PART TWO
INFLECTION AND SYNTAX
## CHAPTER I
INFLECTION
+52.+ +Inflection is a change of form in a word indicating some change in its meaning. A word thus changed in form is said to be inflected.+
Thus the nouns _man_, _wife_, _dog_, may change their form to _man’s_, _wife’s_, _dog’s_, to express possession; or to _men_, _wives_, _dogs_, to show that two or more are meant.
The pronouns _I_, _she_, may change their form to _our_, _her_.
The adjectives _large_, _happy_, _good_, may change their form to _larger_, _happier_, _better_, to denote a higher degree of the quality; or to _largest_, _happiest_, _best_, to denote the highest degree.
The verbs _look_, _see_, _sing_, may change their form to _looked_, _saw_, _sang_, to denote past time.
The examples show that a word may be inflected (1) by the addition of a final letter or syllable (_dog_, _dogs_; _look_, _looked_), (2) by the substitution of one letter for another (_man_, _men_), or (3) by a complete change of form (_good_, _better_, _best_).
+53.+ The inflection of a substantive is called its +declension+; that of an adjective or an adverb, its +comparison+; that of a verb, its +conjugation+.
NOTE. Some forms which we regard as due to inflection are really distinct words. Thus _we_ is regarded as a form of the pronoun _I_, but it is in fact an altogether different word. Such irregularities, however, are not numerous, and are properly enough included under the head of inflection.
The table below gives a summary view of inflection, and may be used for reference with the following chapters.
SUBSTANTIVES (NOUNS AND PRONOUNS)
Gender { Masculine (_male_) { Feminine (_female_) { Neuter (_no sex_)
Number { Singular (_one_) { Plural (_more than one_)
Person { First (_speaker_) { Second (_spoken to_) { Third (_spoken of_)
Case { Nominative (_subject case_) { Possessive (_ownership_) { Objective (_object case_)
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Comparison { Positive Degree { Comparative Degree { Superlative Degree
VERBS
Number { Singular } { Plural } } _Verb agrees with Subject_ Person { First } { Second } { Third }
Tense { Simple Tenses { Present { { Past { { Future { { Compound Tenses { Perfect (or Present Perfect) { { Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) { { Future Perfect
Mood { Indicative (_all six tenses_) { Imperative (_Present Tense only_) { Subjunctive (_Present_, _Past_, _Perfect_, _Pluperfect_)
Voice { Active (_Subject acts_) { Passive (_Subject receives the action_)
Infinitives (Present and Perfect)
## Participles (Present, Past, and Perfect)
## CHAPTER II
NOUNS
CLASSIFICATION--COMMON NOUNS AND PROPER NOUNS
+54.+ +A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.+
+55.+ +Nouns are divided into two classes--proper nouns and common nouns.+
1. +A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing.+
EXAMPLES: Lincoln, Napoleon, Ruth, Gladstone, America, Denver, Jove, Ohio, Monday, December, Yale, Christmas, Britannia, Niagara, Merrimac, Elmwood, Louvre, Richardson, Huron, Falstaff.
2. +A common noun is a name which may be applied to any one of a class of persons, places, or things.+
EXAMPLES: general, emperor, president, clerk, street, town, desk, tree, cloud, chimney, childhood, idea, thought, letter, dynamo, cruiser, dictionary, railroad.
Proper nouns begin with a capital letter; common nouns usually begin with a small letter.
NOTE. Although a proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing, that name may be given to more than one individual. More than one man is named _James_; but when we say _James_, we think of one particular person, whom we are calling by his own name. When we say _man_, on the contrary, we are not calling any single person by name: we are using a noun which applies, in common, to all the members of a large class of persons.
Any word, when mentioned merely +as a word+, is a noun. Thus,--
_And_ is a conjunction.
+56.+ A common noun becomes a proper noun when used as the particular name of a ship, a newspaper, an animal, etc.
Nelson’s flagship was the _Victory_.
Give me this evening’s _Herald_.
My dog is named _Rover_.
The _Limited Express_ is drawn by the _Pioneer_.
+57.+ A proper noun often consists of a group of words, some of which are perhaps ordinarily used as other parts of speech.
EXAMPLES: James Russell Lowell, Washington Elm, Eiffel Tower, Firth of Clyde, North Lexington Junction, Stony Brook, Westminster Abbey, Measure for Measure, White House, Brooklyn Bridge, Atlantic Railroad, Sherman Act, The Return of the Native, Flatiron Building.
NOTE. These are (strictly speaking) noun-phrases (§ 41); but, since all are particular names, they may be regarded as proper nouns.
+58.+ A proper noun becomes a common noun when used as a name that may be applied to any one of a class of objects.
The museum owns two _Rembrandts_ and a _Titian_.
I exchanged my old motor car for a new _Halstead_.
