lyncestes, from being a native of Lyncestis, a district of Macedonia. He was an accomplice in Philip’s murder, but was pardoned by his successor. He accompanied Alexander the Great into Asia, but was put to death in B.C. 330, for having carried on a treasonable correspondence with Darius. See _Arrian_, i. 25.

[75] The friend and charioteer of Hercules.

[76] He sent to demand the surrender of the anti-Macedonian leaders, Phoenix and Prothytes, but offering any other Thebans who came out to him the terms agreed upon in the preceding year. See Plutarch (_Life of Alexander_, 11); and _Diodorus_, xvii. 9.

[77] The Boeotarchs were the chief magistrates of the Boeotian confederacy, chosen annually by the different States. The number varied from ten to twelve. At the time of the battle of Delium, in the Peloponnesian war, they were eleven in number, two of them being Thebans. See Grote, _History of Greece_, vol. ii. p. 296.

[78] Arrian says that the attack of the Macedonians upon Thebes was made by Perdiccas, without orders from Alexander; and that the capture was effected in a short time and with no labour on the part of the captors (ch. ix.). But Diodorus says that Alexander ordered and arranged the assault, that the Thebans made a brave and desperate resistance for a long time, and that not only the Boeotian allies, but the Macedonians themselves committed great slaughter of the besieged (_Diod._ xvii. 11-14). It is probable that Ptolemy, who was Arrian’s authority, wished to exonerate Alexander from the guilt of destroying Thebes.

[79] Amyntas was one of Alexander’s leading officers. He and his brothers were accused of being accomplices in the plot of Philotas, but were acquitted. He was however soon afterwards killed in a skirmish (_Arrian_, iii. 27).

[80] The mythical founder of the walls of Thebes. See _Pausanias_ (ix. 17).

[81] The Thebans had incurred the enmity of the other Boeotians by treating them as subjects instead of allies. They had destroyed the restored Plataea, and had been the chief enemies of the Phocians in the Sacred War, which ended in the subjugation of that people by Philip. See Smith’s _History of Greece_, pp. 467, 473, 506.

[82] More than 500 Macedonians were killed, while 6,000 Thebans were slain, and 30,000 sold into slavery. See Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xiii. 7); _Diodorus_ (xvii. 14); _Pausanias_ (viii. 30); Plutarch (_Life of Alexander_, 11). The sale of the captives realized 440 talents, or about £107,000; and Justin (xi. 4) says that large sums were offered from feelings of hostility towards Thebes on the part of the bidders.

[83] B.C. 415-413. See Grote’s _Greece_, vol. vii.

[84] B.C. 405. See _Thucydides_ (ii. 13); Xenophon (_Hellenics_, ii. 2).

[85] By Conon’s victory at Cnidus, B.C. 394.

[86] At Leuctra they lost 400 Spartans and 1,000 other Lacedaemonians. See Xen. (_Hellen._, vi. 4).

[87] The Achaeans, Eleans, Athenians, and some of the Arcadians, were allies of Sparta at this crisis, B.C. 369. See Xen. (_Hellen._, vii. 5); _Diodorus_ (xv. 85).

[88] B.C. 426. See _Thuc._, iii. 52, etc.

[89] B.C. 416 and 421. See _Thuc._, v. 32, 84, etc.

[90] These persons must have forgotten that Alexander’s predecessor and namesake had served in the army of Xerxes along with the Thebans. See _Herodotus_ vii. 173.

[91] Plutarch (_Lysander_, 15) says that the Theban Erianthus moved that Athens should be destroyed.

[92] See Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xii. 57).

[93] Plutarch (_Alexander_, 13) tells us that Alexander was afterwards sorry for his cruelty to the Thebans. He believed that he had incurred the wrath of Dionysus, the tutelary deity of Thebes, who incited him to kill his friend Clitus, and induced his soldiers to refuse to follow him into the interior of India.

[94] Orchomenus was destroyed by the Thebans B.C. 364. See _Diod._, xv. 79; Demosthenes (_Contra Leptinem_, p. 489). It was restored by Philip, according to _Pausanias_, iv. 27.

[95] The Great Mysteries of Demeter were celebrated at Eleusis, from the 15th to the 23rd of the month Boedromion, our September.

[96] All these nine men were orators except Chares, Charidemus, and Ephialtes, who were military men. Plutarch (_Life of Demosthenes_, 23) does not mention Chares, Diotimus, and Hyperides, but puts the names of Callisthenes and Damon in the list.

[97] See Aeschines (_Adversus Ctesiphontem_, pp. 469, 547, 551, 603, 633); Plutarch (_Demosthenes_, 22; _Phocion_, 16); _Diodorus_, xvii. 5.

[98] At the head of this embassy was Phocion.

[99] He was put to death by Darius shortly before the battle of Issus, for advising him not to rely on his Asiatic troops in the contest with Alexander, but to subsidize an army of Grecian mercenaries. See _Curtius_, iii. 5; _Diodorus_, xvii. 30.

[100] Archelaüs was king of Macedonia from B.C. 413-399. He improved the internal arrangements of his kingdom, and patronised art and literature. He induced the tragic poets, Euripides and Agathon, as well as the epic poet Choerilus, to visit him; and treated Euripides especially with favour. He also invited Socrates, who declined the invitation.

[101] Aegae, or Edessa, was the earlier capital of Macedonia, and the burial place of its kings. Philip was murdered here, B.C. 336.

[102] A narrow strip of land in Macedonia, between the mouths of the Haliacmon and Penēus, the reputed home of Orpheus and the Muses.

[103] Cf. _Apollonius Rhodius_, iv. 1284; _Livy_, xxii. i.

[104] This man was the most noted soothsayer of his time. Telmissus was a city of Caria, celebrated for the skill of its inhabitants in divination. Cf. Arrian (_Anab._ i. 25, ii. 18, iii. 2, iii. 7, iii. 15, iv. 4, iv. 15); _Herodotus_, i. 78; and Cicero (_De Divinatione_, i. 41).

[105] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 17) says that there were 30,000 infantry and 4,500 cavalry. He gives the numbers in the different brigades as well as the names of the commanders. Plutarch (_Life of Alexander_, 15) says that the lowest numbers recorded were 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry; and the highest, 34,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry.

[106] This lake is near the mouth of the Strymon. It is called Prasias by _Herodotus_ (v. 16). Its present name is Tak-hyno.

[107] This mountain is now called Pirnari. Xerxes took the same route when marching into Greece. See _Herodotus_, v. 16, vii. 112; Aeschўlus (_Persae_, 494); Euripides (_Rhesus_, 922, 972).

[108] Now called Maritza. See _Theocritus_, vii. 110.

[109] Cf. Homer (_Iliad_, ii. 701); Ovid (_Epistolae Heroidum_, xiii. 93); _Herodotus_ (ix. 116).

[110] The Athenians supplied twenty ships of war. See _Diodorus_, xvii. 22.

[111] A landing-place in the north-west of Troas, near Cape Sigaeum.

