Chapter III.

SQUARING AND JOINTING.

For this and other exercises we recommend 2 in. × 4 in. kiln dried No. 1 pine s4s. This is less than 2 in. × 4 in., as these are the dimensions in the rough and some surface is taken off in dressing it. In speaking of lumber we give dimensions in the rough, but in speaking of parts of a piece of work actual measurements are always given.

[Illustration: Exercise No. I.]

Saw off a piece of 2 in. × 4 in. 18¼ inches long. The object of this exercise is to learn to square this block, that is, make every surface perfectly flat and straight and exactly at right angles to the adjoining surfaces. This operation is necessary on almost every piece of work you will do and its accuracy is of the utmost importance. Place your piece on the bench with one of the wide sides up and the end against the bench stop. Set your jack plane to cut a very thin shaving. Plane the upper surface carefully, testing it from time to time with the side of your plane to see that it is perfectly straight. This is called jointing. It must also be flat. Test this with the side of your plane laid across it and in all directions. Next turn it up on edge and joint and square in the same manner. To test the angle use the try square with the broad arm against the face of the side you have already squared. Plane the other two sides in like manner until all four sides are absolutely square with adjoining sides and perfectly straight from end to end. Measure off ⅛ in. from one end and mark with try square and knife across the top. Turn it up and mark from this line down the side next you. With the back saw cut square to these marks. Now measure 18 in. from this and cut the other end off square in the same manner. Put the piece in the vise end up and projecting about an inch above the vise and with your smoothing plane plane the ends true, testing from all four sides with the try square. It is well in this operation to put a piece of waste material back of your work in the vise, with its upper edge even with the upper edge of your work. This will prevent chipping off the further edge as you plane across it. Square up other end in like manner. You will probably have to try some little time before you can get this exercise perfectly, but persist. Though simple it is perhaps as important as any you will have and you will be called upon to repeat this process constantly. Do not slight it, therefore, and when you can square a block perfectly you have made a great stride forward.

HALF TENON AND HALVING.

[Illustration: Exercise No. II.]

Saw off a piece of 2 in. × 4 in. 12 inches long. Square it up as in Exercise I. Select the wide side with the best grain, etc., for your working side and mark it “O.” Measure off 3½ in. from the left-hand end as it lies on the bench before you and with your knife and try square mark across the working face (a-a). Turn up on edge and mark across from this line (b-b). Turn on other edge and do the same. Next measure 3 in. farther from the end and mark across the working face and down the two edges in the same manner (c-c-c). Then 3½ inches farther from the end mark across face and edges as before (d-d-d). Now take your marking gauge and set it ⅝ in. deep. Turn work on its edge, with the working face to your right and with the gauge make a line along the edge from (e-e-e), that is, a line ⅝ of an inch below the working face and parallel with it. Do likewise between (c) and (d) and (f-f). Turn the work over and mark the other side in the same way and also carry your gauge mark across the end (g-g). Place the work on the bench working face up with the marked end to the right. With your back saw cut down at (b) to the gauge mark (e), being careful that your saw cuts just to the mark both on top and down the edge. Saw in the same way at (c) to (f) and (d) to (f), being careful in all cases that your saw cuts only to the middle of your mark, the cut being in the wood to be removed, which in our case is between (b) and the end and (c) and (d). Do not mar corners in starting your saw. Place the work in the vise with the gauge mark just above the jaws. With your widest chisel cut out the parts to be removed, cutting across the grain, flat side of the chisel down. Do not try to take out too much at a time. Do not cut all the way across as the wood is likely to chip off the far side below your gauge line, so cut only half way across, then turn the piece around and cut from the other side. When you reach the bottom (the gauge line) be very careful to hold the chisel flat, that is, straight across, or you will not have a flat, even bottom. Next turn the work up on end in the vise and with your rip saw cut down the gauge line across the end (g-g) and down the edge (e-e). Repeat this exercise until you can get it absolutely accurate. All surfaces should be “square” and smooth. These operations are constantly necessary and must be accurate or your joints will show unsightly cracks. While, on the other hand, when you have mastered this exercise, you have accomplished a great deal, as you will appreciate a little later.