My fountain pen is a _Blake_.
Lend me your _Webster_.
He was a _Napoleon_ of finance.
I am going to buy a _Kazak_.
+59.+ Certain proper nouns have become common nouns when used in a special sense. These generally begin with a small letter.
EXAMPLES: macadam (crushed stone for roads, so called from Macadam, the inventor), mackintosh (a waterproof garment), napoleon (a coin), guinea (twenty-one shillings), mentor (a wise counsellor), derringer (a kind of pistol).
+60.+ A lifeless object, one of the lower animals, or any human quality or emotion is sometimes regarded as a person.
This usage is called +personification+, and the object, animal, or quality is said to be +personified+.
Each old poetic _Mountain_ Inspiration breathed around.--GRAY.
Who’ll toll the bell? “I,” said the _Bull_, “Because I can pull.”
His name was _Patience_.--SPENSER.
Smiles on past _Misfortune’s_ brow Soft _Reflection’s_ hand can trace; And o’er the cheek of _Sorrow_ throw A melancholy grace.--GRAY.
_Love_ is and was my lord and king, And in his presence I attend.--TENNYSON.
_Time_ gently shakes his wings.--DRYDEN.
The name of anything personified is regarded as a proper noun and is usually written with a capital letter.
NOTE. The rule for capitals is not absolute. When the personification is kept up for only a sentence or two (as frequently in Shakspere), the noun often begins with a small letter.
SPECIAL CLASSES OF NOUNS
+61.+ +An abstract noun is the name of a quality or general idea.+
EXAMPLES: blackness, freshness, smoothness, weight, height, length, depth, strength, health, honesty, beauty, liberty, eternity, satisfaction, precision, splendor, terror, disappointment, elegance, existence, grace, peace.
Many abstract nouns are derived from adjectives.
EXAMPLES: greenness (from _green_), depth (from _deep_), freedom (from _free_), wisdom (from _wise_), rotundity (from _rotund_), falsity or falseness (from _false_), bravery (from _brave_).
+62.+ +A collective noun is the name of a group, class, or multitude, and not of a single person, place, or thing.+
EXAMPLES: crowd, group, legislature, squadron, sheaf, battalion, squad, Associated Press, Mediterranean Steamship Company, Senior Class, School Board.
The same noun may be +abstract+ in one of its meanings, +collective+ in another.
They believe in _fraternity_. [Abstract.]
The student joined a _fraternity_. [Collective.]
+63.+ Abstract nouns are usually common, but become proper when the quality or idea is personified (§ 60).
Collective nouns may be either proper or common.
+64.+ +A noun consisting of two or more words united is called a compound noun.+
EXAMPLES: (1) common nouns,--tablecloth, sidewalk, lampshade, bedclothes, steamboat, fireman, washerwoman, jackknife, hatband, headache, flatiron, innkeeper, knife-edge, steeple-climber, brother-in-law, commander-in-chief, window curtain, insurance company; (2) proper nouns,--Johnson, Williamson, Cooperstown, Louisville, Holywood, Elk-horn, Auburndale, Stratford-on-Avon, Lowell Junction.
As the examples show, the parts of a compound noun may be joined (with or without a hyphen) or written separately. In some words usage is fixed, in others it varies. The hyphen, however, is less used than formerly.
NOTE. The first part of a compound noun usually limits the second after the manner of an adjective. Indeed, many expressions may be regarded either (1) as compounds or (2) as phrases containing an adjective and a noun. Thus _railway conductor_ may be taken as a compound noun, or as a noun (_conductor_) limited by an adjective (_railway_).
INFLECTION OF NOUNS
+65.+ In studying the inflection of nouns and pronouns we have to consider +gender+, +number+, +person+, and +case+.
1. +Gender is distinction according to sex.+
2. +Number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one person or thing or more than one.+
3. +Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they designate (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person or thing spoken of.+
4. +Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.+
These four properties of substantives are included under inflection for convenience. In strictness, however, nouns are inflected for number and case only. Gender is shown in various ways,--usually by the meaning of the noun or by the use of some pronoun. Person is indicated by the sense, by the pronouns used, and by the form of the verb.
I. GENDER
+66.+ +Gender is distinction according to sex.+
+Nouns and pronouns may be of the masculine, the feminine, or the neuter gender.+
1. +A noun or pronoun denoting a male being is of the masculine gender.+
EXAMPLES: Joseph, boy, cockerel, buck, footman, butler, brother, father, uncle, he.
2. +A noun or pronoun denoting a female being is of the feminine gender.+
EXAMPLES: girl, Julia, hen, waitress, maid, doe, spinster, matron, aunt, squaw, she.
3. +A noun or pronoun denoting a thing without animal life is of the neuter gender.+
EXAMPLES: pencil, light, water, star, book, dust, leaf, it.
