livre v

. prop. iv. pp. 228-229.

EUONYMUS, in botany, a genus of deciduous or evergreen shrubs or small trees, widely distributed in the north temperate zone, and represented in Britain by _E. europaeus_, the spindle tree, so called from its hard tough wood being formerly used for spindles. It is a shrub or small tree growing in copses or hedges, with a grey smooth bark, four-angled green twigs, opposite leaves and loose clusters of small greenish-white flowers. The ripe fruit is a pale crimson colour and splits into four lobes exposing the bright orange-coloured seed. _E. japonicus_ is a hardy evergreen shrub, often variegated and well known in gardens. The Greek name [Greek: euonymos], of good name, lucky, is probably a euphemism; the flowering was said to foretell plague.

EUPALINUS, of Megara, a Greek architect, who constructed for the tyrant Polycrates of Samos a remarkable tunnel to bring water to the city, passing under a hill. This aqueduct still exists, and is one of the most remarkable constructions in Greece (see AQUEDUCT: _Greek_).

EUPATORIA (Russ. _Evpatoria_; also known as _Kozlov_ and to the Turks as _Gezlev_), a seaport of Russia, in the government of Taurida, on the W. coast of the Crimea, 20 m. N.W. of Simferopol, on a sandy promontory on the north of Kalamita Bay, in 45 deg. 12' N. and 33 deg. 40' E. Pop. (1871) 8294; (1897) 17,915. This number includes many Jews, the Karaite sect having here their principal synagogue. Here too resides the spiritual head (_gakhan_) of the sect. Of its numerous ecclesiastical buildings three are of interest--the synagogue of the Karaite Jews; one of the mosques, which has fourteen cupolas and is built (1552) after the plan of St Sophia in Constantinople; and the Greek Catholic cathedral (1898). The port or rather roadstead has a sandy bottom, and is exposed to violent storms from the N.E. The trade is principally in cereals, skins, cow-hair, felt, tallow and salt. Eupatoria has some repute as a sea-bathing resort.

According to some authorities it was near this spot that a military post, _Eupatorium_, was established in the 1st century A.D. by Diophantus, the general of Mithradates the Great, king of Pontus. Towards the end of the 15th century the Turks built the fortress of Gezleveh on the present site, and it became the capital of a khanate. It was occupied by the Russians under Marshal Muennich in 1736, and in 1771 by Prince Dolgorukov. Its annexation to Russia took place in 1783. In 1854 the Anglo-French troops were landed in the neighbourhood of Eupatoria, and in February 1855 the town was occupied by the Turkish forces.

EUPATRIDAE (Gr. [Greek: eu], well; [Greek: pater], father, i.e. "Sons of noble fathers"), the ancient nobility of Attica. Tradition ascribes to Theseus, whom it also regards as the author of the union (_synoecism_) of Attica round Athens as a political centre, the division of the Attic population into three classes, Eupatridae, Geomori and Demiurgi. The lexicographers mention as characteristics of the Eupatridae that they are the autochthonous population, the dwellers in the city, the descendants of the royal stock. It is probable that after the time of the _synoecism_ the nobles who had hitherto governed the various independent communities were obliged to reside in Athens, now the seat of government; and at the beginning of Athenian history the noble clans form a class which has the monopoly of political privilege. It is possible that in very early times the Eupatridae were the only full citizens of Athens; for the evidence suggests that they alone belonged to the phratries, and the division into phratries must have covered the whole citizen body. It is indeed just possible that the term may originally have signified "true member of a clan," since membership of a phratry was a characteristic of each clan ([Greek: genos]). It is not probable that the Eupatrid families were all autochthonous, even in the loose sense of that term. Some had no doubt immigrated to Attica when the rest had long been settled there. Traces of this union of immigrants with older inhabitants have been detected in the combination of Zeus Herkeios with Apollo Patrooes as the ancient gods of the phratry.

The exact relation of the Eupatridae to the other two classes has been a matter of dispute. It seems probable that the Eupatridae were the governing class, the only recognized nobility, the Geomori the country inhabitants of all ranks, and the Demiurgi the commercial and artisan population. The division attributed to Theseus is always spoken of by ancient authorities as a division of the entire population; but Busolt has recently maintained the view that the three classes represent three elements in the Attic nobility, namely, the city nobility, the landed nobility and the commercial nobility, and exclude altogether the mass of the population. At any rate it seems certain from the little we know of the early constitutional history of Athens, that the Eupatridae represent the only nobility that had any political recognition in early times. The political history of the Eupatridae is that of a gradual curtailment of privilege. They were at the height of their power in the period during the limitation of the monarchy. They alone held the two offices, those of polemarch and archon, which were instituted during the 8th century B.C. to restrict the powers of the kings. In 712 B.C. the office of king ([Greek: basileus]) was itself thrown open to all Eupatrids (see ARCHON). They thus had the entire control of the administration, and were the sole dispensers of justice in the state. At this latter privilege, which perhaps formed the strongest bulwark of the authority of the Eupatridae, a severe blow was struck (c. 621 B.C.) by the publication of a criminal code by Draco (q.v.), which was followed by the more detailed and permanent code of Solon (c. 594 B.C.), who further threw open the highest offices to any citizen possessed of a certain amount of landed property (see SOLON), thus putting the claims of the Eupatridae to political influence on a level with those of the wealthier citizens of all classes. The most highly coveted office at this time was not that of [Greek: Basileus], which, like that of the _rex sacrorum_ in Rome, had been stripped of all save its religious authority, but that of the Archon; soon after the legislation of Solon repeated struggles for this office between the Eupatridae and leading members of the other two classes resulted in a temporary change. Ten archons[1] were appointed, five of whom were to be Eupatridae, three Agroeci (i.e. Geomori), and two Demiurgi (Arist. _Ath. Pol_. xiii. 2). This arrangement, though short-lived, is significant of the decay of the political influence of the Eupatridae, and it is not likely that they recovered, even in practice, any real control of the government. By the middle of the 6th century the political influence of birth was at an end.

The name Eupatridae survived in historical times, but the Eupatridae were then excluded from the cult of the "Semnae" at Athens, and also held the hereditary office of "expounder of the law" ([Greek: exegetes]) in connexion with purification from the guilt of murder. The combination of these two characteristics suggests some connexion with the legend of Orestes. Again, Isocrates (xvi. 25) says of Alcibiades that his grandfather was a Eupatrid and his grandmother an Alcmaeonid, which suggests that in the 5th century the Eupatrids were a single clan, like the Alcmaeonids, and that the name had acquired a new signification. A pursuit of these two suggestions has established the probability that this "Eupatrid" clan traced its origin to Orestes, and derived its name from the hero, who was above all a benefactor of his father. The word will well bear this sense in the two passages in which Sophocles (_Electra_, 162, 859) applies it to Orestes; and it is likely enough that after the disappearance of the old Eupatridae as a political corporation, the name was adopted in a different sense, but not without a claim to the distinction inherent in the older sense, by one of the oldest of the clans.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. Busolt, _Die griechischen Staats- und Rechts-altertuemer_ (Mueller, _Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iv. I), pp. 127 et seq., 155 et seq., 248 (Munich, 1892); G. Gilbert, _Greek Constitutional Antiquities_, p. 101 et seq. (Eng. trans., London, 1895); for Eupatridae in historical times, J. Toepffer, _Attische Genealogie_, p. 175 et seq. (Berlin, 1889). See also the articles AREOPAGUS, ARCHON. (A. M. Cl.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] For a discussion of this see ARCHON.

EUPEN (Fr. _Neau_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, in a beautiful valley at the confluence of the Helle and Vesdre, 9 m. S. of Aix-la-Chapelle by rail. Pop. (1905) 14,297. It is a flourishing commercial place, and besides cloth and buckskin mills it has net and glove manufactories, soapworks, dyeworks, tanneries and breweries, and also carries on a considerable trade in cattle and dairy produce. It has a Protestant and four Roman Catholic churches, a Franciscan monastery, a progymnasium, an orphanage, a hospital, and a chamber of commerce. As part of the duchy of Limburg, Eupen was under the government of Austria until the peace of Luneville in 1801, when it passed to France. In 1814 it came into the possession of Prussia.

EUPHEMISM (from Gr. [Greek: euphemos], having a sound of good omen; [Greek: eu], well, and [Greek: pheme], sound or voice), a figure of speech in which an unpleasant or coarse phrase is replaced by a softer or less offensive expression. A euphemism has sometimes a metaphorical sense, as in the substitution of the word "sleep" for "death."

EUPHONIUM (Fr. _baryton_; Ger. _Tenor Tube_), a modern brass wind instrument, known in military bands as euphonium and in the orchestra as tuba. The euphonium consists of a brass tube with a conical bore of wide calibre ending in a wide-mouthed bell; it is played by means of a cup-shaped mouthpiece. The sound is produced as in the bombardon, which is the bass of the euphonium, by the varied tension of the lips across the mouthpiece, whereby the natural open notes or harmonics, consisting of the series here shown, are obtained.

[Illustration]

The intervening notes of the chromatic scale are obtained by means of valves or pistons usually four in number, which by opening a passage into additional lengths of tubing lower the pitch one, half, one-and-a-half, two-and-a-half tones (see BOMBARDON; TUBA; VALVES). The euphonium gives out the fundamental, or first note of the harmonic series, readily, but no harmonic above the eighth. Euphoniums are made in C and in B[flat], the latter being more generally used. By means of all the valves used at once, the B[flat], an octave below the fundamental, can be reached, giving a compass of four octaves, with chromatic intervals. The bass clef is used in notation. The euphonium is treated by French and German composers as a transposing instrument; in England the real notes are usually written, except when the treble clef is used. The quality of tone is rich and full, harmonizing well with that of the trombone. The euphonium speaks readily in the lower register, but slowly, of course, owing to the long dip of the pistons. Messrs Rudall Carte have removed this difficulty by their patent _short

## action_ pistons, which have but half the dip of the old pistons. On

these instruments it is easy to execute rapid passages.

The euphonium is frequently said to be a saxhorn, corresponding to the baryton member of that family, but the statement is misleading. The bombardon and euphonium, like the saxhorns, are the outcome of the application of valves to the bugle family, but there is a radical difference in construction; the tubas (bombardon and euphonium) have a conical bore of sufficiently wide calibre to allow of the production of the fundamental harmonic, which is absent in the saxhorns. The Germans classify brass wind instruments as _whole_ and _half_[1] according to whether, having the wide bore of the bugle, the _whole_ length of the tube is available and gives the fundamental proper to an organ pipe of the same length or whether by reason of the narrow bore in proportion to the length, only _half_ the length of the instrument is of practical utility, the harmonic series beginning with the second harmonic. (See BOMBARDON.) (K. S.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] See Dr Schafhaeutl's article on "Musical Instruments" in sect. iv. of _Bericht der Beurtheilungs- Commission bei der Allg. deutschen Industrie Ausstellung_ (Munich, 1854), pp. 169-170; also Fried. Zamminer, _Die Musik und die Musikinstrumente in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen der Akustik_ (Giessen, 1855).

EUPHORBIA, in botany, a large genus of plants from which the order Euphorbiaceae takes its name. It includes more than 600 species and is of almost world-wide distribution. It is represented in Britain by the spurges--small, generally smooth, herbaceous plants with simple leaves and inconspicuous flowers arranged in small cup-like heads (_cyathia_). The cyathium is a characteristic feature of the genus, and consists of a number of male flowers, each reduced to a single stamen, surrounding a central female flower which consists only of a stalked pistil; the group of flowers is enveloped in a cup formed by the union of four or five bracts, the upper part of which bears thick, conspicuous, gland-like structures, which in exotic species are often brilliantly coloured, giving the cyathium the appearance of a single flower. Another characteristic is the presence of a milky juice, or latex, in the tissues of the plant. In one section of the genus the plants resemble cacti, having a thick succulent stem and branches with the leaves either very small or completely reduced to a small wart-like excrescence, with which is generally associated a tuft of spines (a reduced shoot). These occur in the warmer parts of the world as a type of dry country or desert vegetation. The only species of note are _E. fulgens_ and _E. jacquiniaeflora_, for the warm greenhouse; _E. Cyparissias_ (the Cypress spurge), _E. Wulfeni_, _E. Lathyris_ and _E. Myrsinites_, for the open air.

EUPHORBIACEAE, in botany, a large natural order of flowering plants, containing more than 220 genera with about 4000 species, chiefly tropical, but spreading over the whole earth with the exception of the arctic and cold alpine zones. They are represented in Britain by the spurges (_Euphorbia_, q.v.) (fig. 1) and dog's mercury (_Mercurialis_) (fig. 2), which are herbaceous plants, but the greater number are woody plants and often trees. The large genus _Euphorbia_ shows great variety in habit; many species, like the English spurges, are annual herbs, others form bushes, while in the desert regions of tropical Africa and the Canary Islands species occur resembling cacti, having thick fleshy stems and leaves reduced to spines. Another large genus, _Phyllanthus_, contains small annual herbs as well as trees, while in some species the leaves are reduced to scales, and the branches are flattened, forming phylloclades. The leaves also show great variety in form and arrangement, being simple and entire as in the English spurges, or deeply cut as in _Ricinus_ (castor-oil) (fig. 3), and _Manihot_ or sometimes palmately compound (_Hevea_). The majority contain a milky juice or latex in their tissues which exudes on cutting or bruising. In _Hevea_, _Manihot_ and others the latex yields caoutchouc. The flowers are unisexual; male and female flowers are borne on the same, as in the spurges (fig. 1), or on different plants, as in dog's mercury (fig. 2). Their arrangement shows considerable variation, but the flowers are generally grouped in crowded definite partial inflorescences, which are themselves arranged in spikes or stand in the axils of the upper leaves. These partial inflorescences are generally unisexual, the male often containing numerous flowers while the female flowers are solitary. The

## partial inflorescence (_cyathium_) of _Euphorbia_ (fig. 1) resembles

superficially a hermaphrodite flower. It contains a central terminal flower, consisting of a naked pistil; below this are borne four or five bracts which unite to form a cup-shaped involucre resembling a calyx; each of these bracts subtends a small cyme of male flowers each consisting only of one stamen. Between the segments of the cup are large oval or crescent-shaped glands which are often brightly coloured, forming petal-like structures.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.

1. Shoot of _Euphorbia hypericifolia_, about 1/2 nat. size. 2. A partial inflorescence, _cyathium_, bearing the petaloid glands. 3. A similar one at a later stage, cut open to show the single-stamened (monandrous) male flowers and the central long-stalked female flower. 4. A cyathium without petaloid glandular appendages. 5. A similar one at a later stage with nearly ripe fruit. 6. An anther dehiscing. 7. Fruit dehiscing and exposing one of the three seeds. 8. Seed. 9. Seed cut lengthwise exposing the embryo. 10. Diagram of the inflorescence of _Euphorbia_, illustrating the dichasial cymose arrangement of the ultimate branches. b, Bract subtending the central terminal cyathium I. a'b', Bracteoles of the first order subtending the secondary cyathia II. a"b", Bracteoles of the second order subtending the tertiary cyathia III. In the central cyathium I. are shown the details of the arrangement of the male flowers in monochasial cymes, m, and the central female flower, f.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Dog's Mercury (_Mercurialis perennis_).

1. Male plant. 2. Female plant; 1/3 nat. size. 3. Female flower. 4. Male flower. 5. Fruit beginning to split open. 6. Seed cut lengthwise showing the embryo.]

The form of the flower shows great variety. The most complete type occurs in _Wielandia_, a shrub from the Seychelles Islands, in which the flowers have their parts in fives, a calyx and corolla being succeeded in the male flower by 5 stamens, in the female by 5 carpels. Generally, however, only 3 carpels are present, as in _Euphorbia_; _Mercurialis_ (fig. 2) has minute apetalous flowers with 3 sepals, followed in the male by 8 to 20 stamens, in the female by a bicarpellary pistil. In the large tropical genus _Croton_ a pentamerous calyx and corolla are generally present, the stamens are often very numerous, and the female flower has three carpels. In _Manihot_, a large tropical American genus to which belongs the manioc or cassava (_M. utilissima_), the calyx is often large and petaloid. In a great many genera the corolla is absent. The most reduced type of flower is that described in EUPHORBIA, where the male consists of one stamen separated from its pedicel by a joint, and the female of a naked tricarpellary pistil. The stamens are sometimes more or less united (monadelphous), and in castor-oil (_Ricinus_) (fig. 3) are much branched. The ovary generally contains three chambers, and bears three simple or more often bipartite styles; each chamber contains one or two pendulous ovules, which generally bear a cap-like outgrowth or _caruncle_, which persists in the seed (well shown in castor oil, fig. 3).

As the stamens and pistil are borne by different flowers, cross-fertilization is necessary. In _Mercurialis_ and others with inconspicuous flowers pollination is effected by the wind, but in many cases insects are attracted to the flower by the highly-coloured bracts, as in many _Euphorbias_ and _Dalechampia_, or by the coloured calyx as in _Manihot_; the presence of honey is also frequently an attraction, as in the honey-glands on the bracts of the cyathium of _Euphorbia_. The fruit is generally a capsule which splits into three divisions (_cocci_), separating from the central column, and splitting lengthwise into two valves. In the mancinil (_Hippomane mancinella_) of Central America the fruit is a drupe like a plum, and in some genera berries occur. In the sandbox tree (_Hura crepitans_) of tropical America the ovary consists of numerous carpels, and forms when mature a capsule which splits with great violence and a loud report into a number of woody cocci. The seeds contain abundant endosperm and a large straight or bent embryo.

[Illustration: From Bentley and Trimen's _Medicinal Plants_, by permission of J. & A. Churchill.

FIG. 3.--Castor Oil (_Ricinus communis_). End of shoot with flower-spike; about 1/3 nat. size.

1. Section of male flower, about nat. size. 2. Group of stamens. 3. Fruit. 4. Seed. 5 and 6. Vertical and transverse sections of seed showing embryo in position.]

Several members of the order are of economic importance. _Manihot utilissima_, manioc or cassava (q.v.), is one of the most important tropical food-plants, its thick tuberous root being rich in starch; it is the source of Brazilian arrowroot. Caoutchouc or india-rubber is obtained from species of _Hevea_, _Mabea_, _Manihot_ and _Sapium_. Castor oil (q.v.) is obtained from the seeds of _Ricinus communis_. The seeds of _Aleurites moluccana_ and _Sapium sebiferum_ also yield oil. Resin is obtained from species of _Croton_ and _Euphorbia_. Many of the species are poisonous; e.g. the South African _Toxicodendron_ is one of the most poisonous plants known. Many, such as _Euphorbia_, _Mercurialis_, _Croton_, _Jatropha_, _Tragia_, have been, or still are, used as medicines. Species of _Codiaeum_ (q.v.), _Croton_, _Euphorbia_, _Phyllanthus_, _Jatropha_ and others are used as ornamental plants in gardens.

The box (_Buxus_) and a few allied genera which were formerly included in Euphorbiaceae are now generally regarded as forming a distinct order--Buxaceae, differing from Euphorbiaceae in the position of the ovule in the ovary-chamber and in the manner of splitting of the fruit.

EUPHORBIUM, an acrid dull-yellow or brown resin, consisting of the concreted milky juice of several species of _Euphorbia_, cactus-like perennial plants indigenous to Morocco. It dissolves in alcohol, ether and turpentine; in water it is only slightly soluble. It consists of two or more resins and a substance euphorbone, C20H36O or C15H24O. Pliny states that the name of the drug was given to it in honour of Euphorbus, the physician of Juba II., king of Mauretania. In former times euphorbium was valued in medicine for its drastic, purgative and emetic properties.

EUPHORBUS, son of Panthoues, one of the bravest of the Trojan heroes, slain by Menelaus (_Iliad_, xvii. 1-60). Pythagoras, in support of his doctrine of the transmigration of souls, declared that he had once been this Euphorbus, whose shield, hung up in the temple of Argos by Menelaus, he claimed as his own (Horace, _Odes_, i. 28. 11; Diog. Laert. viii. 1).

EUPHORION, Greek poet and grammarian, born at Chalcis in Euboea about 275 B.C. He spent much of his life in Athens, where he amassed great wealth. About 221 he was invited by Antiochus the Great to the court of Syria. He assisted in the formation of the royal library at Antioch, of which he held the post of librarian till his death. He wrote mythological epics, amatory elegies, epigrams and a satirical poem ([Greek: Arai], "curses") after the manner of the _Ibis_ of Callimachus. Prose works on antiquities and history are also attributed to him. Like Lycophron, he was fond of using archaic and obsolete expressions, and the erudite character of his allusions rendered his language very obscure. His elegies were highly esteemed by the Romans; they were imitated or translated by Cornelius Gallus and also by the emperor Tiberius.

Fragments in Meineke, "De Euphorionis Chalcidensis vita et scriptis," in his _Analecta Alexandrina_ (1843); for a recently discovered fragment of about 30 lines see _Berliner Klassikertexte_, v. 1 (1907).

EUPHRANOR, of Corinth (middle of the 4th century B.C.), the only Greek artist who excelled both as a sculptor and as a painter. In Pliny we have lists of his works; among the paintings, a cavalry battle, a Theseus, and the feigned madness of Odysseus; among the statues, Paris, Leto with her children Apollo and Artemis, Philip and Alexander in chariots. Unfortunately we are unable among existing statues to identify any which are copies from works of Euphranor (but see a series of attributions by Six in _Jahrbuch_, 1909, 7 foll.). He appears to have resembled his contemporary Lysippus, notably in the attention he paid to symmetry, in his preference for bodily forms slighter than those usual in earlier art, and in his love of heroic subjects. He wrote a treatise on proportions.

EUPHRATES (Babylon. _Purattu_, Heb. _Perath_, Arab. _Frat_ or _Furat_, Old Pers. _Ufratu_, Gr. [Greek: Euphrates]), the largest river of western Asia. It may be divided into three divisions, upper, lower and middle, each of which is distinguished by special physical features, and has played a conspicuous part in the world's history, retaining to the present day monumental evidence of the races who have lined its banks.

_Upper Division_.--The upper Euphrates consists of two arms, which, rising on the Armenian plateau, and flowing west in long shallow valleys parallel to Mount Taurus, eventually unite and force their way southward through that range to the level of Mesopotamia. The northern or western and shorter arm, called by the Turks Kara Su, "black water," or Frat Su (Armenian, _Ephrat_ or _Yephrat_; Arab. _Nahr el-Furat_ or _Frat_), well known to occidentalists as the Euphrates, from its having been the boundary of the Roman empire, is regarded also by Orientals as the main stream. It rises in the Dumlu Dagh, N.N.W. of Erzerum, in a large circular pool (altitude, 8625 ft.), which is venerated by Armenians and Moslems, and flows south-east to the plain of Erzerum (5750 ft.). Thence it continues through a narrow valley W.S.W. to Erzingan (3900 ft.), receiving on its way the Ovajik Su (right), the Tuzla Su (left), and the Merjan and Chanduklu (right). Below Erzingan the Frat flows south-west through a rocky gorge to Kemakh (_Kamacha_; Armenian, _Gamukh_), where it is crossed by a bridge and receives the Kumur Su (right). At Avshin it enters a canon, with walls over 1000 ft. high, which extends to the bridge at Pingan, and lower down it is joined from the west by the Chalta Irmak (_Lycus_; Arab. _Lukiya_), on which stands Divrik (Tephrike). Then, entering a deep gorge with lofty rock walls and magnificent scenery, it runs south-east to its junction with the Murad Su. The Frat, separated by the easy pass of Deve-boyun from the valley of the Araxes (Aras), marks the natural line of communication between northern Persia and the West--a route followed by the nomad Turks, Mongols and Tatars on their way to the rich lands of Asia Minor. It is a rapid river of considerable volume, and below Erzingan is navigable, down stream, for rafts. The southern or eastern and longer arm, called by the Turks Murad Su (_Arsanias Fl_.; Armenian, _Aradzani_; Arab. _Nahr Arsanas_), rises south-west of Diadin, in the northern flank of the Ala Dagh (11,500 ft.), and flows west to the Alashgerd plain. Here it is joined by the Sharian Su from the west, and the two valleys form a great trough through which the caravan road from Erzerum to Persia runs. The united stream breaks through the mountains to the south, and, receiving on its way the Patnotz Su (left) and the Khinis Su (right), flows south-west, west and south, through the rich plain of Bulanik to the plain of Mush. Here it is joined by the Kara Su (_Teleboas_), which, rising near Lake Van, runs past Mush and waters the plain. The river now runs W.S.W. through a deep rocky gorge, in which it receives the Gunig Su (right), to Palu (where there are cuneiform inscriptions); and continues through more open country to its junction with the Frat Su. About 10 m. E.N.E. of Kharput the Murad is joined by its principal tributary, the Peri Su, which drains the wild mountain district, Dersim, that lies in the loop between the two arms. The Murad Su is of greater volume than the Frat, but its valley below Mush is contracted and followed by no great road. Below the junction of the two arms the Euphrates flows south-west past the lead mines of Keban Maden, where it is 120 yds. wide, and is crossed by a ferry (altitude, 2425 ft.), on the Sivas-Kharput road. It then runs west, south and east round the rock-mass of Musher Dagh, and receives (right) the Kuru Chai, down which the Sivas-Malatia road runs, and the Tokhma Su, from Gorun (_Gauraina_) and Darende. At the ferry on the Malatia-Kharput road (cuneiform inscription) it flows eastwards in a valley about a quarter of a mile wide, but soon afterwards enters a remarkable gorge, and forces its way through Mount Taurus in a succession of rapids and cataracts. After running south-east through the grandest scenery, and closely approaching the source of the western Tigris, it turns south-west and leaves the mountains a few miles above Samsat (_Samosata_; altitude, 1500 ft.). The general direction of the great gorges of the Euphrates, Pyramus (Jihun) and Sarus (Sihun) seems to indicate that their formation was primarily due to the same terrestrial movements that produced the Jordan-'Araba depression to the south. The length of the Frat is about 275 m.; of the Murad, 415 m.; and of the Euphrates from the junction to Samsat, 115 m.

_Middle Division_.--The middle division, which extends from Samsat to Hit, is about 720 m. long. In this part of its course the Euphrates runs through an open, treeless and sparsely peopled country, in a valley a few miles wide, which it has eroded in the rocky surface. The valley bed is more or less covered with alluvial soil, and cultivated in places by artificial irrigation. The method of this irrigation is peculiar. Three or four piers or sometimes bridges of masonry are run out into the bed of the river, frequently from both sides at once, raising the level of the stream and thus giving a water power sufficient to turn the gigantic wheel or wheels, sometimes almost 40 ft. in diameter, which lift the water to a trough at the top of the dam, whence it is distributed among the gardens and melon patches, rice, cotton, tobacco, liquorice and durra fields, between the immediate bed of the river and the rocky banks which shut it out from the desert. The wheels, called _naoura_, are of the most primitive construction, made of rough branches of trees, with palm leaf paddles, rude clay vessels being slung on the outer edge to catch the water, of which they raise a prodigious amount, only a comparatively small part of which, however, is poured into the aqueducts on top of the dams. These latter are exceedingly picturesque, often consisting of a series of well-built Gothic arches, and give a peculiar character to the scenery; but they are also great impediments to navigation. In some parts of the river 300 _naouras_ have been counted within a space of 130 m., but of late years many have fallen into decay. By far the larger part of the valley is quite uncultivated, and much of it is occupied by tamarisk jungles, the home of countless wild pigs. Where the valley is still cultivated, the _jerd_, a skin raised by oxen, is gradually being substituted for the _naoura_, no more of the latter being constructed to take the place of those which fall into decay.

In this part of its course the rocky sides of the valley, which sometimes closely approach the river, are composed of marls and gypsum, with occasional selenite, overlaid with sandstone, with a topping of breccia or conglomerate, and rise at places to a height of 200 ft. or more. At one point, however, 26 m. above Deir, where lie the ruins of Halebiya, the river breaks through a basaltic dike, el-Hamme, some 300 to 500 ft. high. On either side of the river valley a steppe-like desert, covered in the spring with verdure, the rest of the year barren and brown, stretches away as far as the eye can see. Anciently the country on both sides of the Euphrates was habitable as far as the river Khabur; at the present time it is all desert from Birejik downward, the camping ground of Bedouin Arabs, the great tribe of Anazeh occupying _esh-Sham_, the right bank, and the Shammar the left bank, Mesopotamia of the Romans, now called el-Jezireh or the island. To these the semi-sedentary Arabs who sparsely cultivate the river valley, dwelling sometimes in huts, sometimes in caves, pay a tribute, called _kubbe_, or brotherhood, as do also the riverain towns and villages, except perhaps the very largest. The Turkish government also levies taxes on the inhabitants of the river valley, and for this purpose, and to maintain a caravan route from the Mediterranean coast to Bagdad, maintains stations of a few _zaptiehs_ or _gens d'armes_, at intervals of about 8 hours (caravan time), occupying in general the stations of the old Persian post road. The only riverain towns of any importance on this stretch of the river to-day are Samsat, Birejik, Deir, 'Ana and Hit.