HALVED JOINT.

So far we have not required our material to be of any particular dimensions when finished. We should now be able to square up to given dimensions, which is, of course, necessary in most cases. It is in this exercise. Therefore, remember to get your material out a trifle larger than the dimensions given for the finished work in order to leave room for squaring. The purpose of this exercise is to join two pieces of equal thickness which cross each other at right angles, and have them flush top and bottom; the pieces to be of the exact dimensions given, fitted closely on both sides, each piece exactly in the center of the other, both sides to be perfectly smooth and even when finished and the ends planed square. To do this get out two pieces which square up as in Ex. I to 3½ in. wide, 1¾ in. thick and 12 in. long each. Choose and mark working face of each. Find the center (6 in. from each end). Measure 1⅝ in. each way from the center and mark across the working face of one piece and bottom of the other piece (a-a) and (a-a). Now set your marking gauge to half the thickness of the piece (⅝ in.) and mark the bottom of your cut as in Ex. II (b-b). Do not forget that the working face of both pieces must be up. Therefore, the cut is made on the working face of one piece and the bottom of the other. Proceed to saw and chisel out as in Ex. II, when, if accurately done, the pieces will fit together perfectly making a cross with all four arms exactly the same length.

[Illustration: Exercise No. III.]

You will use this joint often in furniture and can make the pieces cross at any angle by using the sliding T bevel set at the angle you desire for marking across the tops and bottoms of the pieces and the try square for the edges. Accuracy is essential both as to dimensions and work.

MORTISE AND TENON.

[Illustration: Exercise No. IV.]

The mortise and tenon are used more than any other kind of joint in furniture. Therefore great patience and care are justified in learning to make them nicely. When the end of one piece is to be joined to the side of another, the mortise and tenon are almost always used. The mortise (No. 1) is an opening, square or oblong, to receive the tenon and may go part way or all the way through. When part way it is called a “blind” mortise; when all the way a “through” mortise. The tenon (No. 2), is a projection on the end of the other piece, which fits into the mortise. It generally has two shoulders, but may have three or four, made by cutting away the sides. It should be about one-third the thickness of the piece. In furniture it is fastened with glue, and where advisable with a wooden pin also. The objects of this exercise are that the pieces be straight and accurately squared to the measurements; that the tenon be exactly in the center of the joint; that the pieces be square to each other when joined; that the tenon fit the mortise exactly without squeezing; that the shoulders fit up to the cross pieces nicely and that when joined the two pieces be perfectly flush at the joint. The method is as follows: Square up two pieces to 1½ in. × 3½ in. × 12 in. long each, take one piece for the mortise piece, turn it on edge and find the middle. Measure 1¾ in. (a-a) each way from the middle and mark across with knife and try square. As the tenon is to be one-third the thickness of the piece set your marking gauge ½ in. deep and mark a line parallel with the side between these two lines (b-b) and (b-b), being careful not to run over the line. Turn around and mark other side of the mortise in the same way. You now have the mortise marked on one edge. To mark it exactly opposite on the other side, mark across the flat side of the piece very lightly at the end lines and across the other edge at these lines. This will give you the end lines on the other side. Mark the side lines with the gauge as before. Lay the piece aside and take the tenon piece. Now, as your mortise piece is 3½ in. wide, your tenon will have to be 3½ in. long and you will want a little extra to smooth off the end, so better measure a trifle over 3½ in. from the end, the piece being on edge and mark across (c-c). From this line mark square across top and bottom sides. Also across the other edge. This gives the shoulder line for the tenon. Take the gauge, which is set at ½ in., and mark parallel with the flat sides from these shoulder lines to the end (d-d) (d-d), and this will give the thickness of the tenon. Lay aside the piece and put the mortise piece in the vise edge up. With your ¼ in. chisel and mallet cut your mortise part way through, then turn the piece over and cut from the other side. Remember to keep the flat side of the chisel towards the edge of the hole and leave a slight margin all the way round. When you have cut the mortise clear through in this way, take your ½ in. chisel and true up to the lines, the sides first and then the ends. See that all four sides of the mortise are straight through from side to side or the tenon will jam. Lay aside the piece and take tenon piece. Lay it flat side down and cut tenon exactly the same on both sides as you did the half tenon in Ex. II. Insert tenon through the mortise and plane off the end flush with the mortise piece. Now look carefully over your work and see if it fulfills all the objects of this exercise. Do it over until it does. Do not get discouraged. It is a mighty nice operation and when you can make this joint properly you may be proud for it is a step beyond simple carpentering and belongs to the Joiners’ and Cabinet Makers’ art.