A noun or pronoun which is sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine is often said to be of +common gender+.
EXAMPLES: bird, speaker, artist, animal, cat, European, musician, operator, they.
+67.+ +A pronoun must be in the same gender as the noun for which it stands or to which it refers.+
Each of the following pronouns is limited to a single gender:
MASCULINE: _he_, _his_, _him_. FEMININE: _she_, _her_, _hers_. NEUTER: _it_, _its_.
All other pronouns vary in gender.
_Robert_ greeted _his_ employer. [Masculine.]
A _mother_ passed with _her_ child. [Feminine.]
This _tree_ has lost _its_ foliage. [Neuter.]
_Who_ laughed? [Masculine or feminine.]
How do _you_ do? [Masculine or feminine.]
_They_ have disappeared. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.]
I do not care for _either_. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.]
+68.+ A neuter noun may become masculine or feminine by +personification+ (§ 60).
Thou who didst waken from his summer dreams The blue Mediterranean.--SHELLEY.
Stern daughter of the Voice of God! O Duty!--WORDSWORTH.
Nature from her seat Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe.--MILTON.
+69.+ In speaking of certain objects, such as a ship and the moon, it is customary to use _she_ and _her_. In like manner, _he_ is used in speaking of the sun and of most animals, without reference to sex, although _it_ often designates an insect or other small creature, and even a very young child.
_Who_ and _which_ are both used in referring to the +lower animals+. _Which_ is the commoner, but _who_ is not infrequent, especially if the animal is thought of as an intelligent being.
Thus one would say, “The dog _which_ is for sale is in that kennel,” even if one added, “_He_ is a collie.” But _which_ would never be used in such a sentence as, “I have a dog _who_ loves children.”
+70.+ The +gender+ of masculine and of feminine nouns may be shown in various ways.
1. The male and the female of many kinds or classes of living beings are denoted by different words.
MASCULINE FEMININE
father mother husband wife uncle aunt king queen monk nun wizard witch lord lady horse mare gander goose drake duck cock hen ram ewe bull cow hart hind buck doe fox vixen[10]
2. Some masculine nouns become feminine by the addition of an ending.
MASCULINE FEMININE
heir heiress baron baroness lion lioness prince princess emperor empress tiger tigress executor executrix administrator administratrix hero heroine Joseph Josephine sultan sultana Philip Philippa
NOTE. The feminine gender is often indicated by the ending _ess_. Frequently the corresponding masculine form ends in _or_ or _er_: as,--actor, actress; governor, governess; waiter, waitress. The ending _ess_ is not so common as formerly. Usage favors _proprietor_, _author_, _editor_, etc., even for the feminine (rather than the harsher forms _proprietress_, _authoress_, _editress_), whenever there is no special reason for emphasizing the difference of sex.
3. A few feminine words become masculine by the addition of an ending. Thus,--_widow_, _widower_; _bride_, _bridegroom_.
4. Gender is sometimes indicated by the ending _man_, _woman_, _maid_, _boy_, or _girl_.
EXAMPLES: salesman, saleswoman; foreman, forewoman; laundryman; milkmaid; cash boy, cash girl.
5. A noun or a pronoun is sometimes prefixed to a noun to indicate gender.
EXAMPLES: manservant, maidservant; mother bird; cock sparrow, hen sparrow; boy friend, girl friend; he-wolf, she-wolf.
6. The gender of a noun may be indicated by some accompanying part of speech, usually by a pronoun.
My _cat_ is always washing _his_ face.
The _intruder_ shook _her_ head.
I was confronted by a pitiful _creature_, haggard and _unshaven_.
NOTE. The variations in form studied under 2 and 3 (above) are often regarded as inflections. In reality, however, the masculine and the feminine are different words. Thus, _baroness_ is not an inflectional form of _baron_, but a distinct noun, made from _baron_ by adding the ending _ess_, precisely as _barony_ and _baronage_ are made from _baron_ by adding the endings _y_ and _age_. The process is rather that of +derivation+ or noun-formation than that of inflection.
II. NUMBER
+71.+ +Number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one person, place, or thing or more than one.+
+There are two numbers,--the singular and the plural.+
+The singular number denotes but one person, place, or thing. The plural number denotes more than one person, place, or thing.+
+72.+ +Most nouns form the plural number by adding _s_ or _es_ to the singular.+
EXAMPLES: mat, mats; wave, waves; problem, problems; bough, boughs; John, Johns; nurse, nurses; tense, tenses; bench, benches; dish, dishes; class, classes; fox, foxes.
SPECIAL RULES
1. If the singular ends in _s_, _x_, _z_, _ch_, or _sh_, the plural ending is _es_.
EXAMPLES: loss, losses; box, boxes; buzz, buzzes; match, matches; rush, rushes.