In early times the Euphrates was important as a boundary. It was the theoretical eastern limit of the Jewish kingdom; for a long time it separated Assyria from the Khita or Hittites; it divided the eastern from the western satrapies of Persia (Ezra iv. 17; Neh. ii. 7); and it was at several periods the boundary of the Roman empire. Until the advent of the nomads from central Asia, and the devastation of Mesopotamia and the opposite Syrian shore of the river, there were many flourishing cities along its course, the ruins of which, representing all periods, still dot its banks. Samsat itself represents the ancient Samosata, the capital of the Seleucid kings of Commagene (_Kumukh_ of the Assyrian inscriptions), and here the Persian Royal Road from Sardis to Susa is supposed to have crossed the river. Below Samsat the river runs S.W. to Rum-Kaleh, or "castle of the Romans" (Armenian, _Hrhomgla_). At this point was another passage of the river, defended by the castle which gives its name to the spot, and which stands on a high hill overhanging the right bank, its base washed by an abundant stream, the Sanjeh (Gr. [Greek: Singas]), which enters the Euphrates on the west. From this point the river runs rather east of south for about 25 m. past Khalfat (ferry) to Birejik or Bir, the ancient Birtha, where it is only 110 m. from the Mediterranean, the bed of the river being 6281/2 ft. above that sea. This was the Apamea-Zeugma, where the high road from east to west crossed the river, and it is still one of the most frequented of all the passages into Mesopotamia, being the regular caravan route from Iskanderun and Aleppo to Urfa, Diarbekr and Mosul. From Birejik the river runs sluggishly, first a little to the east, then a little to the west of south, over a sandy or pebbly bed, past Jerablus (? _Europus, Carchemish_, the ancient Hittite capital), near which the Sajur (_Sagura_; _Sangar_ of the Assyrian inscriptions) enters from the west, to Meskene, 2 m. southward of which are the ruins of Barbalissus (Arab. _Balis_), the former port of Aleppo, now, owing to changes in the bed, some distance from the water. Six miles below this the ruins of Kal'at Dibse mark the site of the ancient Thapsacus (_Tiphsah_ of 1 Kings iv. 24), the most important passage of the middle Euphrates, where both Cyrus, on his expedition against his brother, and Alexander the Great crossed that river, and the ancient port of Syria. Here the river turns quite sharply eastward. A day's journey beyond Meskene are the remains of Siffin (Roman _Sephe_), where Moawiya defeated the caliph Ali in 657 (see CALIPHATE), and opposite this, on the west bank, a picturesque ruin called Kal'at Ja'ber (_Dausara_). A day's journey beyond this, on the Syrian side, stand the remains of ancient Sura, a frontier fortress of the Romans against the Parthians; 20 m. S. of which, inland, lie the well-preserved ruins of Reseph (Assyrian, _Resafa_ or _Rosafa_). Half a day's journey beyond Sura, on the Mesopotamian side of the river, are the extensive ruins of Haragla (_Heraclea_) and Rakka, once the capital of Harun al-Rashid (_Nicephorium_ of Alexander; _Callinicus_ of the Seleucids and Romans). Here the Belikh (_Bilechas_) joins the Euphrates, flowing southward through the biblical Aram Naharaim from Urfa (_Edessa_) and Harran (_Carrhae_); and from this point to el-Kaim four days' below Deir, the course of the river is south-easterly. Two days' journey beyond Rakka, where the Euphrates breaks through the basalt dike of el-Hamme, are two admirably preserved ruins, built of gypsum and basalt, that on the Mesopotamian side called Zelebiya (Chanuga), and that on the Syrian, much the finer of the two, Halebiya or Zenobiya, the ancient Zenobia. Twenty-six miles farther down lies the town of Deir (q.v.), where the river divides into two channels and the river valley opens out into quite extensive plains. Here the roads from Damascus, by way of Palmyra, and from Mosul, by way of the Khabur, reach the Euphrates, and here there must always have been a town of considerable commercial and strategic importance. The region is to-day covered with ruins and ruin mounds. A little below Deir the river is joined by the Khabur (_Khaboras_, Biblical _Khabor_), the frontier of the Roman empire from Diocletian's time, which rises in the Karaja Dagh, and, with its tributary, the Jaghijagh (_Mygdonius_; Arab. _Hirmas_) flows south through the land of Gozan in which Sargon settled the deported Israelites in 721 B.C. At the mouth of the Khabur stood the Roman frontier fortress of _Circesium_ (Assyrian, _Sirki_; Arab. _Kirkessie_) now el-Buseira. The corresponding border town on the Syrian side is represented by the picturesque and finely preserved ruins called Salahiya, the Ad-dalie or Dalie (_Adalia_) of Arabic times, two days below Deir, whose more ancient name is as yet unknown. Between Salahiya and Deir, on an old canal, known in Arabic times as Said, leaving the Euphrates a little below Deir and rejoining it above Salahiya, stand the almost more picturesque ruins of the once important Arabic fortress of Rahba.

As far as the Khabur Mesopotamia seems to have been a well-inhabited country from at least the 15th century B.C., when it constituted the Hittite kingdom of Mitanni, down to about the 12th century A.D., and the same is true of the country on the Syrian side of the Euphrates as far as the eastern limit of the Palmyrene. Below this point the back country on the Syrian side has always been a complete desert. On the Mesopotamian side there would seem, from the accounts of Xenophon and Ptolemy, to have been an affluent which joined the Euphrates between Deir and 'Ana, called Araxes by the former, Saocoras by the latter; but no trace of such a stream has been found by modern explorers and the country in general has always been uninhabited. Below Salahiya the river-bed narrows and becomes more rocky. A day's journey beyond Salahiya, on a bluff on the Mesopotamian side of the river, are the conspicuous ruins Of el-'Irsi (_Corsote_?). Half a day's journey beyond, at a point where two great wadis enter the Euphrates, on the Syrian side, stands Jabriya, an unidentified ruined town of Babylonian type, with walls of unbaked brick, instead of the stone heretofore encountered. At this point the river turns sharply a little north of east, continuing on that course somewhat over 40 m. to 'Ana, where it bends again to the south-east. Just above 'Ana are rapids, and from this point to Hit the river is full of islands, while the bed is for the most part narrow, leaving little cultivable land between it and the bluffs. 'Ana itself, a very ancient town, of Babylonian origin, once sacred probably to the goddess of the same name, lay originally on several islands in the stream, where ruins, principally of the Arabic and late Persian period, are visible. Here palm trees, which had begun to appear singly at Deir, grow in large groves, the olive disappears entirely, and we have definitely passed over from the Syrian to the Babylonian flora and climate. Between 'Ana and Hit there were anciently at least four island cities or fortresses, and at the present time three such towns, insignificant relics of former greatness, Haditha, Alus or el-'Uzz and Jibba still occupy the old sites. Of these Alus is evidently the ancient Auzara or Uzzanesopolis, the city of the old Arabic goddess 'Uzza; Haditha, an important town under the Abbasids, was earlier known as Baia Malcha; while Jibba has not been identified. The fourth city, Thilutha or Olabus, once occupied the present deserted island of Telbeis, half a day's journey below 'Ana. About half-way between 'Ana and Hit, in the neighbourhood of Haditha, the river has a breadth of 300 yds., with a depth of 18 ft., and a flood speed of 4 knots. At this point we begin to encounter sulphur springs and bitter streams redolent with bitumen, a formation which reaches its climax at Hit (q.v.), where a small stream (the "river of Ahava" of Ezra viii. 21) enters the Euphrates from the Syrian side, on which, about 8 m. from its mouth, stands the small town of Kubeitha.

The middle Euphrates, from Samsat to Hit, is to-day an avenue of ruins, of which only the more conspicuous or important have been indicated here. It was from a remote period, antedating certainly 3000 B.C., the highway of empire and of commerce between east and west, more specifically between Babylonia or Irak and Syria, and numerous empires, peoples and civilizations have left their records on its shores. Its time of greatest prosperity and importance was the period of the Abbasid caliphate, and Arabic geographers as late as A.D. 1200 mention an astonishingly large number of important cities situated on its shores or islands. The Mongol invasion, in the latter part of that century, wrought their ruin, however, and from that time to the present there has been a steady decline in the commercial importance of the Euphrates route, and consequently also of the towns along its course, until at the present time it is only an avenue of ruins.

_Lower Division_.--Hit stands almost at the head of the alluvial deposit, about 550 m. from the Persian Gulf, separated from it by a couple of small spurs of the Syrian plateau, and may be said to mark the beginning of the lower Euphrates. Thence the river flows S.E. and S.S.E. to its junction with the Tigris below Korna, through an unbroken plain, with no natural hills, except a few sand (or sandstone?) hills in the neighbourhood of Warka, and no trace of rock, except at el-Haswa, above Hillah. At Hit the river is from 30 to 35 ft. in depth, with a breadth of 250 yds., and a current of 4 m. an hour, but from this point it diminishes in volume, receiving no new affluents but dissipating itself in canals and lagoons. At Feluja, in the latitude of Bagdad, the Euphrates and Tigris closely approach each other, and then, widening out, enclose the plain of Babylonia (Arab. _Sawad_). Through this part of its course the current of the river, except where restricted by floating bridges--at Feluja, Mussaib, Hillah, Diwanieh and Samawa--does not normally exceed a mile an hour, and both on the main stream and on its canals the _jerd_ or ox-bucket takes the place of the _naoura_ or water-wheel for purposes of irrigation.

In early times irrigating canals distributed the waters over the plain, and made it one of the richest countries of the East, so that historians report three crops of wheat to have been raised in Babylonia annually. As main arteries for this circulation of water through its system great canals, constituting in reality so many branches of the river, connected all parts of Babylonia, and formed a natural means both of defence and also of transportation from one part of the country to another. The first of these canals, taken off on the right bank of the river a little below Hit, followed the extreme skirt of the alluvium the whole way to the Persian Gulf near Basra, and thus formed an outer barrier, strengthened at intervals with watch-towers and fortified posts, to protect the cultivated land of the _Sawad_ against the incursions of the desert Arabs. This gigantic work, the line of which may still be traced throughout its course, was formerly called the _Khandak Sabur_ or "Sapor's trench," being ascribed to the Sassanian king, Shapur I. Dholahtaf, but is now known as the Cherra-Saadeh, and is in the popular tradition said to have been excavated by a man from Basra at the behest of a woman of Hit whom he desired to make his wife. How early this work was begun is not clear, but it would appear to have been at least largely reconstructed in the time of the great Nebuchadrezzar. The next important canal, the Dujayl (Dojail), left the Euphrates on the left, about a league above Ramadiya (_Ar-Rabb_), and flowed into the Tigris between Ukbara and Bagdad. The 'Isa, which is largely identical with the modern Sakhlawiya, left the Euphrates a little below Anbar (_Perisabora_) and joined the Tigris at Bagdad. This canal still carries water and was navigable for steamboats until about 1875. Sarsar, the modern Abu-Ghurayb, leaves the Euphrates three leagues lower down and enters the Tigris between Bagdad and Ctesiphon. The Nahr Malk or royal river, modern Radhwaniya, leaves the Euphrates five leagues below this and joins the Tigris three leagues below Ctesiphon; while the Kutha, modern Habl-Ibrahim, leaving the Euphrates three leagues below the Malk joins the Tigris ten leagues below Ctesiphon. In the time of the Arabs these were the chief canals, and the cuts from the main channels of the Nahr 'Isa, Nahr Sarsar, Nahr Malk (or Nahr Malcha), and Nahr Kutha, reticulating the entire country between the rivers, converted it into a continuous and luxuriant garden.

Just below Mussaib there has been for all ages a great bifurcation of the river. The right arm was the original bed, and the left arm, on which Babylon was built, the artificial deviation, as is clear from the cuneiform inscriptions. In the time of Alexander the nomenclature was reversed, the right arm being known as Pallacopas. Under the Arabs the old designation again prevailed and the Euphrates is always described by the Arabian geographers as the river which flows direct to Kufa, while the present stream, passing along the ruins of Babylon to Hillah and Diwanieh, has been universally known as the Nahr Sura. Occidental geographers, however, have followed the Greek use, and so to-day we call the river of Babylon or Nahr Sura the Euphrates and the older westerly channel the Hindieh canal. At the present time the preservation of the embankments about the point of bifurcation demands the constant care of the Bagdad government. The object is to allow sufficient water to drain off to the westward for the due irrigation of the land, while the Hillah bed still retains the main volume of the stream, and is navigable to the sea. But it frequently happens that the dam at the head of the Hindieh is carried away, and, a free channel being thus opened for the waters of the river to the westward, the Hillah bed shoals to 2 or 3 ft., or even dries up altogether, while the country to the west of the river is turned into lakes and swamps. Below the bifurcation the river of Babylon was again divided into several streams, and indeed the most famous of all the ancient canals was the Arakhat (_Archous_ of the Greeks and _Serrat_ and _Nil_ of the Arabs), which left that river just above Babylon and ran due east to the Tigris, irrigating all the central part of the Jezireh, and sending down a branch through Nippur and Erech to rejoin the Euphrates a little above the modern Nasrieh. The Narss, also, the modern Daghara, which is still navigable to Nippur and beyond, left the Sura a little below Hillah; and at the present day another large canal, the Kehr, branches off near Diwanieh. It is easy to distinguish the great primitive watercourses from the lateral ducts which they fed, the latter being almost without banks and merely traceable by the winding curves of the layers of alluvium in the bed, while the former are hedged in by high banks of mud, heaped up during centuries of dredging.

Not a hundredth part of the old irrigation system is now in working order. A few of the mouths of the smaller canals are kept open so as to receive a limited supply of water at the rise of the river in May, which then distributes itself over the lower lying lands in the interior, almost without labour on the part of the cultivators, giving birth in such localities to the most abundant crops, but by far the larger portion of the region between the rivers is at present an arid howling wilderness dotted with _tels_ or ruin-heaps, strewn in the most part with broken pottery, the evidence of former habitation, and bearing nothing but the camel-thorn, the wild caper, the colocynth-apple, wormwood and other weeds of the desert. The swamps are full of huge reeds, bordered with tamarisk jungles, and in its lower reaches, where the water stretches out into great marshes, the river is clogged with a growth of agrostis. To obtain a correct idea of this region it must be borne in mind also that the course of the river and the features of the country on both banks are subject to constant fluctuation. The Hindieh canal and the main stream, the ancient Sura, rejoin one another at Samawa. Down to this point, the bed of the Euphrates being higher than that of the Tigris, the canals run from the former to the latter, but below this the situation is reversed. At Nasrieh the Shatt-el-Hai, at one time the bed of the Tigris, and still navigable during the greater part of the year, joins the Euphrates. From this point downward, and to some extent above this as far as Samawa, the river forms a succession of reedy lagoons of the most hopeless character, the Paludes Chaldaici of antiquity, el Batihat of the Arabs. Along this part of its course the river is apt to be choked with reeds and, except where bordered by lines of palm trees, the channel loses itself in lakes and swamps. The inhabitants of this region are wild and inhospitable and utterly beyond the control of the Turkish authorities, and navigation of the river between Korna and Suk-esh-Sheiukh is unsafe owing to the attacks of armed pirates. From Garmat Ali, where the Tigris and Euphrates at present unite,[1] under the title of Shatt-el-Arab, the river sweeps on to Basra, 1000 yds. in width and from 3 to 5 fathoms deep, navigable for steamers of good size. From Korna to Basra the banks of the river are well cultivated and the date groves almost continuous; indeed this is the greatest date-producing region of the world. Twenty-five miles below Basra the river Karun from Shushter and Dizful throws off an arm, which seems to be artificial, into the Euphrates. This arm is named the Haffar, and at the confluence is situated the Persian town of Muhamrah, a place most conveniently located for trade. In this vicinity was situated, at the time of the Christian era, the Parthian city of Spasini-Charax, which was succeeded by Bahman Ardashir (_Bamishir_) under the Sassanians, and by Moharzi under the Arabs. The left bank of the river from this point belongs to Persia. It consists of an island named Abbadan, about 45 m. long, formed by alluvial deposits during the last fifteen centuries. (For the character of this alluvium and its rate of deposit see IRAK.)

Even more than the upper and middle Euphrates the lower Euphrates, from Hit downward, abounds in ruins of ancient towns and cities, from the earliest prehistoric period onward to the close of the Caliphate (see IRAK). The fact also that many of the most ancient of these ruins, like Ur, Lagash (Sirpurla), Larsa, Erech, Nippur, Sippara and Babylon, were situated on the banks of the great canals would indicate that the control of the waters of the rivers by a system of canalization and irrigation was one of the first achievements of civilization. This ancient system of canalization was inherited from the Persians (who, in turn, inherited it from their predecessors), by the Arabs, who long maintained it in working order, and the astonishing fertility and consequent prosperity of the country watered by the Euphrates, its tributaries and its canals, is noticed by all ancient writers. The land itself, an alluvial deposit, is very fruitful. Wheat and the date palm seem to have been indigenous, and the latter is still one of the chief productions of the country, but in later years rice has taken the place of wheat as the staff of life. The decline of the country dates from the appearance of Turkish nomads in the 11th century; its ruin was completed by the Shammar Arabs in the 17th century; but, if the ancient system of irrigation were restored, sufficient grain could be grown to alter the conditions of the wheat supply of the world. At the present time, instead of the innumerable cities of former days, there is a succession of small towns along the course of the river--Ramadiya, Feluja, Mussaib, Hillah, Diwanieh, Samawa, el-Khudr (an ancient daphne or sacred grove, 31 deg. 11' 58" N., 76 deg. 6' 9" E., the only one anywhere which preserves to this day its ancient charter of the inviolability of all life within its precincts), Nasrieh and Suk-esh-Sheiukh--by means of which the Turkish government controls the river and levies taxes on a small part of the adjacent territory. At such settlements the river is lined with gardens and plantations of palms. The greater part of the region, however, even along the river shores, is inhabited only by roaming Bedouin or half-savage Ma'dan Arabs (see IRAK).

_Navigation_.--The length of the Euphrates from its source at Diadin to the sea is about 1800 m., and its fall during the last 1200 m. about 10 ins. per mile. The river begins to rise in the end of March and attains its greatest height between the 21st and the 28th of May. It is lowest in November, and rocks, shallows, and the remains of old dams then render it almost unnavigable. In antiquity, however, it was evidently in use for the transportation of merchandise and even of armies. Boats built in Syrian ports were placed on the Euphrates by Sennacherib and Alexander, and Herodotus states (i. 185) that in his day the river was a frequented route followed by merchants on their way from the Mediterranean to Babylon. As the most direct line of transit between the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf, offering an alternative means of communication with India not greatly inferior to the Egyptian route, the Euphrates route early attracted the attention of the British government. During the Napoleonic wars, indeed, and up to the time when the introduction of steam navigation rendered the Red Sea accessible at all seasons of the year, the political correspondence of the home and Indian governments usually passed by the Euphrates route. Various plans were suggested for the development of this route as a means of goods as well as postal conveyance, and in 1835 Colonel F.R. Chesney was sent out at the head of an expedition with instructions to transport two steamers from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, and, after putting them together at Birejik, to attempt the descent of the river to the sea. One of these steamers was lost in a squall during the passage down the river near el-'Irsi, but the other performed the voyage in safety and thus demonstrated the practicability of the downward navigation. Following on this first experiment, the East India Company, in 1841, proposed to maintain a permanent flotilla on the Tigris and Euphrates, and set two vessels, the "Nitocris" and the "Nimrod," under the command of Captain Campbell of the Indian navy, to attempt the ascent of the latter river. The experiment was so far successful that, with incredible difficulty, the two vessels did actually reach Meskene, but the result of the expedition was to show that practically the river could not be used as a high-road of commerce, the continuous rapids and falls during the low season, caused mainly by the artificial obstructions of the irrigating dams, being insurmountable by ordinary steam power, and the aid of hundreds of hands being thus required to drag the vessels up the stream at those points by main force. Under Midhat Pasha, governor-general of Bagdad from 1866 to 1871, an attempt was made by the Turkish authorities to establish regular steam navigation on the Euphrates. Midhat caused many of the dams to be destroyed and for some years occasional steamers were run between Meskene and Hillah in flood time, from April to August. But with the transfer of Midhat this feeble attempt at navigation was abandoned. At the present time the river is navigated by sailing craft of some size from Hit downward. Above that point there is no navigation except by the native rafts (_kellek_), which descend the river and are broken up on arrival at their point of destination. There is, however, little travel of this sort on the Euphrates in comparison with the amount on the Tigris.

When it became evident that, under present conditions at least, the navigation of the middle Euphrates was impracticable, attention was turned, owing to the peculiarly advantageous geographical position of its valley, to schemes for connecting the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf by railway as an alternative means of communication with India, and various surveys were made for this purpose and various routes laid out. All these schemes, however, fell through either on the financial question, or on the unwillingness of the Turkish government to sanction any line not connected directly with Constantinople. With the acquisition of the Suez Canal, moreover, the value of this route from the British standpoint was so greatly diminished that the scheme, so far as England was concerned, was quite abandoned. (For further notice of the railway question see BAGDAD.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Gen. F.R. Chesney, _Euphrates Expedition_ (1850); W.F. Ainsworth, _Researches in Assyria and Babylonia_ (1838), and _Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition_ (1888); A.H. Layard, _Nineveh and Babylon_ (1853); W.K. Loftus, _Chaldaea and Susiana_ (1857); Geo. Rawlinson, _Herodotus_, bk. 1, essay ix. (1862); A. Blunt, _Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates_ (1873); Josef Cernik, _Studien-Expedition_ (1873); H. Kiepert, _Ruinenfelder Babyloniens_ (1883); Ed. Sachau, _Reise in Syrien u. Mesopotamien_ (1883), and _Am Euphrat u. Tigris_ (1900); Guy Le Strange, "Description of Mesopotamia," in _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_ (1895), and _Baghdad under the Abbasid Caliphate_ (1901); J.P. Peters, _Nippur_ (1897); M. v. Oppenheim, _Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf_ (1900); H.V. Geere, _By Nile and Euphrates_ (1904); Baedeker, _Palestine and Syria_ (1906); Murray, _Handbook to Asia Minor_, &c., section iii. (H. C. R.; C. W. W.; J. P. Pe.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The confluence for about 500 years was at Korna, over 30 m. higher up. Sir W. Willcocks discovered (1909) that from Suk-esh-Sheiukh the Euphrates had formed a new channel through the marshes. (See _Geog. Journal_, Jan. 1910).

EUPHRONIUS, the most noted of the group of great vase-painters, who lived in Athens in the time of the Persian wars, and worked upon red-figured vases (see GREEK ART and CERAMICS). There is a monograph by W. Klein dealing with the artist. As all the great paintings of Greece have disappeared, we are obliged to trust to the designs on vases for our knowledge of Greek drawing and composition. Euphronius is stiff and archaic in style, but his subjects are varied, his groupings original and striking, and his mastery of the line decided. In their way, the vases which he painted will hold their own in comparison with those of any nation; for simplicity, truthfulness and charm they can scarcely be matched.

EUPHROSYNE, the name of two Byzantine empresses.

1. EUPHROSYNE, a daughter of Constantine VI. Although she had taken a monastic vow she became the second wife of Michael II. (q.v.), a marriage which was practically forced upon her by Michael, who was anxious to strengthen his claims to the throne by an alliance with the last representative of the Isaurian dynasty, and secured the compliance of senate and patriarch with his desire. No issue was born of this union, and after the death of her husband and accession of her stepson Theophilus Euphrosyne again retired into a convent.

2. EUPHROSYNE, the wife of Alexius III. (q.v.). After securing the election of her husband to the throne by wholesale bribery she virtually took the government into her hands and restored the waning influence of the monarchy over the nobles. In spite of her talent for government she went far to hasten the empire's downfall by her unbounded extravagance, and made the dynasty unpopular by her open profligacy, which went unpunished but for one short term of banishment. She followed her husband into exile in 1203 and died seven years later in Epirus.

EUPHUISM, the peculiar mode of speaking and writing brought into fashion in England towards the end of the reign of Elizabeth by the vogue of the fashionable romance of _Euphues_, published in 1578 by John Lyly. As early as 1570 Ascham in his _Schoolmaster_ had said that "Euphues" (that is, a man well-endowed by nature, from the Gr. [Greek: eu, phye], well, growth) is "he that is apt by goodness of wit, and appliable by readiness of will, to learning, having all other qualities of the mind and parts of the body that must another day serve learning." Lyly adopted this word as the name of the hero of his romance, and it is with him that the vogue of Euphuism began. John Lyly, "always averse to the crabbed studies of logic and philosophy, and his genie being naturally bent to the pleasant paths of poetry," devoted himself exclusively to the service of the ladies, a thing absolutely unprecedented in English literature. He addressed himself to "the gentlewomen of England," and he had the audacity, in that grave age, to say that he would rather see his books "lie shut in a lady's casket than open in a scholar's study." In order to attain this object, he set himself to create a superfine style in writing, and to illustrate this in his compositions. He undertook to produce a pleasurable literature for the boudoir and the bower. Lyly was twenty-six when he published in 1579 the first part of _Euphues: the Anatomy of Wit_: a second part, entitled _Euphues and his England_, appeared in 1580. His object was diametrically opposed to that of writers who had striven to instruct, reprove or edify their contemporaries. Lyly, assuming that women only will read his book, says:--"After dinner, you may overlook it to keep you from sleep, or if you be heavy to bring you asleep, for to work upon a full stomach is against physic, and therefore better were it to hold _Euphues_ in your hands, though you let him fall when you be willing to wink, than to sew in a closet and prick your fingers when you begin to read."

For a comprehension of the nature of Euphuism it is necessary to remember that the object of its invention was to attract and to disarm the ladies by means of an ingenious and playful style, of high artificiality, which should give them the idea that they were being entertained by an enthusiastic adorer, not instructed by a solemn pedagogue, For fifty years the romance of _Euphues_ retained its astonishing popularity. As late as 1632 the publisher Edward Blount (1560?-1632), recalling the earliest enthusiasm of the public, wrote of John Lyly, "Oblivion shall not so trample on a son of the Muses, and such a son as they called their darling. Our nation are in his debt for a new English which he taught them. _Euphues and his England_ began first that language. All our ladies were then his scholars, and that beauty in Court, which could not parley Euphuism, was as little regarded, as she which, now there, speaks not French." Among those who applied themselves to this "new English," one of the most ardent was Queen Elizabeth herself, who has been styled by J.R. Green "the most affected and destestable of euphuists." At the height of the popularity of this strange dialect, it was said by William Webbe, in his _Discourse of English Poetry_ (1586), to consist in a combination of "singular eloquence and brave composition of apt words and sentences, in fit phrases, in pithy sentences, in gallant tropes, in flowing speech," while a French poet of the same age calls Lyly a "raffineur" of the English speech; another panegyrist describes him as "_alter Tullius_," meaning that, in inventing Euphuism, he had introduced into English the refinements of a Ciceronian style.

When we put aside these excessive compliments, and no less the attacks from which the style suffered as soon as it began to go out of fashion, we are able to observe merits as well as faults in this very curious experiment. Euphuism did not attempt to render the simplicity of nature. On the contrary, in order to secure refinement, it sought to be as affected, as artificial, as high-pitched as possible. Its most prominent feature was an incessant balancing of phrases in chains of antitheses, thus:--"Though the tears of the hart be salt, yet the tears of the boar be sweet, and though the tears of some women be counterfeit to deceive, yet the tears of many be current to try their love"; or this:--"Reject it not because it proceedeth from one which hath been lewd, no more than ye would neglect the gold because it lieth in the dirty earth, or the pure wine for that it cometh out of a homely presse, or the precious stone _aetites_ which is found in the filthy nests of the eagle, or the precious gem _draconites_, that is ever taken out of the poisoned dragon." This second excerpt, moreover, suggests another of the main characteristics of Euphuism, the incessant use, for purposes of ornament, of similes taken from fabulous records of zoology, or relating to mythical birds, fishes or minerals. This was a feature of the "new English" which was excessively admired, and copied with a senseless extravagance. Instances of it are found on every page of Lyly's books, thus:--"Although the worm entereth almost into every wood, yet he eateth not the cedar-tree; though the stone _cylindrus_ at every thunder-clap roll from the hill, yet the pure sleek stone mounteth at the noise; though the rust fret the hardest steel, yet doth it not eat into the emerald; though polypus change his hue, yet the salamander keepeth his colour"; and so on, _ad infinitum_. That lady was considered most proficient in euphuism who could keep up longest these chains of similes taken out of fabulous natural history. Alliteration was also a

## particular ornament of the euphuistic style, as: "The bavin, though it

burn bright, is but a blaze," but the use of this artifice by Lyly himself was rarely exaggerated; for instances of its excess we have rather to turn to his imitators. In the following passage the typical forms of Euphuism, in its pure and original conditions, are so combined and illustrated as to require no further commentary: "Do we not commonly see that in painted pots is hidden the deadliest poison? that in the greenest grass is the greatest serpent? in the clearest water the ugliest toad? Doth not experience teach us that in the most curious sepulchre are enclosed rotten bones? that the cypress tree beareth a fair leaf, but no fruit? that the ostrich carrieth fair feathers, but rank flesh?"--and so forth. It will be noticed that these characteristics differ in many respects from the specimens of euphuism which are most familiar to a modern reader, namely the extravagant speech placed in the mouth of Sir Piercie Shafton in Sir Walter Scott's romance of _The Monastery_. Scott modelled this character on what he called that "forgotten and obsolete model of folly, once fashionable," Lyly's novel of _Euphues_, but he had not studied the original to sufficient purpose, and the bombastic ravings of Sir Piercie, who simply talks like a lunatic, have deceived many readers as to the real characteristics of Euphuism. Scott betrays his own error when he says that "the extravagance of Euphuism ... predominates in the romances of Calprenede and Scuderi," in which it is true that a tone of preposterous gallantry finds a language of its own, but that is not the language of Euphues. What Sir Piercie Shafton talks is a mixture of the style of these French romances, with the ostentation of Sir Fopling Flutter and the extravagances of the Scotch translator of Rabelais. But these various sorts of pretentious eloquence have little or nothing in common with the balanced and conceited style of Euphues.

We find that the genuine sort of this kind of superfine conversation was originally called "Euphues," simply, as Overbury speaks of a man "who speaks Euphues, not so gracefully as heartily." The earliest instance of the word "Euphuism" which has been traced occurs in a letter, written by Gabriel Harvey in 1592, when he speaks of a man, who would be smart, as talking "a little Euphuism." Dekker, in the _Gull's Hornbook_ of 1609, uses the word as an adjective, and denounces "Euphuised gentlewomen." When the practice was going out of fashion we find it thus severely stigmatized by Michael Drayton, a poet who had little sympathy with the artificial refinement of Lyly. In an elegy, printed in 1627, Drayton refers to the merit of Sir Philip Sidney, who recalled English prose to sanity, and

"did first reduce Our tongue from Lyly's writings then in use, Talking of stones, stars, plants, of fishes, flies, Playing with words and idle similes, As th' English apes and very zanies be Of everything that they do hear and see, So imitating his ridiculous tricks They spake and writ, all like mere lunatics."

This severe censure of Euphuism may serve to remind us that hasty critics have committed an error in supposing the _Arcadia_. of Sidney to be composed in the fashionable jargon. That was certainly not the intention of the author, and in fact the publication of the _Arcadia_, eleven years after that of _Euphues_, marks the beginning of the downfall of the popularity of the latter. Sidney's prose, it is true, was extremely ornamented, but it was instinct with romantic fancy, and it affected a chivalrous and florid fulness which was artificial enough, but wholly distinct from the more homely elegance of Euphuism as we have defined it. The publication of the _Arcadia_ was a severe blow to the Euphuists. Immediately the ladies began to desert their former favourite, and the object at court became, as Ben Jonson noted, to "observe as pure a phrase and use as choice figures in ordinary conference as any be in the Arcadia." But, in the meantime, Lyly had found in Greene, Lodge, Dickenson, Nicholas Breton and others enthusiastic disciples who had learned all the formulas of Euphuism, and could bring them forth as fluently and elegantly as he could himself. Nevertheless the trick wore out, with the taste that it had created, and by the close of the reign of James I. Euphuism had become a dead language.

Critics have not failed to insist, on the other hand, that a species of Euphuism existed before Euphues was thought of. It has been supposed that a translation of the familiar epistles, or, as they were called, the "Golden Letters," of a Spanish monk, Antonio de Guevara, led Lyly to conceive the extraordinary style which bears the name of his hero. Between 1574 and 1578 Edward Hellowes (fl. 1550-1600) translated into a very extravagant English prose three of the works of Guevara. Earlier than this, in 1557, Sir Thomas North had published a version of the same Spanish writer's _Reloj de Principes_ (The Dial of Princes), a moral and philosophical romance which is not without a certain likeness in plan and language to _Euphues_. It is extremely difficult to know to what extent these translations, which were not strikingly unlike many other specimens of the ornamented English prose of their period, can be said to be responsible for the production of Euphuism. At all events no one can doubt that it was Lyly who concentrated the peculiarities of mannerism, and who gave to it the stamp of his own remarkable talent.

