CHAPTER XL

THE POLITICAL CONDITION OF MINDANAO, 1899.

Relapse into savagery--Moros the great danger--Visayas the mainstay--Confederation of Lake Lanao--Recall of the Missionaries--Murder and pillage in Davao--Eastern Mindanao--Western Mindanao--The three courses--Orphanage of Tamontaca--Fugitive slaves--Polygamy an impediment to conversion--Labours of the Jesuits--American Roman Catholics should send them help.

The present condition of the island is most lamentable. Nothing could be more dreadful; robbery, outrage and murder are rampant. Every evil passion is let loose, and the labour of years has been lost. Mindanao, which promised so well, has relapsed into savagery, as the direct consequence of the Spanish-American war, and the cession of the Archipelago to the United States.

It should be understood that Spain, far from drawing any profit from Mindanao, has, on the contrary, expended annually considerable sums, derived from the revenues of Luzon and Visayas, in maintaining a squadron of gunboats to police the seas, and keep down piracy, in building and garrisoning forts to suppress the slave-trade, and in assisting the missionaries to attract the heathen, by providing them with seeds, implements of husbandry, and with clothing, also in giving them fire-arms and ammunition to protect themselves from the Moros.

Annuities were paid to friendly Moro dattos as rewards for services rendered, or as compensation for the cession of some of their rights.

The Moros have always been the great danger to the peace of the island, as the Visayas have always been the mainstay of Spanish authority.

Had it not been for the war with America, the Moros would have been, by this time, completely subdued.

Even as it was, half the island was practically free from danger from them. If you draw a line on the map from Cagayan de Misamis to the head of the Bay of Sarangani, it will roughly divide the island into halves. The Moros who lived to the eastward of this line were pacific, and some thousands of them had been baptized, and had given up polygamy and slave-trading.

Had they risen in arms--which was not at all likely--they could have been put down by the Visayas militia under the local authorities.

To the west of this line, until quite lately, the Spanish garrisons dotted along the banks of the Rio Grande from Polloc and Cotta-bato to Piquit and Pinto, dominated the Moro dattos of that region, and nearly joined hands with the forts and garrisons on the rivers running into the Bay of Macajalar.

The only remaining seat of the Moro power was the country around Lake Lanao, where the dattos had formed the Illana confederation to resist the advances of the Christians.

This lake has never been surveyed, and no two maps agree on its size, shape or position. It is, however, known to be very different from the other large lakes in Mindanao, which are shallow, whilst this, on the contrary, is deep; in some places, three or four fathoms will be found close in shore. At Lugud and Tugana the banks are steep.

There are five or six islands in it; the largest is called Nuza. It is high and flat-topped, situated near the middle of the lake, and on it are five hundred houses.

The length of the lake may be about 14 miles, and its greatest breadth about the same.

There is a road all round it, reported to be in good condition for vehicles, except at Taraca, where the ground is soft. This road may be about fifty miles long, and is said to have houses on both sides of it nearly all the way. The accompanying sketch, from D. Jose Nietos' map, shows forty-three towns clustered round the lake, but in reality it is only one vast town, and the names are those of districts or parishes, each under the rule of a datto. The Sultan lives at Taraca.

The land about the lake is very fertile, and is cultivated by the slaves.

The produce is of excellent quality, and the Moros not only supply themselves, but export annually about 1000 tons of rice, and 900 tons of coffee.

The River Agus, which drains the lake, is not navigable.

Although it has a great body of water, the impetuosity of the current, rushing amongst rocks, forms dangerous rapids.

The surface of the lake must be considerably above the sea-level.

The approaches to the northern end of the lake on both sides of the river were defended by many cottas, or forts. Most of those were taken and destroyed by the Spanish forces in 1894-96, but they are now probably being rebuilt.

Half-way between the lake and the Bay of Iligan stands Fort Weyler, which had a strong garrison of infantry, cavalry, artillery and engineers, and was impregnable to any Moro attack. To the south of the lake, on the shores of Illana Bay, stand Forts Corcuera and Baras, whilst to the westward, between Illana Bay and Panguil Bay, lie four forts across the narrow isthmus called Alfonso XIII., Infanta Isabel, Santas Paz, and Eulalia and Maria Cristina.

These, with the trocha, or military road of Tucuran, cut off the Illano Moros from communication with their brethren of Sibuguey, or with their former victims, the Subanos.

Further to the northward, Fort Almonte kept watch over the quondam pirates of the Liangan River.

These forts and posts were garrisoned by nearly 3000 regular troops, all natives, except the artillery (see List of Posts in Mindanao, p. 386), and in addition a field force of several thousand men, also of the regular army, was encamped at Ulama, Pantar, and other places to the north of the lake, and three small steam-vessels had been transported overland in sections, and launched upon the lake.

Thus everything was ready for the final blow, for the Moros were completely hemmed in by Spanish garrisons or Jesuit reducciones; but the breaking out of the Tagal insurrection, in 1896, obliged General Blanco to withdraw, not only the field army, but to reduce the garrisons in order to hold Manila and Cavite until the Peninsular troops could arrive.

Later on, the war between the United States and Spain, and the immediate destruction of the Spanish naval forces by the American squadron, caused the Spanish authorities to sink the flotilla in the lake, to abandon all the posts on the north coast of Mindanao, the trocha of Tucuran, and all the forts on the Rio Grande, and to concentrate their whole force at Zamboanga, leaving the recently-converted heathen and the missionaries to defend themselves against the Moros as best they could.

The missionaries of the district of Cotta-bato have taken refuge in Zamboanga, fearing to fall into the hands of the Moros, who would exact a heavy ransom for their delivery. As for the hundreds of liberated slave children, both girls and boys, who were gathered together under the protection of the missionaries at the asylum of Tamontaca, they are doubtless once more in the hands of the cruel Moros of Lake Lanao; some, perhaps, have been sold by these wretches to the heathen tribes for twenty or thirty dollars each, to be offered up as sacrifices to Tag-busan, the god of war of the Manobos, or to Dewata, the sanguinary house-god of the Guiangas.

The missionaries of the north of Mindanao were recalled by the Father Superior to Manila; but in some of the towns the native converts and Visayas have detained them by force, and keep a watch on them to prevent their escape. They treat them well, and allow them to exercise their ministry.