2. Many nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant also take the ending _es_ in the plural.
EXAMPLES: hero, heroes; cargo, cargoes; potato, potatoes; motto, mottoes; buffalo, buffaloes; mosquito, mosquitoes.
3. Nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a vowel form their plural in _s_: as,--_cameo_, _cameos_; _folio_, _folios_.
4. The following nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant also form their plural in _s_:--
banjo bravo burro
## cantocasino
chromo contralto duodecimo dynamo halo[11] junto lasso memento[11] octavo piano proviso quarto solo soprano stiletto torso tyro zero[11]
+73.+ In some nouns the addition of the plural ending alters the spelling and even the sound of the singular form.
1. Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant change _y_ to _i_ and add _es_ in the plural.
EXAMPLES: sky, skies; fly, flies; country, countries; berry, berries. (Contrast: valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys; monkey, monkeys; boy, boys; day, days.)
Most proper names ending in _y_, however, take the plural in _s_.
EXAMPLES: Mary, Marys; Murphy, Murphys; Daly, Dalys; Rowley, Rowleys; May, Mays.
2. Some nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_, change the _f_ to _v_ and add _es_ or _s_.
EXAMPLES: wharf, wharves; wife, wives; shelf, shelves; wolf, wolves; thief, thieves; knife, knives; half, halves; calf, calves; life, lives; self, selves; sheaf, sheaves; loaf, loaves; leaf, leaves; elf, elves; beef, beeves.
+74.+ A few nouns form their plural in _en_.
These are: ox, oxen; brother, brethren (_or_ brothers); child, children.
NOTE. Ancient or poetical plurals belonging to this class are: _eyne_ (for _eyen_, from _eye_), _kine_ (cows), _shoon_ (shoes), _hosen_ (hose).
+75.+ A few nouns form their plural by a +change of vowel+.
These are: man, men; woman, women; merman, mermen; foot, feet; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; mouse, mice; louse, lice. Also compound words ending in _man_ or _woman_, such as fireman, firemen; saleswoman, saleswomen; Dutchman, Dutchmen.
NOTE. _German_, _Mussulman_, _Ottoman_, _dragoman_, _firman_, and _talisman_, which are not compounds of _man_, form their plurals regularly: as,--_Germans_, _Mussulmans_. _Norman_ also forms its plural in _s_.
+76.+ A few nouns have the same form in both singular and plural.
EXAMPLES: deer, sheep, heathen, Japanese, Portuguese, Iroquois.
NOTE. This class was larger in older English than at present. It included, for example, _year_, which in Shakspere has two plurals:--“six thousand _years_,” “twelve _year_ since.”
+77.+ A few nouns have two plurals, but usually with some difference in meaning.
SINGULAR PLURAL
brother { brothers (relatives) { brethren (members of the same society)
horse { horses (animals) { horse (cavalry)
foot { feet (parts of the body) { foot (infantry)
sail { sails (on vessels) { sail (vessels in a fleet)
head { heads (in usual sense) { head (of cattle)
fish { fishes (individually) { fish (collectively)
penny { pennies (single coins) { pence (collectively)
cloth { cloths (pieces of cloth) { clothes (garments)
die { dies (for stamping) { dice (for gaming)
The _pennies_ were arranged in neat piles.
English money is reckoned in pounds, shillings, and _pence_.
+78.+ When +compound nouns+ are made plural, the last part usually takes the plural form; less often the first part; rarely both parts.
EXAMPLES: spoonful, spoonfuls; bathhouse, bathhouses; forget-me-not, forget-me-nots; editor-in-chief, editors-in-chief; maid-of-honor, maids-of-honor; gentleman usher, gentlemen ushers; Knight Templar, Knights Templars; Lord Justice, Lords Justices; manservant, menservants.
+79.+ Letters of the alphabet, figures, signs used in writing, and words regarded merely as words take _’s_ in the plural.
“Embarrassed” is spelled with two _r’s_ and two _s’s_.
Your _3’s_ look like _8’s_.
Tell the printer to change the §’s to ¶’s.
Don’t interrupt me with your _but’s_!
+80.+ Foreign nouns in English sometimes retain their foreign plurals; but many have an English plural also.
Some of the commonest are included in the following list:[12]
SINGULAR PLURAL
alumna (feminine) alumnæ alumnus (masculine) alumni amanuensis amanuenses analysis analyses animalculum animalcula[13] antithesis antitheses appendix { appendices { appendixes axis axes bacillus bacilli bacterium bacteria bandit { banditti { bandits basis bases beau { beaux { beaus candelabrum candelabra cumulus cumuli cherub { cherubim { cherubs crisis crises curriculum curricula datum data ellipsis ellipses erratum errata formula { formulæ { formulas genius { genii { geniuses genus genera gymnasium { gymnasia { gymnasiums hippopotamus hippopotami hypothesis hypotheses larva larvæ memorandum { memoranda { memorandums nebula nebulæ oasis oases parenthesis parentheses phenomenon phenomena radius radii seraph { seraphim { seraphs species species stratum strata synopsis synopses tableau tableaux tempo tempi terminus termini thesis theses trousseau trousseaux vertebra vertebræ
The two plurals sometimes differ in meaning: as,--
Michael Angelo and Raphael were _geniuses_.