See Landmann, _Der Euphuismus_ (1881); Arber's edition of _Euphues_ (1869); R.W. Bond's _Complete Works of Lyly_ (1902); Hallam, Jusserand, S. Lee, _passim_. (E. G.)

EUPION (Gr. [Greek: eu], well, [Greek: pion], fat), a hydrocarbon of the paraffin series, probably a pentane, C5H12, discovered by K. Reichenbach in wood-tar. It is also formed in the destructive distillation of many substances, as wood, coal, caoutchouc, bones, resin and the fixed oils. It is a colourless highly volatile and inflammable liquid, having at 20 deg. C. a specific gravity of 0.65.

EUPOLIS (c. 446-411 B.C.), Athenian poet of the Old Comedy, flourished in the time of the Peloponnesian War. Nothing whatever is known of his personal history. With regard to his death, he is said to have been thrown into the sea by Alcibiades, whom he had attacked in one of his plays, but it is more likely that he died fighting for his country. He is ranked by Horace (_Sat_. i. 4, 1), along with Cratinus and Aristophanes, as the greatest writer of his school. With a lively and fertile fancy Eupolis combined a sound practical judgment; he was reputed to equal Aristophanes in the elegance and purity of his diction, and Cratinus in his command of irony and sarcasm. Although he was at first on good terms with Aristophanes, their relations subsequently became strained, and they accused each other, in most virulent terms, of imitation and plagiarism. Of the 17 plays attributed to Eupolis, with which he obtained the first prize seven times, only fragments remain. Of these the best known were: the _Kolakes_, in which he pilloried the spendthrift Callias, who wasted his substance on sophists and parasites; _Maricas_, an attack on Hyperbolus, the successor of Cleon, under a fictitious name; the _Baptae_, against Alcibiades and his clubs, at which profligate foreign rites were practised. Other objects of his attack were Socrates and Cimon. The _Demoi_ and _Poleis_ were political, dealing with the desperate condition of the state and with the allied (or tributary) cities.

Fragments in T. Kock, _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, i. (1880).

EUPOMPUS, the founder of the great school of painting which flourished in the 4th century at Sicyon in Greece. He was eclipsed by his successors, and is chiefly remembered for the advice which he is said to have given to Lysippus to follow nature rather than any master.

EURASIAN, a term originally confined to India, where for upwards of half a century it was used to denote children born of Hindu mothers and European (especially Portuguese) fathers. Following the geographical employment of the word _Eurasia_ to describe the whole of the great land mass which is divided into the continents of Europe and Asia, Eurasian has come to be descriptive of any half-castes born of parents representing the races of the two continents. It has further an ethnological sense, A.H. Keane (_Ethnology_, 1896) proposing to find in the Eurasian Steppe the true home of the primitive Aryan groups. Joseph Deniker (_Anthropology_, 1900) makes a Eurasian group to include such peoples (Ugrians, Turko-Tatars, &c.) as are represented in both continents. Giuseppe Sergi, in his _Mediterranean Race_ (London, 1901), uses Eurasiatic to denote that variety of man which "brought with it into Europe (from Asia in the later Neolithic period) flexional languages of Aryan or Indo-European type."

EURE, a department of north-western France, formed in 1790 from a portion of the old province of Normandy, together with the countship of Evreux and part of Perche. Pop. (1906) 330,140. Area, 2330 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of Seine Inferieure, W. by Calvados, S.W. by Orne, S. by Eure-et-Loir, and E. by Seine-et-Oise and Oise. The territory of Eure, which nowhere exceeds 800 ft. in altitude, is broken up by its rivers into well-wooded plateaus with a general inclination from south to north. Forests cover about one-fifth of the department. The Seine flows from S.E. to N.W. through the E. of the department, and after touching the frontier at two or three points forms near its mouth part of the northern boundary. All the rivers of the department flow into the Seine,--on the right bank the Andelle and the Epte, and on the left the Eure with its tributaries the Avre and the Iton, and the Risle with its tributary the Charentonne. The Eure, from which the department takes its name, rises in Orne, and flowing through Eure-et-Loir, falls into the Seine above Pont de l'Arche, after a course of 44 m. in the department. The Risle likewise rises in Orne, and flows generally northward to its mouth in the estuary of the Seine. The climate is mild, but moist and variable. The soil is for the most part clayey, resting on a bed of chalk, and is, in general, fertile and well tilled. The chief cereal cultivated is wheat; oats, colza, flax and beetroot are also grown. There is a wide extent of pasturage, on which are reared a considerable number of cattle and sheep, and especially those horses of pure Norman breed for which the department has long been celebrated. Fruit is very abundant, especially apples and pears, from which much cider and perry are made. The mineral products of Eure include freestone, marl, lime and brick-clay. The chief industries are the spinning of cotton and wool, and the weaving, dyeing and printing of fabrics of different kinds. Brewing, flour-milling, distilling, turnery, cotton-bleaching, cider-making, metal-founding, tanning, and the manufacture of glass, paper, iron ware, nails, pins, wind-instruments, bricks and sugar are also carried on. Coal and raw materials for its industries are the chief imports of Eure; its exports include cattle, poultry, eggs, butter, grain and manufactured goods. The department is served chiefly by the Western railway; the Seine, Eure and Risle provide 87 m. of navigable waterway. Eure is divided into the following arrondissements (containing 36 cantons, 700 communes):--Evreux, Louviers, Les Andelys, Bernay, and Pont-Audemer. Its capital is Evreux, which is the seat of a bishopric of the ecclesiastical province of Rouen. The department belongs to the III. Army Corps and to the academie (educational division) of Caen. Its court of appeal is at Rouen.

Evreux, Les Andelys, Bernay, Louviers, Pont-Audemer, Verneuil, Vernon and Gisors are the principal towns of the department. At Gaillon there are remains of a celebrated chateau of the archbishops of Rouen (see LOUVIERS). Pont de l'Arche has a fine Gothic church, with stained-glass windows of the 16th and 17th centuries; the church of Tillieres-sur-Arvre is a graceful specimen of the Renaissance style. The churches of Conches (15th or 16th century) and of Rugles (13th, 15th and 16th centuries), and the chateau of Beaumesnil (16th century) are also of architectural interest.

EURE-ET-LOIR, an inland department of north-western France, formed in 1790 of portions of Orleanais and Normandy. Pop. (1906) 273,823. Area, 2293 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of Eure, W. by Orne and Sarthe, S. by Loir-et-Cher, S.E. by Loiret, and E. by Seine-et-Oise. The Perche in the south-west and the Thimerais in the north-west are districts of hills and valleys, woods, lakes and streams. The region of the east and south is a level and uniform expanse, consisting for the most part of the riverless but fertile plain of Beauce, sometimes called the "granary of France." The northern part of Eure-et-Loir is watered by the Eure, with its tributaries the Vegre, Blaise and Avre, a small western portion by the Huisne, and the south by the Loir with its tributaries the Conie and the Ozanne. The air is pure, the climate mild, dry and not subject to sudden changes. The soil consists, for the most part, either of clay intermixed with sand or of calcareous earth, and is on the whole fruitful. Agriculture is better conducted than in most of the departments of France, and the average yield per acre is greater. Cereals occupy half the surface, wheat and oats being chiefly cultivated. Among the other agricultural products are barley, hemp, flax and various vegetables, including good asparagus. Wine is not extensively produced, nor is it of the best quality; but in some parts, especially in the Perche, there is an abundant supply of apples, from which cider is made as the common drink of the inhabitants. The extensive meadows supply pasturage for a large number of cattle and sheep, and the horses raised in the Perche have a wide reputation as draught animals. Bee-farming is commonly prosecuted. The department produces lime, grindstones and brick-clay. The manufactures are not extensive; but there are flour- and saw-mills, tanneries and leather-works, copper and iron foundries, starch-works, dyeworks, distilleries, breweries and potteries; and agricultural implements, cotton and woollen goods, and yarn, hosiery, boots and shoes, sugar, felt hats and paper are made. Eure-et-Loir exports the products of its soil and live-stock; its imports include coal, wine and wearing apparel. It is served by the railways of the Western and the Orleans Companies and by those of the state, but it has no navigable waterways. The department has Chartres for its capital, and is divided into the arrondissements of Chartres, Chateaudun, Dreux and Nogent-le-Rotrou (24 cantons and 426 communes). It forms the diocese of Chartres (province of Paris), and belongs to the academie (educational division) of Paris and the region of the IV. Army Corps. Its court of appeal is at Paris.

Chartres, Dreux, Chateaudun, Nogent-le-Rotrou and Anet are the more noteworthy places in the department (q.v.). At Bonneval the lunatic asylum occupies the 18th-century buildings of a former Benedictine abbey. The abbey church belonged to the 13th century, but only a gateway flanked by two massive towers is left. The chateau of Maintenon dating from the 16th and 17th centuries was presented by Louis XIV. to Madame de Maintenon, by whom additions were made; the aqueduct (17th century) in the park was designed to carry the water of the Eure to Versailles, but was not completed. There is a fine chateau of the late 15th century, restored in modern tunes, at Montigny-le-Gannelon, and another of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, at one time the property of Sully, at Villebon. St Lubin-des-Joncherets has a handsome church of the 11th century, in which there are stained-glass windows dating from the 16th century.

EUREKA, a city, port of entry, and the county seat of Humboldt county, California, U.S.A., on the E. shore of Humboldt Bay. Pop. (1880) 2639; (1890) 4858; (1900) 7327 (2035 foreign-born); (1910) 11,845. It has a good harbour, greatly improved by the National government, and is connected with San Francisco, Portland and other coast ports by steamship lines. In 1909 a railway (the Northwestern Pacific), to connect Eureka with San Francisco, was under construction. The district owes its reputation as a health resort to its equable climate and to the protection afforded by the wide coast timber belt. Eureka is the principal point for the shipment of redwood lumber, and saw-milling is carried on here on an enormous scale. Several short railways run from Eureka and Arcata (pop. in 1900, 952) across the bay, into the forests, and bring lumber to the mills, most of which are in or near Eureka. Humboldt county was organized in 1853. Eureka was then already the centre of an important lumber trade, principally in spars. It was incorporated in 1856, displacing Union (now Arcata) as the county-seat in the same year.

EUREKA SPRINGS, a city and health resort, one of the county-seats--Berryville being the other--of Carroll county, in the extreme north-western part of Arkansas, U.S.A., in the Ozark uplift, 1800 ft. above the sea-level. Pop. (1890) 3706; (1900) 3572 (142 of negro descent); (1910) 3228. There is a transient population of thousands of visitors during the year. The city is built picturesquely on the sides of a gulch, down which runs the Missouri & North Arkansas railway. A creek running through the city empties into the White river, only a few miles distant. The surrounding country varies in character from mountains to rolling prairie. The encircling hills are laden with a covering of pine. The normal mean temperature for the year is about 59 deg. F. (42 deg. F. in winter, 61 deg. F. in spring, 75 deg. F. in summer, and 58 deg. F. in autumn); the average rainfall, about 33 in. The atmosphere is dry and clear. Apart from its share in the agricultural interests of the surrounding region,--devoted mainly to Indian corn, small grains and fruits,--the entire economy of Eureka Springs centres in its medicinal springs, more than forty of which, lying within the corporate limits, are held in trust by the city for the free use of the public. The temperature of the springs varies from about 57 deg. F. to 64 deg. F. Each gallon of their waters contains about 28.5 cub. in. of gaseous matter and from 6 to 9 grains of solids held in solution. The city waterworks are owned by the municipality. The springs have been exploited since 1879, when the first settlement was made. The city was chartered in 1880.

EURIPIDES (480-406 B.C.), the great Greek dramatic poet, was born in 480 B.C., on the very day, according to the legend, of the Greek victory at Salamis, where his Athenian parents had taken refuge; and a whimsical fancy has even suggested that his name--_son of Euripus_--was meant to commemorate the first check of the Persian fleet at Artemisium. His father Mnesarchus was at least able to give him a liberal education; it was a favourite taunt with the comic poets that his mother Clito had been a herb-seller--a quaint instance of the tone which public satire could then adopt with plausible effect. At first he was intended, we are told, for the profession of an athlete,--a calling of which he has recorded his opinion with something like the courage of Xenophanes. He seems also to have essayed painting; but at five-and-twenty he brought out his first play, the _Peliades_, and thenceforth he was a tragic poet. At thirty-nine he gained the first prize, and in his career of about fifty years he gained it only five times in all. This fact is perfectly consistent with his unquestionably great and growing popularity in his own day. Throughout life he had to compete with Sophocles, and with other poets who represented tragedy of the type consecrated by tradition. The hostile criticism of Aristophanes was witty; and, moreover, it was true, granting the premise from which Aristophanes starts, that the tragedy of Aeschylus and Sophocles is the only right model. Its unfairness, often extreme, consists in ignoring the changing conditions of public feeling and taste, and the possibilities, changed accordingly, of an art which could exist only by continuing to please large audiences. It has usually been supposed that the unsparing derision of the comic poets contributed not a little to make the life of Euripides at Athens uncomfortable; and there is certainly one passage in a fragment of the _Melanippe_ (Nauck, Frag., 495), which would apply well enough to his persecutors:--

[Greek: andron de polloi tou gelotos houneka askousi charitas kertomous ego de pos miso geloious, hoitines sophon peri achalin echousi stomata.]

(To raise vain laughter, many exercise The arts of satire; but my spirit loathes These mockers whose unbridled mockery Invades grave themes.)

The infidelity of two wives in succession is alleged to explain the poet's tone in reference to the majority of their sex, and to complete the picture of an uneasy private life. He appears to have been repelled by the Athenian democracy, as it tended to become less the rule of the people than of the mob. Thoroughly the son of his day in intellectual matters, he shrank from the coarser aspects of its political and social life. His best word is for the small farmer ([Greek: autourgos]), who does not often come to town, or soil his rustic honesty by contact with the crowd of the market-place.

About 409 B.C. Euripides left Athens, and after a residence in the Thessalian Magnesia repaired, on the invitation of King Archelaus, to the Macedonian court, where Greeks of distinction were always welcome. In his _Archelaus_ Euripides celebrated that legendary son of Temenus, and head of the Temenid dynasty, who bad founded Aegae; and in one of the meagre fragments he evidently alludes to the beneficent energy of his royal host in opening up the wild land of the North. It was at Pella, too, that Euripides composed or completed, and perhaps produced, the _Bacchae_. Jealous courtiers, we are told, contrived to have him attacked and killed by savage dogs. It is odd that the fate of Actaeon should be ascribed, by legend, to two distinguished Greek writers, Euripides and Lucian; though in the former case at least the fate has not such appropriateness as the Byzantine biographer discovers in the latter, on the ground that its victim "had waxed rabid against the truth." The death of Euripides, whatever its manner, occurred in 406 B.C., when he was seventy-four. Sophocles followed him in a few months, but not before he had been able to honour the memory of his younger rival by causing his actors to appear with less than the full costume of the Dionysiac festival. Soon afterwards, in the _Frogs_, Aristophanes pronounced the epitaph of Attic comedy on Attic tragedy.

The historical interest of such a life as that of Euripides consists in the very fact that its external record is so scanty--that, unlike Aeschylus or Sophocles, he had no place in the public action of his time, but dwelt apart as a student and a thinker. He has made his _Medea_ speak of those who, through following quiet paths, have incurred the reproach of apathy ([Greek: rhathumian]). Undoubtedly enough of the old feeling for civic life remained to create a prejudice against one who held aloof from the affairs of the city. Quietness ([Greek: apragmosune]), in this sense, was still regarded as akin to indolence ([Greek: argia]). Yet here we see how truly Euripides was the precursor of that near future which, at Athens, saw the more complete divergence of society from the state.

In an age which is not yet ripe for reflection or for the subtle analysis of character, people are content to express in general types those primary facts of human nature which strike every one. Achilles will stand well enough for the young chivalrous warrior, Odysseus for the man of resource and endurance. In the case of the Greeks, these types had not merely an artistic and a moral interest; they had, further, a religious interest, because the Greeks believed that the epic heroes, sprung from the gods, were their own ancestors. Greek tragedy arose when the choral worship of Dionysus, the god of physical rapture, had engrafted upon it a dialogue between actors who represented some persons of the legends consecrated by this faith. The dramatist was accordingly obliged to refrain from multiplying those minute touches which, by individualizing the characters too highly, would detract from their general value as types in which all Hellenic humanity could recognize its own image glorified and raised a step nearer to the immortal gods. This necessity was further enforced by the existence of the chorus, the original element of the drama, and the very essence of its nature as an act of Dionysiac worship. Those utterances of the chorus, which to the modern sense are so often platitudes, were not so to the Greeks, just because the moral issues of tragedy were felt to have the same typical generality as these comments themselves.

An unerring instinct keeps both Aeschylus and Sophocles within the limits imposed by this law. Euripides was only fifteen years younger than Sophocles. But, when Euripides began to write, it must have been clear to any man of his genius and culture that, though an established prestige might be maintained, a new poet who sought to construct tragedy on the old basis would be building on sand. For, first, the popular religion itself--the very foundation of tragedy--had been undermined. Secondly, scepticism had begun to be busy with the legends which that religion consecrated. Neither gods nor heroes commanded all the old unquestioning faith. Lastly, an increasing number of the audience in the theatre began to be destitute of the training, musical and poetical, which had prepared an earlier generation to enjoy the chaste and placid grandeur of ideal tragedy.

Euripides made a splendid effort to maintain the place of tragedy in the spiritual life of Athens by modifying its interests in the sense which his own generation required. Could not the heroic persons still excite interest if they were made more real,--if, in them, the passions and sorrows of every-day life were portrayed with greater vividness and directness? And might not the less cultivated part of the audience at least enjoy a thrilling plot, especially if taken from the home-legends of Attica? Euripides became the virtual founder of the romantic drama. In so far as his work fails, the failure is one which probably no artistic tact could then have wholly avoided. The frame within which he had to work was one which could not be stretched to his plan. The chorus, the masks, the narrow stage, the conventional costumes, the slender opportunities for change of scenery, were so many fixed obstacles to the free development of tragedy in the new direction. But no man of his time could have broken free from these traditions; in attempting to do so he must have wrecked either his fame or his art. It is not the fault of Euripides if in so much of his work we feel the want of harmony between matter and form. Art abhors compromise; and it was the misfortune of Attic tragedy in his generation that nothing but a compromise could save it. Two devices have become common phrases of reproach against him--the prologue and the _deus ex machina_. Doubtless the prologue is a slipshod and sometimes ludicrous expedient. But the audiences of his days were far from being so well versed as their fathers in the mythic lore, and, on the other hand, a dramatist who wished to avoid trite themes had now to go into the byways of mythology. A prologue was often perhaps desirable or necessary for the instruction of the audience. As regards the _deus ex machina_, a distinction should be observed between those cases in which the solution is really mechanical, as in the _Andromache_ and perhaps the _Orestes_, and those in which it is warranted or required by the plot, as in the _Hippolytus_ and the _Bacchae_. The choral songs in Euripides, it may be granted, have often nothing to do with the action. But the chorus was the greatest of difficulties for a poet who was seeking to present drama of romantic tendency in the plastic form consecrated by tradition. So far from censuring Euripides on this score, we should be disposed to regard his management of the chorus as a signal proof of his genius, originality and skill.

Works.

Euripides is said to have written 92 dramas, including 8 satyr-plays. The best critics of antiquity allowed 75 as genuine. Nauck has collected 1117 Euripidean fragments. Among these, numbers 1092-1117 are doubtful or spurious; numbers 842-1091 are from plays of uncertain title; numbers 1-841 represent fifty-five lost pieces, among which some of the best known are the _Andromeda, Antiope,[1] Bellerophon, Cresphontes, Erechtheus, Oedipus, Phaethon_, and _Telephus_.

1. The _Alcestis_, as the didascaliae tell us, was brought out in Ol. 85. 2, i.e. at the Dionysia in the spring of 438 B.C., as the fourth play of a tetralogy comprising the _Cretan Women_, the _Alcmaeon at Psophis_, and the _Telephus_. The _Alcestis_ is altogether removed from the character, essentially grotesque, of a mere satyric drama. On the other hand, it has features which distinctly separate it from a Greek tragedy of the normal type. First, the subject belongs to none of the great cycles, but to a byway of mythology, and involves such strange elements as the servitude of Apollo in a mortal household, the decree of the fates that Admetus must die on a fixed day, and the restoration of the dead Alcestis to life. Secondly, the treatment of the subject is romantic and even fantastic,--strikingly so in the passage where Apollo is directly confronted with the daemonic figure of Thanatos. Lastly, the boisterous, remorseful, and generous Heracles makes, not, indeed, a satyric drama, but a distinctly satyric scene--a scene which, in the frank original, hardly bears the subtle interpretation which in _Balaustion_ is hinted by the genius of Browning, that Heracles got drunk in order to keep up other people's spirits. When the happy ending is taken into account, it is not surprising that some should have called the _Alcestis_ a tragi-comedy. But we cannot so regard it. The slight and purely incidental strain of comedy is but a moment of relief between the tragic sorrow and terror of the opening and the joy, no less solemn, of the conclusion. In this respect the _Alcestis_ might more truly be compared to such a drama as the _Winter's Tale_; the loss and recovery of Hermione by Leontes do not form a tragi-comedy because we are amused between-whiles by Autolycus and the clown. It does not seem improbable that the _Alcestis_--the earliest of the extant plays--may represent an attempt to substitute for the old satyric drama an after-piece of a kind which, while preserving a satyric element, should stand nearer to tragedy. The taste and manners of the day were perhaps tiring of the merely grotesque entertainment that old usage appended to the tragedies; just as, in the sphere of comedy, we know from Aristophanes that they were tiring of broad buffoonery. An original dramatist may have seen an opportunity here. However that may be, the _Alcestis_ has a peculiar interest for the history of the drama. It marks in the most signal manner, and perhaps at the earliest moment, that great movement which began with Euripides,--the movement of transition from the purely Hellenic drama to the romantic.

2. The _Medea_ was brought out in 431 B.C. with the _Philoctetes_, the _Dictys_, and a lost satyr-play called the _Reapers_ (_Theristae_). Euripides gained the third prize, the first falling to Euphorion, the son of Aeschylus, and the second to Sophocles. If it is true that Euripides modelled his Medea on the work of an obscure predecessor, Neophron, at least he made the subject thoroughly his own. Hardly any play was more popular in antiquity with readers and spectators, with actors, or with sculptors. Ennius is said to have translated and adopted it. We do not know how far it may have been used by Ovid in his lost tragedy of the same name; but it certainly inspired the rhetorical performance of Seneca, which may be regarded as bridging the interval between Euripides and modern adaptations. We may grant at once that the _Medea_ of Euripides is not a faultless play; that the dialogue between the heroine and Aegeus is not happily conceived; that the murder of the children lacks an adequate dramatic motive; that there is something of a moral anti-climax in the arrangements of Medea, before the deed, for her personal safety. But the _Medea_ remains a tragedy of first-rate power. It is admirable for the splendid force with which the character of the strange and strong-hearted woman, a barbarian friendless among Hellenes, is thrown out against the background of Hellenic life in Corinth.

3. The extant _Hippolytus_ (429 B.C.)--sometimes called _Stephanephoros_, the "wreath-bearer," from the garland of flowers which, in the opening scene, the hero offers to Artemis--was not the first drama of Euripides on this theme. In an earlier play of the same name, we are told, he had shocked both the moral and the aesthetic sense of Athens. In this earlier _Hippolytus_, Phaedra herself had confessed her love to her step-son, and, when repulsed, had falsely accused him to Theseus, who doomed him to death; at the sight of the corpse, she had been moved to confess her crime, and had atoned for it by a voluntary death. This first _Hippolytus_ is cited as _Hippolytus the Veiled_ ([Greek: kaluptomenos]), either, as Toup and Welcker thought, from Hippolytus covering his face in horror, or, as Bentley with more likelihood suggested, because the youth's shrouded corpse was brought upon the scene. It can scarcely be doubted that the chief dramatic defect of our _Hippolytus_ is connected with the unfavourable reception of its predecessor. Euripides had been warned that limits must be observed in the dramatic portrayal of a morally repulsive theme. In the later play, accordingly, the whole action is made to turn on the jealous feud between Aphrodite, the goddess of love, and Artemis, the goddess of chastity. Phaedra not only shrinks from breathing her secret to Hippolytus, but destroys herself when she learns that she is rejected. But the natural agency of human passion is now replaced by a supernatural machinery; the slain son and the bereaved father are no longer the martyrs of sin, the tragic witnesses of an inexorable law; rather they and Phaedra are alike the puppets of a divine caprice, the scapegoats of an Olympian quarrel in which they have no concern. But if the dramatic effect of the whole is thus weakened, the character of Phaedra is a fine psychological study; and, as regards form, the play is one of the most brilliant. Boeckh (_De tragoediae Graecae principiis_, p. 180 f.) is perhaps too ingenious in finding an allusion to the plague at Athens (430 B.C.) in the [Greek: o kaka thneton stugerai te nosoi] of v. 177, and in v. 209 f.; but it can scarcely be doubted that he is right in suggesting that the closing words of Theseus (v. 1460)

[Greek: o klein' Athenon Pallados th' orismata, hoiou steresesth' andros],

and the reply of the chorus, [Greek: koinon tod' hachos], &c., contain a reference to the recent death of Pericles (429 B.C.).

4. The _Hecuba_ may be placed about 425 B.C. Thucydides (iii. 104) notices the purification of Delos by the Athenians, and the restoration of the Panionic festival there, in 426 B.C.--an event to which the choral passage, v. 462 f., probably refers. It appears more hazardous to take v. 650 f. as an allusion to the Spartan mishap at Pylos. The subject of the play is the revenge of Hecuba, the widowed queen of Priam, on Polymestor, king of Thrace, who had murdered her youngest son Polydorus, after her daughter Polyzena had already been sacrificed by the Greeks to the shade of Achilles. The two calamities which befall Hecuba have no direct connexion with each other. In this sense the play lacks unity of design. On the other hand, both events serve the same end--viz. to heighten the tragic pathos with which the poet seeks to surround the central figure of Hecuba. The drama illustrates the skill with which Euripides, while failing to satisfy the requirements of artistic drama, could sustain interest by an ingeniously woven plot. It is a representative _Intriguenstueck_, and well exemplifies the peculiar power which recommended Euripides to the poets of the New Comedy.

5. The _Andromache_, according to a notice in the _scholia Veneta_ (446), was not acted at Athens, at least in the author's life-time; though some take the words in the Greek argument ([Greek: to drama ton deuteron]) to mean that it was among those which gained a second prize. The invective on the Spartan character which is put into the mouth of Andromache contains the words, [Greek: adikos eutucheit' an' Hellada], and this, with other indications, points to the Peloponnesian successes of the years 424-422 B.C. Andromache, the widow of Hector, has become the captive and concubine of Neoptolemus, son of Achilles. During his absence, her son Molossus is taken from her, with the aid of Menelaus, by her jealous rival Hermione. Mother and son are rescued from death by Peleus; but meanwhile Neoptolemus is slain at Delphi through the intrigues of Orestes. The goddess Thetis now appears, ordains that Andromache shall marry Helenus, and declares that Molossus shall found a line of Epirote kings, while Peleus shall become immortal among the gods of the sea. The _Andromache_ is a poor play. The contrasts, though striking, are harsh and coarse, and the compensations dealt out by the _deus ex machina_ leave the moral sense wholly unsatisfied. Technically the piece is noteworthy as bringing on the scene four characters at once--Andromache, Molossus, Peleus and Menelaus (v. 545 f.).

6. The _Ion_ is an admirable drama, the finest of those plays which deal with legends specially illustrating the traditional glories of Attica. It is also the most perfect example of the poet's skill in the structure of dramatic intrigue. For its place in the chronological order there are no data except those of style and metre. Judging by these, Hermann would place it "neither after Ol. 89, nor much before"--i.e. somewhere between 424 and 421 B.C.; and this may be taken as approximately correct. The scene is laid throughout at the temple of Delphi. The young Ion is a priest in the temple of Delphi when Xuthus and his wife Creusa, daughter of Erechtheus, come to inquire of the god concerning their childlessness; and it is discovered that Ion is the son of Creusa by the god Apollo. Athena herself appears, and commands that Ion shall be placed on the throne of Athens, foretelling that from him shall spring the four Attic tribes, the Teleontes (priests), Hopletes (fighting-men), Argadeis (husbandmen) and Aigikoreis (herdsmen). The play must have been peculiarly effective on the Athenian stage, not only by its situations, but through its appeal to Attic sympathies.

7. The _Suppliants_ who give their name to the play are Argive women, the mothers of Argive warriors slain before the walls of Thebes, who, led by Adrastus, king of Argos, come as suppliants to the altar of Demeter at Eleusis. Creon, king of Thebes, has refused burial to their dead sons. The Athenian king Theseus demands of Creon that he shall grant the funeral rites; the refusal is followed by a battle in which the Thebans are vanquished, and the bodies of the Argive dead are then brought to Eleusis. At the close the goddess Athena appears, and ordains that a close alliance shall be formed between Athens and Argos. Some refer the play to 417 B.C., when the democratic party at Athens rose against the oligarchs. But a more probable date is 420 B.C., when, through the agency of Alcibiades, Athens and Argos concluded a defensive alliance. The play has a strongly marked rhetorical character, and is, in fact, a panegyric, with an immediate political aim, on Athens as the champion of humanity against Thebes.

8. The _Heracleidae_--a companion piece to the _Suppliants_, and of the same period--is decidedly inferior in merit. Here, too, there are direct references to contemporary history. The defeat of Argos by the Spartans in 418 B.C. strengthened the Argive party who were in favour of discarding the Athenian for the Spartan alliance (Thuc. v. 76). In the _Heracleidae_, the sons of the dead Heracles, persecuted by the Argive Eurystheus, are received and sheltered at Athens. Thus, while Athens is glorified, Sparta, whose kings are descendants of the Heracleidae, is reminded how unnatural would be an alliance between herself and Argos.

9. The _Heracles Mainomenos_[2] (_Hercules Furens_), which, on grounds of style, can scarcely be put later than 420-417 B.C., shares with the two last plays the purpose of exalting Athens in the person of Theseus. Heracles returns from Hades--whither, at the command of Eurystheus, he went to bring back Cerberus--just in time to save his wife Megara and his children from being put to death by Lycus of Thebes, whom he slays. As he is offering lustral sacrifice after the deed, he is suddenly stricken with madness by Lyssa (Fury), the daemonic agent of his enemy the goddess Hera, and in his frenzy he slays his wife and children. Theseus finds him, in his agony of despair, about to kill himself, and persuades him to come to Athens, there to seek grace and pardon from the gods. The unity of the plot may be partly vindicated by observing that the slaughter of Lycus entitled Heracles to the gratitude of Thebes, whereas the slaughter of his own kinsfolk made it unlawful that he should remain there; thus, having found a refuge only to lose it, Heracles has no hope left but in Athens, whose praise is the true theme of the entire drama.