As there are no Moros in that part of the island, the missionaries are not in danger, for they are much beloved by their converts, whose only desire is to keep them amongst them.

The district of Davao has been, like other localities, the scene of murder and pillage since the withdrawal of the Spanish authorities. At midnight of February 6th, the bad characters and outlaws of the chief town, under the leadership of Domingo Fernandez, a native of Zamboanga, and formerly interpreter and writer in the office of the Governor of Davao, rose in arms, and attacked the house of Don Bonifacio Quidato, sub-lieutenant of the local militia. They cut his throat, and bayoneted his wife as she lay in her bed. They then attacked all the well-to-do people of the place, committing many barbarous acts, and plundering their houses.

Most of the Spanish residents escaped from the town in a lorcha, and, after a terrible voyage of sixteen days, suffering from hunger, and undergoing many severe privations, arrived in Zamboanga more dead than alive. The veteran missionary, Father Urios, and three other Spaniards, could not escape, and remained in the power of the bandits.

This is only one instance of what is going on all over the island. In the words of one who knows the country well, Mindanao has become a seething hell, and is in a condition more dreadful than ever before in historic times.

But amongst these various tribes, Christian or heathen, there is said to be one subject, and one only, upon which they all agree. They have combined to resist by force the American invasion. If it is attempted to conquer them by force of arms, it will be a difficult, a tedious, and a costly operation--a campaign far more sickly than that now proceeding in the arable lands around Manila, where the ground is hard, the country very level, and where field-guns can be taken anywhere during the dry season. It is my belief that, if skilfully handled, half the island--the eastern half--could be pacified without war, although, no doubt, gangs of bandits would have to be destroyed; but this could be done by the Visayas and the converts, organised as a militia, and paid whilst on active service.

But this pacification requires the assistance of the missionaries. They are not likely to give that assistance unless terms are made with them, and one of those terms will surely be that they shall be allowed to continue their beneficent work unhindered and unvexed.

So the United States Government is confronted with a dilemma. Either they must shoot down the new Christians, to introduce and enforce freedom of worship which the converts do not want, and cannot understand, or they must negotiate with the Jesuits for them to use their influence to pacify the island, and thus subject themselves to the abuse and the outcry such a proceeding will bring upon them from the divines and missionaries of Protestant sects, and from their political opponents.

As for the western half of the island, a part may be pacified with the help of the missionaries, but military operations on a considerable scale will be required there sooner or later against the Moros of Lake Lanao.

This would be a holy war, a war of humanity, and I would say to the Americans: Look back on the deeds of your forefathers, on the days when your infant navy covered itself with imperishable glory, when it curbed the insolence of the Bashaw of Tripoli, the Bey of Tunis, and the Dey of Algiers, teaching all Europe how to deal with Mediterranean pirates. Inspire yourselves with the Spirit of Decatur and his hero-comrades whose gallant deeds at Tripoli earned Nelson's praise as being "the most bold and daring act of the age," and do not hesitate to break up this last community of ex-pirates and murderous slave-hunters.

The Moros of Lake Lanao could be simultaneously attacked from north and south. In 1894, the Spaniards attacked by the north, and transported all their artillery and stores and their small steamers built in sections, by paths on the eastern side of the River Agus. Some of the Moros remained neutral in that campaign. Such were the Dattos of Lumbayangin and Guimba. Their cottas were spared. The distance in a straight line from the mouth of the Agus near Iligan to the lake is fifteen miles.

The path winds a good deal, and the country is hilly, wooded on the heights, and intersected by streams. There is a path on the west bank of the Agus, the country there is more open, and a large part of it is under cultivation. A good outfit of mountain-guns would be required on this northern expedition.

The other attack could be made from the south, the forces landing at Fort Baras, or at Lalabuan. From either of these places there is what in the Philippines is called a road to Ganasi at the southern end of the lake. The distance in a straight line is about twenty miles. The two roads join at about half way, just before coming to the cotta of Kurandangan in the Sultanate of Pualas.

This road is reported to have no steep gradients, no boggy parts, and no unfordable streams. The country is fairly open, as there is no thick forest, but only scrub and cogon, or elephant grass. From a description given by a Tagal who traversed this road, it appears to be practicable for field artillery. The combined attack, north and south, could be supported by an advance from the eastward of irregular forces of the Monteses from the reducciones of the Tagoloan, Sawaga and Malupati Rivers, if they were supplied with arms and ammunition for this purpose.

It seems to me that we have here the usual three courses; the fourth, to do nothing, and allow Moro and Christian to fight it out, would be unworthy of the United States, or of any civilized government.

1. Put a stop to slave-hunting and murdering by a military expedition against the Moro Dattos.

2. Maintain garrisons to keep the peace and protect the missionaries and their converts and trust to their efforts to gradually convert the Moros.

3. Arm all the Christian towns round about the Moros and organise the men as local militia, so that they can protect themselves against Moro aggression.

All these courses are expensive, the second less expensive than the first, the third less expensive than the second.

However, if either the second or third course is adopted, it is very probable that before long the first course would become imperative, for the Moros are faithless and treacherous in the extreme, and no treaty unsupported by bayonets has the least chance of being respected.

To adopt the second or third course, then, only amounts to putting off the evil day.

The missionaries can be of the greatest service in pacifiying the Moros whenever the power of the dattos is broken and when slavery can be put an end to. The object of the expedition I have spoken of should not be to exterminate the Moros, but merely to break the power of the dattos and pandits, and to free their followers and slaves from their yoke.

It is generally taken for granted that a Moro cannot be converted, but this is not the case in Mindanao. Father Jaoquin Sancho, S.J., informs me that when the political power of the dattos has been destroyed, their followers have been found ready to listen to the teachings of the missionaries and beginning by sending their children to school, then perhaps sanctioning the marriage of their daughters with Christians, they have finally cast in their lot with the Roman Catholic Church, not in scores, nor hundreds, but by thousands. He says that his colleagues baptized in one year after 1892, in the district of Davao alone, more than three thousand Mahometan Moros. He adds that their religious receptivity is much greater than that of the heathen tribes, that once baptized they remain fervent Christians, whilst the Mandayas, Manobos, Monteses and other heathen are only too apt, with or without reason, to slip away to the forests and mountains and resume their nomadic life, their heathen orgies, and human sacrifices.