PANELLING.

[Illustration: Exercise No. V.]

Panelling is used in doors, the ends and backs of furniture, etc. It may be more or less ornamented with beading, moulding and so on, but in the best modern furniture all ornament is omitted and the panels absolutely plain. The objects of this exercise are to make a frame 13 in. × 17½ in. × 1¾ in. thick with two sunken panels; that it shall lie perfectly flat when put together; be smooth and true at all joints and exact in dimensions. The method is as follows: Get out a piece which will finish to 1¾ in. × 3½ in. × 60 in. Joint and square to required thickness, also square up one edge only. Set in the vise with the squared edge up. Set your gauge ½ in. deep and mark along the top edge ½ in. from and parallel with the side farthest from you. Then turn it around and mark other side. This will give you the width of the rabbet (see end view No. 4), in which the ¾ in. sunken panel will slide. To cut this rabbet use your ½ in. rabbet plane and plow (cut) 1 in. deep. If you have a Stanley No. 45 or No. 55 it has a fence to guide it, but if you have only a wooden rabbet plane you must use a straight strip of wood to guide the plane. There are several ways of fastening this strip. The easiest way is to brad it on to your work along the gauge line, but this leaves the brad holes. The best way is to take a strip a little longer than your work and fasten a block on each end of it which will drop down over the ends of your work, then wedge it tight at each end. In this case the strip must be stout enough, of course, not to bend as you plane against it. When you have plowed an inch deep, turn your work around, move guide to other side, and with your ¼ in. rabbet plane plow the other ¼ in. to be taken out, making the rabbet ¾ in. wide. Be sure to plane square or the panel will not lie flat. When plowed cut this piece into two pieces 18 in. long for the sides of the frame and three pieces 8 in. long for the top, bottom and middle. Plow one of these 8 in. pieces, which you intend to use for the middle bar, on the side opposite the one already plowed, as it will have a panel on each side of it (see No. 6). Now cut a tenon 1 in. long by ¾ in. thick on each end of all three 8 in. pieces, just as you did in Ex. III (see Nos. 2 and 3). For the panels saw from an inch board two pieces 5½ in. × 8 in., dress them down to ¾ in. thick. Put one of the 18 in. frame pieces in the vise with the rabbet up. Insert the tenon of an 8 in. piece in the rabbet ¼ in. from the end, with the rabbet in itself turned so as to receive the panel. With your ¼ in. auger bit bore a hole straight through the frame and tenon ½ in. from the edge of the frame in the center of the tenon, as at (a) No. 1. Make a round plug to fit this hole, sand paper it smooth and drive it in gently. This will hold the tenon in place. Slide a panel into this rabbet and down into the rabbet in the frame piece. Next slide the center piece in so the rabbet fits over the panel and the tenon in the rabbet in the frame. Bore and pin like the first one, then insert the other panel and end piece in like manner. Now take the remaining 18 in. frame piece and fit it down snug over the tenons and panels, leaving ¼ in. margin at each end. Pin each of the three tenons, being careful to hold the shoulders snugly against the frame and the piece tight down on the panel. Cut the pins off flush and sand paper smooth. Now put the whole frame in the vise and with your plane trim to exact size. When you can do this exercise so that all joints are perfect, all surfaces flat, smooth and even, and all dimensions correct and have mastered the exercises before it you can pretty nearly make furniture. There is one thing more, however, which is important, a little difficult and frequently required, and that is dowelling and joining.