10. _Iphigenia among the Tauri_, which metre and diction mark as one of the later plays, is also one of the best--excellent both in the management of a romantic plot and in the delineation of character. The

## scene is laid at the temple of Artemis in the Tauric Chersonese (the

Crimea)--on the site of the modern Balaklava. Iphigenia, who had been doomed to die at Aulis for the Greeks, had been snatched from that death by Artemis, and had become priestess of the goddess at the Tauric shrine, where human victims were immolated. Two strangers, who had landed among the Tauri, have been sentenced to die at the altar. She discovers in them her brother Orestes and his friend Pylades. They plan an escape, are recaptured, and are finally delivered by the goddess Athena, who commands Thoas, king of the land, to permit their departure. Iphigenia, Orestes and Pylades return to Greece, and establish the worship of the Tauric Artemis at Brauron and Halae in Attica. The drama of Euripides necessarily suggests a comparison with that of Goethe; and many readers will probably also feel that, while Goethe is certainly not inferior in fineness of ethical portraiture, he has the advantage in his management of the catastrophe. But it is only just to Euripides to remember that, while his competitor had free scope of treatment, he, a Greek dramatist, was bound to the motive of the Greek legend, and was obliged to conclude with the foundation of the Attic worship.

11. The _Troades_ appeared in 415 B.C. along with the _Alexander_, the _Palamedes_, and a satyr-play, the _Sisyphus_. It is a picture of the miseries endured by noble Trojan dames--Hecuba, Andromache, Cassandra--immediately after the capture of Troy. There is hardly a plot in the proper sense--only an accumulation of sorrows on the heads of the passive sufferers. The piece is less a drama than a pathetic spectacle, closing with the crash of the Trojan towers in flame and ruin. The _Troades_ is indeed remarkable among Greek tragedies for its near approach to the character of melodrama. It must be observed that there is no ground for the inference--sometimes made an accusation against the poet--that the choral passage, v. 794 f., was intended to encourage the Sicilian expedition, sent forth in the same year (415 B.C.). The mention of the "land of Aetna over against Carthage" (v. 220) speaks of it as "renowned for the trophies of prowess"--a topic, surely, not of encouragement but of warning.

12. The _Helena_--produced, as we learn from the Aristophanic scholia, in 412 B.C., the year of the lost _Andromeda_--is not one of its author's happier efforts. It is founded on a strange variation of the Trojan myth, first adopted by Stesichorus in his Palinode--that only a wraith of Helen passed to Troy, while the real Helen was detained in Egypt. In this play she is rescued from the Egyptian king, Theoclymenus, by a ruse of her husband Menelaus, who brings her safely back to Greece. The romantic element thus engrafted on the Greek myth is more than fantastic: it is well-nigh grotesque. The comic poets--notably Aristophanes in the _Thesmophoriazusae_--felt this; nor can we blame them if they ridiculed a piece in which the mode of treatment was so discordant with the spirit of Greek tradition, and so irreconcilable with all that constituted the higher meaning of Greek tragedy.

13. The _Phoenissae_ was brought out, with the _Oenomaus_ and the _Chrysippus_, in 411 B.C., the year in which the recall of Alcibiades was decreed by the army at Samos, and, after the fall of the Four Hundred, ratified by the Assembly at Athens (Thuc. viii. 81, 97). The dialogue between Iocaste and Polynices on the griefs of banishment ([Greek: ti to steresthai patridos], v. 388 f.) has a certain emphasis which certainly looks like an allusion to the pardon of the famous exile. The subject of the play is the same as that of the Aeschylean _Seven against Thebes_--the war of succession in which Argos supported Polynices against his brother Eteocles. The Phoenician maidens who form the chorus are imagined to have been on their way from Tyre to Delphi, where they were destined for service in the temple, when they were detained at Thebes by the outbreak of the war--a device which affords a contrast to the Aeschylean chorus of Theban elders, and which has also a certain fitness in view of the legends connecting Thebes with Phoenicia. But Euripides has hardly been successful in the rivalry--which he has even pointed by direct allusions--with Aeschylus. The _Phoenissae_ is full of brilliant passages, but it is rather a series of effective scenes than an impressive drama.

14. Plutarch (_Lys._ 15) says that, when Athens had surrendered to Lysander (404 B.C.) and when the fate of the city was doubtful, a Phocian officer happened to sing at a banquet of the leaders the first song of the chorus in the Electra of Euripides--

[Greek: Agamemnonos o kora, elython, Elektra, poti san agroteran aulan],

and that "when they heard it, all were touched, so that it seemed a cruel deed to destroy for ever the city so famous once, the mother of such men." The character of the _Electra_, in metre and in diction, seems to show that it belongs to the poet's latest years. If Mueller were right in referring to the Sicilian expedition the closing passage in which the Dioscuri declare that they haste "to the Sicilian sea, to save ships upon the deep" (v. 1347), then the play could not be later than 413 B.C. But it may with more probability be placed shortly before the _Orestes_, which in some respects it much resembles: perhaps in or about the year 410 B.C. No play of Euripides has been more severely criticized. The reason is evident. The _Choephori_ of Aeschylus and the _Electra_ of Sophocles appear to invite a direct comparison with this drama. But, as R.C. Jebb suggested,[3] such criticism as that of Schlegel should remember that works of art are proper subjects of direct comparison only when the theories of art which they represent have a common basis. It is surely unmeaning to contrast the elaborate homeliness of the Euripidean _Electra_ with the severe grandeur of its rivals. Aeschylus and Sophocles, as different exponents of an artistic conception which is fundamentally the same, may be profitably compared; Euripides interprets another conception, and must be tried by other principles. His _Electra_ is, in truth, a daring experiment--daring, because the theme is one which the elder school had made peculiarly its own.

15. The _Orestes_, acted in 408, bears the mark of the age in the prominence which Euripides gives to the assembly of Argos--which has to decide the fate of Orestes and Electra--and to rhetorical pleading. The plot proceeds with sufficient clearness to the point at which Orestes and Electra have been condemned to death. But the later portion of the play, containing the intrigues for their rescue and the final achievement of their deliverance, is both too involved and too inconsequent for a really tragic effect. Just as in the _Electra_, the heroic persons of the drama are reduced to the level of commonplace. There is not a little which borders on the ludicrous, and it can be seen how easy would have been the passage from such tragedy as this to the restrained parody in which the Middle Comedy delighted. It is, however, inconceivable that, as some have supposed, the _Orestes_ can have been a deliberate compromise between tragedy and farce. It cannot have been meant to be played, as a fourth piece, instead of a regular satyric drama. Rather it indicates the level to which the heroic tragedy itself had descended under the treatment of a school which was at least logical. The celebrity of the play in the ancient world--as Paley observes, there are more ancient quotations from the _Orestes_ than from all the extant plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles together--is perhaps partly explained by the unusually frequent combination in this piece of striking sentiment with effective situation.

16. The _Iphigenia at Aulis_, like the _Bacchae_, was brought out only after the death of Euripides. It is a very brilliant and beautiful play,--probably left by the author in an unfinished state,--and has suffered from interpolation more largely, perhaps, than any other of his works. As regards its subject, it forms a prelude to the _Iphigenia in Tauris_. Iphigenia has been doomed by her father Agamemnon to die at Aulis, as Calchas declares that Artemis claims such a sacrifice before the adverse winds can fall.

The genuine play, as we have it, breaks off at v. 1508, when Iphigenia has been led to the sacrificial altar. A spurious epilogue, of wretched workmanship (v. 1509-1628), relates, in the speech of a messenger, how Artemis saved the maiden.

17. The _Bacchae_, unlike the preceding play, appears to have been finished by its author, although it is said not to have been acted, on the Athenian stage at least, till after his death. It was composed, or completed, during the residence of Euripides with Archelaus, and in all probability was originally designed for representation in Macedonia--a region with whose traditions of orgiastic worship the Dionysus myth was so congenial. The play is sometimes quoted as the _Pentheus_. It has been justly observed that Euripides seldom named a piece from the chorus, unless the chorus bore an important part in the

## action or the leading action was divided between several persons.

Possibly, however, in this instance he may designedly have chosen a title which would at once interest the Macedonian public. _Pentheus_ would suggest a Greek legend about which they might know or care little. The _Bacchae_ would at once announce a theme connected with rites familiar to the northern land.

It is a magnificent play, alone among extant Greek tragedies in picturesque splendour, and in that sustained glow of Dionysiac enthusiasm to which the keen irony lends the strength of contrast. If Euripides had left nothing else, the _Bacchae_ would place him in the first rank of poets, and would prove his possession of a sense rarely manifested by Greek poets,--perhaps by no one of his own contemporaries in equal measure except Aristophanes,--a feeling for natural beauty lit up by the play of fancy. R.Y. Tyrrell, in his edition of the _Bacchae_, has given the true answer to the theory that the _Bacchae_ is a recantation. Euripides had never rejected the facts which formed the basis of the popular religion. He had rather sought to interpret them in a manner consistent with belief in a benevolent Providence. The really striking thing in the _Bacchae_ is the spirit of contentment and of composure which it breathes,--as if the poet had ceased to be vexed by the seeming contradictions which had troubled him before. Nor should it be forgotten that, for the Greek mind of his age, the victory of Dionysus in the _Bacchae_ carried a moral even more direct than the victory of Aphrodite in the _Hippolytus_. The great nature-powers who give refreshment to mortals cannot be robbed of their due tribute without provoking a nemesis. The refusal of such a homage is not, so the Greeks deemed, a virtue in itself: in the sight of the gods it may be only a cold form of [Greek: hybris], overweening self-reliance--the quality personified in Pentheus.

The _Bacchae_ was always an exceptionally popular play--partly because its opportunities as a spectacle fitted it for gorgeous representation, and so recommended it for performance at courts and on great public occasions. "Demetrius the Cynic" (says Lucian, _Adv. Indoctum_, 19) "saw an illiterate person at Corinth reading a very beautiful poem--the _Bacchae_ of Euripides, I think it was; he was at the place where the messenger narrates the doom of Pentheus and the deed of Agave. Demetrius snatched the book from him and tore it up, saying, 'It is better for Pentheus to be torn up at once by me than to be mangled over and over again by you.'"

18. The _Cyclops_, of uncertain date, is the only extant example of a satyric drama. The plot is taken mainly from the story of Odysseus and Polyphemus in the 9th book of the _Odyssey_. In order to be really successful in farce of this kind, a poet should have a fresh feeling for the nature of the art parodied. It is because Euripides was not in accord with the spirit of the heroic myths that he is not strong in mythic travesty. His own tragedies--such as the _Helen_, the _Electra_, and the _Orestes_--had, in their several ways, contributed to destroy the meaning of satyric drama. They had done gravely very much what satyric drama aimed at doing grotesquely. They had made the heroic persons act and talk like ordinary men and women. The finer side of such parody had lost its edge; only broad comedy remained.

19. The _Rhesus_ is still held by some to be what the didascaliae and the grammarians call it--a work of Euripides; and Paley has ably supported this view. But the scepticism first declared by Valcknaer has gained ground, and the _Rhesus_ is now almost universally recognized as spurious. The art and the style, still more evidently the feeling and the mind, of Euripides are absent. If it cannot be ascribed to a disciple of his matured school, it is still less like the work of an Alexandrian. The most probable view seems to be that which assigns it to a versifier of small dramatic power in the latest days of Attic tragedy. It has this literary interest, that it is the only extant play of which the subject is directly taken from our _Iliad_, of which the tenth book--the [Greek: Doloneia]--has been followed by the playwright with a closeness which is sometimes mechanical.

Literary history of Euripides.

When the first protests of the comic poets were over, Euripides was secure of a wide and lasting renown. As the old life of Athens passed away, as the old faiths lost their meaning and the peculiarly Greek instincts in art lost their truth and freshness, Aeschylus and Sophocles might cease to be fully enjoyed save by a few; but Euripides could still charm by qualities more readily and more universally recognized. The comparative nearness of his diction to the idiom of ordinary life rendered him less attractive to the grammarians of Alexandria than authors whose erudite form, afforded a better scope for the display of learning or the exercise of ingenuity. But there were two aspects in which he engaged their attention. They loved to trace the variations which he had introduced into the standard legends. And they sought to free his text from the numerous interpolations which even then had resulted from his popularity on the stage. Philochorus (about 306-260 B.C.), best known for his _Atthis_, dealt, in his treatise on Euripides, especially with the mythology of the plays. From 300 B.C. to the age of Augustus a long series of critics busied themselves with this poet. The first systematic arrangement of his reputed works is ascribed to Dicaearchus and Callimachus in the early part of the 3rd century B.C. Among those who furthered the exact study of his text, and of whose work some traces remain in the extant scholia, were Aristophanes of Byzantium, Callistratus, Apollodorus of Tarsus, Timachidas, and pre-eminently Didymus; probably also Crates of Pergamum and Aristarchus. At Rome Euripides was early made known through the translations of Ennius and the freer adaptations of Pacuvius. When Hellenic civilization was spread through the East, the mixed populations of the new settlements welcomed a dramatic poet whose taste and whose sentiment were not too severely or exclusively Attic. The Parthian Orodes and his court were witnessing the _Bacchae_ of Euripides when the Agave of the hour was suddenly enabled to lend a ghastly reality to the terrible scene of frenzied triumph by displaying the gory head of the Roman Crassus. Mommsen has noted the moment as one in which the power of Rome and the genius of Greece were simultaneously abased in the presence of sultanism. So far as Euripides is concerned, the incident may suggest another and a more pleasing reflection; it may remind us how the charm of his humane genius had penetrated the recesses of the barbarian East, and had brought to rude and fierce peoples at least some dim and distant apprehension of that gracious world in which the great spirits of ancient Hellas had moved. A quaintly significant testimony to the popularity of Euripides is afforded by the Byzantine [Greek: Christos paschon]. This drama, narrating the events which preceded and attended the Passion, is a cento of no less than 2610 verses, taken from the plays of Euripides, principally from the _Bacchae_, the _Troades_ and the _Rhesus_. The traditional ascription of the authorship to Gregory of Nazianzus is now generally rejected; another conjecture assigns it to Apollinaris of Laodicea, and places the date of composition at about A.D. 330.[4] Although the text used by the author of the cento may not have been a good one, the value of the piece for the diplomatic criticism of Euripides is necessarily very considerable; and it was diligently used both by Valcknaer and by Porson.

Dante, who does not mention Aeschylus or Sophocles, places Euripides, with the tragic poets Antiphon and Agathon, and the lyrist Simonides, in the first circle of Purgatory (xxii. 106), among those

"piue Greci, che gia di lauro ornar la fronte."

Casaubon, in a letter to Scaliger, salutes that scholar as worthy to have lived at Athens with Aristophanes and Euripides--a compliment which certainly implies respect for his correspondent's powers as a peacemaker. In popular literature, too, where Aeschylus and Sophocles were as yet little known, the 16th and 17th centuries testify to the favour bestowed upon Euripides. G. Gascoigne's and Francis Kinwelmersh's _Jocasta_, played at Gray's Inn in 1566, is a literal translation of Lodovico Dolce's _Giocasta_, which derives from the _Phoenissae_, probably through the Latin translation of R. Winter (Basel, 1541). Among early French translations from Euripides may be mentioned the version of the _Iphigenia in Tauris_ by Thomas Sibilet in 1549, and that of the _Hecuba_ by Bouchetel in 1550. About a century later Racine gave the world his _Andromaque_, his _Iphigenie_ and his _Phedre_; and many have held that, at least in the last-named of these, "the disciple of Euripides" has excelled his master. Bernhardy notices that the performance of the _Hippolytus_ at Berlin in 1851 seemed to show that, for the modern stage, the _Phedre_ has the advantage of its Greek original. Racine's great English contemporary seems to have known and to have liked Euripides better than the other Greek tragedians. In the _Reason of Church Government_ Milton certainly speaks of "those dramatic constitutions in which Sophocles and Euripides reign"; in the preface to his own drama, again, he joins the names of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides,--"the three tragic poets unequalled yet by any." But the _Samson Agonistes_ itself clearly shows that Milton's chief model in this kind was the dramatist whom he himself has called--as if to suggest the skill of Euripides in the delineation of pathetic women--"sad Electra's poet"; and the work bears a special mark of this preference in the use of Euripidean monodies. In the second half of the 18th century such men as J.J. Winckelmann (1717-1768) and G.E. Lessing (1729-1781) gave a new life to the study of the antique. Hitherto the art of the old world had been better known through Roman than through Greek interpreters. The basis of the revived classical taste had been Latin. But now men gained a finer perception of those characteristics which belong to the Greek work of the great time, a fuller sense of the difference between the Greek and the Roman genius where each is at its best, and generally a clearer recognition of the qualities which distinguish ancient art in its highest purity from modern romantic types. Euripides now became the object of criticism from a new point of view. He was compared with Aeschylus and Sophocles as representatives of that ideal Greek tragedy which ranges with the purest type of sculpture. Thus tried, he was found wanting; and he was condemned with all the rigour of a newly illuminated zeal. B.G. Niebuhr (1776-1831) judged him harshly; but no critic approached A.W. Schlegel (1767-1845) in severity of one-sided censure. Schlegel, in fact, will scarcely allow that Euripides is tolerable except by comparison with Racine. L. Tieck (1773-1853) showed truer appreciation for a brother artist when he described the work of Euripides as the dawn of a romantic poetry haunted by dim yearnings and forebodings. Goethe--who, according to Bernhardy, knew Euripides only "at a great distance"--certainly admired him highly, and left an interesting memorial of Euripidean study in his attempted reconstruction of the lost _Phaethon_. There are some passages in Goethe's conversations with Eckermann which form effective quotations against the Greek poet's real or supposed detractors. "To feel and respect a great personality, one must be something oneself. All those who denied the sublime to Euripides were either poor wretches incapable of comprehending such sublimity or shameless charlatans who, in their presumption, wished to make more of themselves than they were." "A poet whom Socrates called his friend, whom Aristotle lauded, whom Alexander admired, and for whom Sophocles and the city of Athens put on mourning on hearing of his death, must certainly have been some one. If a modern man like Schlegel must pick out faults in so great an ancient, he ought only to do it upon his knees" (J.A. Symonds, _Greek Poets_, i. 230). We yield to no one in admiration of Goethe; but we cannot think that these rather bullying utterances are favourable examples of his method in aesthetic discussion; nor have they any logical force except as against those--if there be any such--who deny that Euripides is a great poet. One of the most striking of modern criticisms on Euripides is the sketch by Mommsen in his history of Rome (bk. iii. ch. 14). It is, in our opinion, less than just to Euripides as an artist. But it indicates, with true historical insight, his place in the development of his art, the operation of those external conditions which made him what he was, and the nature of his influence on succeeding ages.

Manuscript tradition of Euripides.

The manuscript tradition of Euripides has a very curious and instructive history. It throws a suggestive light on the capricious nature of the process by which some of the greatest literary treasures have been saved or lost. Nine plays of Euripides were selected, probably in early Byzantine times, for popular and educational use. These were--_Alcestis, Andromache, Hecuba, Hippolytus, Medea, Orestes, Phoenissae, Rhesus, Troades_. This list includes at least two plays, the _Andromache_ and the _Troades_, which, even in the small number of the extant dramas, are universally allowed to be of very inferior merit--to say nothing of the _Rhesus_, which is generally allowed to be spurious. On the other hand, the list omits at least three plays of first-rate beauty and excellence, the very flower, indeed, of the extant collection--the _Ion_, the _Iphigenia in Tauris_, and the _Bacchae_--the last certainly, in its own kind, by far the most splendid work of Euripides that we possess. Had these three plays been lost, it is not too much to say that the modern estimate of Euripides must have been decidedly lower. But all the ten plays not included in the select list had a narrow escape of being lost, and, as it is, have come to us in a much less satisfactory condition.

A. Kirchhoff was the first, in his editions, thoroughly to investigate the history and the affinities of the Euripidean manuscripts.[5] All our MSS. are, he thinks, derived from a lost archetype of the 9th or 10th century, which contained the nineteen plays (counting the _Rhesus_) now extant. From this archetype a copy, also lost, was made about A.D. 1100, containing only the nine select plays. This copy became the source of all our best MSS. for those plays. They are--(1) Marcianus 471, in the library of St Mark at Venice (12th century): _Andromache, Hecuba, Hippolytus_ (to v. 1234), _Orestes, Phoenissae_; (2) Vaticanus 909, 12th century, nine plays; (3) Parisinus 2712, 13th century, 7 plays (all but _Troades_ and _Rhesus_). Of the same stock, but inferior, are (4) Marcianus 468, 13th century: _Hecuba, Orestes, Medea_ (v. 1-42), _Orestes, Phoenissae_; (5) Havniensis (from _Hafnia_, Copenhagen, according to Paley), a late transcript from a MS. resembling Vat. 909, nine plays. A second family of MSS. for the nine plays, sprung from the same copy, but modified by a Byzantine recension of the 13th century, is greatly inferior.

The other ten plays have come to us only through the preservation of two MSS., both of the 14th century, and both ultimately derived, as Kirchhoff thinks, from the archetype of the 9th or 10th century. These are (1) Palatinus 287, Kirchhoff's B, usually called Rom. C., thirteen plays, viz. six of the select plays (_Androm., Med., Rhes., Hipp., Alc., Troad._), and seven others--_Bacchae, Cyclops, Heracleidae, Supplices, Ion, Iphigenia in Aulide, Iphigenia in Tauris_; and (2) Flor. 2, Elmsley's C., eighteen plays, viz. all but the _Troades_. This MS. is thus the only one for the _Helena_, the _Electra_, and the _Hercules Furens_. By far the greatest number of Euripidean MSS. contain only three plays,--the _Hecuba, Orestes_ and _Phoenissae_,--these having been chosen out of the select nine for school use--probably in the 14th century.

It is to be remembered that, as a selection, the nine chosen plays of Euripides correspond to those seven of Aeschylus and those seven of Sophocles which alone remain to us. If, then, these nine did not include the _Iphigenia in Tauris_, the _Ion_ or the _Bacchae_, may we not fairly infer that the lost plays of the other two dramatists comprised works at least equal to any that have been preserved? May we not even reasonably doubt whether we have received those masterpieces by which their highest excellence should have been judged?

Scholia.

The extant scholia on Euripides are for the nine select plays only. The first edition of the scholia on seven of these plays (all but the _Troades_ and _Rhesus_) was published by Arsenius--a Cretan whom the Venetians had named as bishop of Monemvasia, but whom the Greeks had refused to recognize--at Venice in 1534. The scholia on the _Troades_ and _Rhesus_ were first published by L. Dindorf, from Vat. 909, in 1821. The best complete edition is that of W. Dindorf (1863).[6] The collection, though loaded with rubbish--including worthless analyses of the lyric metres by Demetrius Triclinius--includes some invaluable comments derived from the Alexandrian critics and their followers.

EDITIONES PRINCIPES.--1496. J. Lascaris (Florence), _Medea, Hippolytus, Alcestis, Andromache_. 1503. M. Musurus (Aldus, Venice), _Eur. Tragg._ XVII., to which in vol. ii. the _Hercules Furens_ was added as an 18th; i.e. this edition contained all the extant plays except the _Electra_, which was first given to the world by P. Victorius from Florentinus C. in 1545. The Aldine edition was reprinted at Basel in 1537.

The complete edition of Joshua Barnes (1694) is no longer of any critical value. The first thorough work done on Euripides was by L.C. Valcknaer in his edition of the _Phoenissae_ (1755), and his _Diatribe in Eur. perditorum dramatum relliquias_ (1767), in which he argued against the authenticity of the _Rhesus_.

PRINCIPAL EDITIONS OF SELECTED PLAYS.--J. Markland (1763-1771), _Supplices, Iphigenia A., Iphigenia T._; Ph. Brunck (1779-1780), _Andromache, Medea, Orestes, Hecuba_; R. Porson (1797-1801), _Hecuba, Orestes, Phoenissae, Medea_; H. Monk (1811-1818), _Hippolytus, Alcestis, Iphigenia A., Iphigenia T._; P. Elmsley (1813-1821), _Medea, Bacchae, Heraclidae, Supplices_; G. Hermann (1831-1841), _Hecuba_ (animadv. ad R. Porsoni notas, first in 1800), _Orestes, Alcestis, Iphigenia A., Iphigenia T., Helena, Ion, Hercules Furens_; C. Badham (1851-1853), _Iphigenia T., Helena, Ion_; H. Weil, _Hipp., Medea, Hec., Iph. in T., Iph. in A., Electra, Orestes_ (2nd ed., 1890). It is impossible to give a list of the English and foreign editions of single plays, but mention may be made of the _Bacchae_, by J.E. Sandys (4th ed., 1900) and R.Y. Tyrrell (1892); _Medea_, by A.W. Verrall (1883); _Hippolytus_, by J.P. Mahaffy (1881); and of the _Hercules Furens_, by Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (2nd ed., 1895), with a comprehensive introduction on the literature of Euripides. A selected list (up to 1896) will be found in J.B. Mayor's _Guide to the Choice of Classical Books_; see also N. Wecklein in C. Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, xxviii. (1897), and for the earlier literature W. Engelmann, _Scriptores Graeci_ (1881). The little volumes on Euripides by J.P. Mahaffy (1879) and W.B. Donne in Blackwood's "Ancient Classics for English Readers" will be found generally useful; see also P. Decharme, _Euripide et l'esprit de son theatre_ (1893); A.W. Verrall, _Euripides the Rationalist_ (1895), and _Essays on Four Plays of Euripides_ (1905); N.J. Patin, _Etude sur Euripide_ (1872); O. Ribbeck, _Euripides und seine Zeit_; and (for the life of the poet) Wilamowitz's ed. of the _Hercules Furens_ (i. 1-42); P. Masqueray, _Euripide et ses idees_ (1908).

MODERN COMPLETE EDITIONS.--W. Dindorf (1870, in _Poet. Scenici_, ed. 5); A. Kirchhoff (1855, ed. min. 1867); F.A. Paley (2nd ed., 1872-1880), with commentary; A. Nauck (1880-1887, Teubner series); G.G. Murray in Oxford _Scriptorum Classicorum bibliotheca_ (1902, foll.).

ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS.--Among these may be noted the complete verse translation by A.S. Way (1894-1898); that in prose by E.P. Coleridge (1896); and G.G. Murray's verse translations (1902-1906). A literary interest attaches to Robert Browning's "Transcript" of the _Alcestis_ in his _Balaustion_, and to Goethe's reconstruction of Euripides' lost _Phaethon_ in the 1840 edition of his works, vol. xxxiii. pp. 22-43. (R. C. J.; X.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] A considerable fragment of the _Antiope_ was discovered in Egypt in the latter part of the 19th century; ed. J.P. Mahaffy in vol. viii. of the _Cunningham Memoirs_ (Dublin, 1891); and quite recently fragments, probably from the _Hypsipyle_, the _Phaethon_, and the _Cretans_ (see _Berliner Klassikertexte_, v. 2, 1907).

[2] (Originally simply _Heracles_, the addition _Mainomenos_ being due to the Aldine ed.)

[3] Introduction to the _Electra_ of Sophocles, p. xiii., in _Catena Classicorum_, 2nd ed.

[4] (According to Karl Krumbacher, _Gesch. der byz. Lit._, it is an 11th-century production of unknown authorship.)

[5] See also a clear account in the preface to vol. iii. of Paley's edition.

[6] New ed. by E. Schwartz (1887-1891).

EUROCLYDON (Gr. [Greek: euros], east wind; [Greek: klydon], wave), a stormy wind from the N.E. or N.N.E. in the eastern Mediterranean. Where the Authorized Version of the Bible (Acts xxvii. 14) mentions _euroclydon_, the Revised Version, taking the reading [Greek: eurakylon], has _euraquilo_, or north-easter. The word is sometimes used for the Bora (q.v.).

EUROPA (or rather, EUROPE), in Greek mythology, according to Homer (_Iliad_, xiv. 321), the daughter of Phoenix or, in a later story, of Agenor, king of Phoenicia. The beauty of Europa fired the love of Zeus, who approached her in the form of a white bull and carried her away from her native Phoenicia to Crete, where she became the mother of Minos, Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon. She was worshipped under the name of Hellotis in Crete, where the festival Hellotia, at which her bones, wreathed in myrtle, were carried round, was held in her honour (Athenaeus xv. p. 678). Some consider Europa to be a moon-goddess; others explain the story by saying that she was carried off by a king of Crete in a ship decorated with the figure-head of a bull. O. Gruppe (_De Cadmi Fabula_, 1891) endeavours to show that the myth of Europa is only another version of the myth of Persephone.

See Apollodorus iii. 1; Ovid, _Metam._ ii. 833; articles by Helbig in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, and by Hild in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_. Fig. 26 in the article GREEK ART (archaic metope from Palermo) represents the journey of Europa over the sea on the back of the bull.

EUROPE, the smallest of those principal divisions of the land-surface of the globe which are usually distinguished by the conventional name of continents.

1. GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS

Individuality of the continent.

It has justly become a commonplace of geography to describe Europe as a mere peninsula of Asia, but while it is necessary to bear this in mind in some aspects of the geography of the continent, more particularly in relation to the climate, the individuality of the continent is established in the clearest manner by the course of history and the resultant distribution of population. The earliest mention of Europe is in the Homeric _Hymn to Apollo_, but there Europe is not the name of a continent, but is opposed to the Peloponnesus and the islands of the Aegean. The distinction between Europe and Asia is found, however, in Aeschylus in the 5th century B.C., but there seems to be little doubt that this opposition was learnt by the Greeks from some Asiatic people. On Assyrian monuments the contrast between _asu_, "(the land of) the rising sun," and _ereb_ or _irib_, "(the land of) darkness" or "the setting sun," is frequent, and these names were probably passed on by the Phoenicians to the Greeks, and gave rise to the names of Asia and Europe. Where the names originated the geographical distinction was clearly marked by the intervention of the sea, and this intervention marked equally clearly the distinction between Europe and Libya (Africa). As the knowledge of the world extended, the difficulty, which still exists, of fixing the boundary between Europe and Asia where there is land connexion, caused uncertainty in the application of the two names, but never obscured the necessity for recognizing the distinction. Even in the 3rd century B.C. Europe was regarded by Eratosthenes as including all that was then known of northern Asia. But the character of the physical features and climate finally determined the fact that what we know as Europe came to be occupied by more or less populous countries in intimate relation with one another, but separated on the east by unpeopled or very sparsely peopled areas from the countries of Asia, and the boundary between the two continents has long been recognized as running somewhere through this area. Within the limits thus marked out on the east and on other sides by the sea "the climatic conditions are such that inhabitants are capable of and require a civilization of essentially the same type, based upon the cultivation of our European grains."[1] Those inhabitants have had a common history in a greater measure than those of any other continent, and hence are more thoroughly conscious of their dissimilarities from, than of their consanguinity with, the peoples of the east and the south.

Boundaries.