Spirits are sometimes called _genii_.
This book has two _indices_.
The printer uses signs called _indexes_.
+81.+ When a +proper name+ with the title _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Miss_, or _Master_, is put into the plural, the rules are as follows:--
1. The plural of _Mr._ is _Messrs._ (pronounced _Messers_[14]). The name remains in the singular. Thus,--
_Mr. Jackson_, plural _Messrs._ (or the _Messrs._) _Jackson_.
2. _Mrs._ has no plural. The name itself takes the plural form. Thus,--
_Mrs. Jackson_, plural _the Mrs. Jacksons_.
3. In the case of _Miss_, sometimes the title is put into the plural, sometimes the name. Thus,--
_Miss Jackson_, plural _the Misses Jackson_ or _the Miss Jacksons_.
The latter expression is somewhat informal. Accordingly, it would not be used in a formal invitation or reply, or in addressing a letter.
4. The plural of _Master_ is _Masters_. The name remains in the singular. Thus,--
_Master Jackson_, plural _the Masters Jackson_.
Other titles usually remain in the singular, the name taking the plural form: as,--_the two General Follansbys_. But when two or more names follow, the title becomes plural: as,--_Generals Rolfe and Johnson_.
+82.+ Some nouns, on account of their meaning, are seldom or never used in the plural.
Such are many names of qualities (as _cheerfulness_, _mirth_), of sciences (as _chemistry_[15]), of forces (as _gravitation_).
Many nouns, commonly used in the singular only, may take a plural in some special sense. Thus,--
earth (the globe) earths (kinds of soil) ice (frozen water) ices (food) tin (a metal) tins (tin dishes or cans) nickel (a metal) nickels (coins)
+83.+ Some nouns are used in the plural only.
Such are: annals, athletics, billiards, dregs, eaves, entrails, lees, nuptials, oats, obsequies, pincers, proceeds, riches, scissors, shears, suds, tweezers, tongs, trousers, victuals, vitals;
and (in certain special senses)
ashes, goods, links, scales, spectacles, stocks.
+84.+ A few nouns are plural in form, but singular in meaning.
Such are: gallows, news, measles, mumps, small pox (for _small pocks_), politics, and some names of sciences (as, civics, economics, ethics, mathematics, physics, optics).
NOTE. These nouns were formerly plural in sense as well as in form. _News_, for example, originally meant “new things.” Shakspere uses it both as a singular and as a plural. Thus,--“_This news_ was brought to Richard” (_King John_, v. 3. 12); “But wherefore do I tell _these news_ to thee?” (_1 Henry IV_, iii. 2. 121). In a few words modern usage varies. The following nouns are sometimes singular, sometimes plural: _alms_, _amends_, _bellows_, _means_, _pains_ (in the sense of “effort”), _tidings_.
III. PERSON
+85.+ +Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they denote (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person spoken of.+
+A substantive is in the first person when it denotes the speaker, in the second person when it denotes the person spoken to, in the third person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of.+
I, the _king_, command his presence. [First person.]
You, _Thomas_, broke the window. [Second person.]
_Charles_, come here. [Second person.]
He, the _fireman_, saved the train. [Third person.]
The _diver_ sinks slowly from our view. [Third person.]
The _tower_ suddenly collapsed. [Third person.]
The examples show (1) that the person of a noun has nothing to do with its form, but is indicated by the sense or connection; (2) that certain pronouns denote person with precision. Thus, _I_ is always of the first person; _you_ of the second; and _he_ of the third. These personal pronouns will be treated in Chapter III.
IV. CASE
+86.+ +Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.+
There are three cases,--the +nominative+, the +possessive+, and the +objective+.
The possessive case is often called the +genitive+.
The nominative and the objective case of a noun are always alike in form. In some pronouns, however, there is a difference (as,--_I_, _me_; _he_, _him_).
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
+87.+ The inflection of a substantive is called its +declension+. To +decline+ a noun is to give its case-forms in order, first in the singular number and then in the plural. Thus,--
SINGULAR
_Nominative_ boy horse fly chimney _Possessive_ boy’s horse’s fly’s chimney’s _Objective_ boy horse fly chimney
PLURAL
_Nominative_ boys horses flies chimneys _Possessive_ boys’ horses’ flies’ chimneys’ _Objective_ boys horses flies chimneys
SINGULAR
_Nominative_ calf lass man deer _Possessive_ calf’s lass’s man’s deer’s _Objective_ calf lass man deer
PLURAL
_Nominative_ calves lasses men deer _Possessive_ calves’ lasses’ men’s deer’s _Objective_ calves lasses men deer
NOMINATIVE CASE
+88.+ The +nominative case+ is used in the following constructions: (1) the subject, (2) the predicate nominative, (3) the vocative, (or nominative of direct address), (4) the exclamatory nominative, (5) appositive with a nominative, (6) the nominative absolute.