DOWELLING AND JOINING.

[Illustration: Exercise No. VI.]

For this exercise practice will do more for you than instruction. The object of the exercise is to join two boards at their edges so as to make a continuous surface with no crack or unevenness at the joint, as in table tops, etc. You will be called upon for this operation whenever you make any piece of furniture with a plain surface more than 8 to 10 inches wide. The method is as follows: Take two pieces ⅝ in. × 6 in. × 36 in., select working face of each. Find the center of each and with knife and try square mark across the edge to be joined as at (a). Measure 12 in. each way from center (b-b), and mark. Take your marking gauge, set it half the thickness of the board (⁷⁄₁₆ in.) and mark a fine point ⁷⁄₁₆ in. below the working face on the knife marks, as at (c). With brace and ⅜ in. bit bore a hole 1½ in. deep exactly square into edge of the board at each point, as at (d). Repeat the process in the other board. These holes are for the dowels (e-e-e), which are pins that keep the boards from wabbling at the joint and also hold them together. You will appreciate, therefore, that if the holes are not exactly straight in, the pins will lean and not fit into the holes on the other piece, or else tip it one way or the other. To make the dowels square up a piece ½ in. square and 9 in. long, then round it with your smoothing plane and sand paper to exactly ⅜ in. diameter, or, in other words, to fit the holes tight without jamming. Cut into 3 in. lengths with back saw. Before inserting the dowels the pieces must be jointed. To do this turn one on edge in the vise and square up the top edge (f-f) with your jack plane. Observe strictly directions given in Chapter I for planing. When you have the edge precisely square and straight lay aside and square one edge of the other piece. When this is done, before taking it out of the vise, test it by standing the other piece on it with the squared edges together and working faces turned the same way. Test the surface of the two boards by holding the back of your steel square across the two, seeing that it touches at the two edges and at the joint and that no least crack shows on either side. Now insert your dowels and the joint will be true.

This is a difficult exercise and requires much practice, but its accomplishment brings the keen delight of work well done.

MITRING.

[Illustration: Exercise No. VII.]

The mitre is used to form a joint where two pieces come together at right angles and make a corner. The end of each piece is cut at an angle of 45 degrees (No. 1). To make this joint, you will want your mitre box which you can now make with comparative ease. It must be precise to be of use. It is a box without ends or lid (No. 2), and made as follows: Get out three pieces ⅝ in. × 4 in. × 18 in. Joint and square them. Select working face of each. Firmly nail sides to bottom, all faces inward; 3 in. from end mark with knife and try square across top of both sides (a-a). From this line mark in same way straight down the outside of the side towards you (b-b). With back saw cut down this line till you strike the bottom of the box, starting your saw in the mark (a-a) on top of the two sides. Now measure 4 in. farther from same end and mark across the tops of sides (c-c). Then 4 in. farther and mark as before (d-d). Take your steel square or other perfectly straight edge laid diagonally across the tops of the sides from (c) to (d) and (d) to (c) just at the points where these marks run off the insides of the edges and mark the tops of the sides at this angle (45 degrees). Now mark square down the outside nearest you (d) to (e), and (c) to (f). With your back saw cut diagonally across in the marks on top and straight down the mark on the side to the bottom of the box. The cut straight across is for a guide for your saw in cutting square ends and you can use it also for the shoulders of tenons. The 45-degree cut is for guiding your saw when cutting mitres, like the corner of a picture frame. You will realize, then, that the sides of the bottom piece must be carefully squared or the sides of the box will not be square to the bottom, and it must be exactly 4 in. wide or your angle will not be true and your mitres will not fit.