I have already spoken of the success of the missionaries on the Rio Grande and of their industrial and agricultural orphanage at Tamontacca, where they were bringing up hundreds of children of both sexes, mostly liberated slaves of the Moros, to be useful members of society. This noble institution occupied the very spot where the former Moro Sultan of Tamontacca held his court.

Two or three more institutions like this, established at points a few miles distant from Lake Lanao, and protected from aggression on the part of the Moro, would gradually undermine the power of the Dattos by affording an asylum to all fugitive slaves attempting to escape from cruelties of their masters.

For years past the Spaniards have protected all slaves who have fled to them from their masters. The Datto Utto applied to General Weyler to restore to him forty-eight slaves who had taken refuge at a Spanish fort on the Rio Grande, but Weyler refused, reminding the datto that he had signed an engagement to keep no slaves, but only free labourers, who had the right to fix their residence where they pleased.

I assume that no slaves who seek the shelter of the Stars and Stripes will ever be sent back again into bondage.

As a guide to the strength of the expedition which will sooner or later have to be sent against the Moros of Lake Lanao, I may say that the total war strength of the Moros of Mindanao was estimated in 1894 at 19,000 fighting-men, 35 guns, 1896 Lantacas and 2167 muskets or rifles. (See list, p. 387).

They have probably since then obtained a large supply of rifles and ammunition. This traffic in arms should be at once stopped.

Swords and spears they have in abundance.

But of these 19,000 men many have submitted to the Spanish rule, or have become allies of the Spaniards, like the Datto Ayunan, the Datto Abdul, the Sultan of Bolinson and many others.

Probably 10,000 men would be the very utmost that the Moros of Lake Lanao could bring on the field, and only a part of these would have fire-arms, which they could have little skill in handling.

They would on no account give battle in the open, but would fight in the bush, and desperately defend their cottas. They would not concentrate their forces, for want of transport for their food supply; besides, the nature of the country would prevent this.

They could not stop a flotilla from being launched on the lake and from capturing the islands as a base of operations.

The flotilla would be operating on inside lines of communication. It could threaten one side of the lake, and in less than two hours be landing troops on the opposite side.

In fact, with a moderate force, their subjugation would not be so difficult as has often been supposed.

It should be made clear to the Sacopes and to the slaves that the war is waged against the Sultans and Dattos, that the people would have their lives and property and the free exercise of their religion guaranteed to them, and that the adults should be exempt from taxation and conscription for the rest of their lives or for a term of years. Then the resistance would soon slacken, and the sultans and dattos might be captured. Those who would not conform to the new condition of things might be allowed to emigrate to Borneo or elsewhere, but their subjects and slaves should by no means be allowed to go with them, for they will soon become useful agriculturists and good Christians, and Mindanao cannot spare them.

The question of slavery, more especially of slave-concubines, will require delicate handling, but by adopting a conciliatory but firm policy, this curse may gradually be got rid of without causing disturbance or bloodshed. Cranks and faddists should not be allowed to handle this question, but it should be placed in the hands of some one well versed in human nature, and a true friend of freedom.

The wise policy of the British authorities in Zanzibar and Pemba is well worthy of imitation.

As happens in Africa, the greatest impediment to the conversion of the heathen polygamist is the obligation to renounce all his wives but one. This is a sore trial, more especially when they have paid a good price for them, or if they are good cooks.

Father Urios having persuaded a Manobo, who wished to be baptized, to do this, the man said to him: "Of my two wives I have decided to keep the elder, but I make a great sacrifice in separating from the other, for I had so much trouble to obtain her. Her father would only give her to me in exchange for fifteen slaves. As I did not possess them, I was obliged to take the field against the timid tribes in an unknown country, and to capture these fifteen slaves. I was obliged to fight often, and to kill more than thirty men."

The illustration represents a scene from the labours of Father Gisbert amongst the Bagobos. He is exhorting a blood-stained old datto and his wives and followers to abandon their human sacrifices, exhibiting to them the image of the crucified Redeemer, whose followers he urges them to become.

As regards the maintenance of the missions, I do not for one moment doubt that the liberality of the Roman Catholics of the United States is quite equal to the needs of the pioneers of civilisation, who have laboured with such remarkable success.

Altogether the Jesuits administered the spiritual, and some of the temporal affairs of 200,000 Christians in Mindanao.

They educated the young, taught them handicrafts, attended to the sick, consoled the afflicted, reconciled those at variance, explored the country, encouraged agriculture, built churches, laid out roads, and assisted the Administration. Finally, when bands of slave-hunting, murdering Moros swept down like wolves on their flocks, they placed themselves at the head of their ill-armed parishioners and led them into battle against a ferocious enemy who gives no quarter, with the calmness of men who, long before, had devoted their lives to the Master's cause, to whom nothing in this world is of any consequence except the advancement of the Faith and the performance of duty.

They received very meagre monetary assistance from the Spanish Government, and had to depend greatly upon the pious offerings of the devout in Barcelona and in Madrid. It is to be feared that these subscriptions will now fall off as Spain has lost the islands; if so, it is all the more incumbent upon the Roman Catholics of America to find the means of continuing the good work.

I feel sure that this will be so--Christian charity will not fail, and the missions will be maintained.

For their devotion and zeal, I beg to offer the Jesuit missionaries my profound respect and my earnest wishes for their welfare under the Stars and Stripes.

To my mind, they realise very closely the ideal of what a Christian missionary should be. Although a Protestant born and bred, I see in that no reason to close my eyes to their obvious merit, nor to seek to be-little the great good they have done in Mindanao. Far from doing so, I wish to state my conviction that the easiest, the best, and the most humane way of pacifying Mindanao is by utilising the powerful influence of the Jesuit missionaries with their flocks, and this before it is too late, before the populations have had time to completely forget the Christian teaching, and to entirely relapse into barbarism.

List of Posts in Mindanao Garrisoned by Detachments of the Native Army with Spanish Officers in 1894.

Field Officers. Officers. Men. 1st District.