1. +The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.+
_Water_ freezes.
_Charles_ climbed the mountain.
The boy’s _face_ glowed with health and exercise.
A thousand _men_ were killed in this battle.
In the third example, _face_ is the simple subject; the complete subject is _the boy’s face_. In the fourth, _men_ is the simple subject; the complete subject is _a thousand men_. Both _face_ and _men_ are in the nominative case; _face_ is in the singular number; _men_ in the plural.
2. +A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative.+
A predicate nominative is also called a +subject complement+ or an +attribute+.
Lobsters are _crustaceans_.
A good book is a faithful _friend_.
Shakspere was a _native_ of Stratford-on-Avon.
Arnold proved a _traitor_.
Adams was elected _president_.
The rule for the case of the predicate nominative is particularly important with respect to pronouns (§ 119).
I am _he_. Are you _she_?
It is _I_. It was _we_ who did it.
The predicate nominative is commonest after the copula _is_ (in its various forms). It will be further studied in connection with intransitive and passive verbs (§§ 214, 252).
3. +A substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a vocative.+
A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a +nominative by direct address+ or a +vocative nominative+.
Come, _Ruth_, give me your hand.
Turn to the right, _madam_.
_Herbert_, it is your turn.
Come with me, my _child_.
NOTE. A vocative word is sometimes said to be +independent by direct address+, because it stands by itself, unconnected with any verb. That a vocative is really in the nominative case may be seen in the use of the pronoun _thou_ in this construction: as,--I will arrest thee, _thou_ traitor (see § 115).
4. +A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory nominative (or nominative of exclamation).+
_Peace_, be still.
Fortunate _Ruth_!
A _drum_! a _drum_! Macbeth doth come.
Look! a _balloon_!
The _sun_! then we shall have a fine day.
Certain exclamatory nominatives are sometimes classed as interjections (§ 375).
5. +A substantive added to another substantive to explain it and signifying the same person or thing, is called an appositive and is said to be in apposition.+
+An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits.+
Hence a substantive in apposition with a nominative is in the nominative case.
Mr. Scott, the _grocer_, is here. [Apposition with subject.]
Tom, old _fellow_, I am glad to see you. [Apposition with vocative.]
The discoverer of the Pacific was Balboa, a _Spaniard_. [Apposition with predicate nominative.]
NOTE. _Apposition_ means “attachment”; _appositive_ means “attached noun or pronoun.” An appositive modifies the noun with which it is in apposition much as an adjective might do (compare “Balboa, a _Spaniard_” with “_Spanish_ Balboa”). Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier.
POSSESSIVE CASE
+89.+ +The possessive case denotes ownership or possession.+
_John’s_ yacht lies at her moorings.
The _duck’s_ feet are webbed.
The _mutineer’s_ pistol burst when he fired.
NOTE. Most uses of the possessive come under the general head of +possession+ in some sense. Special varieties of meaning are +source+ (as in “_hen’s_ eggs”) and +authorship+ (as in “_Wordsworth’s_ sonnets”).
A possessive noun or pronoun modifies the substantive to which it is attached as an adjective might do. Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier.
Forms of the Possessive Case
+90.+ +The possessive case of most nouns has, in the singular number, the ending _’s_.+
EXAMPLES: the owl’s feathers, Elizabeth’s hat, the officer’s name.
+Plural nouns ending in _s_ take no further ending for the possessive. In writing, however, an apostrophe is put after the _s_ to indicate the possessive case.+
EXAMPLES: the owls’ feathers, the officers’ names, the artists’ petition, the engineers’ ball.
+Plural nouns not ending in _s_ take _’s_ in the possessive.+
EXAMPLES: the firemen’s ball, the policemen’s quarters, the children’s hour.
NOTE. In older English the possessive of most nouns was written as well as pronounced with the ending _-es_ or _-is_. Thus, in Chaucer, the possessive of _child_ is _childës_ or _childis_; that of _king_ is _kingës_ or _kingis_; that of _John_ is _Johnës_ or _Johnis_. The use of an apostrophe in the possessive is a comparatively modern device, due to a misunderstanding. Scholars at one time thought the _s_ of the possessive a fragment of the pronoun _his_; that is, they took such a phrase as _George’s book_ for a contraction of _George his book_. Hence they used the apostrophe before _s_ to signify the supposed omission of part of the word _his_. Similarly, in the possessive plural, there was thought to be an omission of a final _es_; that is, such a phrase as _the horses’ heads_ was thought to be a contraction of the _horseses_ heads. Both these errors have long been exploded.