[112] Cf. _Diodorus_, xvii. 17; _Justin_, xi. 5.

[113] The celebrated general, mentioned already in chap. 10.

[114] Son of Amyntas, a Macedonian of Pella. He was the most intimate friend of Alexander, with whom he had been brought up. Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xii. 7).

[115] Plutarch (_Life of Alex._, 15), says that Alexander also went through the ceremony, still customary in his own day, of anointing himself with oil and running up to the tomb naked. Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, x. 4) Cicero (_Pro Archia_, ch. 10).

[116] By Pindar and Bacchylides.

[117] See Xenophon’s _Anabasis_, Book ii.

[118] A town in the Macedonia district of Mygdonia, south of Lake Bolbe. It is now called Polina.

[119] We find from _Diodorus_ (xvii. 7), that the Persian king had subsidized this great general and 5,000 Greek mercenaries to protect his seaboard from the Macedonians. Before the arrival of Alexander, he had succeeded in checking the advance of Parmenio and Callas. If Memnon had lived and his advice been adopted by Darius, the fate of Persia might have been very different. Cf. Plutarch (_Life of Alex._, 18).

[120] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 18) says that Memnon, while advising the Persian generals to lay waste the country, and to prevent the Macedonians from advancing through scarcity of provisions, also urged them to carry a large force into Greece and Macedonia, and thus transfer the war into Europe.

[121] The Granicus rises in Mount Ida, and falls into the Propontis near Cyzicus. Ovid (_Metam._, xi. 763) calls it _Granicus bicornis_.

[122] This was a brigade of about 1,000 men. See _Livy_, xxxvii. 42.

[123] ὑποφθάσομεν. This future is used by the later writers for the Attic ὑποφθήσομαι. It is found however in Xenophon.

[124] Craterus was one of Alexander’s best generals. On the death of the king he received the government of Macedonia and Greece in conjunction with Antipater, whose daughter he married. He fell in battle against Eumenes (B.C. 321).

[125] Calas was appointed viceroy of Phrygia. He consequently took no further part in Alexander’s campaigns after this.

[126] Alexander had three generals named Philip, two of whom are mentioned here as sons of Amyntas and Menelaüs. The third was son of Machatas, and was left in India as viceroy.

[127] Son of Tyrimmas, was commander of the Odrysian cavalry. See iii. 12 infra.

[128] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 19) says that the Persian cavalry numbered 10,000, and their infantry 100,000. Both these numbers are inaccurate. We know from _Arrian_ (chaps. 12 and 13) that the Persian infantry was inferior in number to that of Alexander.

[129] This is an Homeric name for Mars the war-god. In _Homer_ Ares is the Trojan and Enyalius the Grecian war-god. Hence they are mentioned as different in Aristophanes (_Pax_, 457). See Paley’s note on _Homer_ (vii. 166). As to the practice of shouting the war-cry to Mars before battle, see Xenophon (_Anab._, i. 8, 18; v. 2, 14). The Scholiast on _Thucydides_ (i. 50) says that the Greeks used to sing two paeans, one to Mars before battle, another to Apollo after it.

[130] ὡς ἀνυστόν = ὡς δυνατόν. Cf. _Arrian_, iv. 12, 6; Xenophon (_Anab._, i. 8, 11; _Res. Laced._, i. 3).

[131] ξυνειστήκει μάχη. This is a common expression with Arrian, copied from _Herodotus_ (i. 74, _et passim_).

[132] Plutarch (_Alex._, 16); _Diodorus_ (xvii. 20).

[133] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 21) says that more than 10,000 of the Persian infantry were killed, and 2,000 cavalry; and that more than 20,000 were made prisoners.

[134] Her name was Statira.

[135] An important city in Macedonia on the Thermaic gulf, named after a temple of Zeus.

[136] Lysippus of Sicyon was one of the most famous of Greek statuaries. None of his works remain, inasmuch as they were all executed in bronze. Alexander published an edict that no one should paint his portrait but Apelles, and that no one should make a statue of him but Lysippus. When Metellus conquered Macedonia, he removed this group of bronze statues to Rome, to decorate his own portico. See Pliny (_Nat. Hist._, xxxiv. 19); _Velleius Paterculus_ (i. 11).

[137] As most of the infantry on the Persian side were Grecian mercenaries, who, according to _Plutarch_, fought with desperate valour, and, according to _Arrian_ himself, all the infantry were killed except 2,000, the number of Alexander’s slain must have been larger than Arrian here states.

[138] At Corinth, B.C. 336.

[139] For the fact that the Acropolis of Athens was often called simply _polis_, see _Thucydides_, ii. 15; Xenophon (_Anab._ vii. 1, 27); _Antiphon_ (146, 2); Aristophanes (_Equites_, 1093; _Lysistrata_, 758).

[140] A city at the foot of Mount Ida.

[141] A city of Bithynia, on the Propontis.

[142] About eight miles.

[143] This river flows through Phrygia and Lydia, and falls into the gulf of Smyrna. Its present name is Kodus-Çhai. See Vergil (_Georg._, ii. 137); _Silius_, i. 159; Claudian (_Raptus Proserpinae_, ii. 67).

[144] Nearly two-and-a-half miles.

[145] For a description of this fortress, see _Herodotus_, i. 84.

[146] Memnon had succeeded his brother Mentor as governor for the Persian king of the territory near the Hellespont. See _Diodorus_, xvii. 7.

[147] This man took refuge with Darius, and distinguished himself at the battle of Issus. See Plutarch (_Alex._, 20); _Curtius_, iii. 28. He met with his death soon after in Egypt. See _Arrian_, ii. 6 and 13; _Diod._, xvii. 48.

[148] The temple of Artemis at Ephesus had been burnt down by Herostratus in the night on which Alexander was born (Oct. 13-14, B.C. 356), and at this time was being restored by the joint efforts of the Ionian cities. See _Strabo_, xiv. 1. Heropythus and Syrphax are not mentioned by any other writers.

[149] This was the Carian Magnesia, situated on the Lethaeus, a tributary of the Maeander. Tralles was on the Eudon, another tributary of the Maeander. See _Juvenal_, iii. 70.

[150] Lysimachus was of mean origin, his father having been a serf in Sicily. He was one of Alexander’s confidential body-guards, and on the death of the great king obtained Thrace as his portion of the dismembered empire. In conjunction with Seleucus he won the battle of Ipsus, by which he obtained a great part of Asia Minor. He ultimately acquired all the European dominions of Alexander in addition to Asia Minor; but in his eightieth year he was defeated and slain by Seleucus at the battle of Corus, B.C. 281. Sintenis was the first to substitute _Lysimachus_ for _Antimachus_, the reading of the MSS. Cf. vi. 28 infra.

[151] Eleven in number. See _Herodotus_, i. 149-151.

[152] Thirteen in number, of which Miletus and Ephesus were the chief in importance.

[153] For the celebrated interview of Alexander with Apelles at Ephesus, see Aelian (_Varia Historia_, ii. 3).

