Part 30

Tyndall (John), LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near Carlow, 1820. In '47 he became a teacher in Queenswood College (Hants), and afterwards went to Germany to study. In '56 he went to Switzerland with Professor Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on glaciers. He contributed to the Fortnightly Review, notably an article on Miracles and Special Providence, '66. In '72 he went on a lecturing tour in the United States, and two years later was president of the British Association. His address at Belfast made a great stir, and has been published. In addition to other scientific works he has published popular Fragments of Science, which has gone through several editions.

Tyrell (Henry). See Church.

Tyssot de Patot (Simon), b. of French family in Delft, 1655. He became professor of mathematics at Deventer. Under the pen name of "Jacques Massé" he published Voyages and Adventures, Bordeaux, 1710, a work termed atheistic and scandalous by Reimmann. It was translated into English by S. Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle.

Ueberweg (Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22 Jan. 1826; studied at Göttingen and Berlin, and became Professor of Philosophy at Königsberg, where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief work is a History of Philosophy. Lange cites Czolbe as saying "He was in every way distinctly an Atheist and Materialist."

Uhlich (Johann Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious reformer, b. Köthen 27 Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a preacher. For his rationalistic views he was suspended in 1847, and founded the Free Congregation at Magdeburg. He wrote numerous brochures defending his opinions. His Religion of Common Sense has been translated and published in America. Died at Magdeburg, 23 March, 1872.

Ule (Otto), German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820. Studied at Halle and Berlin. In '52 he started the journal Die Natur, and wrote many works popularising science. Died at Halle 6 Aug. 1876.

Underwood (Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New York 6 July, 1839. Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War. He fought at Ball's Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. '61, was wounded and held prisoner in Richmond for nine months. In '81 he edited the Index in conjunction with Mr. Potter, and in '87 started The Open Court at Chicago. He has had numerous debates; those with the Rev. J. Marples and O. A. Burgess being published. He has also published Essays and Lectures, The Religion of Materialism, Influence of Christianity on Civilisation, etc. His sister, Sara A., has written Heroines of Freethought, New York, 1876.

Vacherot (Etienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809. In '39 he replaced Victor Cousin in the Chair of Philosophy at the Sorbonne. For his free opinions expressed in his Critical History of the School of Alexandria, a work in three vols. crowned by the Institute, '46-51, he was much attacked by the clergy and at the Empire lost his position. He afterwards wrote Essays of Critical Philosophy, '64, and La Religion, '69.

Vacquerie (Auguste), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A friend of Victor Hugo. He has written many dramas and novels of merit, and was director of Le Rappel.

Vaillant (Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Vierzon, 26 Jan. 1840. Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he took part in the Commune, and in '84 was elected Muncipal Councillor of Paris.

Vairasse (Denis) d'Alais, French writer of the seventeenth century. He became both soldier and lawyer. Author of Histoire des Sevarambes, 1677; imaginary travels in which he introduced free opinions and satirised Christianity.

Vale (Gilbert) author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for the church, but abandoned the profession and went to New York, where he edited the Citizen of the World and the Beacon. He published Fanaticism; its Source and Influence, N.Y. 1835, and a Life of Paine, '41. Died Brooklyn, N.Y. 17 Aug. 1866.

Valk (T. A. F. van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being a Christian missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote in De Dageraad between 1860-70, using the pen name of "Thomas."

Valla (Lorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having hazarded some free opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was condemned to be burnt, but was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples. Valla was then confined in a monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him to Rome and gave him a pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457.

Vallee (Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He wrote La Béatitude des Chréstiens ou le Fléo de la Foy, for which he was accused of blasphemy, and hanged on the Place de Gréve, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574.

Valliss (Rudolph), German author of works on The Natural History of Gods (Leip., 1875); The Eternity of the World, '75; Catechism of Human Duty, '76, etc.

Van Cauberg (Adolphe), Belgian advocate. One of the founders and president of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 1886.

Van Effen. See Effen.

Vanini (Lucilio, afterwards Julius Cæsar), Italian philosopher and martyr, b. Taurisano (Otranto), 1585. At Rome and Padua he studied Averroism, entered the Carmelite order, and travelled in Switzerland, Germany, Holland and France making himself admired and respected by his rationalistic opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the Inquisition was on his track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 he visited England, and in 1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released he went to Paris and published a Pantheistic work in Latin On the Admirable Secrets of Nature, the Queen and Goddess of Mortals. It was condemned by the Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617; but there was no repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling Atheism into his scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut out, his body burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This was done 19 Feb. 1619. President Gramond, author of History of France under Louis XIII., writes "I saw him in the tumbril as they led him to execution, mocking the Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him to repentance, and insulting our Savior by these impious words. 'He sweated with fear and weakness, and I die undaunted.'"