On the subject of the boundaries of Europe there is still divergence of opinion. While some authorities take the line of the Caucasus as the boundary in the south-east, others take the line of the Manych depression, between the upper end of the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea, nearly parallel to the Caucasus. Various limits are assigned to the continent on the east. Officially the crest of the Caucasus and that of the Urals are regarded in Russia as the boundaries between Europe and Asia on the south-east and east respectively,[2] although in neither case does the boundary correspond with the great administrative divisions, and in the Urals it is impossible to mark out any continuous crest. Reclus, without attempting to assign any precise position to the boundary line between the two continents, makes it run through the relatively low and partly depressed area north of the Caucasus and east of the Urals. The Manych depression, marking the lowest line of this area to the north of the Caucasus, has been taken as the boundary of Europe on the south-east by Wagner in his edition of Guthe's _Lehrbuch der Geographie_,[3] and the same limit is adopted in Kirchhoff's _Laenderkunde des Erdteils Europa_[4] and Stanford's _Compendium of Geography and Travel_. In favour of this limit it appears that much weight ought to be given to the consideration put forward by Wagner, that from time immemorial the valleys on both sides of the Caucasus have formed a refuge for Asiatic peoples, especially when it is borne in mind that this contention is reinforced by the circumstance that the steppes to the north of the Caucasus must interpose a belt of almost unpeopled territory between the more condensed populations belonging undoubtedly to Asia and Europe respectively. Continuity of population would be an argument in favour of assigning the whole of the Urals to Europe, but here the absence of any break in such continuity on the east side makes it more difficult to fix any boundary line outside of that system. Hence on this side it is perhaps reasonable to attach greater importance to the fact that the Urals form a boundary not only orographically, but to some extent also in respect of climate and vegetation,[5] and on that account to take a line following the crest of the different sections of that system as the eastern limit between the two continents.[6] Obviously, however, any eventual agreement among geographers on this head must be more or less arbitrary and conventional. In any case it must be borne in mind that, whatever conventional boundary be adopted, the use of the name Europe as so limited must be confined to statements of extent or implying extent. The facts as to climate, fauna and flora have no relation to any such arbitrary boundary, and all statistical statements referring to the countries of Europe must include the part of Russia beyond the Urals up to the frontier of Siberia. In such statements, however, in the present article the whole of the lieutenancy of the Caucasus will be left out of account. As to extent it is provisionally advisable to give the area of the continent within different limits.

Extent.

The following calculations in English square miles (round numbers) of the area of Europe, within different limits, are given in Behm and Wagner's _Bevoelkerung der Erde_, No. viii. (Gotha, Justus Perthes, 1891), p. 53:--Europe, within the narrowest physical limits (to the crest of the Urals and the Manych depression, and including the Sea of Azov, but excluding the Caspian Steppe, Iceland, Novaya Zemlya, Spitsbergen and Bear Island) 3,570,000 sq. m. The same, with the addition of the Caspian Steppe up to the Ural river and the Caspian Sea, 3,687,750 sq. m. The same, with the addition of the area between the Manych depression and the Caucasus, 3,790,500 sq. m. The same, with the addition of territories east of the Ural Mountains, the portion of the Caspian Steppe east of the Ural river as far as the Emba, and the southern slopes of the Caucasus, 3,988,500 sq. m. The same, with Iceland, Novaya Zemlya, Spitsbergen and Bear Island, 4,093,000 sq. m. In all these calculations the islands in the Sea of Marmora, the Canary Islands, Madeira, and even the Azores, are excluded, but all the Greek islands of the Aegean Sea and the Turkish islands of Thasos, Lemnos, Samothrace, Imbros, Hagiostrati or Bozbaba, and even Tenedos, are included.

Extreme points.

The most northern point of the mainland area is Cape Nordkyn in Norway, 71 deg. 6' N.; its most southern, Cape Tarifa in Spain, in 36 deg. 0' N.; its most western, Cape da Roca in Portugal, 9 deg. 27' W.; and its most eastern, a spot near the north end of the Ural Mountains, in 66 deg. 20' E. A line drawn from Cape St Vincent in Portugal to the Ural Mountains near Ekaterinburg has a length of 3293 m., and finds its centre in the W. of Russian Poland. From the mouth of the Kara to the mouth of the Ural river the direct distance is 1600 m., but the boundary line has a length of 2400 m.

Coastline.

Two of the most striking features in the general conformation of Europe are the great number of its primary and secondary peninsulas, and the consequent exceptional development of its coast-line--an irregularity and development which have been one of the most potent of the physical factors of its history. The total length of coast-line was estimated by Reuschle in 1869 at 19,820 m., of which about 3600 were counted as belonging to the Arctic Ocean, 8390 to the Atlantic, and 7830 to the Black Sea and Mediterranean. This estimate, however, does not take into account minor indentations. Reclus's estimate, including the more important indentations, brings the coast-line up to 26,700 m., and that of Strelbitsky up to 47,790 m. (smaller islands not included), or 1 m. of coast for about 75 sq. m. of area. Rohrbach[7] calculated the mean distance of all points in the interior of Europe from the sea at 209 m. as compared with 292 m. in the case of North America, the continent which ranks next in this respect. It must be pointed out, however, that such calculations are apt to be very misleading, inasmuch as the commercial value of the relations thus determined depends not merely on the existence of natural harbours or the presence of facilities for the construction of artificial harbours, but also on the presence of natural facilities for communication between such harbours and a productive interior.

Changes of coast-line.

The consideration just mentioned gives great significance to the fact that while the coast-line of Europe is in its general features very much the same as it was at the beginning of the true historic period, it has undergone a number of important local changes, some at least of which are due to causes that are at work over very extensive areas. These changes may be conveniently classified under four heads: the formation of deltas by the alluvium of rivers; the increase of the land-surface due to upheaval; the advance of the sea by reason of its own erosive activity; and the advance of the sea through the subsidence of the land. The actual form of the coast, however, is frequently due to the simultaneous or successive action of several of the causes--sea and river and subterranean forces helping or resisting each other. That changes in the coast-line on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia have taken place within historical times through elevation of the land seems now to be generally admitted. The commune of Hvittisbofjaerd north of Bjorneborg on the Finland side of that gulf gained about 21/4 sq. m. between 1784 and 1894, an amount greater than could be accounted for by the most liberal estimates of alluvial deposit, and the most careful investigation seems to show that on the Swedish coast of that gulf a rise has taken place in recent years on the east coast of Sweden from about 57 deg. 20' N. increasing in amount towards the north up to 62 deg. 20' N., where it reaches an average of about two-fifths of an inch annually.[8] Our information is naturally most complete in regard to the Mediterranean coasts, as these were the best known to the first book-writing nations. There we find that all the great rivers have been successfully at work--more especially the Rhone, the Ebro and the Po. The activity of the Rhone, indeed, as a maker of new land, is astonishing. The tower of St Louis, erected on the coast in 1737, is now upwards of four miles inland; the city of Arles is said to be nearly twice as far from the sea as it was in the Roman period. The present St Gilles was probably a harbour when the Greeks founded Marseilles, and Aigues Mortes, which took its place in the middle ages, was no longer on the coast in the time of St Louis (13th century), but Narbonne continued to be a seaport till the 14th century. At the mouth of the Herault, according to Fischer,[9] the coast advances at least two metres or about 7 ft. annually; and it requires great labour to keep the harbour of Cette from being silted up. The Po is even more efficient than the Rhone, if the size of its basin be taken into account. Ravenna, which was at one time an insular city like Venice, has now a wide stretch of downs partly covered with pine forest between it and the sea. Aquileia, one of the greatest seaports of the Mediterranean in the early centuries of the Christian era, is now 7 m. from the coast, and Adria, which gives its name to the sea, is 13. The islands on which Venice is built have sunk about 3 ft. since the 16th century: the pavement of the square of St Mark's has frequently required to be raised, and the boring of a well has shown that a layer of vegetable remains, indicating a flora identical with that observed at present on the neighbouring mainland, exists at a depth of 400 ft. below the alluvial deposits. A little to the south of Rovigno on the Istrian coast on the opposite side of the Adriatic a diver found at the depth of about 85 ft. the remains of a town, which has been identified with the island town of Cissa, of which nothing had been known after the year 679.[10] At Zara ancient pavements and mosaics are found below the sea-level, and the district at the mouth of the Narenta has been changed into a swamp by the advance of the sea. A process of elevation, on the other hand, is indicated along nearly all the coasts of Sicily, at the southern end of Sardinia, the east of Corsica, and perhaps in the neighbourhood of Nice, while the west coast of Italy from the latitude of Rome to the southern shores of the Gulf of Salerno has undergone considerable oscillations of level within historical times. About the time of the settlement of the Greeks the coast stood at least 20 ft. above the level of the present day. Depression began in Roman times, though then the land was still 16 ft. higher than now. A more rapid depression began in the middle ages, so that the sea-level rose from 18 to 20 ft. above the present zero, and the coast began gradually to rise again at the close of the 15th century.[11] Passing eastward to the Balkan peninsula, we find considerable changes on the coast-line of Greece; but as they are only repetitions on a smaller scale of the phenomena already described, it is sufficient to indicate the Gulf of Arta and the mouth of the Spercheios as two of the more important localities. The latter especially is interesting to the historian as well as to the geologist, as the river has greatly altered the physical features of one of the world's most famous scenes--the battlefield of Thermopylae.

If we proceed to the Atlantic seaboard we observe, as we might expect, great modifications in the embouchures of the Garonne and the Loire, but by far the most remarkable variations of sea and land have taken place in the region extending from the south of Belgium in the neighbourhood of the Straits of Dover to the mouth of the Elbe and the west coast of Schleswig-Holstein. Here there has been a prolonged struggle between man and nature, in which on the whole nature has hitherto had the best of the battle. While, as is well known, much land below sea-level in the Low Countries has been protected against the sea by dikes and reclaimed, and the coast-line has been, on the whole, advanced between the Elbe and the Eider,[12] there has been a great loss of land in the interior of Holland since the beginning of the Christian era, and on the balance a large loss of land north of the Eider since the first half of the 13th century.[13] In the 1st century A.D. the Zuider Zee appears to have been represented only by a comparatively small inland lake, the dimensions of which were increased by different inroads of the sea, the last and greatest of which occurred in 1395. Among the local changes of European significance within this area may be mentioned the silting up towards the end of the 15th century of the channel known as the Zwin running north-eastwards from Bruges, which through that cause lost its shipping and in the end all its former renown as a seat of commerce.

The Baltic shores of Germany display the same phenomena of local gain and loss. In the western section inroads of the sea have been extensive: the island of Ruegen would no longer serve for the disembarkation of an army like that of Gustavus Adolphus; Wollin and Usedom are growing gradually less; large stretches of the mainland are fringed with submerged forests; and at intervals the sites of well-known villages are occupied by the sea. Towards the east the great rivers are successfully working in the opposite direction. In the Gulf of Danzig the alluvial deposits of the Vistula cover an area of 615 sq. m.; in the 13th century the knights of Marienburg enclosed with dikes about 350 sq. m.; and an area of about 70 sq. m. was added in the course of the 14th. The Memel is silting up the Kurisches Haff, which, like the Frisches Haff, is separated from the open sea by a line of dunes comparable with those of the Landes in France. The so-called strand or coast-lines at various altitudes round the Scandinavian peninsula, though belonging for the most part to glacial times, speak also of relative changes of level in the post-glacial period.

[Illustration: Map of Europe.]

Volcanoes and earthquakes.

The changes briefly indicated above take place so gradually for the most part that it requires careful observation and comparison of data to establish their reality. It is very different with those changes which we usually ascribe to volcanic agency. Besides the great outlying "hearth" of Iceland, there are four centres of volcanic

## activity in Europe--all of them, however, situated in the

Mediterranean. Vesuvius on the western coast of Italy, Etna in the island of Sicily, and Stromboli in the Lipari group, have been familiarly known from the earliest historic times; but the fourth has only attracted particular attention since the 18th century. It lies in the Archipelago, on the southern edge of the Cyclades, near the little group of islets called Santorin. The region was evidently highly volcanic at an earlier period, for Milo, one of the nearest of the islands, is simply a ruined crater still presenting smoking solfataras and other traces of former activity. The devastations produced by the eruptions of the European volcanoes are usually confined within very narrow limits; and it is only at long intervals that any part of the continent is visited by a really formidable earthquake. The only part of Europe, however, for which there are no recorded earthquakes is central and northern Russia; and the Alps and Carpathians, especially the intra-Carpathian area of depression, Greece, Italy, especially Calabria and the adjoining part of Sicily, the Sierra Nevada and the Pyrenees, the Lisbon district and the rift valley of the upper Rhine (between the Vosges and the Black Forest) are all regions specially liable to earthquake shocks and occasionally to shocks of considerable intensity. One well-marked seismic line extends along the south side of the Alps from Lake Garda by Udine and Goerz to Fiume, and another forms a curve convex towards the south-east passing first through Calabria, then through the north-east of Sicily to the south of the Peloritan Mountains.[14] Of all European earthquakes in modern times, the most destructive are that of Lisbon in 1755, and that of Calabria in 1783; the devastation produced by the former has become a classical instance of such disasters in popular literature, and by the latter 100,000 people are said to have lost their lives. Calabria again suffered severely in 1865, 1870, 1894, 1905 and 1908.

Relief.

If the European mountains are arranged according to their greatest elevations, they rank as follows:--(1) the Swiss Alps, with their highest peaks above 15,000 ft.; (2) the Sierra Nevada, the Pyrenees, and Etna, about 11,000 ft.; (3) the Apennines, the Corsican Mountains, the Carpathians, the Balkans, and the Despoto Dagh, from 8000 to 9000; (4) the Guadarrama, the Scandinavian Alps, the Dinaric Alps, the Greek Mountains, and the Cevennes, between 6000 and 8000; (5) the mountains of Auvergne, the Jura, the Riesengebirge, the mountains of Sardinia, Majorca, Minorca, and the Crimea, the Black Forest, the Vosges, and the Scottish Highlands, from 4000 to 6000.

The following estimates are based on those contained in the fifth edition, by Dr Hermann Wagner, of Guthe's _Lehrbuch der Geographie_. In the original the figures are given in German sq. m. and in sq. kilometres in round numbers, and the equivalents here given in English sq. m. are similarly treated:--

Sq. m. The great European plain in its widest sense 2,660,000 The same exclusive of inland seas 2,300,000 The same exclusive of the Scandinavian and British lowlands 2,125,000 All other European lowlands 385,000 _The Hungarian plain_ 38,000 _The Po plain_ 21,000 The Scandinavian highlands 190,000 The Ural Mountains 127,000 The Alps 85,000 The Carpathians 72,000 The Apennines 42,500 The Pyrenees 21,500

Several estimates have been made of the average elevation of the continent, but it is enough to give here the main results. In the following list, where a conversion from metres into feet has been necessary, the nearest multiple of 5 ft. has been given:--Humboldt, 675 ft.; Leipoldt,[15] 975 ft.; De Lapparent,[16] 960 ft.; Murray,[17] 939 ft.; Supan,[18] 950 ft.; von Tillo,[19] 1040 ft.; Heiderich,[20] 1230 ft.; Penck,[21] 1085 ft. The exceptionally high estimate of Heiderich is due to the fact that by him Transcaucasia and the islands of Novaya Zemlya, Spitsbergen and Iceland are reckoned as included in Europe.

Arrangement of the highlands.

Of more geographical significance than these estimates are the facts with regard to the arrangement of the highlands of the continent. It is indeed this arrangement combined with the form of the coast-line which has indirectly given to Europe its individuality. Three points have to be noted under this head:--(1) the fact that the highlands of Europe are so distributed as to allow of the penetration of westerly winds far to the east; (2) the fact that the principal series of highlands has a direction from east to west, Europe in this point resembling Asia but differing from North America; and (3) that in Europe the mountain systems belonging to the series of highlands referred to not only have more or less well-marked breaks between them, but are themselves so notched by passes and cut by transverse valleys as to present great facilities for crossing in proportion to their average altitude. The first and second of these points have special importance with reference to the climate and will accordingly be considered more fully under that head. The second is also of importance with reference to the means of communication, to which the third also refers, and detailed consideration of these points in that relation will be reserved for that heading. Here, however, it may be noted that in Europe the distribution of the natural resources for the maintenance of the inhabitants is such that, if we leave out of account Russia, which is almost entirely outside of the series of highlands running east and west, the population north of the mountains is roughly about 50% greater than that south of the mountains, whereas in Asia the population north of the east and west highland barrier is utterly insignificant as compared with that to the south.

+--------------------+-------------------------+-------------+ | | Length in English Miles.|Area of Basin| | | | in sq. m. | | Name of River. +------------+------------+-------------+ | |Strelbitsky.| Other | Strelbitsky.| | | |Authorities.| | +--------------------+------------+------------+-------------+ | Volga | 1977[22] | 2107[23] | 563,300 | | Danube | 1644 | .. | 315,435 | | Ural | 1446 | 1477[23] | 96,350 | | Dnieper (Dnyepr) | 1064 | 1328[23] | 203,460 | | Kama | 984 | 1115[23] | 202,615 | | Don (Russia) | 980 | 1123[23] | 166,125 | | Pechora | 915 | 1024[23] | 127,225 | | Rhine | 709 | .. | 63,265 | | Oka | 706 | 914[23] | 93,205 | | Dniester (Dnyestr) | 646 | 835[23] | 29,675 | | Elbe | 612 | .. | 55,340 | | Vistula | 596 | 646[23] | 73,905 | | Vyatka | 596 | 680[23] | 50,555 | | Tagus | 566 | .. | 31,865[24]| | Theiss (Tisza) | 550 | .. | 59,350 | | Loire | 543 | .. | 46,755 | | Save | 535 | .. | 37,595 | | Meuse | 530 | .. | 12,740 | | Mezen | 496 | 507[23] | 30,410 | | Donets | 487 | 613[23] | 37,890 | | Douro | 485 | .. | 36,705 | | Duena (S. Dvina) | 470 | 576[23] | 32,975 | | Ebro | 470 | .. | 38,580[24]| | Rhone | 447 | .. | 38,180 | | Desna | 438 | 590[23] | 33,535 | | Niemen (Nyeman) | 437 | 537[23] | 34,965 | | Drave | 434 | .. | 15,745 | | Bug (Southern) | 428 | 477[23] | 26,225 | | Seine | 425 | .. | 30,030 | | Oder | 424 | .. | 17,150 | | Kuban | 405 | 509[23] | 21,490 | | Khoper | 387 | 563[23] | 23,120 | | Maros | 390 | .. | 16,975 | | Pripet | 378 | 404[23] | 46,805 | | Guadalquivir | 374 | .. | 21,580[24]| | Pruth (Prut[)u] | 368 | 503[23] | 10,330 | | Northern Dvina | 358 | 447[23] | 141,075 | | Weser-Werra | 355 | .. | 19,925 | | Po | 354 | .. | 28,920[24]| | Garonne-Gironde | 342 | .. | 32,745 | | Vetluga | 328 | 464[23] | 14,325 | | Pinega | 328 | 407[23] | 17,425 | | Glommen | 326 | 352[25] | 15,930 | | Bug (Western) | 318 | 450[23] | 22,460 | | Guadiana | 316 | .. | 25,300[24]| | Aluta (Alt, Oltu) | 308 | .. | 9,095 | | Mosel | 300 | .. | 10,950 | | Main | 300 | .. | 10,600 | | Maritsa | 272 | .. | 20,790 | | Jucar | 270 | .. | 7,620[24]| | Mologa | 268 | 338[23] | 15,005 | | Tornea | 268 | .. | 13,045 | | Inn | 268 | .. | 9,825 | | Saone | 268 | .. | 8,295 | | Moldau | 255 | 267[25] | 10,860 | | Moksha | 249 | 371[23] | 19,090 | | Ljusna | 243 | .. | 7,700 | | Mur | 242 | .. | 5,200 | | Morava, Servian | 235 | .. | 15,715 | | Klar | 224 | .. | 4,520 | | Voronezh | 218 | 305[23] | 7,760 | | Berezina | 218 | 285[23] | 9,295 | | Saale | 215 | .. | 8,970 | | Onega | 212 | 245[23] | 22,910 | | Vag (Waag) | 212 | .. | 6,245 | | Dema | 209 | 275[23] | 4,830 | | San | 203 | 444[23] | 6,135 | | Moskva | 189 | 305[23] | 5,910 | | Western Manych | 176 | 295[23] | 37,820 | | Klyazma | 159 | 394[23] | 15,200 | +--------------------+------------+------------+-------------+

From the table given on p. 909 (col. 1) it will be seen that the most extensive of the highland areas of Europe is that of Scandinavia, which has a general trend from south-south-west to north-north-east, and is completely detached by seas and plains from the highland area to the south. There are other completely detached highland areas in Iceland, the British Isles, the Ural Mountains, the small Yaila range in the south of the Crimea, and the Mediterranean islands. The connected series of highlands is that which extends from the Iberian peninsula to the Black Sea stretching in the middle of Germany northwards to about 52 deg. N. In the Iberian peninsula we have the most marked example of the tableland form in Europe, and these tablelands are bounded on the north by the Cantabrian Mountains, which descend to the sea, and the Pyrenees, which, except at their extremities, cut off the Iberian peninsula from the adjoining country more extensively than any other chain in the continent. Between the foot-hills of the Pyrenees, however, and those of the central plateau of France the ground sinks in the Passage of Naurouse or Gap of Carcassonne to a well-marked gap establishing easy communication between the valley of the Garonne and the lower part of that of the Rhone. The highlands in the north spread northwards and then north-eastwards till they join the Vosges, but sink in elevation towards the north-east so as to allow of several easy crossings. East of the Vosges the Rhine valley forms an important trough running north and south through the highlands of western Germany. To the south of the Vosges again undulating country of less than 1500 ft. in elevation, the well-known Burgundy Gate or Gap of Belfort, constitutes a well-marked break between those mountains and the Jura, and establishes easy communication between the Rhine and the Saone-Rhone valleys. The latter valley divides in the clearest manner the highlands of central France from both the Alps and the Jura, while between these last two systems there lies the wedge of the Swiss midlands contracting south-westwards to a narrow but important gap at the outlet of the Lake of Geneva. Between the Alps and the mountains of the Italian and Balkan peninsulas the orographical lines of demarcation are less distinct, but on the north the valley of the Danube mostly forms a wide separation between the Alps and the mountains of the Balkan peninsula on the south and the highlands of Bohemia and Moravia, the Carpathians and the Transylvanian Alps on the north. The valleys of the Eger and the Elbe form distinct breaks in the environment of Bohemia, and the Sudetes on the north-east of Bohemia and Moravia are even more clearly divided from the Carpathians by the valley of the upper Oder, the Moravian Gate, as it is called, which forms the natural line of communication between the south-east of Prussia and Vienna.

Rivers.

An estimate has been made by Strelbitsky of the length and of the area of the basins of all the principal rivers of Europe. In the table on p. 909 all the estimates given without any special authority are based on Strelbitsky's figures, but it should be mentioned that the estimates of length made by him evidently do not take into account minor windings, and are therefore generally less than those given by others. The authorities are separately cited for the originals of all other figures given in the table.[26]

The observations on the temperature of European rivers have been collected and discussed by Dr Adolf E. Forster.[27] He finds that the dominant factor in determining that temperature is the temperature of the air above, but that rivers are divisible into four groups with respect to the relation between these temperatures at different seasons of the year. These groups are rivers flowing from glaciers, in which the temperature is warmer than the air in winter, colder in summer; rivers flowing from lakes, characterized by peculiarly high winter temperatures, in consequence of which the mean temperature for the year is always above that of the air; rivers flowing from springs, which, at least near their source, are more rapidly cooled by low than warmed by high air temperatures; and rivers of the plains, which have a higher mean temperature than the air in all months of the year.

In various parts of Europe, more particularly in calcareous regions, such as the Jura, the Causses in the south-east of France, and the Karst in the north-west of the Balkan peninsula, there are numerous subterranean or partly subterranean rivers. Several of the more important rivers are of very irregular flow, and some are subject to really formidable floods. This is particularly the case with rivers a large part of whose basin is made up of crystalline or other impervious rocks with steep slopes, like those of the Loire in France and the Ebro in Spain. The Danube and its tributaries, the great rivers of Germany, above all eastern Germany, and those of Italy, are also notorious for their inundations. In southern Europe, where the summers are nearly rainless, most of the rivers disappear altogether in that season.

+--------------------------------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-----------+ | | Height | | | | Volume. | | Name of Lake and Country. | above | Area. | Greatest | Mean | Millions | | | Sea. | | Depth. | Depth.|of Cub. Ft.| |--------------------------------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-----------+ | | | Ft. | Sq. m. | Ft. | Ft. | | | Ladoga, Russia | 15 | 7004 | 730 | .. | .. | | Onega, " | 115 | 3765 |About 1200| .. | .. | | Vener, Sweden | 145 | 2149 | 280 | .. | .. | | Chudskoye or Peipus, Russia | 100 | 1357[28]| 90 | .. | .. | | Vetter, Sweden | 290 | 733 | 415 | .. | .. | | Saima, Russia | 255 | 680 | 185 | .. | .. | | Paejaene, " | 255 | 608 | .. | .. | .. | | Enare, " | 490 | 549 | .. | .. | .. | | Segozero," | 481 | 140 | .. | .. | .. | | Maelar, Sweden | 1.6 | 449 | 170 | .. | .. | | Byelo-Ozero, Russia | 400 | 434 | 35 | .. | .. | | Pielis, Russia | 305 | 422 | .. | .. | .. | | Topozero, Russia | .. | 411 | .. | .. | .. | | Ulea, " | 375 | 380 | 60 | .. | .. | | Ilmen, " | 107 | 358 | .. | .. | .. | | Vigozero, " | .. | 332 | .. | .. | .. | | Imandra, " | .. | 329 | .. | .. | .. | | Balaton, Hungary | 350 | 266 | 13 | .. | .. | | Geneva, France and Switzerland | 1220 | 225 | 1015 | 500 | 3,140,000 | | Kovdozero, Russia | .. | 225 | .. | .. | .. | | Constance, Germany and | | | | | | | Switzerland | 1295 | 208 | 825 | 295 | 1,711,000 | | Hjelmar, Sweden | 79 | 187 | 60 | .. | .. | | Neagh, Ireland | 48 | 153 | 113 | .. | .. | | Kubinskoye, Russia | .. | 152 | .. | .. | .. | | Mjoesen, Norway | 395 | 152 | 1485 | .. | .. | | Garda, Italy and Austria | 215 | 143 | 1135 | 445 | 1,757,000 | | Torne-traesk, Sweden | 1140 | 139 | .. | .. | .. | | Neusiedler-see, Hungary | 370 | 137 | 13 | .. | .. | | Scutari, Turkey | 20 |About 130| 33 | 121/2 | 45,900 | | Siljan, Sweden | .. | 123 | .. | .. | .. | | Virzjaervi, Russia | 115 | 107 | 24 | .. | .. | | Seliger, " | 825 | 100 | 105 | .. | .. | | Stor Afvan, Sweden | 1370 | 92 | 925 | .. | .. | | Yalpukh, Russia | .. | 89 | .. | .. | .. | | Neuchatel, Switzerland | 1415 | 85 | 500 | 210 | 500,000 | | Ylikitkakaervi, Russia | 680 | 85 | 30 | .. | .. | | Maggiore, Italy and Switzerland| 645 | 82 | 1220 | 575 | 1,316,000 | | Corrib, Ireland | 30 | 71 | 152 | .. | .. | | Como, Italy | 655 | 56 | 1360 | .. | .. | +--------------------------------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-----------+

Lakes and marshes.

For many European lakes, especially the smaller ones, estimates have been made of the mean depth and the volume. A list of all the European lakes for which the altitude, extent, and greatest depth could be ascertained, compiled by Dr K. Peucker, is published in the _Geog. Zeitschrift_ (1896), pp. 606-616, where estimates of the mean depth and the volume are also given where procurable. The table given above, comprising only the larger lakes, is mainly based on this list, where the original authorities are mentioned. The figures entered in the table not taken from this list are after Strelbitsky, the _Geog. Universelle_ of V. de St Martin, or, in the case of Swedish lakes, from the official handbook of Sweden.[29]

The Alpine lakes break up into a southern and northern subdivision--the former consisting of the Lago Maggiore, and the lakes of Lugano and Como, Lago d'Iseo, and Lago di Garda, all connected by affluents with the system of the Po; and the latter the Lake of Geneva threaded by the Rhone, Lakes Constance, Zuerich, Neuchatel, Biel and other Swiss lakes belonging to the basin of the Rhine, and a few of minor importance belonging to the Danube. The north Russian lakes, Ladoga, Onega, &c., are mainly noticeable as the largest members of what in some respects is the most remarkable system of lakes in the continent--the Finno-Russian, which consists of an almost countless number of comparatively small irregular basins formed in the surface of a granitic plateau. In Finland proper they occupy no less than a twelfth of the total area.

A few of the number are very shallow. The Neusiedler See, for example (the Peiso Lacus of the Latins and Fertoe-tava of the Hungarians), completely dried up in 1693, 1738 and 1864, and left its bed covered for the most part with a deposit of salt.[30] Lakes Copais in Boeotia and Fucino Celano in Italy have been entirely turned into dry land. The progress of agriculture has greatly diminished the extent of marsh land in Europe. The Minsk marshes in Russia form the largest area of this character still left, and on these large encroachments are gradually being made. Extensive marshes in northern Italy have been completely drained. The partial draining of the Pomptine marshes in Italy made Pope Pius VII. famous in the 18th century, and further reclamation works are still in progress there and elsewhere in the same country. (G. G. C.)

Geology.

The geological history of Europe[31] is, to a large extent, a history of the formation and destruction of successive mountain chains. Four times a great mountain range has been raised across the area which now is Europe. Three times the mountain range has given way; portions have sunk beneath the sea, and have been covered by more recent sediments, while other portions remained standing and now rise as isolated blocks above the later beds which surround them. The last of the mountain ranges still stands, and is known under the names of the Alps, the Carpathians, the Balkans, the Caucasus, &c., but the work of destruction has already begun, and gaps have been formed by the collapse of parts of the chain. The Carpathians were once continuous with the Alps, and the Caucasus was probably connected with the Balkans across the site of the Black Sea.

These mountain chains were not raised by direct uplift. They consist of crumpled and folded strata, and are, in fact, wrinkles in the earth's outer crust, formed by lateral compression, like the puckers which appear in a tablecloth when we push it forward against a book or other heavy object lying upon it. How the lateral or tangential pressures originated is still matter of controversy, but the usually accepted explanation is as follows. The interior of the earth in cooling contracts more rapidly than the exterior, and, if no other change took place, the outer crust would be left as a hollow sphere without any internal support. But the materials of which it is composed are not strong enough to bear its enormous weight, and, like an arch which is too weak in its abutments, it collapses upon the interior core. Where the crust is rigid it fractures, as an ordinary arch would fracture; and some portions fall inward, while other parts may even be wedged a little outward. Where, on the other hand, the crust is made of softer rock, it crumples and folds, and a mountain chain is produced. Such a mountain chain, for want of a better term, is called a folded mountain chain. The folding is most intense where a flexible portion of the crust lies next to a more rigid part. Where the folding has occurred, the rocks which were once comparatively soft become hard and rigid, and the next series of wrinkles will usually be formed beyond the limits of the old one. This is what has happened in the European area.