[154] Cf. _Herodotus_, vi. 7. Here the Persians destroyed the Ionic fleet, B.C. 497.

[155] Famous for the victory won near it by Leotychides and Xanthippus over the Persians, B.C. 479.

[156] Cf. Vergil (_Aeneid_, vi. 3). _Obvertunt pelago proras._ See Conington’s note.

[157] _Strabo_ (xiv. 1) says that Miletus had four harbours.

[158] ἐφομαρτούντων. This word is rare in prose. See Homer (_Iliad_, viii. 191); _Apollonius Rhodius_, i. 201.

[159] Miletus lay nearly ten miles south of the mouth of the Maeander.

[160] A similar stratagem was used by Lysander at Aegospotami, B.C. 405. See Xenophon (_Hellenics_, ii. 1).

[161] Iassus was a city in Caria on the Iassian Gulf, founded by the Argives and further colonized by the Milesians.

[162] Caria formed the south-west angle of Asia Minor. The Greeks asserted that the Carians were emigrants from Crete. We learn from Thucydides and Herodotus that they entered the service of foreign rulers. They formed the body-guard of queen Athaliah, who had usurped the throne and stood in need of foreign mercenaries. The word translated in our Bible in 2 Kings xi. 4, 19 as _captains_, ought to be rendered _Carians_. See Fuerst’s _Hebrew Lexicon_, _sub voce_ כָּרִֽי

[163] Now called Budrum. It was the birthplace of the historians Herodotus and Dionysius.

[164] Little more than half a mile.

[165] Now called Melasso, a city of Caria, about ten miles from the Gulf of Iassus.

[166] A colony of Troezen, on the western extremity of the same peninsula on which stood Halicarnassus.

[167] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 25) says that this incident occurred in the night, which is scarcely probable. Compare the conduct of the two centurions Pulfio and Varenus in the country of the Nervii. Cæsar (_Gallic War_, v. 44).

[168] Compare the sieges of Avaricum, Gergovia, and Alesia by Cæsar (_Gallic War_, lib. vii.); and that of Saguntum by Hannibal. See _Livy_, xxi. 7-15.

[169] This use of ἀμφί with the Dative, is poetical. The Attic writers use περί with the Accusative. Cf. ii. 3, 8; iii. 30, 1.

[170] There were at least four generals in Alexander’s army of this name. The one here mentioned was probably not the famous son of Lagus.

[171] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 25-27) gives a very different account of the last struggle of the besieged in Halicarnassus. When the leaders saw that they must eventually succumb, they made a last desperate effort to destroy Alexander’s military engines. Ephialtes, the eminent Athenian exile, headed the sally, which was effected by troops simultaneously issuing from all the gates at daybreak. The advanced guard of the Macedonians, consisting of young troops, were put to rout; but the veterans of Philip restored the battle under a man named Atharrias. Ephialtes was slain, and his men driven back into the city.

[172] Hecatomnus, king of Caria, left three sons, Mausolus, Hidrieus, and Pixodarus; and two daughters, Artemisia and Ada. Artemisia married Mausolus, and Ada married Hidrieus. All these children succeeded their father in the sovereignty, Pixodarus being the last surviving son.

[173] Amyntas, king of Macedonia, grandfather of Alexander the Great, adopted the celebrated Athenian general Iphicrates, in gratitude to him as the preserver of Macedonia. See Aeschines (_De Falsa Legatione_, pp. 249, 250).

[174] See _Arrian_, ii. 20 infra.

[175] The Marmarians alone defended their city with desperate valour. They finally set fire to it, and escaped through the Macedonian camp to the mountains. See _Diodorus_ (xvii. 28). As to Xanthus the river, see Homer (_Iliad_, ii. 877; vi. 172); Horace (_Carm._, iv. 6, 26).

[176] Lycia was originally called Milyas; but the name was afterwards applied to the high table in the north of Lycia, extending into Pisidia. See _Herodotus_, i. 173.

[177] Phaselis was a seaport of Lycia on the Gulf of Pamphylia. It is now called Tekrova.

[178] He also crowned with garlands the statue of Theodectes the rhetorician, which the people of Phaselis, his native city, had erected to his memory. This man was a friend and pupil of Aristotle, the tutor of Alexander. See Plutarch (_Life of Alex._, 17); Aristotle (_Nicom. Ethics_, vii. 7).

[179] Philip was murdered by Pausanias. Three only of his reputed accomplices are known by name, and they were Alexander, Heromenes, and Arrhabaeus, sons of Aëropus. The two latter were put to death; but the first named was not only spared, but advanced to high military command for being the first to salute Alexander as king. Compare _Curtius_ (vii. 1); _Justin_ (xi. 2). Alexander was accused by some of forgiving his father’s murderers. Probably the reference was to his kind treatment of Olympias and this Alexander. See _Curtius_, vi. 43.

[180] That of the Hellespontine Phrygia. See chap. xvii. supra.

[181] See chap. xvii. supra.

[182] Nearly £250,000.

[183] See chap. xi. supra.

[184] Compare Plutarch (_Alex._, 17). Just as the historians of Alexander affirmed that the sea near Pamphylia providentially made way for him, so the people of Thapsacus, when they saw the army of Cyrus cross the Euphrates on foot, said that the river made way for him to come and take the sceptre (Xen., _Anab._, i. 4). So also the inhabitants prostrated themselves before Lucullus when the same river subsided and allowed his army to cross (Plutarch, _Lucullus_, chap. xxiv.). There was the same omen in the reign of Tiberius, when Vitellius, with a Roman army, crossed the Euphrates to restore Tiridates to the throne of Parthia (Tacitus, _Annals_, vi. 37). Cf. _Strabo_, xiv. 3.

[185] Aspendus was on the Eurymedon.

[186] About £12,000.

[187] Sidē was on the coast of Pamphylia, a little west of the river Melas.

[188] Syllium was about five miles from the coast, between Aspendus and Side.

[189] This river is celebrated for the double victory of Cimon the Athenian over the Persians, in B.C. 466. See Smith’s _Greece_, p. 252; _Grote_, vol. v. p. 163.

[190] This lake is mentioned by _Herodotus_ (vii. 30), as being near the city of Anava. It is now called Burdur.

[191] Here Cyrus the Younger reviewed his Grecian forces and found them to be 11,000 hoplites and 2,000 peltasts. Here that prince had a palace and park, in which rose the river Maeander, close to the source of the Marsyas. See Xenophon (_Anab._, i. 2); compare _Curtius_ (iii. 1).

[192] _Curtius_ (iii. 1) says they made a truce with Alexander for sixty days.

[193] Antigonus, called the One-eyed, was father of Demetrius Poliorcetes. On the division of Alexander’s empire he received Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia. He eventually acquired the whole of Asia Minor; but was defeated and slain at the battle of Ipsus by the allied forces of Cassander, Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus (B.C. 301). When he was slain he was in his eighty-first year.

[194] Balacrus was left by Alexander to command in Egypt. See _Arrian_ (iii. 5).