San Ramon .. 1 12 Infantry. Santa Maria .. 1 34 Infantry. Margos-sa-tubig .. 2 60 Infantry.

2nd District. Fort Weyler, Mumungan 1 7 321 Infantry. Fort Weyler, Mumungan .. 1 18 Artillery. Fort Weyler, Mumungan .. 2 112 Engineers. Fort Weyler, Mumungan .. 1 30 Cavalry. Fort Weyler, Mumungan .. 3 158 Disciplinary Battn. Iligan .. 1 30 Tercio Civil. Almonte .. 2 58 Infantry. Almonte .. .. 8 Artillery. Almonte .. 1 20 Disciplinary Battn. Tangok, Alfonso XIII. .. 1 20 Infantry. Balatacan, Infanta Isabel .. 1 20 Infantry. Trocha de Tucuran, Sta. Pax and Sta. Eulalia Maria Cristina .. 3 150 Infantry.

Dapitan. Sundangan .. 1 32 Infantry. Parang-parang 1 3 500 Infantry. Parang-parang .. 1 12 Artillery. Parang-parang .. 2 60 Disciplinary Battn. Parang-parang .. 3 60 Engineers. Matabang .. 3 200 Infantry. Matabang .. .. 10 Artillery. Baras .. 3 200 Infantry. Baras .. .. 10 Artillery.

Sarangani. Glan .. 2 45 Infantry. Makra .. 1 32 Infantry. Balut .. 1 20 Infantry. Tumanao .. 1 Sergt. 15 Infantry.

5th District. Cottabato .. 3 100 Infantry. Cottabato .. 1 12 Artillery. Libungan .. 1 Sergt. 12 Infantry. Tamontaca .. 1 20 Infantry. Taviran .. 1 22 Infantry. Tumbao .. 1 60 Infantry. Kudaranga .. 1 20 Infantry. Reina Regente .. 3 100 Infantry. Pikit .. 1 60 Infantry. 6 Artillery. Pinto .. .. 60 Infantry. 6 Artillery.

Coast. Pollok .. 1 Sergt. 11 Infantry. Panay .. 1 11 Infantry. Lebak .. 1 11 Infantry. ---- ---- ------ 2 65 2758

This number is exclusive of the garrisons of Zamoanga and Davao.

Basilan 2 officers, 50 men.

Estimate of the Moro Forces in Mindanao in the Year 1894.

District. Fighting-men. Guns. Lantacas. Rifles.

Tucaran 1,000 2 54 162 Parang-parang 2,500 2 29 117 Malabang 3,500 1 342 265 Baras 2,000 4 19 23 Lake Lanao and surrounding district 10,000 26 1,452 1,600 -------- ---- ------- ------- 19,000 35 1,896 2,167

The fighting-men of the River Pulangui, and the Rio Grande comprised within the 5th District are not included in this list, as many of them have submitted to the Spaniards, and there appears little to fear from them. Only those who are quite independent and war-like, and who may be considered dangerous have been set down.

Population of Mindanao in 1894.

As given by Jose Nieto Aguilar.

Districts. Area in Population Christians. Moros. Heathen. Hectares. Total.

[31] Zamboanga 2,984,696 17,000 8,000 90,000 115,000 [32] Misamis (Dapitan and Camiguin Is.) 1,098,000 116,000 100,000 20,000 236,000 [33] Surigao 1,070,190 68,000 8,000 12,000 88,000 Bislig 441,291 21,076 .. 10,000 31,076 [34] Davao 1,044,333 1,500 .. 17,300 18,800 Cotta-bato 2,829,379 4,000 80,000 [35] 120,000 204,000 ------- ------- ------- ------- 227,576 196,000 269,300 692,876

APPENDIX.

SOME OF THE COMBATS, MASSACRES AND REBELLIONS, DISPUTES AND CALAMITIES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.

1521. Magellan and several of his followers killed in action by the natives of Mactan, near Cebu; Juan Serrano and many other Spaniards treacherously killed by Hamabar, King of Cebu.

1525. Salazar fights the Portuguese off Mindanao, and suffers great losses in ships and men.

1568. Legaspi's expedition attacked in Cebu by a Portuguese fleet, which was repulsed.

1570. Legaspi founds the city of Cebu, with the assistance of the Augustinians.

1571. Legaspi founds the city of Manila, with the assistance of the Augustinians.

1572. Juan Salcedo fights the Datto of Zambales, and delivers his subjects from oppression.

1574. Siege of Manila by the Chinese pirate Li-ma-hon with 95 small vessels and 2000 men. The Spaniards and natives repulse the attack. The pirates retire to Pangasinan, and are attacked and destroyed by Juan Salcedo.

1577. War against Mindanao and Jolo, parts of which are occupied. Disputes between the missionaries and the military officers who desire to enrich themselves by enslaving the natives, which the former stoutly oppose, desiring to convert them, and grant them exemption from taxes according to the "Leyes de Indias." They considered the cupidity of the soldiers as the chief obstacle to the conversion of the heathen. The Crown decided in favour of the natives, but they did not derive all the benefits they were entitled to, as the humane laws were not respected by the governors.

The Franciscans arrived in Manila.

1580. Expedition sent by Gonzalo Ronquillo to Borneo to assist King Sirela.

1581. Expedition sent by the same to Cagayan to expel a Japanese corsair who had established himself there. The expedition succeeded, but with heavy loss.

Expedition against the Igorrotes to get possession of the gold-mines, but without success.

The Jesuits arrive in Manila.

1582. Expedition against the Molucas, under Sebastian Ronquillo. An epidemic destroyed two-thirds of the expedition, which returned without accomplishing anything.

Great disputes between the encomenderos and the friars in consequence of the ill-treatment of the natives by the former. Dissensions between the Bishop of Manila and the friars who refused to submit to his diocesan visit.

Manila burnt down.

1584. Second expedition against the Molucas, with no better luck than the first.

Rebellion of the Pampangos and Manila men, assisted by some Mahometans from Borneo. Combat between the English pirate, Thomas Schadesh, and Spanish vessels.

Combat between the English adventurer Thomas Cavendish (afterwards Sir Thomas), and Spanish vessels.