If at any time you need a mitre box to take wider material make the bottom wider and proceed otherwise as above, except that the space on the inside face of the sides between the diagonal cuts must always be exactly the same as the width of the bottom. In use, remember that if you plane anything off the outside edge of a mitred end you make the piece shorter and anything off the inside makes it longer, as you will readily understand by experimenting a little. Therefore, you must be careful to have your piece of the proper dimensions before mitring or else allow for this in its length.

DOVETAILING.

To make an accurately lifted dovetailed corner is good evidence of a workman’s ability to use tools. There are three kinds: First, common dovetailing (Fig. 1), where strength is more important than appearance, as in box corners, etc. The pins and tails should be of equal size and about as wide as the material is thick. The pins are the parts widest on the inside face of the piece (a-a-a) and the tails are the parts which are widest at their ends (b-b).

Second, lap dovetailing (Fig. 2), which shows only from the side as at the front ends of drawers. The tails are always on the side piece and should be two to four times as large as the pins. There is no rule for size. Use a size that is strong, looks well and divides the space evenly. Always begin and finish with a half pin.

Third, the mitre dovetail, not illustrated, which is hidden altogether. It is much more difficult to make and not so strong as the others. You will have no use for it.

Cut your pins first and mark the tails from them, then if you make a slip you can correct it before marking the tails and after you have had some experience you can learn to cut the tails without marking the bevels.

[Illustration: Exercise No. VIII.]

The object of this exercise is to make a lap dovetail joint, as of a drawer front. Get out one piece ⅝ in. × 5 in. × 12 in. when jointed and squared, for the front of the drawer and one piece ½ in. × 5 in. × 12 in. for the side of the drawer. Select working faces which will be the insides. Set your marking gauge a shade less than the thickness of the side piece and see that the marker is sharp. Now mark across the inside face of the front piece, gauging from the end (c-c). This is the length of the pin. The length of the tails (which are on the side piece) should be about ¾ the thickness of the front piece, or about ⅝ in. in this case, so set your gauge ⅝ in. deep and mark across the end of the front piece gauging from the inside (d-d). Without changing your gauge mark a line across both sides of the side piece, gauging from the end (e-e). Place front piece in vise, marked end up and face towards you. With a pencil, space out the tails, which in this case will be about ⅜ in. wide, making a half pin at beginning and end and three full ones between. Make them even distances apart, of course, and when you have located them set your T bevel at an angle of 1 in 6 and mark them accurately on the end of the front, and with your try square continue these lines down to the gauge line (c-c) on the face. Take your back saw and cutting on the inside of the bevel lines saw down to the gauge mark (c-c) on the face, but not beyond the gauge mark (d-d) on the end. In other words, you can only saw the corners. Make all cuts in one direction first, then the others just as you would file a saw. It is easier to be accurate this way. Next, with your chisel clean out the spaces between the pins. These spaces will be like a mortise, open on the end and wider at the bottom than at the surface. There will be a little space close in the corner where you cannot get the chisel, clean this out with your knife. Remember not to cut quite to the line till the very last. The pins are now complete. Lay the side piece (No. 4) on the bench face up. Stand the end on it with its inside face just covering the gauge mark (e-e) across the side near the end, as illustrated. Hold it firmly and mark the side around the pins in the end piece. Place the side in the vise, end up, and square the tails across its end. With the back saw cut the sides of the tails (on inside of lines), and lay on the bench and cut between the tails with your chisel.

If you have much dovetailing to do it is worth while to get a chisel bevelled on both sides and across the end, like a lathe chisel. It is easier to get into the corners with this. Put your pieces together and dress off the side till it is exactly flush with the front.

When you can do this exercise and the preceding ones accurately you can do about anything you will be called upon to do. It is hard, but worth while. You will be able to make the common dovetail easily after this. Just remember, in that case, to make pins and tails the same size and about as wide as the thickness of the material.