[195] The capital of the old Phrygian kings. It was rebuilt in the time of Augustus, and called Juliopolis.

[196] This Ptolemy was killed at the battle of Issus (_Arrian_, ii. 110).

[197] We learn from _Curtius_ (iv. 34) that Alexander released these prisoners at the request of ambassadors from Athens, who met him in Syria after his return from Egypt.

[198] The other cities of Lesbos were Methymna, Antissa, Eresus, and Pyrrha.

[199] Now called Cape Sigri, the west point of the island.

[200] The southern point of Euboea, now called Cape Mandili. Cf. Homer (_Odyss._, iii. 177).

[201] The south-eastern point of Laconia, now called Cape Malia di St. Angelo. It was dreaded by ancient mariners; see Homer (_Odyssey_, ix. 80); Ovid (_Amores_, ii. 16, 24); Vergil (_Aeneid_, v. 193). There was a saying:—Μαλέας δὲ κάμψας ἐπιλάθου τῶν οἴκαδε (_Strabo_, viii. p. 250).

[202] In accordance with the convention of Corinth. Compare next chapter. For the pillars compare _Herodotus_ (ii. 102, 106); _Thucydides_ (v. 18, 47, 56); Aristophanes (_Acharnians_, 727; _Lysistrata_, 513).

[203] This treaty was concluded by the Spartans with the king of Persia, B.C. 387. It was designed to break up the Athenian supremacy. It stipulated that all the Grecian colonies in Asia were to be given to the Persian king; the Athenians were to retain only Imbros, Lesbos, and Scyros; and all the other Grecian cities were to be autonomous. See Xenophon (_Hellenics_, iv. 8; v. 1).

[204] Cf. ii. 13 infra.

[205] “Cyclades ideo sic appellatae, quod omnes ambiunt Delon partu deorum insignem.”—_Ammianus_, xxii. 8, 2. Cf. Horace (_Carm._, i. 14, 19; iii. 28, 14).

[206] Cf. Vergil (_Aeneid_, ii. 21).

[207] The regent of Macedonia and Greece during Alexander’s absence.

[208] One of the Cyclades, a little to the north-east of Melos. It was noted for the low morality of its inhabitants. See Aristophanes (_Fragment_, 558; on the authority of Suidas).

[209] Euripus properly means any narrow sea, where the ebb and flow of the tide is violent. The name was especially applied to the strait between Boeotia and Euboea, where the ancients asserted the sea ebbed and flowed seven times in the day (_Strabo_, ix. 1). Modern observers have noticed these extraordinary tides. The present name of the island, Negropont, is the Italian name formed from Egripo, the modern corruption of Euripus. Cf. Cicero, _pro Muraena_, xvii.:—Quod fretum, quem Euripum tot motus, tantas, tam varias habere putatis agitationes fluctuum, quantas perturbationes et quantos aestus habet ratio comitiorum. Aristotle, _Ethica Nicomachea_, ix. 6:—τῶν τοιούτων γὰρ μένει τὰ βουλήματα, καὶ οὐ μεταῤῥεῖ ὥσπερ Εὔριπος.

[210] One of the Cyclades, about half-way between Attica and Siphnus.

[211] ἐπιπτῆναι, a poetical form for ἐπιπτέσθαι.

[212] Cf. _Justin_, xi. 7.

[213] Cf. _Curtius_, iii. 2 (Zumpt’s edition); Plutarch (_Alexander_, 18).

[214] Now called Angora. In the time of Alexander the country was named Great Phrygia, the term Galatia being afterwards applied to it, from the fact that it was conquered by the Gauls in the 3rd century B.C.

[215] Now called Kizil-Irmak, _i.e._ the Red River. It is the largest river in Asia Minor, and separated the empires of Persia and Lydia, until the conquest of the latter by Cyrus.

[216] The chief pass over the Taurus between Cappadocia and Cilicia. It is more than 3,600 feet above the sea-level. Its modern name is Golek-Boghaz. Cf. _Curtius_, iii. 9-11. It is called Tauri Pylae by Cicero (_Epistolae ad Atticum_, v. 20, 2).

[217] See Xenophon (_Anabasis_, i. 2, 20, 21).

[218] _Curtius_ (iii. 11) says, that Alexander wondered at his own good fortune, when he observed how easily Arsames might have blocked up the pass. Cyrus the Younger was equally fortunate in finding this impregnable pass abandoned by Syennesis, king of Cilicia. See Xenophon (_Anabasis_, i. 2, 21).

[219] Now called Tersoos-Chai. See _Curtius_, iii. 12; _Justin_, xi. 8; and Lucian (_De Domo_, i.). At Tarsus the emperor Julian was buried. See _Ammianus_, xxv. 10, 5.

[220] Probably none of the physicians would venture to prescribe, for fear of being held responsible for his death, which seemed likely to ensue. Nine years after, when Hephaestion died of fever at Ecbatana, Alexander caused the physician who had attended him to be crucified. See _Arrian_, vii. 14; Plutarch (_Alexander_, 72).

[221] Cf. _Curtius_, iii. 14-16; _Diodorus_, xvii. 31; _Justin_, xi. 8; Plutarch (_Alex._, 19). The barbarous conduct of Alexander towards Philotas four years after, when contrasted with his noble confidence in Philip, shows the bad effect of his unparalleled success, upon his moral character.

[222] This pass was called the _Syrian Gates_, lying between the shore of the Gulf of Issus and Mount Amanus. Cyrus the Younger was six days marching from Tarsus through this pass. See Xenophon (_Anab._, i. 4). The Greeks often gave the name of Assyria to the country usually called by them Syria. The Hebrew name for it is Aram (highland). Cf. Cicero (_ad Diversos_, xv. 4, 4); _Diod._, xiv. 21.

[223] A city of Cilicia on the coast, a little west of the mouth of the Cydnus.

[224] Said to have been the last of the Assyrian kings.

[225] Cf. _Strabo_ (xiv. 5) for a description of this statue.

[226] This was, doubtless, the arrow-headed writing which has been deciphered by Sir Henry Rawlinson. Cf. _Herodotus_, iv. 87; _Thucydides_, iv. 50.

[227] Now called Mezetlu. It was a Rhodian colony on the coast of Cilicia, between the rivers Cydnus and Lamus. It was afterwards re-named Pompeiopolis. The birthplace of Philemon, Aratus, and Chrysippus.

[228] About £49,000.

[229] Asander was a nephew of Parmenio. He afterwards brought a reinforcement to Alexander from Greece (_Arrian_, iv. 7). After the king’s death he obtained the rule of Caria, but joining the party of Ptolemy and Cassander, he was defeated by Antigonus, b.c. 313.

[230] These were Carian cities.

[231] Cos, the birthplace of Apelles and Hippocrates, is one of the group of islands called Sporades, off the coast of Caria. Triopium is the promontory terminating the peninsula of Cnidus, the south-west headland of Asia Minor. Cf. _Tibullus_, ii. 3, 57; _Propertius_, i. 2, 1; ii. 1, 5; _Herodotus_, i. 174.