The oldest mountain chain lay in the extreme north-west of Europe, and its relics are seen in the outer Hebrides, the Lofoten Islands and the north of Norway. The rocks of this ancient chain have since been converted into gneiss, and they were folded and denuded before the deposition of the oldest known fossiliferous sediments. The mountain system must therefore have been formed in Pre-Cambrian times, and it has been called by Marcel Bertrand the Huronian chain. It is probable that a great land-mass lay towards the north-west; but in the sea which certainly existed south-east of the chain, the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian beds were deposited. In Russia and South Sweden these beds still lie flat and undisturbed; but in Norway, Scotland, the Lake District, North Wales and the north of Ireland they were crushed against the north-western continent and were not only intensely folded but were pushed forward over the old rocks of the Huronian chain. Thus was formed the Caledonian mountain system of Ed. Suess, in which the folds run from south-west to north-east. It was raised at the close of the Silurian period.

Then followed, in northern Europe, a continental period. By the elevation of the Caledonian chain the northern land-mass had grown southward and now extended as far as the Bristol Channel. Upon it the Old Red Sandstone was laid down in inland seas or lakes, while farther south contemporaneous deposits were formed in the open sea.

During the earlier part of the Carboniferous period the sea spread over the southern shores of the northern continent; but later the whole area again became land and the Coal Measures of northern Europe were laid down. Towards the close of the Carboniferous period the third great mountain chain was formed. It lay to the south of the Caledonian chain, and its northern margin stretched from the south of Ireland through South Wales, the north of France and the south of Belgium, and was continued round the Harz and the ancient rocks of Bohemia, and possibly into the south of Russia. It is along this northern margin, where the folded beds have been thrust over the rocks which lay to the north, that the coalfields of Dover and of Belgium occur. The general direction of the folds is approximately from west to east; but the chain consisted of two arcs, the western of which is called by Suess the Armorican chain and the eastern the Variscian. The two arcs together, which were undoubtedly formed at the same period, have been named by Bertrand the Hercynian chain. Everywhere the chief folding seems to have occurred before the deposition of the highest beds of the Upper Carboniferous, which lie unconformably upon the folded older beds. The Hercynian chain appears to have been of considerable breadth, at least in western Europe, for the Palaeozoic rocks of Spain and Portugal are thrown into folds which have the same general direction and which were formed at approximately the same period. In eastern Europe the evidence is less complete, because the Hercynian folds are buried beneath more recent deposits and have in some cases been masked by the superposition of a later series of folds.

The formation of this Carboniferous range was followed in northern Europe by a second continental period somewhat similar to that of the Old Red Sandstone, but the continent extended still farther to the south. The Permian and Triassic deposits of England and Germany were laid down in inland seas or upon the surface of the land itself. But southern Europe was covered by the open sea, and here, accordingly, the contemporaneous deposits were marine.

The Jurassic and Cretaceous periods were free from any violent folding or mountain building, and the sea again spread over a large part of the northern continent. There were indeed several oscillations, but in general the greater part of southern and central Europe lay beneath the waters of the ocean. Some of the fragments of the Hercynian chain still rose as islands above the waves, and at certain periods there seems to have been a more or less complete barrier between the waters which covered northern Europe and those which lay over the Mediterranean region. Thus, while the estuarine deposits of the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous were laid down in England and Germany, the purely marine Tithonian formation, with its peculiar fauna, was deposited in the south; and while the Chalk was formed in northern Europe, the Hippurite limestone was laid down in the south.

The Tertiary period saw fundamental changes in the geography of Europe. The formation of the great mountain ranges of the south, the Alpine system of Suess, perhaps began at an earlier date, but it was in the Eocene and Miocene periods that the chief part of the elevation took place. Arms of the sea extended up the valley of the Rhone and around the northern margin of the Alps, and also spread over the plains of Hungary and of southern Russia. Towards the middle of the Miocene period some of these arms were completely cut off from the ocean and large deposits of salt were formed, as at Wieliczka. At a later period south-eastern Europe was covered by a series of extensive lagoons, and the waters of these lagoons gradually became brackish, and then fresh, before the area was finally converted into dry land. Great changes also took place in the Mediterranean region. The Black Sea, the Aegean, the Adriatic and the Tyrrhenian Sea were all formed at various times during the Tertiary period, and the depression of these areas seems to be closely connected with the elevation of the neighbouring mountain chains.

Exactly what was happening in northern Europe during these great changes in the south it is not easy to say. The basaltic flows of the north of Ireland, the western islands of Scotland, the Faeroe Islands and Iceland are mere fragments of former extensive plateaus. No sign of marine Tertiary deposits of earlier age than Pliocene has been found in this northern part of Europe, and on the other hand plant remains are abundant in the sands and clays interbedded with the basalts. It is probable, therefore, that in Eocene times a great land-mass lay to the north-west of Europe, over which the basalt lavas flowed, and that the formation of this part of the Atlantic and perhaps of the North Sea did not take place until the Miocene period.

At a later date the climate, for some reason which has not yet been fully explained, grew colder over the whole of Europe, and the northern part was covered by a great ice-sheet which extended southward nearly as far as lat. 50 deg. N., and has left its marks over the whole of the northern part of the continent. With the final melting and disappearance of the ice-sheet, the topography of Europe assumed nearly its present form, and man came upon the scene. Minor changes, such as the separation of Great Britain from the continent, may have occurred at a later date; but since the Glacial period there have, apparently, been no fundamental modifications in the configuration of Europe.

The elevation of each of the great mountain systems already described was accompanied by extensive eruptions of volcanic rocks, and the sequence appears to have been similar in every case. The volcanoes of the Mediterranean are the last survivors of the great eruptions which accompanied the elevation of the Alpine mountain system. (P. La.)

Winds.

In western Europe by far the most prevalent wind is the S.W. or W.S.W. It represents 25% of the annual total; while the N. is only 6%, the N.E. 8, the E. 9, the S. 13, the W. 17 and the N.W. 11. Of the summer total it represents 22%, while the N. is 9, N.E. 8, E. 7, S.E. 7, W. 21 and N.W. 17. In south-eastern Europe, on the other hand, the prevailing winds are from the N. and E.--the E. having the preponderance in winter and autumn.[32] Of local winds the most remarkable are the foehn, in the Alps, distinguished for its warmth and dryness; the Rotenturm wind of Transylvania, which has similar characteristics; the bora of the Upper Adriatic, so noticeable for its violence; the mistral of southern France; the etesian winds of the Mediterranean; and the sirocco, which proves so destructive to the southern vegetation. Though it is only at comparatively rare intervals that the winds attain the development of a hurricane, the destruction of life and property which they occasion, both by sea and land, is in the aggregate of no small moment. About six or seven storms from the west pass over the continent every winter, usually appearing later in the southern districts, such as Switzerland or the Adriatic, than in the northern districts, as Scotland and Denmark.

Climate.

The great determining factors of the climate of Europe are these. The northern borders of the continent are within the Arctic Circle; the most southern points of the mainland are 131/2 deg. or more north of the Tropic of Cancer; to the east extends for about 3000 m. the continuous land surface of Asia; to the west lie the waters of the north Atlantic, which penetrate in great inland seas to the north and south of the great European peninsula; the prevailing winds in western Europe as already stated are more or less south-westerly; and the arrangement of the highlands is such as to allow of the penetration of winds with a westerly element in their direction far to the east. The first two of these factors are not distinguishing influences. They affect the climate of Europe in the same manner as they do that of any other land surface in the same latitudes.

The remaining factors, however, are of the highest importance. It is to them in fact that Europe owes in a very large measure those physical conditions which are the basis of its recognition as a separate continent. In estimating the value of those factors one must bear in mind, first, that the waters of the north Atlantic are exceptionally warm, especially on the European side of the ocean. The Gulf Stream carries a large body of warm water northwards to near the parallel of 40 deg. N., and to the north of the Gulf Stream prevailing south-westerly winds, especially during the winter months, drift onwards to the western and northern shores of Europe, even as far east as Spitsbergen, large bodies of water of an exceptionally high temperature. Secondly, one must bear in mind that these relatively high temperatures over the ocean promote evaporation and thus favour the presence of a relatively large amount of water-vapour in the air over those parts of the ocean which adjoin the continent; and, thirdly, that, as the winds are the sole means of carrying water-vapour from one part of the earth's surface to the other, and the sole means of carrying heat and cold from the ocean to the land, the prevailing south-westerly winds are allowed by the superficial configuration to bring a relatively high rainfall and a relatively large amount of heat in winter to land farther in the interior than in any corresponding latitudes. During the summer the winds referred to have a cooling effect, but not to the same degree as those of winter tend to raise the temperature. From the point of view just indicated the only part of the world that is fairly comparable with Europe is the west of North America; but, as there the outline and superficial configuration are quite different, the oceanic influences affect only a narrow strip of seaboard and not any extent of land which could be regarded as of continental rank. It is owing to these influences that in the greater part of Europe there is a more or less continuous population dependent on agriculture. On the east side of Europe, again, the existence of the continent of Asia has a marked effect on the climate which also aids in giving to Europe its individual character. It is owing to that circumstance that the south-east of the continent, which has temperatures as favourable to agriculture as the corresponding latitudes of eastern Asia or eastern North America, is without the copious rains which make those temperatures so valuable, and hence forms part of the desert that divides the populations of Europe and Asia.

Precipitation.

On the local distribution of rainfall and temperature, the physical configuration of the continent has very marked effects. Here as elsewhere there is a striking difference both in the amount of rainfall and the temperature on the weather and lee sides of mountains and even low hills. But with reference to this it should not be forgotten that water-vapour, heat and cold may be carried farther into the land by winds blowing in a different direction from that of those by which they were introduced from the ocean, and, with reference to rainfall, that the condensation of water-vapour may be brought out by different winds from those by which the water-vapour was brought to the area in which it is condensed. Water-vapour that may have been introduced by a south-westerly wind may be driven against a mountain side by a northerly or easterly wind, and thus cause rain on the northern or eastern side of the mountain. Still, any rainfall map of Europe indicates clearly enough the origin of the water-vapour to which the rainfall is due. Such a map, taking into account the results of more detailed investigations of different parts of the continent, is that of Joseph Reger.[33] This map shows the rainfall or rather total precipitation in seven tints at intervals of 250 mm. (about 10 in.) up to 1000 mm., and beyond that at intervals of 500 mm. up to 2000 mm. In some parts of the continent the limits of a rainfall of 200 mm. and 600 mm. are also shown. The picture there given is too complicated for brief description except by saying quite generally that it shows on the whole a diminution in the total amount of precipitation from west to east, and that the heaviest precipitation is indicated on the west or south and most exposed sides of mountains. The areas of scantiest rainfall lie to the north and north-west of the Caspian Sea and in the interior of the Kola Peninsula, north-west of the White Sea. The Stye in the English Lake District, some 2 m. from and 650 ft. higher than Seathwaite, has long been reputed to be the station recording the heaviest rainfall in Europe, but it has been shown to have a rival in Crkvice, a station immediately to the north of the Bocche di Cattaro on the Dalmatian coast. In the period 1881-1890 the average rainfall at the Stye amounted to 177 in., in 1891-1900 that at Crkvice amounted to about 179 in.[34]

Snowfall.

The amount of the snowfall as distinguished from the rest of the precipitation is now coming to be recognized as an important climatological element. So far, however, the only European country in which a record of the snowfall is kept is Russia, but it may be pointed out that the scantiness of the winter precipitation and accordingly of snow in the south-east of Europe almost entirely prevents the cultivation of winter wheat, which is thus left without the protective blanket enjoyed in some other parts of the world with cold winters.

Seasonal distribution of rainfall.

The important subject of the seasonal distribution of the rainfall of Europe has received attention from Drs A.J. Herbertson, Koeppen and Supan, and Mr A. Angot. The rainfall of each month in Europe as in the other continents is shown by Dr A.J. Herbertson in _The Distribution of Rainfall over the Land_.[35] On plate 19 of the _Atlas of Meteorology_, by J.G. Bartholomew and A.J. Herbertson, Dr Koeppen has furnished maps showing the months of maximum rainfall and the seasons of maximum and minimum rain frequency in different parts of Europe. Mr A. Angot's work on the subject is published in two papers in the _Annales du bureau central meteor. de France_, a series of memoirs in which the rainfall observations of Europe for the thirty years 1861-1890 are recorded and discussed. The first paper (1893, B, pp. 157-194) deals with the Iberian Peninsula, the second (1895, B, pp. 155-192) with western Europe (from about 43 deg. to 58 deg. N. and as far east as about 19 deg. to 21 deg. E.). Both papers are accompanied by maps showing by six tints the mean rainfall for each month as well as for the entire year; and that on western Europe, by maps extending in the west as far south as Avila, the proportion of the rainfall occurring during the winter, spring, autumn and summer months respectively. But the most instructive maps on the subject embracing the whole of Europe are four maps prepared by Dr Supan[36] to show the percentage of the total rainfall of the year occurring in spring, summer, autumn and winter respectively. From the maps it appears that all the southern and western coasts of Europe have a high proportion of rain in autumn, and that this is true also of the whole of the Italian peninsula and the islands of the western half of the Mediterranean, of all the south-west of the Balkan peninsula, including the Peloponnesus, of the Saone-Rhone valley and both sides of the Gulf of Bothnia, and that a high winter rainfall is characteristic of Iceland, the extreme western coasts of Scotland, Ireland, France and the Iberian peninsula, as well as of the greater part of the Mediterranean region, but more

## particularly the south-east, while in this region, and, again more

## particularly in the south-east, there is a great scarcity of summer

rains, which, on the other hand, form the highest percentage in the interior and eastern parts of the continent. If the year be divided into a winter and summer half, the area with a predominance of summer rains begins in the east of Great Britain and extends eastwards, while the Mediterranean region generally is one of rainy winters and relatively dry summers. The consequence is that with similar conditions of soil and superficial configuration the Mediterranean region is agriculturally much less productive, except where there are means of irrigation, than the corresponding latitudes in the east of Asia and the east of North America, where there are corresponding summer temperatures but an opposite seasonal distribution of rainfall.

Sunshine.

In connexion with the seasonal distribution of rainfall may be noticed the prevalence of sunshine and cloud. The map accompanying Koenig's paper on the duration of sunshine[37] shows on the whole, outside of the Mediterranean peninsulas, an increase from north-west to south-east (Orkney Islands, 1145 hours = 26% of the total possible; Sulina, 2411 hours = 55%). In the Mediterranean peninsulas the duration is everywhere great--greatest, so far as the records go, at Madrid, 2908 hours = 66%. Dr P. Elfert's[38] map illustrating cloud-distribution in central Europe embraces the region from Denmark to the basin of the Arno, and from the confluence of the Loire and Allier to the mouths of the Danube.

Temperature.

The temperature of the continent has been illustrated by Dr Supan in an interesting series of maps based on actual observations not reduced to sea-level, and showing the duration in months of the periods within which the mean daily temperature lies within certain ranges (at or below 32 deg. F.; 50 deg.-68 deg. F.; above 68 deg. F.).[39] The first of these maps strikingly illustrates the effect on temperature of the strong westerly winds of winter, and, in the south, that of winds from the Mediterranean Sea as well as the protection afforded to the Mediterranean countries against cold winds from the north by the barrier of mountains. South of the parallel of 60 deg. there is no lowland area in the west of Europe where the average daily temperature is at or below the freezing point for as much as one month, and in the Mediterranean region only the higher parts of the mountains besides the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula are characterized by such prolonged frosts. On the other hand, on the parallel of 50 deg. N. the duration of such low temperatures increases at first rapidly, afterwards more gradually, from west to east. The second map illustrating the duration of average daily temperatures between 50 deg. and 68 deg. F., that is, the temperatures favourable to the ordinary vegetation of the temperate zone, shows that the duration of such temperatures increases on the whole from south to north, and that by far the greater part of the continent south of 53 deg. N. has at least six months within those limits, and south of 58 deg. N. at least five months. The third of the maps shows that the high temperatures which it illustrates are prolonged for a month or more throughout the Mediterranean region, but outside of that region hardly anywhere except in the south-western plains of France, the Rhone valley and a large area in the south-east of Russia. Without doubt an important cause of the prolonged duration of high temperatures in this last area is the relatively long duration of sunshine already mentioned as shown by Koenig's map to be characteristic of south-eastern Europe.

Mention should here be made also of Brueckner's remarkable treatise on the variations of climate in time. Though it deals with such variations over the entire land-surface of the globe, a large proportion of the data are derived from Europe, for which continent, accordingly, it furnishes a great number of particulars with regard to secular variations in temperature, rainfall, the date of the vintage, the frequency of cold winters, the level of rivers and lakes, the duration of the ice-free period of rivers (in this case all Russian), and other matters. Those relating to the date of the vintage are of peculiar interest. They apply to 29 stations in France, south-west Germany and Switzerland, and for one station (Dijon) go back with few breaks to the year 1391; and as the variations of climate of which they give an indication correspond precisely to the indications derived from temperature and rainfall in those periods in which we have corresponding data for these meteorological elements, they may be taken as warranting conclusions with regard to these points even for periods for which direct data are wanting. A period of early vintages corresponds to one of comparatively scanty rains and high temperatures. It is accordingly interesting to note that the data referred to indicate, on the whole, for Dijon an earlier vintage for the average of all periods of five years down to 1435 than for the average of the periods of the same length from 1816-1880; but that the figures generally show no regular retardation from period to period, but more or less regular oscillations, differing in their higher and lower limits in different periods of long duration.

Cultivated plants.

Much light has been thrown on the present state of agriculture in Europe by the publication of Engelbrecht's _Landbauzonen der aussertropischen Laender_.[40] Of the two chief bread-plants of Europe, wheat and rye, wheat is cultivated as far north as about 69 deg. N. both in Norway and Finland, but the limit of the area in which more wheat is cultivated than rye to the west and south, more rye than wheat to the east and north, runs parallel to the west coast of the Netherlands and Belgium, then strikes south-eastwards so as to include nearly all Germany except Alsace-Lorraine and the south-west of Wuerttemberg, also eastern Switzerland, nearly all the Alpine provinces of Austria and nearly the whole region north of the Carpathians, as well as the greater part of Bohemia within the area in which rye predominates, while in Russia the limit runs east-north-east from about 44 deg. N. in the west to about 55 deg. N. in the Urals. On one side of this line wheat makes up more than 80% of the entire grain area[41] in western Rumania, in Italy and a large part of the south-west of France, and from 40% to 60% in the south-east of England. Spelt is cultivated in the south-west of Germany, Belgium and northern Switzerland, on the middle Volga and in Dalmatia and Servia. Rye covers more than 50% of the grain area in the east of Holland and Belgium, in the north-west of Germany, in central and eastern Germany and in middle Russia. Oats are more cultivated than all varieties of wheat in Ireland, in the west and the northern half of Great Britain, in Finland and in the greater part of Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein. Barley is more largely cultivated than oats both in the extreme north and the south of the continent. Maize is cultivated to a great extent in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula, in the south-west of France, in northern Italy and in the lands bordering the lower Danube; in many parts covering an area equal to or greater than that occupied by all grain crops. Millets (various species of panicum) are most extensively cultivated in the south-east of Europe. The kind of millet known as guinea-corn or durra (_Sorghum vulgare_ Pers.), so extensively cultivated in Africa and India, is grown to a small extent on the east side and in the interior of Istria. Buckwheat is cultivated in the west and east of the continent--in the west from the Pyrenees to Jutland, in the east throughout southern and middle Russia. The potato is very largely cultivated in western, northern and central Europe, but has made comparatively little progress in Russia. The cultivation of lentils is most largely pursued in the west and south-west of Germany and in the south and north of France. That of lupines has spread with great rapidity since 1840 in the dry sandy regions of eastern Germany, where lupines have proved as well adapted for such soils as the more widely cultivated sainfoin has done for dry chalky and other limestone soils. Sugar beet is most largely cultivated in the extreme north of France and the adjoining parts of Belgium and in central Germany, to a less but still considerable extent in south-eastern Germany, northern Bohemia and the south-west of Russia. Flax, like other industrial plants, shows a tendency to concentrate itself on specially favourable districts. It is most extensively grown in Russia from the vicinity of Riga north-eastwards, even crossing in the north-east the 70th parallel of latitude; but it is also an important crop in the north-east of Ireland, in Belgium and Holland, in Lombardy and in northern Tirol. Hemp is more extensively cultivated in central and southern Europe, above all in Russia. Teasels are grown in various spots in the south-east of France and in south Germany. The cultivation of madder is not yet extinct in Holland and Belgium, that of weld (_Reseda luteola_), woad (_Isatis tinctoria_) and saffron not yet in France.

The vine can be grown without protection in southern Scandinavia, and has been known to ripen its grapes in the open air at Christiansund in 63 deg. 7'; but its cultivation is of no importance north of 471/2 deg. on the Atlantic coast, 501/2 deg. on the Rhine, and from 50 deg. to 52 deg. in eastern Germany, the limit falling rapidly southwards to the east of 17 deg. E. The olive, with its double crop, is one of the principal objects of cultivation in Italy, Spain and Greece, and is not without its importance in Portugal, Turkey and southern Austria. Tobacco is grown to a considerable extent in many parts of western, central and southern Europe, for the most part under government regulation. The most important tobacco districts are the Rhine valley in Baden and Alsace, Hungary, Rumania, the banks of the Dnieper, Bosnia and the south-west and other parts of France. The cultivation is even carried on in Sweden and Great Britain, but the most northerly area in which it occupies as much as 0.1% of the grain area is the Danish island of Fyen (Funen).

Hop-growing is hardly known in the south, but forms an important industry in England, Austria, Germany and Belgium. Among the exotics exclusively cultivated in the south are the sugar-cane, the cotton plant, and rice. The first, which is found in Spain and Sicily, is of little practical moment; the second holds a secondary position in Turkey and Greece; and the third is pretty extensively grown in special districts of Italy, more particularly in the valley of the Po. Even pepper is cultivated to a small extent in the extreme south of Spain. Of the vast number of fruit trees which flourish in different parts of the continent only a few can be mentioned. Their produce furnishes articles of export to Austria-Hungary, Germany, France, Belgium, Italy and Spain. In Sardinia the acorn of the _Quercus Ballota_ is still used as a food, and in Italy, France and Austria the chestnut is of very common consumption. In the Mediterranean region the prevailing forms--which the Germans conveniently sum together in the expression _Suedfruechte_, or southern fruits--are the orange, the citron, the almond, the pomegranate, the fig and the carob tree. The palm trees have a very limited range: the date palm (_Phoenix dactylifera_) ripens only in southern Spain with careful culture; the dwarf palm (_Chamaerops humilis_) forms thickets along the Spanish coast and in Sicily, and appears less frequently in southern Italy and Greece.

Wheat and rye.

Special interest attaches to the two main bread crops of Europe, wheat and rye, the average annual production of which in the different countries of the continent at three periods is shown in the following tables.

_Average Production of Wheat in Millions of Bushels._

+---------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ | | 1872-1876.[42]| 1881-1890.[43]| 1894-1903.[44]| +---------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ | Austria-Hungary[45] | 137 | 161 | 191 | | Belgium | 22 | 18 | 15 | | Bulgaria[46] | .. | 40 | 36 | | Denmark | 4.7 | 5 | 3.6 | | France | 277 | 309 | 335 | | Germany | 101 | 93 | 127 | | Greece | .. | 7 | 4 | | Italy | 140 | 122 | 131 | | Netherlands | 6 | 6 | 6 | | Norway | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.4 | | Portugal | 9 | 8 | 8 | | Rumania[46] | .. | 50 | 57 | | Russia[47] | 275 | 242 | 325 | | Servia[46] | .. | 8 | 11 | | Spain[48] | 168 | 73 | 101 | | Sweden | 3 | 3.7 | 4.5 | | Switzerland | 2 | 2.6 | 5 | | Turkey in Europe[46]| .. | 38 | 18 | | United Kingdom | 91 | 78 | 57 | +---------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

_Average Production of Rye in Millions of Bushels in the chief Rye-producing Countries of Europe._[49]

+---------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ | | 1872-1876. | 1881-1890. | 1894-1903. | +---------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+ | Austria-Hungary | 129 | 122 | 124 | | Belgium | 16 | 17 | 20 | | Denmark | 15 | 17 | 22 | | France | 69 | 69 | 73 | | Germany | 209 | 228 | 368 | | Netherlands | 10 | 11 | 16 | | Russia[50] | 715 | 713 | 971 | | Spain | 32 | 21 | 23 | | Sweden | 18 | 20 | 27 | +---------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+

Perhaps the most striking facts revealed by these two tables are these; first, that the United Kingdom is the only great wheat-growing country which has shown a great decline in the amount of production in two successive periods; and, second, that both Germany and Russia show a great advance under both wheat and rye between the last two periods. This gives interest to statistics of acreage under these two crops, and some data under that head are given in the adjoining tables.

_Acreage under Rye._

+-----------+------------+------------+ | Period. | Germany. | Russia | | | |(ex-Poland).| +-----------+------------+------------+ | 1881-1890 | 14.50 | .. | | 1883-1887 | .. | 64.6 | | 1899-1903 | 14.74 | 65.5 | +-----------+------------+------------+

These figures show that the increased production is only in part, in some cases in small part, attributable to increase in area, and the following figures giving the average annual yield of wheat per acre (a) in the period preceding 1885, and (b) generally in the period of five years preceding 1905, shows that an improvement in yield in recent years has been very general.

+--------------+-------+-------++----------------+-------+-------+ | | (a) | (b) || | (a) | (b) | +--------------+-------+-------++----------------+-------+-------+ | Austria | 15.8 | 17.3 || Italy | 12.0 | 12.8 | | Hungary | 15.5 | 17.5 || Netherlands | 25.0 | 30.7 | | Belgium | 24.5 | 34.5 || Russia | 8.0 | 9.7 | | France | 18.0 | 19.2 || Poland | .. | 14.8 | | Germany | 18.5 | 28.2 || United Kingdom | 29 | 29.9 | +--------------+-------+-------++----------------+-------+-------+

Forests.

When the Aryan peoples began their immigration into Europe a large part of the surface must have been covered with primeval forest; for even after long centuries of human occupation the Roman conquerors found vast regions where the axe had made no lasting impression. The account given by Julius Caesar of the Silva Hercynia is well known: it extended, he tells us, for sixty days' journey from Helvetia eastward, and it probably included what are now called the Schwarzwald, the Odenwald, the Spessart, the Rhoen, the Thueringerwald, the Harz, the Fichtelgebirge, the Erzgebirge and the Riesengebirge. Since then the progress of population has subjected many thousands of square miles to the plough, and in some parts of the continent it is only where the ground is too sterile or too steep that the trees have been allowed to retain possession. Several countries, where the destruction has been most reckless, have been obliged to take systematic measures to control the exploitation and secure the replantation of exhausted areas. To this they have been constrained not only by lack of timber and fuel, but also by the prejudicial effects exerted on the climate and the irrigation of the country by the denudation of the high grounds. But even now, on the whole, Europe is well wooded, and two or three countries find an extensive source of wealth in the export of timber and other forest productions, such as turpentine, tar, charcoal, bark, bast and potash.

_Acreage under Wheat._[51]

+--------------------+--------+-------+----------+--------+--------+--------+------------+--------+ | Period. | United |France.| Italy. |Germany.|Austria.|Hungary.| Russia |Rumania.| | |Kingdom.| | | | | |(ex-Poland).| | +--------------------+--------+-------+----------+--------+--------+--------+------------+--------+ | Average, 1881-1885 | 2.8 | 17.2 | 11.7[52] | 4.6 | 2.6 | 6.5 | 28.9[53] | .. | | " 1886-1890 | 2.5 | 17.3 | 10.9[52] | 4.8 | 2.8 | 7.1 | .. | .. | | " 1891-1895 | 2.0 | 16.7 | 11.3[52] | 4.9 | 2.7 | 8.3 | 32.5 | 3.5 | | " 1896-1900 | 2.0 | 16.9 | 11.3[52] | 4.9 | 2.6 | 8.2 | 36.9 | 3.8 | | " 1901-1903 | 1.7 | 16.3 | 12.0 | 4.4 | 2.6 | 9.0 | 42.8 | 3.9 | +--------------------+--------+-------+----------+--------+--------+--------+------------+--------+

The following estimates of the forest areas of European countries are given in G.S. Boulger's _Wood_:--

+-----------------+-----------+--------------+ | Countries. | Thousands | Per cent. of | | | of Acres. | Total Area. | +-----------------+-----------+--------------+ | Russia | 469,500 | 34 | | Sweden | 43,000 | 24 | | Austria-Hungary | 42,634 | 29 | | France | 20,642 | 19 | | Spain | 20,465 | 16.3 | | Germany | 20,047 | 25.6 | | Norway | 17,290 | 25 | | Italy | 9,031 | 18 | | Turkey | 5,958 | 14 | | United Kingdom | 2,500 | 3.8 | | Switzerland | 1,905 | 18.8 | | Greece | 1,886 | 11.8 | | Portugal | 1,107 | 5 | | Belgium | 1,073 | 12 | | Holland | 486 | 6 | | Denmark | 364 | 4.6 | +-----------------+-----------+--------------+

Domestic animals.

Horse-breeding is a highly important industry in almost all European countries, and in several, as Russia, France, Hungary and Spain, the state gives it exceptional support. Almost every district of the continent has a breed of its own: Russia reckons those of the Bashkirs, the Kalmucks, the Don-Cossacks, the Esthonians and the Finlanders as among its best; France sets store by those of Flanders, Picardy, Normandy, Limousin and Auvergne; Germany by those of Hanover, Oldenburg and Mecklenburg, which indeed rank among the most powerful in the world; and Great Britain by those of Suffolk and Clydesdale. The English racers are famous throughout the world, and Iceland and the Shetland Islands are well known for their hardy breed of diminutive ponies. The ass and the mule are most abundant in the southern parts of the continent, more especially in Spain, Italy and Greece. The camel is not popularly considered a European animal; but it is reared in Russia in the provinces of Orenburg, Astrakhan and Taurid, in Turkey on the Lower Danube, and in Spain at Madrid and Cadiz; and it has even been introduced into Tuscany. A much more important beast of burden in eastern and southern Europe is the ox: the long lines of slow-moving wains in Rumania, for example, are not unlike what one would expect in Cape Colony. In western Europe it is mainly used for the plough or fattened for its flesh. It is estimated that there are about 100 distinct local varieties or breeds in Europe, and within the last hundred years an enormous advance has been made in the development and specialization of the finer types. The cows of Switzerland and of Guernsey may be taken as the two extremes in point of size, and the "Durhams" and "Devonshires" of England as examples of the results of human supervision and control. The Dutch breed ranks very high in the production of milk. The buffalo is frequent in the south of Europe, more especially in the countries on the Lower Danube and in southern Italy. Sheep are of immense economic value to most European countries, above all to Spain and Portugal, Great Britain, France, Hungary, the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, the Baltic provinces of Germany and the south-east of Russia. The local varieties are even more numerous than in the case of the horned cattle, and the development of remarkable breeds quite as wonderful. In all the more mountainous countries the goat is abundant, especially in Spain, Italy and Germany. The pig is distributed throughout the whole continent, but in no district does it take so high a place as in Servia. In the rearing and management of poultry France is the first country in Europe, and has consequently a large surplus of both fowls and eggs. In Pomerania, Brandenburg, West Prussia, Mecklenburg and Wuerttemberg the breeding of geese has become a great source of wealth, and the town of Strassburg is famous all the world over for its _pates de foie gras_. Under this heading may also be mentioned the domesticated insects, the silkworm, the bee and the cantharis. The silkworm is most extensively reared in northern Italy, but also in the southern parts of the Rhone valley in France, and to a smaller extent in several other Mediterranean and southern countries. Bee-keeping is widespread. The cantharis is largely reared in Spain, but also in other countries in southern and central Europe.