+91.+ Nouns like _sheep_ and _deer_, which have the same form in both the singular and the plural, usually take _’s_ in the possessive plural.
Thus, _the deer’s tracks_ would be written, whether one deer or more were meant.
+92.+ POSSESSIVE SINGULAR OF NOUNS ENDING IN _S_.
1. Monosyllabic nouns ending in _s_ or an _s_-sound usually make their possessive singular by adding _’s_.
EXAMPLES: Charles’s hat, Forbes’s garden, Mr. Wells’s daughter, Rice’s carriage, Mrs. Dix’s family, a fox’s brush.
NOTE. Most of these monosyllabic nouns in s are family names. The rule accords with the best usage; but it is not absolute, for usage varies. Hence forms like _Charles’_ and _Wells’_ cannot be condemned as positively wrong, though _Charles’s_ and _Wells’s_ are preferable. In speaking, the shorter form is often ambiguous, for there is no difference in sound between _Dix’_ and _Dick’s_, _Mr. Hills’_ and _Mr. Hill’s_, _Dr. Childs’_ and _Dr. Child’s_.
2. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in _s_ or an _s_-sound, and not accented on the last syllable, may make their possessive singular by adding _’s_, or may take no ending in the possessive.
In the latter case, an apostrophe is added in writing, but in sound there is no difference between the possessive and the nominative.
EXAMPLES: Burrows’s (_or_ Burrows’) Hotel, Æneas’s (_or_ Æneas’) voyage, Beatrice’s (_or_ Beatrice’) gratitude, Felix’s (_or_ Felix’) arrival, for conscience’s (_or_ conscience’) sake.
Most of the nouns in question are proper names. In speaking, one must often use the longer form to prevent ambiguity; for _Williams’_ and _William’s_, _Roberts’_ and _Robert’s_, _Robbins’_ and _Robin’s_, are indistinguishable in sound.
NOTE. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in _s_ or an _s_-sound and accented on the last syllable, follow the rule for monosyllables. Thus,--_Laplace’s_ mathematics (not _Laplace’_); _Alphonse’s_ father (not _Alphonse’_).
When final _s_ is silent (as in many French names), _’s_ must of course be added in the possessive. Thus,--_Descartes’s_ philosophy (pronounced _Daycárt’s_).
Use of the Possessive Case
+93.+[16] Possession may be denoted by a phrase with _of_ as well as by the possessive case. The distinction between the two forms cannot be brought under rigid rules, but the following suggestions will be of use.
I. In older English and in poetry the possessive case of nouns is freely used, but in modern prose it is rare unless the possessor is a living being. A phrase with _of_ is used instead.
The mayor _of Detroit_ (NOT _Detroit’s_ mayor).
The top _of the post_ (NOT the _post’s_ top).
The prevalence _of the epidemic_ (NOT the _epidemic’s_ prevalence).
Contrast the poetic use:--
_Belgium’s_ capital had gathered then Her beauty and her chivalry.--BYRON.
Other prepositions are sometimes used: as,--“the explosion in _New York_” (NOT “_New York’s_ explosion”), “the station _at Plymouth_.”
II. When the possessor is a living being, good usage varies.
1. If there is actual ownership or possession of some material thing, the possessive case is generally used in the singular: as,--“John’s _hat_” (not “the hat _of John_”). The possessive plural, however, is often replaced by a phrase with _of_, to avoid ambiguity or harshness: as,--“the jewels _of the ladies_” (rather than “the _ladies’_ jewels”)[17], “the wings _of the geese_” (rather than “the _geese’s_ wings”).
2. With nouns denoting a quality, an act, or the like, either the possessive or the _of_-phrase is proper: as,--“_John’s_ generosity,” or “the generosity _of John_”; “_John’s_ condition,” or “the condition _of John_”; “the _guide’s_ efforts,” or “the efforts _of the guide_”; “_Cæsar’s_ death,” or “the death _of Cæsar_.”
When there is any choice, it usually depends on euphony (that is, agreeable sound), and is therefore a question of style. Sometimes, however, there is a distinction in sense. “_John’s_ fear,” for example, indicates that John is afraid; but “the fear _of John_” means the fear which John inspires in others.
III. The following phrases are established idioms with the possessive. In some of them, however, the possessive may be replaced by _of_ and its object.
(1) The earth’s surface, the sun’s rays, the moon’s reflection, the pit’s mouth, a rope’s end, his journey’s end, at his wit’s end, the ship’s keel, the water’s edge, the cannon’s mouth, out of harm’s way, at swords’ points, for pity’s sake, for conscience’ sake; (2) a moment’s pause, a year’s time, a hand’s breadth, a boat’s length, a month’s salary, a week’s notice, a night’s rest, a day’s work, a stone’s throw, a feather’s weight, an hour’s delay, a dollar’s worth, not a foot’s difference.