[232] Called by the Romans, Aesculapius. He was the god of the medical art, and no doubt Alexander sacrificed to him, and celebrated the games, in gratitude for his recovery from the fever he had had at Tarsus.

[233] This plain is mentioned in _Homer_, vi. 201; _Herodotus_, vi. 95. The large river Pyramus, now called Jihan, falls into the sea near Mallus.

[234] Mallus was said to have been founded by Amphilochus after the fall of Troy. This hero was the son of Amphiaraüs, the great prophet of Argos, whom Zeus is said to have made immortal. Magarsus, of Megarsa, was the port of Mallus. The difference of meaning between θύειν and ἐναγίζειν is seen from _Herodotus_, ii. 44; Plutarch (_Moralia_, ii. p. 857 D).

[235] Usually called the Syrian Gates. See chap. v. note^1 supra.

[236] A city on the Gulf of Issus, being a settlement of the Phoenicians. _Herodotus_ (iv. 38) calls the gulf the Myriandric Gulf. Cf. Xenophon (_Anab._, 4).

[237] Cf. _Arrian_, vii. 29; _Curtius_, viii. 17.

[238] Aeschines tells us in his speech against Ctesiphon (p. 552), that the anti-Macedonian statesmen at Athens at this time received letters from their friends, stating that Alexander was caught and pinned up in Cilicia. He says Demosthenes went about showing these letters and boasting of the news. Josephus (_Antiquities of the Jews_, xi. 7, 3) says that “not only Sanballat at Samaria but all those that were in Asia also were persuaded that the Macedonians would not so much as come to a battle with the Persians, on account of their multitude.”

[239] There are two passes by which the eastern countries are entered from Cilicia; one on the south, near the sea, leads into Syria. The other pass lies more to the north, and leads to the country near the Euphrates. The latter was called the Amanic, and the former the Syrian gate. Alexander had just passed through the Syrian gate in order to march against Darius, at the very time that Darius was descending into Cilicia by the Amanic gate, and occupying Issus with his advanced guard. Alexander, who had reached Myriandrus in Syria, made a countermarch to meet Darius. Plutarch (_Alex._, 20) says that they missed each other in the night, which is quite a mistake.

[240] Cf. Sallust (_Catilina_, 59); Cæsar (_Bell. Gall._, ii. 25).

[241] See Xenophon (_Anab._, iii. 3).

[242] At Cunaxa. _Xenophon_ (ii. 2, 6) does not mention the name of the place where the battle was fought, but says that he was informed it was only 360 stadia (about 40 miles) from Babylon. We get the name Cunaxa from Plutarch (_Life of Artaxerxes_, c. 8), who says it was 500 stadia (about 58 miles) from Babylon.

[243] Callisthenes the historian, who accompanied Alexander into Asia, states that the breadth of the plain between the mountain and the sea was not more than fourteen stadia, or a little more than one English mile and a half. See _Polybius_, xii. 17.

[244] These seem to have been foreign mercenaries. See _Polybius_, v. 79, 82; _Strabo_, xv. 3. Hesychius says that they were not a nation, but foreigners serving for pay.

[245] Callisthenes—as quoted in _Polybius_, xii. 18—reckoned the Grecian mercenaries of Darius at 30,000, and the cavalry at 30,000. Arrian enumerates 90,000 heavy-armed, not including the cavalry. Yet Polybius tries to prove that there was not room even for the 60,000 troops mentioned by Callisthenes.

[246] “The depth of this single phalanx is not given, nor do we know the exact width of the ground which it occupied. Assuming a depth of sixteen, and one pace in breadth to each soldier, 4,000 men would stand in the breadth of a stadium of 250 paces; and therefore 80,000 men in a breadth of twenty stadia. Assuming a depth of twenty-six, 6,500 men would stand in the breadth of the stadium, and therefore 90,000 in a total breadth of 14 stadia, which is that given by Kallisthenes. Mr. Kinneir states that the breadth between Mount Amanus and the sea varies between one and a half mile and three miles.”—_Grote._

[247] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 31), and Plutarch (_Alex._, 18), give the same number; but _Justin_ (xi. 9) says the Persians numbered 400,000 infantry and 100,000 cavalry. It took five days for them to cross the Euphrates, over bridges of boats (_Curtius_, iii. 17). The money alone of the king required 600 mules and 300 camels to convey it (_Curtius_, iii. 8).

[248] Cf. _Arrian_, iii. 11; and Xenophon (_Anab._, i. 8, 21, 22).

[249] See Donaldson’s _New Cratylus_, sect. 178.

[250] Cf. Xenophon (_Cyropaedia_, vii. 1, 6).

[251] In describing the battle of Arbela, Arrian mentions eight distinct squadrons of Macedonian heavy cavalry, which was known by the name of the Companions. Among the squadrons several, if not all, were named after particular towns or districts of Macedonia, as here, Anthemus, and Leuge. We also find mention of the squadrons of Bottiaea, Amphipolis, and Apollonia. See also _Arrian_, i. 2; i. 12; iii. 11.

[252] τῇ γνώμῃ δεδουλωμένος. An expression imitated from _Thucydides_, iv. 34; compare _Arrian_, iii. 11; v. 19; vi. 16, where the same words are used of Porus and the Indians.

[253] κυμῆναν τῆς φάλαγγος. An expression imitated from Xenophon (_Anab._, i. 8,18). It is praised by Demetrius (_De Elocutione_, 84). Krüger reads ἐκκυμῆναν. Cf. Plutarch (_Pompey_, 69).

[254] _Curtius_ (iii. 29) says that on Alexander’s side 504 were wounded, and 182 killed. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 36) says, that 450 Macedonians were killed. _Justin_ (xi. 9) states that 280 were slain.

[255] Polybius, who lived nearly three centuries before Arrian, censures Callisthenes for asserting that the Persian cavalry crossed the river Pinarus and attacked the Thessalians. No doubt Arrian received this information from the lost works of Ptolemy and Aristobulus (_Poly._, xii. 18).

[256] ἀμβάτης is the poetical form of ἀναβάτης, the word used by Xenophon, Plato, and other Attic writers. The latter is found only once in Arrian (III. xiii. 5).

[257] ἢ τῶν πεζῶν is Martin’s emendation for ἢ ὡς πεζῶν.

[258] _Curtius_ (iii. 27) and _Diodorus_ (xvii. 34) give a graphic description of a direct charge made by Alexander upon Darius, and a sanguinary conflict between Alexander’s body-guard and the Persian nobles, in which the Great King’s horses were wounded and became unmanageable, whereupon Darius got out, mounted a horse, and fled. We learn from Plutarch (_Alex._, 20) that Chares affirmed Alexander came into hand-to-hand conflict with Darius, and that he received a wound in the thigh from that king’s sword. Plutarch says that Alexander wrote to Antipater that he had been wounded in the thigh with a dagger, but did not say by whom. He also wrote that nothing serious had resulted from the wound. The account of Arrian is far the most trustworthy. Callisthenes stated that Alexander made a direct attack upon Darius (_Polybius_, xii. 22). We know from Xenophon that the Persian kings were in the habit of occupying the centre, and that Cyrus directed Clearchus to make the attack against the person of his brother Artaxerxes at the battle of Cunaxa. Polybius seems to have been ignorant of this custom of the Persian kings when he wrote his criticism on the statement of Callisthenes.