1587. The Dominicans arrive in Manila.

1589. Rebellion in Cagayan and other provinces.

1593. Third expedition against the Molucas under Gomez Perez Dasmarinias. He had with him in his galley 80 Spaniards and 250 Chinese galley-slaves. In consequence of contrary winds, his vessel put into a port near Batangas for shelter. In the silence of the night, when the Spaniards were asleep, the galley-slaves arose and killed them all except a Franciscan friar and a secretary. Dasmarinias built the castle of Santiago, and fortified Manila with stone walls, cast a large number of guns, and established the college of Sta. Potenciana.

1596. The galleon which left Manila for Acapulco with rich merchandise, was obliged to enter a Japanese port by stress of weather, and was seized by the Japanese authorities. The crew were barbarously put to death.

1597. Expedition of Luis Perez Dasmarinias against Cambodia, which gained no advantage.

1598. The Audiencia re-established in Manila, and the bishopric raised to an archbishopric.

Expedition against Mindanao and Jolo, the people from which were committing great devastations in Visayas, taking hundreds of captives.

Much fighting, and many killed on both sides, without any definite result.

1599. Destructive earthquake in Manila and neighbourhood.

1600. Great sea combat between four Spanish ships, commanded by Judge Morga, and two Dutch pirates. One of the Dutchmen was taken, but the other escaped.

Another destructive earthquake on January 7th, and one less violent, but long, in November.

1603. Conspiracy of Eng-Cang and the Chinese against the Spaniards. The Chinese entrench themselves near Manila; Luis Perez Dasmarinias marches against them with 130 Spaniards. They were all killed and decapitated by the Chinese, who then besieged Manila, and attempted to take it by assault. Being repulsed by the Spaniards, all of whom, including the friars, took up arms, they retired to their entrenchments. They were ultimately defeated, and 23,000 of them were massacred. Only 100 were left alive, and these were sent to the galleys as slaves.

1606. The Recollets arrive in Manila.

Fourth expedition against the Molucas. Pedro de Acuna, having received a reinforcement of 800 men--Mexicans and Peruvians--attacked and took Ternate, Tidore, Marotoy and Herrao, with all their artillery and provisions. He left 700 men in garrison there, and returned to Manila, dying a few days after his arrival. The Augustinians furnished a galleon for this expedition. It was commanded by the Rev. Father Antonio Flores.

1607. Revolt of the Japanese living in and near Manila, and heavy losses on both sides.

1609. Arrival of Juan de Silva with five companies of Mexican and Peruvian infantry. Attack on Manila by a Dutch squadron of five vessels. They were beaten off with the loss of three of their ships.

1610. Unsuccessful expedition against Java. This was to have been a combined attack on the Dutch by Portuguese and Spaniards, but the Spanish squadron did not arrive in time to join their allies, who were beaten by the Dutch fleet in the Straits of Malacca.

Terrific earthquake in Manila and the eastern provinces.

1616. Violent eruption of the Mayon volcano.

1622. Revolt of the natives in Bohol, Leyte and Cagayan, which were easily suppressed.

1624. The Dutch landed on Corregidor Island, but were beaten off.

1627. August. Great earthquake.

1628. Destructive earthquake in Camarines.

1638. Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera makes an attack on the Moros of Mindanao, and conquers the Sultanate of Buhayen and island of Basilan. He also defeats the Joloans.

1639. Insurrection of Chinese in the province of Laguna and in Manila. Out of 30,000, 7000 ultimately surrendered. All the rest were massacred by the Tagals.

1640. The Dutch attacked the Spanish garrisons in Mindanao and Jolo. The governor-general, fearing they might attack Manila, withdrew the garrisons from the above places to strengthen his own defences, thus leaving the Moros masters of both islands.

1641. Eruption of the Taal volcano. Violent earthquake in Ilocos.

1645. The Dutch attacked Cavite and other ports, but were repulsed.

Rebellion of the Moros in Jolo, and of the natives of Cebu and other provinces, who were oppressed by forced labour in building vessels, and other services.

In these years there were great disputes between the Spaniards of the capital and the friars.

Great earthquake in Manila, 30th November, called St. Andrew's earthquake.

1646. Long series of strong earthquakes, which began in March with violent shocks, and lasted for sixty days.

1648. Great earthquakes in Manila.

1653. Great devastations by the Moros of Mindanao, which were severely punished.

Rebellion in Pampanga and Pangasinan against being forced to cut timber gratuitously for the navy. Suppressed after a serious resistance.

1658. Destructive earthquake in Manila and Cavite.

1662. The Chinese pirate, Cong-seng, demands tribute from the Governor of the Philippines. A decree is issued ordering all Chinamen to leave the Philippines. The Chinese entrench themselves in the Parian, and resist. Thousands were killed, and 2000 who marched into Pampanga were all massacred by the natives.

Great troubles occurred between the governor, Diego de Salcedo, and the archbishop.

1665. 19th June, violent and destructive earthquake in Manila.

1669. During the government of Manuel de Leon, further troubles occurred between the archbishop and the Audiencia. The archbishop was banished, and sent by force to Pangasinan. But a new governor, Gabriel de Cruzalegui, arrived, and restored the archbishop, who excommunicated the dean and chapter.

1675. Destructive earthquake in South Luzon and Mindoro.

1683. Great earthquake in Manila.

1689. Archbishop Pardo having died, was succeeded by P. Camacho, and now great disorders arose from his insisting on making the diocesan visit, which the friars refused to receive, and would only be visited by their own Provincial. Again Judge Sierra required the Augustinians and Dominicans to present the titles of the estates they possessed in virtue of a special commission he had brought from Madrid, which they refused to obey, and the end of the dispute was that Sierra was sent back to Mexico, and another commissioner, a friend of the friars, was appointed, to whom they unofficially exhibited the titles.

1716. Destructive eruption of the Taal volcano, and violent earthquake in Manila.

1717. Fernando Bustillo Bustamente became governor, and re-established garrisons in Zamboanga and Paragua. He caused various persons who had embezzled the funds of the colony to restore them, imprisoning a corrupt judge. He was assassinated by the criminals he had punished, and nothing came of the inquiry into his death.