Vapereau (Louis Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4 April, 1819. In '41 he became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He collaborated on the Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques and the Liberté de Penser, but is best known by his useful Dictionnaire Universel des Contemporains. In '70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal, but on account of the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in '73 and resumed his literary labors, compiling a Universal Dictionary of Writers, '76, and Elements of the History of French Literature, 1883-85.

Varnhagen von Ense (Earl August Ludwig Philipp), German author, b. Dusseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785. He studied medicine and philosophy, entered the Austrian and Russian armies, and served in the Prussian diplomatic service. He was an intimate friend of Alex. von Humboldt, and shared his Freethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10 Oct. 1858. He vividly depicts the men and events of his time in his Diary.

Vauvenargues (Luc de Clapiers), Marquis; French moralist, b. Aix, 6 Aug. 1715. At eighteen he entered the army, and left the service with ruined health in 1743. He published in 1746 an Introduction to the Knowledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and Maxims, which was deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28 May, 1747. His work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously suppressed, and was reprinted about 1770.

Velthuysen (Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He wrote many works on theology and philosophy in Latin. His works, De Officio Pastorum and De Idolatria et Superstitione were proceeded against in 1668, but he was let off with a fine. Died 1685.

Venetianer (Moritz), German Pantheist, author of Der Allgeist, 1874, and a work on Schopenhauer as a Scholastic.

Vereschagin (Vasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842. He studied at Paris under Gerome, took part in the Russo-Turkish war, and has travelled widely. The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of his Holy Family and Resurrection were the cause of their being withdrawn from the Vienna Exhibition in Oct. '85, by order of the archbishop. In his Autobiographical Sketches, translated into English, '87, he shows his free opinions.

Vergniaud (Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b. Limoges, 31 May, 1759. He studied law, and became an advocate. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the Convention. At the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to the people, but that being rejected, voted death. With Gensonné and Guadet, he opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and, being beaten in the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. Vergniaud was a brilliant speaker. He said: "Reason thinks, Religion dreams." He had prepared poison for himself, but as there was not enough for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with them.

Verlet (Henri), French founder and editor of a journal, La Libre Pensée, 1871, and author of a pamphlet on Atheism and the Supreme Being.

Verliere (Alfred), French author of a Guide du Libre-Penseur (Paris, 1869); collaborated La Libre Pensée, Rationaliste, etc. To Bishop Dupanloup's Athéisme et Peril Social he replied with Deisme et Peril Social, for which he was condemned to several months' imprisonment.

Vermersch (Eugène), French journalist, b. Lille about 1840. Took part in the Commune, and has written on many Radical papers.

Vernes (Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has published Melanges de Critique Religieuse, and translated from Kuenen and Tiele.

Veron (Eugène), French writer and publicist, b. Paris, 29 May, 1825. He wrote on many journals, founded La France Republicaine at Lyons, and l'Art at Paris. Besides historical works he has written L'Esthetique in the "Library of Contemporary Science," '78; The Natural History of Religions, 2 vols., in the Bibliothèque Materialiste, '84; and La Morale, '84.

Viardot (Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July, 1800. He came to Paris and became an advocate, but after a voyage in Spain, left the bar for literature, writing on the Globe National and Siècle. In '41 he founded the Revue Independante with "George Sand," and Pierre Leroux. He made translations from the Russian, and in addition to many works on art he wrote The Jesuits, '57; Apology of an Unbeliever, translated into English, '69, and republished as Libre Examen, '71. Died 1883.

Vico (Giovanni Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples 1668. He became Professor of Rhetoric in the University of that city, and published a New Science of the Common Nature of Nations, 1725, in which he argues that the events of history are determined by immutable laws. It presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21 Jan. 1743.

Virchow (Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. Schivelbein Pomerania, 13 Oct. 1821. Studied medicine at Berlin and became lecturer, member of the National Assembly of '48, and Professor of Pathological Anatomy at Berlin. His Cellular Pathology, '58, established his reputation. He was chosen deputy and rose to the leadership of the Liberal opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he opposed the Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution.

Vischer (Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b. Ludwigsburg, 30 June, 1807. Was educated for the Church, became a minister, but renounced theology and became professor of and is Jahrbücher der Gegenwart, '44, was accused of blasphemy and for his Freethinking opinions he was suspended two years. At the revolution of '48 he was elected to the National Assembly. In '55 he became Professor at Zürich. His work on Æsthetic, or the Science of the Beautiful, '46-54, is considered classic. He has also written, Old and New, '81, and several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887.

Vitry (Guarin de) French author of a Rapid Examination of Christian Dogma, addressed to the Council of 1869.