[259] ἀφείλετο. On this word see Donaldson (_New Cratylus_, sect. 315). Cf. Aeschўlus (_Persae_, 428); _Thucydides_ (iv. 134); Xenophon (_Hellenics_, i. 2, 16).

[260] The victories of the Greeks and Macedonians over the Persians were materially aided by the pusillanimity of Xerxes and Darius. Compare the conduct of Xerxes at Salamis (_Herodotus_, viii. 97; Aeschўlus, _Persae_, 465-470, with Mr. Paley’s note) and that of Darius at Arbela (_Arrian_, iii. 14).

[261] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 36) and _Curtius_ (iii. 29) agree with Arrian as to the number of slain in the army of Darius. Plutarch (_Alex._, 20) gives the number as 110,000.

[262] _Justin_ (xi. 9) agrees with Arrian, that the wife of Darius was also his sister. Grote speaks of the mother, wife, and sister of Darius being captured, which is an error. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 38) and _Curtius_ (iii. 29) say that the son was about six years of age.

[263] Cf. Xenophon (_Cyropaedia_, ii. 1, 3; vii. 5, 85).

[264] Damascus,—the Hebrew name of which is Dammesek,—a very ancient city in Syria, at the foot of the Antilibanus, at an elevation of 220 feet above the sea, in a spacious and fertile plain about 30 miles in diameter, which is watered by three rivers, two of which are called in the Bible Abana and Pharpar. It has still a population of 150,000. The emperor Julian, in one of his letters, calls it “the Eye of all the East.”

[265] About £730,000.

[266] B.C. 333; end of October or beginning of November.

[267] Alexander erected three altars on the bank of the Pinarus, to Zeus, Heracles, and Athena (_Curtius_, iii. 33). Cicero, who was proconsul of Cilicia, speaks of “the altars of Alexander at the foot of Amanus,” and says that he encamped there four days (_Epistolae ad Diversos_, xv. 4).

[268] About £12,000.

[269] This distinguished general saved Alexander’s life in India, in the assault on the city of the Mallians. After the king’s death, he received the rule of the lesser or Hellespontine Phrygia. He was defeated and slain by the Athenians under Antiphilus, against whom he was fighting in alliance with Antipater, B.C. 323. See _Diodorus_, xviii. 14, 15; Plutarch (_Phocion_, 25).

[270] Compare _Diodorus_, xvii. 37, 38; _Curtius_, iii. 29-32.

[271] Named Sisygambis.

[272] In a letter written by Alexander to Parmenio, an extract from which is preserved by Plutarch (_Alex._, 22), he says that he never saw nor entertained the desire of seeing the wife of Darius, who was said to be the most beautiful woman in Asia; and that he would not allow himself to listen to those who spoke about her beauty. Cf. _Ammianus_ (xxiv. 4, 27), speaking of Julian: “Ex virginibus autem, quae speciosae sunt captae, ut in Perside, ubi feminarum pulchritudo excellit, nec contrectare aliquam voluit, nec videre: Alexandrum imitatus et Africanum, qui haec declinabant, ne frangeretur cupiditate, qui se invictos a laboribus ubique praestiterunt.”

[273] Thapsacus is understood to be identical with the city called Tiphsach (passage) in 1 Kings iv. 24; which is there said to have been the eastern boundary of Solomon’s empire. It is generally supposed that the modern Deir occupies the site of the ancient Thapsacus; but it has been discovered that the only ford in this part of the river is at Suriyeh, 165 miles above Deir. This was probably the site of Thapsacus. From the time of Seleucus Nicator the city was called Amphipolis (_Pliny_, v. 21). See _Stephanus_ of Byzantium, _sub voce_ Amphipolis. Cf. Xenophon (_Anabasis_, i. 4, 11).

[274] The Euphrates is the largest river of western Asia, and rises in the mountains of Armenia. It unites with the Tigris, and after a course of 1,780 miles flows into the Persian Gulf. It is navigable by boats for 1,200 miles. The annual inundation, caused by the melting of the snow in the mountains of Armenia, takes place in the month of May. The Euphrates, Tigris, and Eulaeus had formerly three separate outlets into the Persian Gulf; but the three now unite in a single stream, which is called Shat-el-Arab. The Hebrew name for the river which the Greeks called Euphrates, was Pĕrath (rapid stream). It is called in the Bible, the _Great River_, and _the River_ (Gen. xv. 18; Exod. xxiii. 31; _et passim_). In Jeremiah xiii. 4-7, the word _Pĕrath_ stands for Ephrath, another name for Bethlehem; in our Bible it is mis-translated. See Fürst’s _Hebrew Lexicon_.

[275] The term _Cĕnaan_ was applied to the lowland plain from Aradus to Gaza. The northern portion, from Aradus to Carmel, is known to us under its Grecian name of Phoenicia, which is probably derived from the Greek _phoinix_ (a palm-tree), which grew abundantly in the country, and was the emblem of some of its towns. Others derive it from another Greek word _phoinix_ (red dye), which formed one of its most important manufactures. The Phoenicians applied the term Cenaan to their land in contrast to the highlands to the west, which they called _Aram_ (highland), the Hebrew name for Syria. The country of Phoenicia was 120 miles long and with an average breadth of 12 miles, never exceeding 20 miles. The chief cities of Phoenicia were Tyre, Sidon, Aradus, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, and Accho or Ptolemais. Its central position between the eastern and western countries, early developed its commercial power, and its intercourse with foreign nations at an early period produced an advanced state of civilization and refinement. The Phoenicians were a Semitic nation like the Israelites; and their language bears a remarkable affinity with the Hebrew, as is seen by fragments of the Carthaginian language preserved in Plautus. In an inscription discovered at Marseilles in 1845, out of 94 words 74 were found in the Hebrew Bible. The Phoenicians were asserted by the Greeks to have communicated to them the knowledge of letters; and this statement is corroborated by the similarity of the Hebrew and ancient Greek letters. Their colonies spread from Cyprus to Crete and the Cyclades, thence to Euboea, Greece, and Thrace. The coasts of Asia Minor and Bithynia were dotted with their settlements, and they carried their commerce into the Black Sea. They also had colonies in Sicily, Sardinia, Ivica, and Spain, where they founded Cadiz. The northern coast of Africa was lined with their colonies, the most flourishing of which was Carthage, which rose to be one of the great powers of the world. Strabo says that they had 300 colonies on the western coast of Africa. They visited the coasts of England for tin; and thus, to quote the words of Humboldt, “the Tyrian flag waved at the same time in Britain and the Indian Ocean.” _Herodotus_ (iv. 42, 43) says that under the patronage of Necho, king of Egypt, they circumnavigated Africa; but he states that he does not believe it was a fact. The reason which he assigns for his disbelief is, that the navigators alleged that the sun was on their right hand, which is the strongest argument in favour of the truth of their statement. In Isaiah xxiii. 11, Phoenicia is called Cĕnaan, where the English Bible has erroneously, _the merchant city_. In the Bible the word _Cĕnaanim_ is frequently used for _merchants_, because the Phoenicians were the principal commercial people of antiquity (Job xli. 6; Prov. xxxi. 24; Isaiah xxiii. 8; Hos. xii. 7; Zeph. i. 2; Zech. xiv. 21). Tripolis consisted of three distinct cities, 600 feet apart, each having its own walls, but all united in a common constitution with one place of assembly. These cities were colonies respectively of Sidon, Tyre, and Aradus. Tripolis was a flourishing port on a headland which is a spur of Lebanon. It is now called Tripoli, and is still a large town. See Dr. Smith’s _Dictionary of Classical Geography_.