1735. Earthquake in Baler, and tidal wave.

At this time, the audacity of the Moro pirates was incredible. They ravaged the Visayas and southern Luzon, and carried away the inhabitants by thousands for slaves. The natives began to desert the coast, and take to the interior. Pedro Manuel de Arandia, obeying repeated orders, decreed the expulsion of the Chinese.

1744. Another rising in Bohol, due to the tyranny of a Jesuit priest named Morales. The chief of this rising was a native named Dagohoy, who put the Jesuit to death, and maintained the independence of Bohol, paying no tribute for thirty-five years. When the Jesuits were expelled from the Philippines, Recollets were sent to Bohol, and the natives submitted on receiving a free pardon.

1749. Eruption of the Taal volcano, and earthquake in Manila. The eruption lasted for twenty days.

1754. Violent eruption of the Taal volcano, which began on 15th May, and lasted till the end of November. This was accompanied by earthquakes, an inundation, terrifying electrical discharges, and destructive storms. The ashes darkened the country for miles round, even as far as Manila. When the eruption ceased, the stench was dreadful, and the sea and lake threw up quantities of dead fish and alligators. A malignant fever burst out, which carried off vast numbers of the population round about the volcano.

1762. A British squadron, with troops from India, arrived in the bay 22nd September, and landed the forces near the powder-magazine of S. Antonio Abad. On the 24th, the city was bombarded. The Spaniards sent out 2000 Pampangos to attack the British, but they were repulsed with great slaughter, and ran away to their own country.

The civil population of Manila were decidedly in favour of resisting to the last drop of the soldiers' blood; but the soldiers were not at all anxious for this. Confusion arose in the city, and whilst recriminations were in progress, the British took the city by assault, meeting only a half-hearted resistance.

The natives immediately began plundering, and were turned out of the city by General Draper. The Chinese also joined in the robbery, and a few were hanged in consequence. The city was pillaged. The British regiments are said to have behaved well, but the sepoys ravished the women, and killed many natives.

Cavite was about to be surrendered, but as soon as the native troops there knew what was going on, they began at once to plunder the town and arsenal.

1763. A British expedition sailing in small craft took possession of Malolos on January 19th, 1763. The Augustin and Franciscan friars took arms to defend Bulacan, where two of them were killed in action.

It was said that the Chinese were conspiring to exterminate the Spaniards. Simon de Anda, the chief of the war-party amongst the Spaniards, issued an order that all the Chinese in the Philippines should be hanged, and this order was in a great measure carried out. This was the fourth time the Spaniards and natives exterminated the Chinese in the Philippines.

Peace having been made in Europe, the British evacuated Manila in March, 1774.

In order to satisfy their vanity, and account for the easy victory of the British, the Spaniards made various accusations of treachery against a brave Frenchman named Falles, and a Mexican, Santiago de Orendain. Both those men gallantly led columns of Pampangos against the British lines in the sortie before mentioned. Although the Pampangos, full of presumption, boldly advanced against the British and sepoys, they were no match for disciplined troops led by British officers, and were hurled back at the point of the bayonet. The inevitable defeat and rout was made a pretext for the infamous charges against their leaders. It may be asked, Was there no Spaniard brave enough to lead the sorties, that a Frenchman and a Mexican were obliged to take command?

The Spaniards in this campaign showed themselves more at home in making proclamations, accusations, and intriguing against each other, than in fighting. However, the friars are exempt from this reproach, for Augustinians, Dominicans and Franciscans, fought and died, and shamed the soldiers.

No less than ten Augustinians fell on the field of battle, nineteen were made prisoners, and twelve were banished. The British are said by the Augustinians to have sacked and destroyed fifteen of their conventos, or priests' houses, six houses of their haciendas, and to have sold everything belonging to them in Manila. The Augustinians gave their church bells to be cast into cannon for the defence of the islands.

Spaniards and natives, however, showed great unanimity and enthusiasm in massacring or hanging the unwarlike Chinamen, and in pillaging their goods. Nearly all the Chinese in the islands, except those in the parts held by the British, were killed.

During the Anglo-Spanish war there were revolts of the natives in Pangasinan and in Ilocos, then a very large province (it is now divided into four), but both these risings were suppressed. The same happened with a revolt in Cagayan. Disturbances also occurred in many other provinces.

Simon de Anda became Governor-General, and carried out the expulsion of the Jesuits from the Philippines. Great troubles again occurred between the Archbishop and the friars over the diocesan visit.

1766. 20th July, violent eruption of the Mayon volcano.

23rd October, terrible typhoon in Albay, causing enormous destruction of life and property.

1777. Jose Basco y Vargas, a naval officer, came out as Governor-General, and found the country overrun with banditti. He made a war of extermination against them, and then initiated a vigorous campaign against the Moros. He repaired the forts, built numbers of war vessels, and cut up the pirates in many encounters. Basco governed for nearly eleven years.

1784. During the government of Felix Marquina, a naval officer, the Compania de Filipinas was founded to commence a trade between Spain and the Philippines. Marquina was succeeded by Rafael Maria de Aguilar, an army officer, who organized the land and naval forces, and made fierce war on the Moros. He governed the islands for fourteen years.

1787. Violent and destructive earthquake in Panay.

1796. Disastrous earthquake in Manila.

1800. Destructive eruption of the Mayon volcano.

1807. Rebellion in Ilocos.

When the parish priest of Betal, an Augustinian, was preaching to his flock, exhorting them to obedience to their sovereign, a woman stood up in the church and spoke against him, saying that they should not believe him, that his remarks were all humbug, that with the pretence of God, the Gospel, and the King, the priest merely deceived them, so that the Spaniards might skin them and suck their blood, for the priests were Spaniards like the rest. However, the townsmen declared for the King, and took the field under the leadership of the priest.

1809. The first English commercial house established in Manila.

1811. Rebellion in Ilocos to change the religion, nominating a new god called Lungao. The leaders of this rebellion entered into negotiations with the Igorrotes and other wild tribes to exterminate the Spaniards, but the conspiracy was discovered and frustrated.

1814. Rebellion in Ilocos and other provinces.

Prisoners released in some towns in Ilocos. This rebellion was in consequence of General Gandaras proclaiming the equality of races, which the Indians interpreted by refusing to pay taxes.