Vloten (Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan. 1818; studied theology at Leiden and graduated D.D. in '43. He has, however, devoted himself to literature, and produced many works, translating plays of Shakespeare, editing Spinoza, and writing his life--translated into English by A. Menzies. He edited also De Levensbode, 1865, etc.

Voelkel (Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. Wirsitz (Prussian Poland) 14 Dec. 1841. Studied ('59-65) theology, natural philosophy, and mathematics, and spent some years in France. He returned '70, and was for ten years employed as teacher at higher schools. Since '80 has been "sprecher" of Freethought associations and since '85 editor of the Neues Freireligiöses Sonntags-Blatt, at Magdeburg. In '88 he was several times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time acquitted. He represented several German societies at the Paris Congress of Freethinkers, '89.

Voglet (Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was blinded through his baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in consequence to earn his living as a street singer. His songs, of his own composition, are anti-religious. Many have appeared in La Tribune du Peuple, which he edited.

Vogt (Karl), German scientist, b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the son of a distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine and became acquainted with Agassiz. In '48 he was elected deputy to the National Assembly. Deprived of his chair and exiled, he became professor of Natural History at Geneva. His lectures on Man, His Position in Creation and in the History of the Earth, '63, made a sensation by their endorsement of Darwinism. They were translated into English and published by the Anthropological Society. He has also written a Manual of Geology, Physiological Letters, Zoological Letters, Blind Faith and Science, etc., and has contributed to the leading Freethought journals of Germany and Switzerland.

Volkmar (Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809. Studied at Marburg '29-32; became privat docent at Zurich, '53, and professor '63. He has written rationalist works on the Gospel of Marcion, '52; Justin Martyr, '53; the Origin of the Gospels, '66; Jesus and the first Christian Ages, '82, etc.

Volney (Constantin François Chassebouf de), Count, French philosopher, b. Craon (Anjou) 3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers, he went to Paris in 1774. Here he met D'Holbach and others. In 1783 he started for Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of his travels. Made Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on being elected to the Assembly. Though a wealthy landlord, he wrote and spoke for division of landed property. In 1791 his eloquent Ruins appeared. During the Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In '95 he visited America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become colleague in the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated with Napoleon when he re-established Christianity by the Concordat, April 1802. Among his other works was a History of Samuel and the Law of Nature. Died 25 April, 1820.

Voltaire (François Marie. Arouet de), French poet, historian and philosopher, b. Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he early distinguished himself by his wit. For a satirical pamphlet on the death of Louis XIV he was sent to the Bastille for a year and was afterwards committed again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de Rohan. On his liberation he came to England at the invitation of Lord Bolingbroke, and became acquainted with the English Freethinkers. His Lettres Philosophiques translated as "Letters on the English," 1732, gave great offence to the clergy and was condemned to be burnt. About 1735 he retired to the estate of the Marquise de Châtelet at Cirey, where he produced many plays. We may mention Mahomet, dedicated to the Pope, who was unable to see that its shafts were aimed at the pretences of the church. In 1750 he accepted the invitation of Frederick II. to reside at his court. But he could not help laughing at the great king's poetry. The last twenty years of his life was passed at Ferney near the Genevan territory, which through his exertions became a thriving village. He did more than any other man of his century to abolish torture and other relics of barbarism, and to give just notions of history. To the last he continued to wage war against intolerance and superstition. His works comprise over a thousand pieces in seventy volumes. Over fifty works were condemned by the Index, and Voltaire used no less than one hundred and thirty different pen-names. His name has risen above the clouds of detraction made by his clerical enemies. Died 30 May, 1778.

Voo (G. W. van der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more than half a century he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French language at Rotterdam, where he still lives. He contributed many articles to De Dageraad.

Vosmaer (Carel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826. Studied law at Leyden. He edited the Tydstroom (1858-9) and Spectator (1860-73), and wrote several works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died at Montreux (Switzerland), 12 June, 1888.

Voysey (Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828. Graduated B.A. at Oxford, '51, was vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, '64-71, and deprived 11 Feb. '71 for heresy in sermons published in The Sling and the Stone. He has since established a Theistic Church in Swallow Street, Piccadilly, and his sermons are regularly published. He has also issued Fragments from Reimarus, '79, edited The Langham Magazine and published Lectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith, etc.

Vulpian (Edme Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan. 1826. Wrote several medical works and upon being appointed lecturer at the School of Medicine, '69, was violently opposed on account of his Atheism. He was afterwards elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887.

Wagner (Wilhelm Richard), German musical composer and poet, b. Leipsic, 22 May, 1813. From '42-49 he was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden, but his revolutionary sentiments caused his exile to Switzerland, where he produced his "Lohengrin." In '64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of Bavaria, and produced many fine operas, in which he sought that poetry, scenery, and music should aid each other in making opera dramatic. In philosophy he expressed himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at Venice, 13 Feb. 1883.