[276] The oldest towns in Cyprus,—Citium, Amathus, and Paphus,—were Phoenician colonies. These were afterwards eclipsed by the Greek colonies, Salamis, Soli, and New Paphus. In Hebrew the island is called _Ceth_, and the inhabitants _Cittim_. Gesenius says, that upon a Sidonian coin _Ceth_ in Cyprus, which the Greeks called Citium, is described as a Sidonian colony. _Diodorus_ (xvi. 42) says there were nine kings in Cyprus. It is probable that the kings of the Hittites mentioned in 1 Kings x. 29, were from Cyprus. Also the Hittite women whom Solomon married were probably Cyprians (1 Kings xi. 1). The kings of the Hittites of whom the Syrians were afraid were also Cypriotes (2 Kings vii. 6); and the _land of the Hittites_ mentioned in Judges i. 26, probably means Cyprus. Josephus, Eusebius, and Jerome understand these passages to refer to Cyprus. In Isaiah xxiii. 1, the _land of Cittim_ refers to Cyprus, which belonged to Tyre, the revolt of which the prophet announced. This revolt is confirmed by Menander (_Josephus_, ix. 14, 9).

[277] Agis III. was ultimately defeated and slain by Antipater, B.C. 330. See _Curtius_, vi. 1 and 2; Grote’s _Greece_, vol. xii. pp. 102-106.

[278] About £7,300.

[279] Now Cape Matapan. Cf. _Propertius_, iii. 2, 11; _Tibullus_, iii. 3, 13; Homer (_Hymn to Apollo_, 411).

[280] The Cretans were very early civilized and powerful, for we read in Homer of their 100 cities. Before the Trojan war lived the famous king Minos, who is said to have given laws to Crete, and to have been the first potentate who possessed a navy, with which he suppressed piracy in the Aegean Sea. The Cretans gradually degenerated, so that we find in the New Testament St. Paul quoting from their own poet, Epimenides: “Always liars and beasts are the Cretans, and inwardly sluggish” (Titus i. 12). The lying propensity of the Cretans is proved from the fact that the verb _to Cretize_, was used in Greek with the meaning “to speak falsely.” In Hebrew, Crete is called _Caphtor_ (cypress). It is mentioned in Jer. xlvii. 4. It was the native land of a tribe of Philistines called Caphtorim (Gen. x. 14; Deut. ii. 23; 1 Chron. i. 12). The fact that the Philistines came partly from Crete is also affirmed in Amos ix. 7. Another branch of the Philistines came from Casloach in Egypt. The Caphtorim emigrated originally from Egypt to Crete, from which island they were probably driven by the Greeks. Tacitus asserts that the inhabitants of Palestine came from Crete (_Historiae_, v. 2); and the early name of Gaza was Minoa, after the famous king of Crete. Another Hebrew name for Crete is Cĕrēth, whence the inhabitants were called _Cĕrēthim_. They are mentioned in Ezek. xxv. 16, and Zeph. ii. 5; where the Septuagint and the Syriac have _Cretans_. We find the Philistines, who were partly emigrants from Crete, called Cerethim in 1 Sam. xxx. 14. From among these Cerethim and Philistines David chose his body-guard, which was composed of men skilled in shooting and slinging (2 Sam. viii. 18, xv. 18, xx. 7, 23; 1 Kings i. 38, 44; 1 Chron. xviii. 17).

[281] From _Diodorus_ (xvii. 48) it appears that Agis went personally to Crete, and compelled most of the cities to join the Persian side. We also learn that the deputies of the Greeks assembled at the Isthmian games at Corinth sent an embassy to Alexander to congratulate him on his victory at Issus, and to present him with a golden wreath. (See also _Curtius_, iv. 22.)

[282] Coele-Syria, or Hollow Syria, is, in its more limited sense, the country between the ranges of Libanus and Anti-Libănus, in which Damascus and Baalbek are situated; in its wider meaning, it comprises the whole of Northern Syria, in opposition to the countries of Phoenicia and Palestine.

[283] Aradus is an island lying two or three miles from the mainland of Phoenicia. According to Strabo, a State was founded in it by refugees from Sidon. For a long time the island was independent, under its own kings; and even after it fell under the sway of the Macedonian kings of Syria, and subsequently under that of the Romans, it retained a great deal of its commercial prosperity. Aradus appears in Hebrew under the form _Arvad_. It is evident from Ezek. xxvii. 8, 11, that its inhabitants were skilful sailors and brave warriors. They sent out colonies to Aradus south of Carmel, the island of Aradus near Crete, and the islands in the Persian gulf. The present name of this island is Ruad. The Aradians inhabited the mainland opposite the island, as well as the island itself.

[284] Artaxerxes Ochus reigned B.C. 359-338.

[285] Perinthus was a Samian colony on the Propontis. For the siege by Philip, see _Diodorus_, xvi. 74-76.

[286] Impartial historians deny that Philip’s murderers were bribed; they committed the murder from private resentment.

[287] Ochus was poisoned about B.C. 338, by the eunuch Bagoas, who placed upon the throne Arses, one of the king’s sons, killing all the rest. Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, vi. 8). Two years afterwards, Bagoas put Arses and all his children to death; thus leaving no direct heir of the regal family alive. He then placed upon the throne one of his adherents, named Darius Codomannus, a descendant of one of the brothers of Artaxerxes Mnemon. Bagoas soon afterwards tried to poison this Darius; but the latter, discovering his treachery, forced him to drink the deadly draught himself (_Diod._, xvii. 5; _Justin_, x. 3). From _Arrian_, iii. 19, we learn that Bistanes, a son of Ochus, was alive after the battle of Arbela.

[288] Aeschines, in his speech against Ctesiphon (p. 634), asserts that Darius sent 300 talents to Athens, that the Athenians refused them, and that Demosthenes took them, reserving 70 talents for his own private use. Deinarchus repeats this statement in his speech against Demosthenes. (pp. 9-14). If Demosthenes had really acted thus, it is strange Alexander knew nothing about it.