1st February, violent earthquake in south Luzon and destructive eruption of the Mayon volcano. Astonishing electrical discharges.

A discharge of ashes caused five hours' absolute darkness, through which fell showers of red hot stones which completely burnt the towns of Camalig, Cagsana, and Budiao with half of the towns of Albay and Guinchatau, and part of Bulusan.

The darkness caused by the black ashes reached over the whole of Luzon, and even to the coast of China. So loud was the thunder that it was heard in distant parts of the Archipelago.

Great epidemic of cholera in Manila.

1820. Massacre of French, English, and Americans in Manila by the natives who plundered their dwellings, after which they proceeded with the fifth massacre of the Chinese. They asserted that the Europeans had poisoned the wells and produced the cholera. The massacre was due to the villainous behaviour of a Philippine Spaniard named Varela, who was Alcalde of Tondo, equivalent to Governor of Manila, and to the criminal weakness and cowardice of Folgueras the acting governor-general, who abstained from interference until the foreigners had been killed, and only sent out troops when forced by the remonstrances of the friars and other Spaniards.

The archbishop and the friars behaved nobly, for they marched out in procession to the streets of Binondo, and did their best to stop the massacre, whilst Folgueras, only attentive to his own safety, remained with the fortifications.

1822. Juan Antonio Martinez took over the government in October. Folgueras having reported unfavourably of the officers of the Philippine army, Martinez brought with him a number of officers of the Peninsular army to replace those who were inefficient.

This caused a mutiny of the Spanish officers of the native army, and they murdered Folgueras in his bed. He thus expiated his cowardice in 1820. The mutiny was, however, suppressed, and Novales and twenty sergeants were shot. Novales' followers had proclaimed him Emperor of the Philippines. The constitution was abolished by Martinez, without causing any rising.

1824. Destructive earthquake in Manila.

Alonzo Morgado appointed by Martinez to be captain of the Marina Sutil, commenced an unrelenting persecution of the piratical Moros, causing them enormous losses.

1828. Another military insurrection, headed by two brothers, officers in the Philippine army.

From this date Peninsular troops were permanently maintained in Manila, which had never been done before.

1829. Father Bernardo Lago, an indefatigable missionary of the Augustinian Order, with his assistants baptised in the provinces of Abra and Benguet more than 5300 heathen Tinguianes and Igorrotes, and settled them in towns.

1834. Foreign vessels allowed to enter Manila by paying double dues.

1836-7. Great disturbances amongst the natives in consequence of the ex-claustration of the friars in Spain. The natives divided into two parties. One wished to turn out the friars and all Spaniards, the others to turn out all Spaniards except the friars, who were to remain and take charge of the government.

The disturbances were ultimately smoothed over.

1841. Marcelino de Oraa being Governor-General, a sanguinary insurrection burst out in Tayabas, under the leadership of a native, Apolinario de la Cruz. He murdered the Alcalde of the province, and persuaded his fanatical adherents that he would make the earth open and swallow up the Spanish forces when they attacked.

His following was composed of 3000 men, women, and children. They were attacked by four hundred soldiers and as many cuadrilleros and coast-guards, and suffered a crushing defeat, and a third of them were slain.

Apolinario de la Cruz was apprehended, and immediately put to death.

Apolinario called himself the "King of the Tagals," and told his followers that a Tagal virgin would come down from Heaven to wed him, that with a handful of rice he could maintain all who followed him, and that the Spanish bullets could not hurt them, and many other absurd things. His followers declared that he had signified his intention, in case of being victorious, to tie all the friars and other Spaniards to trees, and to have them shot by the women with arrows.

There lay in garrison at Manila at this time a regiment composed of Tagals of Tayabas, and they also mutinied, and were shot down by the other troops.

1844. Royal order prohibiting the admission of foreigners to the interior of the country.

Narciso de Claveria became Governor-General, and organised a police force called the Public Safety for Manila, and similar corps for the provinces. Up to this time the Alcaldes Mayores of provinces had been allowed to trade, and, in fact, were almost the only traders in their provinces, buying up the whole crop. This forced trade is quite a Malay custom, and is practised in Borneo and the Malay States under the name of Serra-dagang.

The Alcaldes Mayores used to pay the crown one third, or half, or all their salary for this privilege, and took in return all they could squeeze out of their provinces without causing an insurrection, or without causing the friars to complain of them to the Government, for the parish priests were ever the protectors of the natives against the civil authority. This privilege of trading was now abolished as being unworthy of the position of governor of a province.

1851. Expedition by the Governor-General Antonio de Urbiztondo against Jolo. The force consisted of four regiments, with artillery, and a battalion of the inhabitants of Cebu, under the command of a Recollet friar, Father Ibanez. These latter behaved in the bravest manner, in fact they had to; for their wives, at the instance of the priest, had sworn never to receive them again if they turned their backs on the enemy.

The undaunted Father Ibanez led them to the assault, and lost his life in the moment of victory. Eight cottas (forts), with their artillery and ammunition, were captured by this expedition, and a great number of Moros were killed.

After this the Jolo pirates abated their insolent attacks. Claveria made an expedition against the piratical Moros and seized their island of Balanguingin, killing 400 Moros, and taking 300 prisoners, also rescuing 200 captives. He also captured 120 guns and lantacas, and 150 piratical vessels. This exemplary chastisement tranquillised the Moros for some time.

1853. 13th June. Loud subterranean noises in Albay and eruption of the Mayon volcano. Fall of ashes and red-hot stones which rolled down the mountain and killed thirty-three people.

1854. Insurrection in Nueva Ecija under Cuesta, a Spanish mestizo educated in Spain, where Queen Isabela had taken notice of him.

He arrived in Manila with the appointment of Commandant of Carabineros in Nueva Ecija, and immediately began to plot. The Augustine friars harangued his followers and persuaded them to disperse, and Cuesta was captured and executed, with several other conspirators; others were banished to distant islands.

In this year Manuel Crespo became Governor-General, and a military officer, named Zapatero, endeavoured to strangle him in his own office.