Waite (Charles Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county, N.Y. 29 Jan. 1824. Educated at Knox College, Illinois, he was admitted to the Bar in '47. After successful practice in Chicago, he was appointed by President Lincoln Justice of the Supreme Court of Utah. In '81 he issued his History of the Christian Religion to the year A.D. 200, a rationalistic work, which explodes the evangelical narratives.

Wakeman (Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29 Dec. 1834, was one of the editors of Man and a president of the New York Liberal Club. A contributor to the Freethinkers' Magazine.

Walferdin (François-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June, 1795. A friend of Arago he contributed with him to the enlargement of science, and was decorated with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He published a fine edition of the works of Diderot in '57, and left the bust of that philosopher to the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880.

Walker (E.), of Worcester. Owenite author of Is the Bible True? and What is Blasphemy? 1843.

Walker (Edwin C.), editor of Lucifer and Fair Play, Valley Falls, Kansas.

Walker (Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858. Went to America and at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In '77 he went to Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera, Melbourne. In '82 he started the Australian Secular Association, of which he was president for two years when he went to Sydney. In '85 he was convicted for lecturing on Malthusianism, but the conviction was quashed by the Supreme Court. In '87 he was elected M.P. for Northumberland district. Is President of Australian Freethought Union.

Walser (George H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co. Indiana, 26 May, 1834. Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature of his State. He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri, to try the experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel or drinking saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a Freethought University.

Ward (Lester Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois, 18 June, 1841. He served in the National Army during the civil war and was wounded. In '65 he settled at Washington and became librarian of the U.S. bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and fossil plants in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works on paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitled Dynamic Sociology. He has contributed to the Popular Science Monthly.

Ward (Mary A.), translator of Amiel's Journal, and authoress of a popular novel Robert Elsmere, 1888.

Warren (Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took an

## active part in Robert Owen's communistic experiment at New Harmony,

Indiana, in '25-6. His own ideas he illustrated by establishing a "time store" at Cincinnati. His views are given in a work entitled True Civilisation. Died Boston, Mass. 14 April, 1874.

Washburn (L. K.), American lecturer and writer, b. Wareham, Plymouth, Mass., 25 March, 1846. In '57 he went to Barre. Was sent to a Unitarian school for ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich, Feb. '70. He read from the pulpit extracts from Parker, Emerson, and others instead of the Bible. He went to Minneapolis, where he organised the first Freethought Society in the State. He afterwards resided at Revere, and delivered many Freethought lectures, of which several have been published. He now edits the Boston Investigator.

Waters (Nathaniel Ramsey), American author of Rome v. Reason, a memoir of Christian and extra Christian experience.

Watson (James), English upholder of a free press, b. Malton (Yorks), 21 Sept. 1799. During the prosecution of Carlile and his shopmen in 1822 he volunteered to come from London to Leeds. In Feb. '23 he was arrested for selling Palmer's Principles of Nature, tried 23 April, and sentenced to twelve months' imprisonment, during which he read Gibbon, Hume, and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor on the Republican. In '31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type and presses, and he issued Volney's Lectures on History. In Feb. '33 he was sentenced to six months' imprisonment for selling The Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert left him £450, which he used in printing d'Holbach's System of Nature, Volney's Ruins, F. Wright's Lectures, R. D. Owen's pamphlets, Paine's works, and other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874.

Watson (Thomas), author of The Mystagogue, Leeds, 1847.

Watts (Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835. Converted to Freethought by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a lecturer and assistant editor on the National Reformer. Mr. Watts has had numerous debates, both in England and America, with Dr. Sexton, Rev. Mr. Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started the Secular Review with G. W. Foote, and afterwards Secular Thought of Toronto. He wrote a portion of The Freethinker's Text Book, and has published Christianity: its Origin, Nature and Influence; The Teachings of Secularism compared with Orthodox Christianity, and other brochures.

Watts (Charles A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. Conducts Watts's Literary Gazette and edits the Agnostic Annual.

Watts (John), brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol, 2 Oct. 1834. His father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted to Freethought by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of the Reasoner, and afterwards for a time edited the National Reformer. He edited Half Hours With Freethinkers with "Iconoclast," and published several pamphlets, Logic and Philosophy of Atheism, Origin of Man, Is Man Immortal? The Devil, Who were the Writers of the New Testament, etc. Died 31 Oct. 1866.

Watts (of Lewes, Sussex), author of the Yahoo, a satire in verse (first published in 1833), also The Great Dragon Cast Out.