Minerals.

The most important mineral products of Europe are coal and iron ore. In order of production the leading coal-producing countries have long been the United Kingdom, Germany, France and Belgium. Since 1897 Russia has held the fifth place, followed by Austria-Hungary, Spain and Sweden. The production in other countries is insignificant. Besides coal, lignite is produced in great amount in Germany and Austria-Hungary, and to a small amount in France, Italy and a few other countries. Down to 1895 the United Kingdom stood first among the iron-ore producing countries of Europe, but since 1896 the order under this head has been the German Customs' Union, the United Kingdom, Spain, France, Russia, Sweden, Austria-Hungary and Belgium. By far the most important iron-ore producing district of Europe is that which lies on different slopes of the hills in which German Lorraine, the grand duchy of Luxemburg and France meet, the district producing all the ore of Luxemburg and the principal supplies of Germany and France. Another important producing district is what is known as the Siegerland on the confines of the Prussian provinces of the Rhine and Westphalia. Next in importance to these are the iron-ore deposits of the United Kingdom, the chief being those of the Cleveland district south of the Tees, and the hematite fields of Cumberland and Furness.

With regard to the mineral production of Europe generally, perhaps the most notable fact to record is the relatively lower place taken by the United Kingdom in the production both of coal and iron. Here it is enough to state the main results. In the production of coal the United Kingdom is indeed still far ahead of all other European countries, but notwithstanding the fact that the British export of coal has been increasing much more rapidly than the production, this country has not been able to keep pace with Germany and Russia in the rate of increase of production. In 1878 the production of coal in the German empire was only about 34% of that of the United Kingdom, but in 1906 it had grown to nearly 50%. This, too, was exclusive of lignite, the production of which in Germany is increasing still more rapidly. It was equal to little more than one-fourth of the coal production in 1878, but more than two-fifths in 1906. The coal production of Russia (mainly European Russia) is still relatively small, but it is increasing more rapidly than that of any other European country. While in 1878 it was little more than 2% of that of the United Kingdom, in 1906 the corresponding ratio was above 8%. In the production of iron ores the decline in the position of the United Kingdom is much more marked. The production reached a maximum in 1882 (18,032,000 tons), and since then it has sunk in one year (1893) as low as 11,200,000 tons, while, on the other hand, there was a rapid increase in the production of such ores in the German Zollverein (including Luxemburg), France, Spain, Sweden and Russia, down to 1900, with a more progressive movement, in spite of fluctuations, in all these countries than in the United Kingdom in more recent years. In the total amount of production the United Kingdom in 1905 took the second place. While in 1878 the production of iron ores in the German Zollverein was little more than a third of that in the United Kingdom, in 1905 it exceeded that of the United Kingdom by nearly 60%.

An indication of the relative importance of different European countries in the production of ores and metals of less aggregate value than coal and iron is given in the following tables[54]:--

+--------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ | | Gold. | Silver. |Quicksilver | Tin Ore. | | | | | Ore. | | +--------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ | | kilos. | kilos. | m.t. | m.t. | | Austria | 126 | 38,940 | 91,494 | 54 | | German Empire | 121 | 177,183 | .. | 134 | | Hungary | 3,738 | 13,642 | .. | .. | | Italy | .. | .. | 80,638 | .. | | Norway | .. | 6,367 | .. | .. | | Portugal | 29 | .. | .. | 22 | | Russia | 8,202[55] | .. | ?[57] | .. | | Spain | .. | ?[56] | 26,186 | 86 | | United Kingdom | 58 | 4,614 | .. | 7,268[58]| +--------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ Kilos = kilograms. M.t. = metric tons.

+--------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+ | | Copper Ore. | Lead Ore. | Manganese | Zinc Ore. | | | | | Ore. | | +--------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+ | | m.t. | m.t. | m.t. | m.t. | | Austria | 20,255 | 19,683 | 13,402 | 32,037 | | Belgium | .. | 121 | 120 | 3,858 | | Bosnia-Herzegovina | 765 | .. | 7,651 | 31 | | France | 2,547 | 11,795[62]| 11,189 | 53,466 | | German Empire | 768,523 | 140,914 | 52,485 | 704,590 | | Greece | .. | ?[63] | 10,040 | 26,258 | | Hungary | 1,338 | 564 | 10,895 | .. | | Italy | 147,135 | 40,945 | 3,060 | 155,821 | | Norway | 32,203 | (see zinc) | .. | 3,308[66]| | Portugal | 352,689[59]| 511 | 22 | 1,267 | | Russia | ?[60] | .. | ?[65] | 9,612 | | Spain |2,888,777[61]| 263,519[64]| 62,822 | 170,383 | | Sweden | 19,655 | 1,938[62]| 2,680 | 52,552[67]| | United Kingdom | 7,598 | 31,289 | 23,127 | 23,190 | +--------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+ M.t. = metric tons.

Platinum has hitherto been obtained nowhere in Europe except in the auriferous sands in the Russian government of Perm. Nickel is derived from Germany, Norway and Sweden; antimony from Germany and Hungary; bismuth from Saxony and Bohemia. Bauxite, which is used in the manufacture of aluminium, is obtained from France, Styria and Ireland. In order of importance the chief salt-producing countries are the United Kingdom (in which for some years the amount produced has been for the most part stationary or declining), Germany (which is rapidly increasing its production), Russia, France, Spain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Rumania and Switzerland. Besides common salt Germany has for many years been producing a rapidly increasing amount of potash salts, of which it has almost a monopoly. Italy (chiefly Sicily) is by far the most important producer of sulphur. Among other mineral products may be mentioned the boric acid and statuary marble of Tuscany, the statuary marble of Greece, the asphalt of Switzerland, Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary, the slates of Wales, Scotland and France, the kaolin of Germany, England and France, and the abundant glass sands of Belgium, France and Bohemia.

Commerce, industries and railways.

With regard to commerce, industries and railways, as a whole, Europe may be said to be characterized by the rapid development of manufacturing at the expense of agricultural industry. With few exceptions the countries of Europe that export agricultural products are able to spare a diminishing proportion of the aggregate of such produce for export. Other countries are becoming more and more dependent on imported agricultural products. Most European countries, even if not able to export a large proportion of manufactured articles, are at least securing a greater and greater command of the home market for such products.[68] Inland centres of manufacturing industry are extending the range of their markets. All these changes have been largely, if not chiefly, promoted by the improvements in the means of communication, and the methods of transport by sea and land. Larger ships more economically propelled have brought grain at a cheaper and cheaper rate from all parts of the world, and improved methods of refrigeration have made fresh meat, butter and other perishable commodities even from the southern hemisphere articles of rapidly growing importance in European markets. Improvements in transport have likewise tended to cheapen British coal in many parts of the mainland of Europe. On the other hand, the extension of the railway network of the continent has brought a wider area within the domain of the manufacturing regions associated with the coalfields occurring at intervals in central Europe from the upper Oder to the basin of the Ruhr, as well as some of the more detached coalfields of Russia. As affecting the relative advantages of different European countries for carrying on manufacturing industry, three inventions or discoveries of recent years may be mentioned as of capital importance: (1) the invention in 1879 of the Thomas process for the manufacture of ingot iron and steel from the phosphoric iron ores, an invention which gave a greatly enhanced value to the ores on the borders of Lorraine, Luxemburg and Alsace, as well as others both in England and on the continent; (2) the invention of efficient machines for the application of power by means of electricity, an invention which gave greatly increased importance to the water-power of mountainous countries; and (3) the discovery of the fact that from lignite an even higher grade of producer gas may be obtained than from coal, a discovery obviously of special importance for the great lignite-producing districts of Germany and Bohemia.

Water-power.

Such particulars as can be procured with regard to the utilization of water-power in the countries of Europe which use that source of power most largely are given in the following table:--

+-----------------+------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ | | | Total Horse- | Total Horse- | Percentage | | Countries. | Date.|power used in | power in | belonging to | | | | Mechanical | Hydraulic | Hydraulic | | | | Industry. |Installations.|Installations.| +-----------------+------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ | | | Thousands. | Thousands. | Per cent. | | Germany | 1895 | 3427 | 629 | 18 | | France / | 1899 | .. | 575 | .. | | \ | 1904 | 2581[69] | 650[69] | 25 | | Austria-Hungary | 1902 | .. | 437 | .. | | Italy | 1899 | 2209 | 337 | 15 | | Sweden | 1903 | 453 | .. | about 50[70] | | Norway | 1904 | 254 | 186 | 73 | | / | 1895 | 153 | 88 | 58 | | | | 1895 | 153 | 95[71] | 62 | | Switzerland < | 1901 | 320 | 185 | 58 | | | | 1901 | 320 | 223[71] | 70 | | \ | 1905 | 516 | ? | ? | +-----------------+------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

The figures derived from the three recent industrial censuses of Switzerland are very instructive, especially if one is justified in including the electric among the hydraulic installations. The estimates that have been made of the total available water-power in a few European countries are mostly based on such problematical data that they are not worth giving. One very uncertain element in such calculations is the amount of water-power that is capable of being artificially created by the construction of valley-dams, such as have been erected on a small scale in the Harz and other mining and smelting regions of Germany from an early date, and are now being built on a much larger scale in the Rhine region and other parts of Europe, or is incidentally provided in the construction of canals.

Transcontinental routes.

The commercial history of Europe has illustrated from the earliest times the influence of the outline and physical features in determining great trade-routes along certain lines. At all periods land routes have connected the southern seas with the Baltic and the North Sea, effecting the great saving of distance more or less indicated by the following table:--

+---------------------------+----------+-----------+----------+ | | Distance | Direct | Distance | | | by Sea. | Distance. | by Rail. | +---------------------------+----------+-----------+----------+ | | st. m. | m. | m. | | St Petersburg-Odessa | 5240 | 930 | 1217 | | Riga-Odessa | 4985 | 765 | 1022 | | Danzig-Odessa | 4735 | 745 | 1009 | | Stettin-Triest | 4065 | 550 | 854 | | Luebeck-Venice | 3920 | 640 | 871 | | Hamburg-Triest | 3820 | 560 | 945 | | Hamburg-Venice | 3805 | 555 | 886 | | Hamburg-Genoa | 2845 | 640 | 880 | | Antwerp-Venice | 3500 | 515 | 850 | | Antwerp-Genoa | 2535 | 515 | 778 | | Antwerp-Marseilles | 2350 | ? | 725 | | Calais-Genoa | 2400 | 555 | 780 | | Calais-Marseilles | 2215 | 535 | 721 | | Havre-Marseilles | 2135 | 475 | 678 | | Bordeaux-Cette | 1945 | 227 | 295 | | Calais-Constantinople | 3510 | 1445 | 2134 | | Calais-Salonica | 3370 | 1215 | 1911 | | Christiania-Stockholm | 780 | 260 | 357 | | Lulea-Narvik (Ofotenfjord)| 1970 | 240 | 295 | +---------------------------+----------+-----------+----------+

From the form of the continent it obviously results that the farther east the route lies the greater is the saving of distance. The precise direction of the routes has been very largely fixed, however, by the physical features; by the course of the rivers where navigable rivers formed parts of the routes; in other cases by the situation and form of the mountains, or the direction of the river valleys which is implied in the form of the mountains. From the Black Sea the most convenient starting-point is obviously towards the west, and two connecting routes with the Baltic lie wholly to the east of the mountains. One route makes use of the Bug or the Dniester, the San and the Vistula so far as possible, while another starting in the same way proceeds round the foot-hills of the Carpathians, thus finding easy crossing places on the head-streams of the rivers, as far as the Oder and then down that stream. Another route is up the Danube to the neighbourhood of Vienna, and then north-eastwards through the opening between the Carpathians and the Sudetic range to the head-waters of the Oder, crossing a water-parting little more than 1000 ft. in altitude. The first route was certainly used again and again by the ancient Greeks, starting from Olbia near the mouth of the Bug, the objective point being the coast in the south-east of the Baltic supplying the amber which was so important an article of commerce in early times. This route was again much used in the middle ages, when Visby, on Gotland, undoubtedly selected on account of the security afforded by an island station, was for hundreds of years an important centre of trade both in northern products (of which furs were the most valuable) and those of the East (pepper and other spices, silks and other costly articles). Numerous coins, Roman, Byzantine and Arabic, found not merely in Gotland itself but also at various points along the route indicated, testify to the long-continued importance of this route. In the middle ages the Oder route was also largely used whether reached by rounding the Carpathians or ascending the Danube, and in connexion with that route the island of Bornholm long formed a focus of commerce answering to that in Gotland farther east. The Danube route was also made use of farther west, and formed a large part of a great route connecting the East with the north-west of Europe. The valuable goods of the Orient could be conveyed up-stream as high as Ratisbon (Regensburg), and thence north-westward across Nuremberg to Frankfort-on-Main, from which access was had to the Rhine gorge leading on to Cologne and the ports of Dordrecht and Rotterdam, Bruges and Ghent; or they could be carried still farther up-stream to Ulm, thence by a route winding through the north of the Black Forest to Strassburg and from that point north of the Vosges to the Marne and Seine.

[Illustration: Map of Europe at the end of the 10th century.]

[Illustration: Map of Europe at the end of the 12th century.]

Farther west use was made at an early date of passes by which the whole system of the Alps could be crossed, or partly crossed and

## partly rounded, in a single rise. The ancient Etruscans, in exchanging

their earthenware and bronzes for the amber found largely in those times not only in the Baltic but also on the eastern shores of the North Sea north of the Rhine mouths, made regular use of at least three such passes. One of these was the Brenner, the summit of which is under 4500 ft. in height, approached on the south side by the valley of the Adige and its tributary the Eisak, on the other side by the Inn valley and that of its small tributary the Sill. By this route the Alps at about their widest are crossed with exceptional ease; and hence it was natural that it should have been used by the Etruscans to reach the amber shores of the Baltic, and in all subsequent periods in intercourse between central Europe and northern Italy. In their trade with the mouth of the Rhine the Etruscans appear to have used only the passes approached by the Dora Baltea, which leads equally to the Little St Bernard, to the south of Mont Blanc, and so to the Isere valley and the Rhone, and to the Great St Bernard, to the east of Mont Blanc, and so directly to the Rhone valley above the Lake of Geneva, by which route the remainder of the Alps could be rounded on the west and the Rhine valley reached by crossing the northern Jura. Roman roads were afterwards made across all these passes, although that across the Great St Bernard (the highest of all, above 8100 ft.) seems never to have been made practicable for carriages. The Romans also made use of three intervening passes by which in a single rise from the Po basin the heads of valleys leading right down to the head of Lake Constance could be reached. These were the Bernardino, Spluegen and Septimer, to mention them in the order from west to east. By the Romans the Simplon was also made use of as affording the most direct connexion between Milan and the upper Rhone valley. All these passes were likewise in use in the middle ages when Venice and Genoa were the great intermediaries in the trade in pepper and spices and other Oriental products. The Brenner afforded the most direct connexion between Venice and southern Germany, on a route leading also to northern Germany by way of Ratisbon and afterwards the rivers of the Elbe basin, and finally (from the end of the 14th century) by a canal to Luebeck, which was the great distributing centre of these and other products for the Baltic. To take the most direct route to the Rhine valley and north-western Europe some other pass (the Seefeld or the Fern) in the Bavarian Alps had to be crossed and the Rhine valley reached by Augsburg, and thence either by way of Ulm or Frankfort. From Genoa the routes in the early middle ages were by way of Milan to the Lake of Constance, and thence by way of Ulm if the Rhine valley was the goal, and by way of Augsburg if it was the Baltic. The St Gotthard route, the most direct connexion between Milan and the north of the Alps, was added about the end of the 13th century. The Mont Cenis pass from an early date afforded the most direct connexion between Genoa and the middle Rhone valley by way of Turin. When modern carriage roads came to be built it was still the same routes that were chosen. The road across the Brenner, completed in 1772, was the first of these. The building of the great Swiss carriage roads across the passes in the early part of the 19th century was inaugurated by Napoleon's road across the Simplon completed in 1805. A later paragraph will show that modern railways follow much the same, if not exactly the same, routes. On the early use of the Saone-Rhone valleys, and the route between the foot-hills of the Cevennes and the Pyrenees, it is not necessary to insist, but it may be mentioned that English tin was sometimes conveyed to the Mediterranean (Marseilles) by this latter route in Roman times.

Inland waterways.

Since the introduction of railways inland waterways have in most countries taken a very inferior position as means of transport. The articles on the different countries supply the necessary information with respect to those which have a purely national interest, but here mention must be made of those which have significance as belonging to trans-European routes or have an international value. The importance of shortening the water-route between the opposite sides of the great European isthmus separating the Baltic and the Black Sea is brought into prominence by the constant revival of projects for a ship-canal connecting those coasts. A definite step taken with a view to carrying out such a project was the sanction given by the tsar in April 1905 for the appointment of a special commission to inquire into the practicability of a scheme for the excavation of a canal about 28 ft. deep between Riga and Kherson, utilizing the waters of the Duna or western Dvina, the Berezina and Dnieper. Since the completion in 1845 of the Ludwigs or Danube-Main Canal, running from the Main near Bamberg to Kelheim on the Danube, it has been possible to go by water from the mouth of the Rhine to the mouth of the Danube; but this canal has in reality no trans-European significance. It cannot take barges of a greater capacity than 125 tons, is not adapted for steamers, and carries only a very small amount of traffic. But projects for connecting the Danube with northern Europe by water are still entertained. Of these the most advanced are those for establishing connexions through Austria. On the 11th of June 1901 the Austrian diet passed an act prescribing the construction of a canal connecting the Oder with the Danube through the Morava, and another connecting the Danube at Linz with the Moldau-Elbe, and the improvement of the navigation on the connected waterways. The Oder-Danube canal thus authorized would have to cross a watershed of little more than 1000 ft. in altitude as against 1365 ft. in the case of the Ludwigs Canal; but the Elbe-Danube Canal would have to cross one of about 2250 ft. Under the provisions of the act the work is to be completed by 1924. In Germany projects have been actively agitated for improving the Danube-Main connexion either wholly or partly along the route of the present canal, and for establishing a new connexion by means of a canal of at least 61/2 ft. in depth by way of the Neckar, the Rems and the Brenz, joining the Danube at Lauingen about midway between Ulm and Donauwoerth. The Moldau-Elbe is itself an important international waterway, inasmuch as it allows of steamer traffic from Prague in Bohemia to Hamburg, and by means of a connecting canal to Luebeck. But the most important of all international waterways in Europe is the Rhine, on which even sea-going steamers regularly ascend to Cologne, and an amount of traffic crosses the Dutch frontier three or four times as great as that which makes use of the Manchester ship-canal. The river is also navigable to Basel in Switzerland, though above Strassburg the river is little used, being replaced since 1834 by the Rhine and Rhone canal, which connects the two rivers through the Ill and the Saone. The Rhine is also connected with the Seine by the Marne and Rhine canal passing north of the Vosges, and its tributary the Moselle is also navigable from France into Germany. The Meuse again is navigable from France through Belgium into Holland, and is connected by more than one route with the Seine, and in the densely peopled mining and manufacturing country in the north of France and the adjoining parts of Belgium numerous waterways ramify in different directions. Even in an article on Europe the entirely French canals connecting the Seine and Rhone (Burgundy canal, summit-level 1230 ft., completed 1832), the Loire and Rhone (Canal du Centre, summit-level 990 ft., completed in 1793), and the Canal du Midi, connecting the Garonne at Toulouse with Cette on the Mediterranean, may be mentioned inasmuch as they establish communication between different seas. The last is of special interest because it is the oldest (completed in 1681), because it makes use of the lowest crossing, surmounting the passage of Naurouse, or Gap of Carcassonne, at an altitude of 625 ft., and because it effects the greatest shortening of distance from sea to sea. On this account the project of establishing a ship-canal of modern dimensions along this route has been as often revived as that of the Black Sea and Baltic canal. In the east of Europe the Vistula and Memel are both international waterways, but they are of little importance compared with those in the west. The Kaiser Wilhelm or North Sea and Baltic canal, opened in 1895, has, however, no little international value, inasmuch as it shortens the sea-route to the Baltic for all North Sea ports to the south of Newcastle, and affords the means of avoiding a rather dangerous passage round the north of Jutland. A minor degree of international interest belongs to the ship-canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, opened on the 6th of August 1893.

Railways.

The following table gives a summary statement of the progress of railway construction in European countries down to the end of the 19th century:--

_Railways in European Countries._

+-------------------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------+ | | Date of | Miles open. | | |opening of +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | |first line.| 1875. | 1880. | 1885. | 1890. | 1895. | 1900. | +-------------------+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | Austria | 1837 | 6,402 | 7.083 | 8,270 | 9,506 | 10,180 | 11,912 | | Belgium | 1835 | 2,171 | 2,399 | 2,740 | 2,810 | 2,839 | 2,851 | | Bosnia-Herzegovina| 1879 | .. | .. | .. | 342 | 471 | .. | | Bulgaria | 1866 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 535 | 921 | | Denmark | 1847 | 689 | 975 | 1,195 | 1,217 | 1,371 | 1,809 | | France | 1828 | 13,529 | 16,275 | 20,177 | 20,666 | 22,505 | 26,739 | | German Empire | 1835 | 17,376 | 20,693 | 22,640 | 25,411 | 27,392 | 30,974 | | Great Britain | 1825 | 14,510 | 15,563 | 16,594 | 17,281 | 18,001 | 18,680 | | Greece | 1869 | 7 | 7 | 278 | 452 | ? | 641 | | Hungary | 1846 | 3,992 | 4,421 | 5,605 | 6,984 | 8,651 | 10,624 | | Ireland | 1834 | 2,148 | 2,370 | 2,575 | 2,792 | 3,173 | 3,183 | | Italy | 1836 | 4,771 | 5,340 | 6,408 | 7,983 | 9,579 | 9,864 | | Luxemburg | 1873 | 110 | .. | .. | .. | 270 | .. | | Netherlands | 1839 | 1,006 | 1,143 | 1,496 | 1,653 | 1,869 | 2,007 | | Norway | 1854 | 345 | 652 | 970 | 970 | 1,071 | 1,231 | | Portugal | 1856 | 643 | 710 | 949 | 1,316 | 1,336 | 1,346 | | Rumania | 1869 | 766 | 859 | 1,100 | 1,590 | 1,617 | 1,920 | | Russia * | 1838 | 12,166 | 14,026 | 15,934 | 18,059 | 21,948 | 27,345 | | Servia | 1884 | .. | .. | 155 | 335 | 335 | 355 | | Spain | 1848 | 3,801 | 4,550 | 5,547 | 6,211 | 7,483 | 8,206 | | Sweden | 1856 | 2,171 | 3,654 | 4,279 | 4,980 | 6,058 | 7,018 | | Switzerland | 1844 | 1,257 | 1,596 | 1,795 | 2,014 | 2,233 | 2,401 | | Turkey | 1872 | .. | 727 | 657 | 657 | 935 | .. | --------------------+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ * Excluding Finland.

The chief railways of most European countries are on the same gauge as that originally adopted in Great Britain, namely, 4 ft. 81/2 in. Irish railways are, however, on the gauge of 5 ft. 3 in. The standard gauge in Russia is 5 ft., that of Spain and Portugal about 5 ft. 6 in. The still isolated railway system of Greece is upon a narrow gauge. The very general use of a common gauge obviously greatly facilitates international trade. It allows, for example, of wagons from Germany entering every country on its frontier except Russia. It allows of German coal being carried without break of bulk to Paris, Milan and the mainland of Denmark. By means of train-ferries German trains can also be conveyed to Copenhagen by way of Warnemuende and Gjedser and then across the channel separating Falster and Zealand; and there is a similar means of communication between Copenhagen and Malmoe (Sweden) and between Lindau in Bavaria on the Lake of Constance and Romanshorn on the same lake in the Swiss canton of Thurgau. The establishment of this method of transport between England and France has been urged in opposition to the Channel Tunnel scheme.

Of the railway systems of the mainland of Europe as a whole the main features are these. There is a broad belt running from the North Sea eastwards between the lines marked by Amsterdam and Hanover on the north, and Calais, Liege, Duesseldorf and Halle on the south, in which important lines of railway run from west to east. About 12 deg. E. those lines begin to converge on Berlin. This belt is crossed in the Rhine valley by a much narrower but very important belt running north and south, now connected with the Italian railway system through the St Gotthard tunnel. To the south of the west end of the west-to-east belt lies the principal railway focus in western Europe, Paris, from which important lines radiate in all directions; two of these radiating lines now establish communication with the Italian railway system, through the Mont Cenis and Simplon tunnels respectively, and other two connecting with the Spanish system round the ends of the Pyrenees. Berlin in central Europe is perhaps an even more important railway focus. Among the chief lines radiating from it are one through Leipzig and Munich and connecting with the Italian railway system by the Brenner route, and another through Dresden and Prague to Vienna, and then by the Semmering pass by one route to Triest and by another to Venice. East of Berlin the railways of Europe begin to form wider meshes. Two main lines diverge towards the north-east, one by Kuestrin and Koenigsberg and the other by Frankfort on the Oder and Thorn, both uniting at Eydtkuehnen to the east of Koenigsberg before crossing the Prussian frontier and passing on to St Petersburg. From Thorn a line branches off by Warsaw to Moscow, the chief railway focus in eastern Europe. South-east from Berlin there runs another important line through Breslau, Cracow and Lemberg to Odessa, skirting to a large extent the foot-hills of the Carpathians like the ancient trade route from Olbia to the Baltic. Two routes on which there are services organized by the International Sleeping Car Company connect London with Constantinople, and it is noteworthy that both of these indicate the importance of the physical feature which has determined the position of the great north-south belt of railways above mentioned, and also of towns famous as commercial centres in the middle ages. One of these is the route of the Orient Express, which goes by Calais, Paris and Strassburg, then east of Strassburg runs north in the Rhine valley for about 40 m. to Karlsruhe, then winds through the hilly country between the Black Forest proper and the Odenwald to Stuttgart, proceeding thence by Ulm, Augsburg and Munich to Linz and then by the valley of the Danube through Vienna and Budapest to Belgrade, and thence by the valleys of the Morava, Nishava and Maritza to Constantinople. The other is that of the Ostend-Vienna express, going by Ostend to Brussels, and through Aix-la-Chapelle to Cologne, then up the Rhine gorge southwards to Bingen and eastwards to Mainz and on to Frankfort (on the Main), thence south-eastwards by the route so celebrated in the middle ages through Nuremberg to Regensburg (Ratisbon), and thence down the valley of the Danube coinciding with the Orient Express route from a point a few miles above Linz. From the Orient Express route a branch crosses from the valley of the Morava to that of the Vardar, establishing a connexion with Salonica.

In the development of this railway system the mountains have proved the most formidable of natural obstacles, and at the head of the mountains in this respect as in others stand the Alps. The first railway to cross one of the main chains of the Alps was the Semmering line on the route from Vienna to the Adriatic, constructed in 1848-1854. Its summit is in a tunnel less than 1 m. long, 2940 ft. above sea-level or nearly 300 ft. below the level of the pass. South of the Semmering, however, various other passes have to be crossed, and it was not till 1857 that the railway to Triest (by Laibach) was completed, and not till the late seventies that the more direct route to Venice across the Tarvis pass in Carinthia was established. Of the route from Triest by Goerz across the Karawanken and Tauern Alps to Salzburg and south-eastern Germany the first section was opened only in 1906. After the Semmering the next railway to cross the Alps was that following the Brenner route which crosses the summit of the pass at the height of 4490 ft., and, as already stated, is the only pass that has to be crossed on the way from Munich to the plains of Italy. Next followed in 1871 the western route through the so-called Mont Cenis tunnel, really under the Col de Frejus, to the west of the Mont Cenis pass, and effecting a crossing between the valleys of the Arc (Rhone basin) and the Dora Riparia (Po basin) at an altitude of 4380 ft., or nearly 2500 ft. lower than the pass previously used, but only by piercing the mountains in a tunnel more than 71/2 m. long. Next in order was the St Gotthard route, opened in 1882, the most direct route between northern Italy and western Germany, connecting the Lake of Lucerne with the valley of the Ticino. Here the altitude is reduced to 3785 ft., about 3150 ft. below the summit-level of the pass, but the tunnel length is increased to rather more than 91/4 m. The Simplon route opened in June 1906, between the upper Rhone valley and the Toce valley, shortening the route between Milan and northern France, effects the crossing at an altitude of only 2300 ft., nearly 4300 ft. lower than the pass, but by increasing the tunnel length to 121/4 m. Steps were subsequently taken to continue the Simplon route northwards by a tunnel through the Loetschberg in the Bernese Alps, and a project is entertained for continuing the Vintschgau (upper Adige) railway across or under the Reschenscheideck to the Inn valley. An important east-west crossing of the Alps was effected when the Arlberg tunnel (6.37 m. long, summit-level 4300 ft.) connecting the Inn valley with that of the Rhine above the Lake of Constance was opened in 1884.

Several lines wind through and cross the Jura. That which in 1857 pierced the Hauenstein, in the north of Switzerland, attained international importance on the opening of the St Gotthard tunnel, inasmuch as it lies on the route thence through Lucerne to the Rhine valley at Basel; and that which crosses the Col de Jougne between Vallorbe and Pontarlier acquired similar importance on the completion of the Simplon tunnel. Further projects are entertained for shortening the connexion between this tunnel and the north of France by making a more direct line from Vallorbe to the French side of the Jura, or by making a railway across or under the Col de la Faucille (4340 ft.), north-west of Geneva.

Of the two railways that pass round the extremity of the Pyrenees, the western was the first to be constructed, the eastern was not opened till 1878. Hitherto the intervening mountains have proved more of a railway barrier than the mightier system of the Alps, but in 1904 a convention was concluded between the French and Spanish governments providing for the establishment of railway connexion between the two countries at three points of the great chain.