1855. Strong shocks of earthquake in all Luzon. Eruption of the Mayon volcano.

1856. In the latter part of this year a submarine volcanic explosion took place at the Didica shoal, eight miles north-east of the island of Camiguin in the Babuyanes, to the north of Luzon. It remains an

## active volcano, and has raised a cone nearly to the height of the

volcano of Camiguin, which is 2414 feet high.

1857. The old decrees against foreigners renewed.

Fernando de Norzagaray became governor-general, and found the country over-run by bandits, against whom he employed severe measures. He greatly improved Manila.

The French in Cochin-China, finding more resistance than they expected, appealed to Norzagaray for help. He lent them money, ships, and about a thousand native troops, who behaved with great bravery during the campaign.

1860. Ramon Maria Solano succeeded to the Government.

In this year two steam sloops and nine steam gunboats were added to the naval forces, and now the Moros could only put to sea running great risks of destruction.

These nine gunboats were the greatest blessings the Philippines had received for many years.

1861. Jose de Lemery y Ibarrola, Governor-General. Mendez-Nunez, with the steam sloops and gunboats, inflicted terrible chastisement on the piratical Moros.

1862. Rafael de Echague y Bermingham became Governor-General.

Second visitation of cholera in the islands, but not so severe as in 1820.

1863. Terrible earthquake in Manila and the surrounding country, causing thousands of victims, destroying the cathedral, the palace of the governor-general, the custom houses, the principal churches (except St. Augustine), the public and private buildings, in fact, reducing the city to a ruin.

At this time the steam gunboats continually hostilised the Moros of Jolo, and caused them great losses.

1865. Juan de Lara y Irigoyen became Governor-General, and took measures to subdue the bandits, who were committing great depredations and murders. Hostilities continued in Jolo, as the Moros had recommenced their piratical cruises.

1866. Frequent earthquakes in Manila and Benguet.

At this time the Treasury was in the greatest difficulty, and could not meet the current payments. A large quantity of tobacco was sold to meet the difficulty.

1867. Jose de la Gandara y Navarro became Governor-General. To him is due the credit of creating that excellent institution the Guardia Civil, which has extirpated the banditti who infested the islands for so many years.

An expedition was sent against the Igorrotes, but without effecting anything of consequence.

1868. June 4th. Intense earthquake in the island of Leyte.

1869. Carlos Maria de la Torre became Governor-General, and was not ashamed to publish a proclamation offering the bandits a free pardon if they presented themselves within three months. Hundreds and thousands of men now joined the bandits for three months murder and pillage, with a free pardon at the end of it. This idiotic and cowardly proclamation was most prejudicial to the interests of the country. Finally a special corps, called La Torre's Guides, was organised to pursue the bandits.

1871. Rafael Izquierdo y Guttierez became Governor-General, and raised the excellent corps called La Veterana to act as the police of the capital.

December 8th, eruption of the Mayon volcano, and discharge of ashes and lava. Two persons smothered, and one burnt.

16th February. Commencement of the series of earthquakes which preceded the frightful volcanic eruption in the island of Camiguin on 30th April. Full details of this terrible event are preserved. A volcanic outburst took place on the above date at 344 metres from the town of Cabarman, and near the sea. Great volumes of inflammable gases were ejected from deep cracks in the neighbouring hills, which presently took fire, and soared in flames of incredible height, setting fire to the forests. The wretched inhabitants who had remained in their houses found themselves surrounded by smoke, steam, water, ashes, and red hot stones, whilst their island seemed on fire, and they had sent away all their seaworthy craft with the women and children.

At first the volcanic vent was only two metres high, but it continually increased.

After the eruption, the earthquakes decreased, and on 7th May entirely ceased.

The volcano gradually raised itself by the material thrown out to a height of 418 metres.

1872. Military revolt in Cavite, in which the native clergy were mixed up. A secret society had been working at this plot for several years, and was very widely extended. It inundated the towns of the Archipelago with calumnious and libellous leaflets in the native languages. The conspiracy coincided with the return of the Jesuits in accordance with a Royal Order, and their substitution for the Recollets missionaries in many parishes in Mindanao. In turn, the Recollets, removed from Mindanao, were given benefices in Luzon which, for one hundred years, had been in the hands of the native clergy, who were, in consequence, very dissatisfied, and great hatred was aroused against the Recollets. The mutiny was suppressed by the Spaniards and the Visayas troops, who bayoneted the Tagals without mercy, even when they had laid down their arms.

Besides many who were shot for complicity in this revolt, three native priests--D. Mariano Gomez, D. Jacinto Zamora, and D. Jose Burgos--were garrotted in Bagumbayan on the 28th February. Much discussion arose about the guilt or innocence of these men, and it is a matter on which friars and native clergy are never likely to agree.

Later on, a rising took place in Zamboanga penal establishment, but this was put down by the warlike inhabitants of that town, who are always ready to take up arms in their own defence, and are very loyal to Spain.

Loud subterranean noises in Albay. Eruption of the Mayon volcano, which lasted for four days.

1873. Juan de Alaminos y Vivar became governor-general.

The ports of Legaspi, Tacloban and Leyte, were opened to foreign commerce.

November 14, 1873, violent earthquake in Manila. Eruption of the Mayon volcano, from 15th June to 23rd July.

1874. Manuel Blanco Valderrama, being acting governor-general, fighting took place in Balabac, where the Spanish garrison was surprised by the Moros. Jose Malcampo y Monge, a rear-admiral, took over the government of the islands, and, during his administration, the news of the proclamation of Alfonso XII, as King of Spain was received, and gave great satisfaction in Manila, which had never taken to the Republican Government in Spain.

Malcampo led a strong expedition, consisting of 9000 men, against the Moros, and took Jolo by assault, after bombarding the Cottas by the ships' guns. At the end of his time, the regiment of Peninsular Artillery had become demoralised, and its discipline very lax. Finally, the soldiers refused to obey their officers, and broke out of barracks.

Two of them were shot dead by the officer of the guard at the barrack-gate, Captain Brull, but the affair was hushed up, and no one was punished. Discipline was quite lost.

1877. Great devastation by locusts in province of Batangas. Domingo Moriones y Murillo arrived, and took over the government on 28th February. His first act was to shoot a number of the Spanish mutineers, put others in prison, and send back fifty to Spain in the same vessel with Malcampo. This incident is related in greater detail in