[289] This statement of Arrian is confirmed by _Curtius_ (iii. 34), who says that Parmenio captured the treasure, not in the city, but from fugitives who were conveying it away.

[290] In giving the names of the captured Grecian envoys, _Curtius_ (iii. 35) seems to have confounded this with a future occasion, mentioned in _Arrian_ (iii. 24).

[291] The great Iphicrates had been adopted by Alexander’s grandfather, as is stated in a note on Book I. chap. 23.

[292] Byblus is said by _Strabo_ (xvi. 2) to have been situated on a height not far from the sea. It was reported to be the oldest city in the world. It possessed a considerable extent of territory, including Berytus, and was an independent State for a long period, the last king being deposed by Pompey. On a Byblus coin of Alexander’s time appears the name _Einel_, which is the king Enylus mentioned by _Arrian_ (ii. 20). Byblus was the chief seat of the worship of Adonis, or Thammuz, who was supposed to have been born there. In the Bible it appears under its Hebrew name _Gebal_ (mountain-district). The inhabitants of Gebal are said in Ezek. xxvii. 9 to have been skilled in building ships. In Josh. xiii. 5 the northern boundary of the Holy Land is said to reach as far as the land of the Giblite, or inhabitant of Gebal. In 1 Kings v. 18 the word translated in our Bible _stone-squarers_ ought to be rendered _Giblites_. The Arabs still call the place Jebail. Cf. Milton (_Paradise Lost_, viii. 18).

[293] Sidon, or in Hebrew _Tsidon_ (fortress), is called in Gen. x. 15, 19 the firstborn son of Canaan, _i.e._ it was the first city founded by the Canaanites or Phoenicians. It lay about twenty miles south of Tyre, on a small promontory two miles south of the river Bostremus. We read in _Homer_ that it was famous for its embroidered robes and metal utensils, and from other ancient writers we find that it manufactured glass and linen and also prepared dyes. Before the time of David it fell under the rule of Tyre; but when Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, invaded Phoenicia, it revolted from Tyre and submitted to the invader. It was governed by its own kings under the Babylonian and Persian empires; and under the latter power it reached its highest prosperity, surpassing Tyre in wealth and importance. In the expedition of Xerxes against Greece, the Sidonians furnished the best ships in the whole fleet, and their king obtained the highest place under Xerxes in the council. But they revolted against Ochus, king of Persia, and being betrayed to him by their own king Tennes, they burnt their city and ships. It is said that 40,000 persons perished in the fire and by the sword, B.C. 351. (_Diodorus_, xvi. 43-45). No doubt this barbarous treatment of Ochus induced the Sidonians to take the side of Alexander. The city was already built and again flourishing when that king appeared on the scene. Near the site of the ancient city is the present town of Saida, with a population of about 5,000. Cf. Homer (_Iliad_, vi. 289; xxiii. 741); _Lucan_, iii. 217.

[294] At Sidon, Alexander deposed the reigning king Strato, a friend of the Persians; and a poor man, named Abdalonymus, distantly related to the regal family, was put into his place (_Curtius_, iv. 3, 4). _Diodorus_ (xvii. 47) tells the same story, but applies it to Tyre, probably by mistake.

[295] The Hebrew name for Tyre is _Tsor_ (rock). In Isa. xxiii. 4 it is called the fortress of the sea; and in ver. 8, “Tsor, the crowning one,” because Tyre gave rulers to the Phoenician cities and colonies. Valuable information about the power, trade, and customs of Tyre is derived from Ezek. xxvi-xxviii.; and we learn the fact that she employed mercenaries like her colony Carthage (Ezek. xxvii. 10, 11). In the classical writers the name is corrupted into _Tyrus_, and sometimes into _Sarra_. Tyre was unsuccessfully besieged for five years by Shalmaneser. It was also besieged for thirteen years by Nebuchadnezzar, and in the end an alliance was formed, by which the Tyrians retained their own king as a vassal of the king of Babylon. This arrangement was continued under the kings of Persia.

[296] _Curtius_ (iv. 7) tells us that the envoys also brought to Alexander a golden wreath, together with abundant supplies for his army.

[297] This king must have brought home his ships for the defence of Tyre, for he was in the city when it was captured. See chap. 24.

[298] The Phoenician god _Melkarth_ (lord of the city), whom the Syrians called _Baal_ (lord), was supposed to be identical with the Grecian Heracles, or Hercules, who was the mythical ancestor of the Macedonian kings. _Curtius_ (iv. 7) tells us that Alexander affirmed he had been ordered by an oracle to sacrifice in Tyre to Heracles. Gesenius informs us that a Maltese inscription identifies the Tyrian Melkarth with Heracles.

[299] Who was the son of Labdacus.

[300] See _Herodotus_, ii. 43, 44.

[301] The district comprising all the south-west of Spain outside the pillars of Heracles, or Straits of Gibraltar, was called Tartessis, of which the chief city was Tartessus. Here the Phoenicians planted colonies, one of which still remains under the name of Cadiz. The Romans called the district Baetica, from the principal river, the Baetis or Guadalquivir. The Hebrew name for this region is _Tarshish_, of which Tartessus is the Greek form. Tarshish was the station for the Phoenician trade with the West, which extended as far as Cornwall. The Tyrians fetched from this locality silver, iron, lead, tin, and gold (Isa. xxiii. 1, 6, 10, lxvi. 19; Jer. x. 9; Ezek. xxvii. 12, xxxviii. 13). Martial, Seneca, and Avienus, the first two of whom were Spaniards, understood Tartessus to stand for the south-west of Spain and Portugal. The word Tarshish probably means _sea-coast_, from the Sanscrit _tarischa_, the sea. Ovid (_Met._, xiv. 416); _Martial_, viii. 28; _Silius_, xiii. 673.

[302] Of Miletus. Herodotus knew his writings well, but they have not come down to us. See _Herod._ (ii. 143; v. 36 and 125).

[303] The Iberians were originally called Tibarenes, or Tibari. They dwelt on the east of the Black Sea, and west of Colchis, whence they emigrated to Spain. This nation is called _Tubal_ in the Hebrew Bible; in Isa. lxvi. 19 the Iberians of western Europe are referred to.

[304] An island near Cadiz, now called Leon. Cf. Hesiod (_Theogonia_, 287-294); _Herodotus_, iv. 8.

[305] Now called Arta.

[306] Arrian omits to mention that the Tyrians pointed out to him that his wish to sacrifice to Hercules might be gratified without entering their city, since at Palaetyrus, on the mainland, separated from Tyre only by a narrow strait, was a temple of that deity more ancient than that in Tyre. See _Curtius_, iv. 7; _Justin_, xi. 10. We learn from _Arrian_, i. 18, that when Alexander offered sacrifice to the Ephesian Diana he marched to the temple with his whole army in battle array. No doubt it was this kind of thing the Tyrians objected to. Alexander actually did the same at Tyre after its capture. (See