There are several railways across the Carpathians, mostly by passes under 3000 ft. in height. The fact that the Toemoes Pass, on the direct route from Hungary through Transylvania to Bucharest, attains an altitude of 3370 ft. was undoubtedly one reason why the railway following this route, completed in December 1879, passing through several tunnels, was one of the last to be constructed. But the obstruction of mountains has not been the only cause of delay in the building of railways. Sparseness of population and general economic backwardness have also proved hindrances, especially in Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. The railways to Constantinople and Salonica were completed only in 1888, and yet the highest altitude on the Constantinople line is only 2400 ft., that on the Salonica line 1750 ft. Among other important railways of recent date and of more than merely national significance may be mentioned that bringing Bucharest into connexion with the Black Sea port of Costantza by means of a bridge across the Danube at Chernavoda (opened in September 1895); a line across the Carpathians connecting Debreczen with Lemberg, the continuation of the line eastwards from Lemberg to Kiev; a network bringing the coalfield of the Donets basin into connexion with ports on the Sea of Azov; a line in the south-east of Russia connecting Novocherkask with Vladikavkaz, and branches running from the same point connecting that line with Novorossiysk on the Black Sea on the one hand, and with Tsaritsyn at the last angle of the Volga on the other hand; a line in northern Russia bringing Archangel into connexion with the European system at Vologda (opened in 1898); a detached line in the north-east across the Urals from Perm by Ekaterinburg (completed in 1878) to Tyumen (completed in 1884). Chelyabinsk on the Siberian railway has a branch running northwards to Ekaterinburg, and this line now affords uninterrupted communication with the northern Dvina, inasmuch as the railway which originally started at Perm has been carried westwards through Vyatka and then northwards to Kotlas at the point of origin of that river, to which point it was opened in 1900; and a line in the east connecting the European system at Samara with the great mining centre at Zlatoust, already in 1890 continued across the Urals to Miyas, and since then carried farther east as the great Siberian railway.

The result of the construction of the numerous transcontinental railways has been to bring rail and sea-routes and ports on opposite sides of the continents into competition with one another to a greater degree than is possible in any other continent. The more valuable, and above all perishable commodities may be sent right across the continent even through the mountains. Even from Great Britain, which is bound to carry on its external commerce in part by sea, goods are sometimes sent far south in Italy by railways running from one or other of the North Sea ports. It will hence be readily understood that for inland trade on the mainland the competition between ports on opposite sides of the continent and between different railways will be very keen, greatly to the advantage of the inland centres to which that competition extends. This competition is inevitably all the more keen now that the trade of Europe with the East is once more carried on through the Mediterranean as it was in ancient times and the middle ages. The great shortening of the sea-route in this trade at such ports as Marseilles, Triest, Venice and Genoa, indicated by the figures below, goes far to counterbalance the extra cost even of railway transport across the mountains.

_Distance in Nautical Miles from Port Said._

London 3215 | Marseilles 1506 Bremen 3502 | Genoa 1426 Hamburg 3520 | Venice 1330 Stettin 3749 | Brindisi 930 St Petersburg 4300 | Odessa 1130

Ethnology.

An enormous amount of investigation with regard to European ethnology has been carried on in recent years. These labours have chiefly consisted in the study of the physical type of different countries or districts, but it is not necessary to consider in detail the results arrived at. It should, however, be pointed out that the idea of an Aryan race may be regarded as definitely abandoned. One cannot even speak with assurance of the diffusion of an Aryan civilization. It is at least not certain that the civilization that was spread by the migration of peoples speaking Aryan tongues originated amongst and remained for a time peculiar to such peoples. The utmost that can be said is that the Aryan languages must in their earliest forms have spread from some geographical centre. That centre, however, is no longer sought for in Asia, but in some part of Europe, so that we can no longer speak of any detachment of Aryan-speaking peoples entering Europe.

The most important works, summarizing the labours of a host of specialists on the races of Europe, are those of Ripley and Deniker.[72] Founding upon a great multitude of data that have been collected with regard to the form of the head, face and nose, height, and colour of the hair and eyes, most of the leading anthropologists seem to have come to the conclusion that there are three great racial types variously and intricately intermingled in Europe. As described and named by Ripley, these are: (1) the Teutonic, characterized by long head and face and narrow aquiline nose, high stature, very light hair and blue eyes; (2) the Alpine, characterized by round head, broad face, variable rather broad heavy nose, medium height and "stocky" frame, light chestnut hair and hazel grey eyes; and (3) the Mediterranean, characterized by long head and face, rather broad nose, medium stature and slender build, dark brown or black hair and dark eyes. The Teutonic race is entirely confined to north-western Europe, and embraces some groups speaking Celtic languages. It is believed by Ripley to have been differentiated in this continent, and to have originally been one with the other long-headed race, sometimes known as the Iberian, and to the Italians as the Ligurian race, which "prevails everywhere south of the Pyrenees, along the southern coast of France, and in southern Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia," and which extends beyond the confines of Europe into Africa. The Alpine race is geographically intermediate between these two, having its centre in the Alps, while in western Europe it is spread most widely over the more elevated regions, and in eastern Europe "becomes less pure in proportion as we go east from the Carpathians across the great plains of European Russia." This last race, which is most persistently characterized by the shape of the head, is regarded by Ripley as an intrusive Asiatic element which once advanced as a wedge amongst the earlier long-headed population as far as Brittany, where it still survives in relative purity, and even into Great Britain, though not Ireland, but afterwards retired and contracted its area before an advance of the long-headed races. Deniker, basing his classification on essentially the same data as Ripley and others, while agreeing with them almost entirely with regard to the distribution of the three main traits (cephalic index, colour of hair and eyes, and stature) on which anthropologists rely, yet proceeds further in the subdivision of the races of Europe. He recognizes six principal and four secondary races. The six principal races are the Nordic (answering approximately to the Teutonic of Ripley), the Littoral or Atlanto-Mediterranean, the Ibero-Insular, the Oriental, the Adriatic or Dinaric and the Occidental or Cevenole.

Language.

Although language is no test of race, it is the best evidence for present or past community of social or political life; and nothing is better fitted to give a true impression of the position and relative importance of the peoples of Europe than a survey of their linguistic differences and affinities.[73] The following table contains the names of the various languages which are still spoken on the continent, as well as of those which, though now extinct, can be clearly traced in other forms. Two asterisks are employed to mark those which are emphatically dead languages, while one indicates those which have a kind of artificial life in ecclesiastical or literary usage.

I. INDO-EUROPEAN. 1. INDIC branch, represented by Gipsy dialects. 2. IRANIC branch, " " (a) Ossetian. (b) Armenian. 3. HELLENIC branch, " " *(a) Greek. (b) Romaic. (c) Neo-Hellenic. 4. ITALIC branch, " " *(a) Latin. **(b) Oscan. **(c) Umbrian, &c. / (d) French. | (e) Walloon. | (f) Provencal. | (g) Italian. _Neo-Latin_ < (h) Ladin (Rumonsh, Rumansh, | Rheto-Romance). | (i) Spanish. | (j) Portuguese. \ (k) Rumanian. 5. CELTIC branch, represented by (a) Irish. (b) Erse or Gaelic. (c) Manx. (d) Welsh. **(e) Cornish. (f) Low Breton. 6. TEUTONIC branch, represented by **(a) Gothic. / **(b) Norse or Old Norse. | (c) Icelandic and Faeroese. _Scandinavian_ < (d) Norwegian. | (e) Swedish. \ (f) Danish. / **(g) Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, or First | English. | (h) English. | **(i) Old Saxon. _Low German_ < (j) Platt-Deutsch or Low | German. | (k) Flemish } Netherlandish. | (l) Dutch } \ (m) Frisic. / **(n) Old High German. | (o) Middle High German. _High German_ < (p) New High or Literary \ German 7. SLAVONIC branch, represented by *(a) Church Slavonic. / (b) Russian. | (c) Ruthenian, Rusniak, or Little- | Russian. | (d) White Russian or Bielo- _South-Eastern_ < Russian. | (e) Bulgarian. | (f) Servo-Croatian. \ (g) Slovenian. / (h) Czech (Bohemian). | (i) Slovakish. _Western_ < (j) Polish. | (k) Sorbian (Wendic, Lusatian). \ *(l) Polabian. 8. LETTIC branch, represented by **(a) Old Prussian (b) Lettish. (c) Lithuanian. 9. UNATTACHED **?(a) Old Dacian. (b) Albanian. II. SEMITIC. 1. CANAANITIC branch, represented by *(a)Hebrew. **(b)Phoenician or Punic. 2. ARABIC branch, represented by **(a) Arabic. **(b) Mozarabic. (c) Maltese. III. FINNO-TATARIC (Turanian, Ural-Altaic, &c.). 1. FINNO-UGRIC languages (a) Samoyede. (b) Finnish or Suomi. (c) Esthonian, Livonian, Vepsish, Votish. (d) Lappish. (e) Cheremissian. (f) Mordvinian. (g) Ziryenian and Permian. (h) Votiak. (i) Magyar. 2. TATAR-TURKISH languages (a) Turkish. (b) Kazan Tatar, Crimean Tatar, Bashkir, Kirghiz. (c) Chuvash. 3. MONGOLIAN languages Kalmuk. 4. UNATTACHED Basque.

From this conspectus it appears that there are still about 60 distinct languages spoken in Europe, without including Latin, Greek, Old Slavonic and Hebrew, which are still used in literature or ecclesiastical liturgies. Besides all those which are spoken over extensive territories, and some even which are confined within very narrow limits, are broken up into several distinct dialects.

Political boundaries.

The boundaries of European countries have of course been determined by history, and in some cases only historical events can be held to account for their general situation, the influence of geographical conditions being seen only on a minute examination of details. In most cases, however, it is otherwise. The present political boundaries were all settled when the general distribution of population in the continent was in a large measure determined by the geographical conditions, and accordingly the lines along which they run for the most part show the influence of such conditions very clearly, and thus present in many cases a marked contrast to the political boundaries in America and Australia, where the boundaries have often been marked out in advance of the population. In Europe the general rule is that the boundaries tend to run through some thinly peopled strip or tract of country, such as is formed by mountain ranges, elevated tablelands too bleak for cultivation, relatively high ground of no great altitude where soil and climate are less favourable to cultivation than the lower land on either side, or low ground occupied by heaths or marshes or some other sterile soil; but it is the exception for important navigable rivers to form boundaries between countries or even between important administrative divisions of countries, and for such exceptions a special explanation can generally be found. Navigable rivers unite rather than separate, for the obvious reason that they generally flow through populous valleys, and the vessels that pass up and down can touch as easily on one side as the other. Minor rivers, on the other hand, flowing through sparsely peopled valleys frequently form portions of political boundaries simply because they are convenient lines of demarcation. A brief examination of the present political map of Europe will serve to illustrate these rules.

The eastern frontier of the Netherlands begins by running southwards through a marsh nearly parallel to the Ems but nowhere touching it, then winds south or south-westwards through a rather sparsely peopled district to the Rhine. This river it crosses, it then approaches but does not touch the Meuse, but runs for a considerable distance roughly parallel to that river along higher ground, where the population is much more scanty than in the valley. On the side of Belgium the Dutch boundary is for the most part thoroughly typical, winding between the dreariest parts of the Dutch or Belgium provinces of North Brabant, Limburg and Antwerp. The Scheldt nowhere forms a boundary between countries, not even at its wide estuary. The eastern frontier of Belgium is quite typical both on the side of Germany and Luxemburg. It is otherwise, however, on the south, there that country confines with France, and indeed the whole of the north-east frontier of France may be called a historical frontier, showing the influence of geographical conditions only in details. One of these details, however, deserves attention, the tongue in which it advances northwards into Belgium so as to give to France the natural fortress of Givet, a tongue, be it noted, the outline of which is as typical a boundary as is to be seen in Europe in respect of scantiness of population, apart from the fortress.

The mountainous frontiers of France on the east and south require hardly any comment. Only in the Burgundy Gate between the Vosges and the Jura has an artificial boundary had to be drawn, and even that in a minor degree illustrates the general rule. The division of the Iberian peninsula between Spain and Portugal goes back in effect to the Christian reaction against the Moors. The valley of the Mino and its tributaries establishes a natural connexion between Galicia and the rest of Spain; but an independent crusade against the Moors starting from the lower part of the valley of the Douro resulted in the formation of the kingdom of Portugal, which found its natural eastern limit on the scantily peopled margin of the Iberian tableland, where the rivers cease to be navigable and flow through narrow gorges, that of the Tagus, where the river marks the frontier, being almost without inhabitants, especially on the Spanish side.

The greater part of the Italian boundary is very clearly marked geographically, though we have to look back to the weakness of divided Italy to account for the instances in which northern mountaineers have pushed their way into southern Alpine valleys. Even in these parts, however, there are interesting illustrations of geographical influence in the way in which the Italian boundary crosses the northern ends of the Lago Maggiore and the Lake of Garda, and cuts off portions of Lake Lugano both in the east and west. In all these cases the frontier crosses from one steep unpeopled slope to another, assigning the population at different ends or on different sides of the lakes to the country to which belongs the adjacent population not lying on their shores.

Of the Swiss frontiers all that it is necessary to remark is that the river Rhine in more than one place marks the boundary, in one, however, where it traverses alluvial flats liable to inundation (on the side of Austria), in the other place where it rushes through a gorge below the falls of Schaffhausen. The southern frontier of Germany is almost throughout typical, the northern is the sea, except where a really artificial boundary runs through Jutland.

In the east of Germany and the north-east of Austria the winding frontier through low plains is the result of the partition of Poland, but in spite of the absence of marked physical features it is for the most part in its details almost as typical as the mountainous frontier on the south of Germany. All the great rivers are crossed. Most of the line runs through a tract of strikingly scanty population, and the dense population in one part of it, where upper Silesia confines with Russian Poland, has been developed since the boundary was fixed.

In the Balkan Peninsula the most striking facts are that the Balkans do not, and the Danube to a large extent does form a boundary. Geographical features, however, bring the valley of the Maritsa (eastern Rumelia) into intimate relation with upper Bulgaria, the connexion of which with Bulgaria north of the Balkans had long been established by the valley of the Isker, narrow as that valley is. On the side of Rumania, again, it is the marshes on the left bank of the Danube even more than the river itself that make of that river a frontier. An examination of the eastern boundary of all that is included in Russia in Europe will furnish further illustrations of the general rule.

Finally, on the north-west of Russia it was only natural that the Tornea and the Tana should be taken as lines of demarcation in that thinly peopled region, and it was equally natural that where the boundary between Norway and Sweden descends from the fjeld in the south it should leave to Norway both sides of the valley of the Glommen.

+-------------------+-------------+------------------------------------+--------+ | | Area. | Population. | | | +-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+Pop. per| | Countries. | English | About | About | About | sq. m. | | | sq. m. | 1880. | 1890. | 1900. | | +-------------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+--------+ | Austria-Hungary | 241,466 | 37,884 | 41,358 | 45,405[11]| 188 | | Bosnia-Herze- | 19,735 | 1,336[1] | .. | 1,568[12]| 81 | | govina[a] | | | | | | | Liechtenstein | 61 | | 9[7] | .. | 147 | | Belgium | 11,373 | 5,520 | 6,069 | 6,694[16]| 589 | | Denmark[b] | 15,431 | 1,980 | 2,185 | 2,465[14]| 160 | | France | 207,206 | | 38,343[7] | 38,596[14]| 186 | | Monaco | 8 | .. | .. | 15[13]| | | German Empire | 208,760 | 45,234 | 49,428 | 56,345[16]| 270 | | Luxemburg | 1,003 | | | 237[16]| 247 | | Greece | 24,974 | | 2,187[8] | 2,434[15]| 97 | | Italy | 110,676 | 28,460[2] | | 32,450[14]| 293 | | San Marino | 23 | .. | | 11[17]| 435 | | Montenegro | 3,500 | .. | | 228[15]| 65 | | Netherlands | 12,741 | 4,013[3] | 4,511[8] | 5,103[17]| 400 | | Portugal | 34,347[c]| 4,160[4] | 4,660 | 5,423[16]| 153 | | Rumania | 50,588 | | | 5,913[17]| 117 | | Russia | 1,951,249 | 89,685[1] | .. |103,671[18]| 53 | | Finland | 144,255 | 2,176[1] | .. | 2,555[11]| 18 | | Servia | 18,762 | 1,908[5] | | 2,494[16]| 133 | | Spain[a] | 191,994 | 16,432[6] | 17,262[9] | 18,618[16]| 97 | | Andorra | 175 | .. | 5 | .. | 29 | | Sweden | 173,968 | 4,566 | 4,785 | 5,136[16]| 30 | | Norway | 126,053 | | 2,001[7] | 2,231[16]| 18 | | Switzerland | 15,976 | 2,846 | 2,933[10]| 3,314[16]| 207 | | Turkey (Europe)[e]| 66,840 | | | 5,892? | 90 | | Bulgaria[f] | 37,323 | 2,008[2] | 3,154[10]| 3,733[14]| 100 | | Crete | 3,328 | .. | 302[9] | 304[16]| 91 | | Thasos | 152 | .. | .. | 12? | 79 | | United Kingdom | 121,742 | 35,026[2] | 37,881[7] | 41,455[14]| 341 | +-------------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+--------+ [a] Annexed by imperial decree to Austria-Hungary in 1908. [b] Including Faeroe Islands. [c] Area exclusive of Tagus and Sado inlets (together 161 sq. m.). [d] Excluding Canary Islands. [e] With Novi-bazar. [f] Bulgaria proclaimed its independence of Turkey in 1908.

[1] 1885. [10] 1888. [2] 1881. [11] Census 1900. [3] 1879. [12] Census 1895. [4] 1878. [13] Estimate 1897. [5] 1884. [14] Census 1901. [6] 1887. [15] Census 1896. [7] 1891. [16] Census 1900. [8] 1889. [17] Census 1899. [9] Census 1890. [18] Census 1897.

[Illustration: Map of Europe middle of 16th century.]

[Illustration: Map of Europe in 1715.]

Population.

The preceding table shows the area of the countries of Europe, with their estimated or enumerated populations in thousands (000 omitted) at different dates.

A noteworthy feature of the distribution of population in Europe, especially in western, southern and central Europe, in modern times, is the high degree of aggregation in towns, which is exhibited in the following table[74] for the different countries or regions of the continent:--

+-----------------------------+----------------------+-----------+ | | Percentage in Towns. | | | +----------+-----------+ All Towns | | | Over | From | over | | | 100,000. | 20,000 to | 20,000. | | | | 100,000. | | +-----------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ | England and Wales | 34.8 | 23.5 | 58.3 | | Scotland | 29.7 | 9.9 | 39.7 | | Ireland | 14.2 | 5.3 | 19.5 | | Norway | 10.8 | 6.8 | 17.6 | | Sweden | 8.5 | 2.6 | 11.2 | | Denmark | 19.4 | 6.6 | 26.0 | | German Empire | 17.0 | 11.2 | 28.2 | | Netherlands | 22.3 | 15.0 | 37.3 | | Belgium | 18.6 | 12.0 | 30.6 | | France | 13.7 | 10.3 | 24.0 | | Spain and Portugal | 10.5 | 5.7 | 16.2 | | Bosnia, Servia and Bulgaria | | 4.2 | 4.2 | | Rumania | 4.6 | 7.2 | 11.8 | | Hungary | 3.7 | 9.1 | 12.8 | | Galicia and Bukovina | 2.0 | 4.8 | 6.8 | | Cis-Leithan provinces of | | | | | Austria (exclusive of the | | | | | two latter) | 12.4 | 5.9 | 18.3 | | Poland | 10.6 | 4.2 | 14.8 | | Baltic Provinces, Russia | 11.4 | 8.3 | 19.7 | | Moscow region[75] | 9.6 | 5.4 | 15.0 | | Black earth governments, | | | | | Great Russia[76] | 0.7 | 4.9 | 5.6 | | Governments of middle and | | | | | lower Volga[77] | 3.3 | 4.0 | 7.3 | | South Russia[78] | 7.0 | 8.5 | 15.5 | | Finland | 3.8 | 4.3 | 8.1 | +-----------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+

The following table contains a list of the towns with more than 100,000 inhabitants, not in every case according to the most recent census, but, in order to make the populations fairly comparable with one another, according to the nearest census or available estimate to 1900. Population in thousands (000 omitted):--

*London (Greater, 1901) 6581 | Portsmouth (1901) 189 London (Registration, | Charlottenburg (1900) 189 1901) 4536 | Koenigsberg (1900) 188 *Paris (w. subs.) 2877 | Triest (1900) 179 " (City, 1901) 2661 | Plymouth-Devonport (1901) 177 *Berlin (w. subs.) 2073 | Stuttgart (1900) 176 " (1900) 1884 | Kharkov (1897) 174 Vienna (1900) 1662 | Bolton (1901) 168 *St Petersburg (w. subs., | Oporto (1900) 168 1897) 1267 | Cardiff (1901) 164 *Constantinople (w. subs.) 1200 | Bremen (1900) 163 Moscow (w. subs., 1897) 1036 | Ghent (1901) 162 Glasgow (w. subs., 1901) 910 | Dundee (1901) 161 Hamburg-Altona (1900) 867 | Vilna (1897) 160 Liverpool (w. subs., 1901) 767 | Brighton-Hove (1901) 160 Manchester-Salford (1901) 765 | Lemberg (1900) 160 Budapest (1900) 732 | Liege (1901) 160 Warsaw (1897) 638 | Halle a S. (1900) 157 +Birmingham (w. subs., 1901) 599 | Aberdeen (1901) 153 *Naples (comm., 1901) 565 | Bologna (comm., 1901) 152 Brussels (1901) 563 |*Venice (comm., 1901) 152 *Madrid (1900) 540 | Catania (comm., 1901) 150 Amsterdam (1902) 540 | Messina (comm., 1901) 150 *Barcelona (1900) 533 | Salonica 150 Munich (1900) 500 | Strassburg (1900) 150 Marseilles (1901) 495 | Zuerich (comm., 1900) 150 *Milan (comm., 1901) 493 | Seville (1900) 148 Copenhagen (w. subs., 1901) 477 | St Etienne (1901) 147 *Rome (comm., 1901) 463 | Sunderland (1901) 147 Lyons (1901) 460 | Dortmund (1900) 142 Leipzig (1900) 455 | Danzig (1900) 141 Leeds (w. subs., 1901) 444 | Mannheim (1900) 140 Breslau (1900) 423 | Stettin (1895) 140 Odessa (1897) 405 | Croydon (1901) 139 Dresden (1900) 395 | Graz (1900) 138 Edinburgh-Leith (1901) 393 | Oldham (1901) 137 Sheffield (1901) 381 | Saratov (1897) 137 Dublin (w. subs., 1901) 373 | Aachen (1900) 135 Cologne (1900) 372 | Gothenburg (1902) 134 *Lisbon (1900) 356 | Toulouse (1896) 134 Belfast (1901) 349 | Nantes (1901) 133 Rotterdam (1902) 348 | Kazan (1897) 132 Turin (comm., 1901) 335 | Malaga (1900) 130 Bristol (1901) 329 | Havre (1901) 130 Newcastle-Gateshead (1901) 325 | Blackburn (1901) 128 Prague (w. subs., 1900) 317 | Brunswick (1900) 128 Lodz (1897) 315 | Ekaterinoslav (1897) 121 *Palermo (comm., 1901) 310 | Rostov-on-Don (1897) 120 Stockholm (1902) 306 | Essen (1900) 119 Elbferfeld-Barmen (1901) 299 | Posen (1900) 117 Bordeaux (w. subs., 1896) 289 | Preston (1901) 113 Frankfort-on-Main 288 | Astrakhan (1897) 113 Riga (w. subs., 1897) 283 | Norwich (1901) 112 Bucharest (1899) 282 | Murcia (1900) 112 Bradford (1901) 280 | Birkenhead (1901) 111 Antwerp (1901) 273 | Athens (1896) 111 ++West Ham (1901) 267 | Tula (1897) 111 Nuremberg (1900) 261 | Bruenn (1900) 110 Kiev (1897) 247 | Kishinev (1897) 109 Hull (1901) 241 | Basel (comm., 1900) 109 Nottingham (1901) 240 | Utrecht (1902) 109 Hanover (1900) 237 | Kiel (1900) 108 Genoa (comm., 1901) 235 | Reims (1901) 108 Magdeburg (1900) 230 | Krefeld (1900) 107 Christiania (1900) 226 | Derby (1901) 106 The Hague (1902) 222 | Kassel (1900) 106 Roubaix-Tourcoing (1901) 220 | Halifax (1901) 105 Duesseldorf (1900) 214 | Nice (1901) 105 *Valencia (1900) 214 | Southampton (1901) 105 Florence (comm., 1901) 205 | Nancy (1901) 103 Leicester (1901) 212 | Szeged (1900) 103 Lille (1901) 211 | Toulon (1901) 102 Chemnitz (1900) 207 | Cartagena (1900) 100

Comm. = commune. w. subs. = with suburbs.

[*] In 1800 only those to which an asterisk is prefixed rose above 100,000. Thirty-four out of the 144 towns enumerated in the list above belong to the British Isles.

[+] The contiguous parliamentary boroughs of Birmingham and Aston Manor.

[++] Part of Greater London.

AUTHORITIES.--Elisee Reclus, vols. i. to v. of _Nouvelle Geographie universelle_ (Paris, 1876-1880), translated by E.G. Ravenstein and A.H. Keane (vol. i. Southern Europe, vol. ii. France and Switzerland, vol. iii. Austria-Hungary, Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands, vol. iv. The British Isles, vol. v. Scandinavia, Russia in Europe, and the European islands, translation undated); G.G. Chisholm, "Europe" (2 vols.) in Stanford's _Compendium of Geography and Travel_ (London, 1899, 1902); Kirchhoff and others, _Die Landerkunde des Erdteils Europa_, vols. ii. and iii. of _Unser Wissen von der Erde_ (comprising all the countries of Europe except Russia) (Vienna, &c., 1887-1893); A. Philippson and L. Neumann, _Europa, eine allgemeine Landerkunde_ (Leipzig, 1895, 2nd edition by A. Philippson, 1906); Joseph Partsch, _Central Europe_ (London, 1903) (embraces Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Rumania, Servia, Bulgaria and Montenegro treated from a general point of view); Joseph Partsch, _Mitteleuropa_ (Gotha, 1904) (the same work in German, extended and furnished with additional coloured maps); M. Fallex and A. Moirey, _L'Europe moins la France_ (Paris, 1906) (no index); A. Hettner, _Europa_ (Leipzig, 1907) (an important feature of this work is the division of Europe into natural regions); Vidal de la Blache, _Tableau de la geographie de la France_ (Paris, 1903) (contains a most instructive map embracing western and central Europe to about 42 deg. N. and 24 deg.-26 deg. E., showing the former extent of forest, the distribution of soils earliest fit for cultivation, of littoral alluvium and of the mines of salt and tin which were so important in early European commerce); H.B. George, _The Relations of Geography and History_ (Oxford, 1901) (deals very largely with Europe); W.Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_ (London, 1900); J. Deniker, _The Races of Man_ (London, 1900); R.G. Latham, _The Nationalities of Europe_ (London, 2 vols., 1863); J.G. Bartholomew, "The Mapping of Europe," in _Scot. Geog. Magazine_ (1890), p. 293; Joseph Prestwich, _Geological Map of Europe_ (Oxford, 1880); A. Supan, _Die Bevoelkerung der Erde_ (viii. Gotha, 1891, and x. Gotha, 1899); Strelbitsky, _La Superficie de l'Europe_ (St Petersburg, 1882); Oppel, "Die progressive Zunahme der Bevoelkerung Europas," _Petermanns Mitteil._ (Gotha, 1886); Dr W. Koch, _Handbuch fuer den Eisenbahn-Gueterverkehr_ (Berlin), published annually (gives railway distances on all the lines of Europe except those of the British Isles, Greece, Portugal and Spain); _Verkehrsatlas von Europa_ (Leipzig), frequently re-issued; _Grosser Atlas der Eisenbahnen von Mitteleuropa_ (Leipzig); _Verlag fuer Boersen_ and _Finanzliteratur_, frequently re-issued (gives kilometric distances between a great number of places and a great variety of other information in the text); K. Wiedenfeld, _Die nordwesteuropaeischen Welthaefen_ (Berlin, 1903) (an important work discussing the geographical basis of the commercial importance of the seaports of London, Liverpool, Hamburg, Bremen, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Antwerp and Havre). Papers relating to the climate of Europe: J. Hann, "Die Vertheilung des Luftdruckes ueber Mittel- und Sued-Europa" (based on monthly and annual means for the period 1851-1880), in Penck's _Geograph. Abhandlungen_ (vol. ii. No. 2, Vienna, 1887); A. Supan, "Die mittlere Dauer der Haupt-Waerme-perioden in Europa," _Petermanns Mitteil._ (1887), pl. 10, and pp. 165-172; Joseph Reger, "Regenkarte von Europa," in _Petermanns Mitteil._ (1903), pl. 1; A. Supan, "Die jahreszeitliche Verteilung der Niederschlaege in Europa," &c., _ibid._ (1890), pl. 21, and pp. 296-297; P. Elfert, "Die Bewoelkung in Mitteleuropa mit Einschluss der Karpatenlaender," _ibid._ (1890), pl. 11 and pp. 137-145; Koenig, "Die Dauer des Sonnenscheins in Europa," in _Nova Acta Leopoldina Karol. der deutschen Akad. der Naturforscher_, vol. lxvii. No. 3 (Halle, 1896); E. Ihne, "Phaenologische Karte des Fruehlingseinzugs in Mitteleuropa," in _Petermanns Mitteil._ (1905), pl. 9, and pp. 97-108; A. Angot, "Regime des pluies de la peninsule iberique," in _Annales du bur. cent. meteor. de France_ (1893, B. pp. 157-194), and "Regime des pluies de l'Europe occidentale," _ibid._ (1895, B. pp. 155-192); E.D. Brueckner, "Die Klimaschwankungen seit 1700," in Penck's _Geographische Abhandlungen_, iv. Pl. 2 (Vienna, 1890); Supan, "Die Verschiebung der Bevoelkerung in Mitteleuropa mit Einschluss der Karpatenlaender," _Petermanns Mitteil._ (1892); Block, _L'Europe politique et sociale_ (2nd ed., 1892); E. Reclus, "Hegemonie de l'Europe," in _La Societe nouvelle_ (Brussels, 1894). Publications relating to the measurement of a degree of longitude on the parallel of 52 deg. N. from Valentia (Ireland) to the eastern frontier of Russia: (1) Stebnitsky, account of the Russian section of this work in the _Memoirs_ (Zapiski) _of the Milit. Topog. Section of the Russian General Staff_, vols. xlix. and l. (St. Petersburg, 1893) (in Russian, see notice in _Petermanns Mitteil._ (1894), _Litteraturbericht_, No. 289); (2) and (3) _Die europaeische Laengengradmessung in 52 deg. Br. von Greenwich bis Warschau_; (2) Part i ., Helmert, _Hauptdreiecke und Grundlinienanschluesse von England bis Polen_ (Berlin, 1893); (3)