In the second group of phrases (“a moment’s pause,” etc.), the possessive denotes not ownership, but +measure+ or +extent+.
IV. The possessive case of certain pronouns (_my_, _our_, _your_, _his_, _her_, _its_, _their_) is more freely used than that of nouns in expressions that do not denote actual ownership.
I know him to _my_ sorrow. [Compare: to his loss, to our detriment, to his advantage.]
The brass has lost _its_ polish.
This question must be decided on _its_ merits.
His arguments did not fail of _their_ effect.
For the inflection of these pronouns, see § 115. For the use of _whose_, see § 152.
+94.+ When a thing belongs to two or more +joint owners+, the sign of the possessive is added to the last name only.
Brown, Jones, and Richardson’s factories. [Brown, Jones, and Richardson are partners.]
It is George and William’s turn to take the boat. [George and William are to go in the boat together.]
On the other hand, in order to avoid ambiguity we should say, “Brown’s, Jones’s, and Richardson’s factories,” if each individual had a factory of his own; and “George’s and William’s answers were correct,” if each boy answered independently of the other.
+95.+ In +compound nouns+ the last part takes the possessive sign. So also when a phrase is used as a noun.
My _father-in-law’s_ home is in Easton.
We had _a quarter of an hour’s_ talk.
Other examples are the following:--
My brother-in-law’s opinion; the commander-in-chief’s orders; the lady-in-waiting’s duties; the coal dealer’s prices; Edward VII’s reign; the King of England’s portrait; half a year’s delay; in three or four months’ time; a cable and a half’s length; the pleasure of Major Pendennis and Mr. Arthur Pendennis’s company (THACKERAY).
NOTE. Noun-phrases often contain two substantives, the second of which is in apposition with the first. In such phrases, _of_ is generally preferable to the possessive. Thus, we may say either “Tom the blacksmith’s daughter” or “the daughter of Tom the blacksmith”; but “the son of Mr. Hill the carpenter” is both neater and clearer than “Mr. Hill the carpenter’s son.” The use of _’s_ is also avoided with a very long phrase like “the owner of the house on the other side of the street.”
An objective may stand in apposition with a possessive, the latter being equivalent to _of_ with an object. Thus,--“I am not yet of Percy’s mind [= of the mind of Percy], the _Hotspur_ of the North” (SHAKSPERE).
+96.+ The noun denoting the object possessed is often omitted when it may be readily understood, especially in the predicate.
_Conant’s_ [shop] is open until noon.
I buy my hats at _Bryant’s_ [shop].
We will dine at _Pennock’s_ [restaurant].
That camera is _mine_. (See § 122.)
This construction is common in such expressions as:--
He was a relative of _John’s_.
That careless tongue of _John’s_ will get him into trouble.
In the first example, “a relative of John’s” means “a relative of (= _from among_) John’s relatives.” The second example shows an extension of this construction by analogy. See § 122.
OBJECTIVE CASE
+97.+ The +objective case+, as its name implies, is the case of the +object+. Most of its uses are covered by the following rule:--
+The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case.+
The object of a preposition has already been explained and defined (§§ 20–21).
+98.+ The +object of a verb+ may be (1) the direct object, (2) the predicate objective, (3) the indirect object, (4) the cognate object. Of these the direct object is the most important.
The objective is also used (5) adverbially (§ 109), (6) in apposition with another objective (§ 110), and (7) as the subject of an infinitive (§ 111).
1. Direct Object
+99.+ +Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.+
1. That man _struck_ my _dog_.
2. The arrow _hit_ the _target_.
3. Cæsar _conquered Gaul_.
4. Mr. Holland _sells flour_.
5. The farmer _raises corn_.
6. Mr. Eaton _makes stoves_.
7. My grandfather _built_ that _house_.
In Nos. 1–4, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the +receiver of the action+. Thus, in the first sentence, the _dog_ receives the blow; in the second, the _target_ receives the action of hitting. In Nos. 5–7, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the +product+ of the
## action. For example, the _corn_ is +produced+ by the action expressed
by the verb _raises_.
In each example, the noun that follows the verb +completes the sense+ of the verb. “That man _struck_ ----.” “Struck _whom_?” “He struck the _dog_.” Until _dog_ is added the sense of the verb _struck_ is incomplete.
+100.+ +A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object, and is said to be in the objective case.+
Thus, in the examples above, _dog_ is the direct object of the transitive verb _struck_; _target_ is the direct object of _hit_,--and so on. Each of these nouns is therefore in the +objective case+.
+The direct object is often called the object complement, or the object of the verb.+
+101.+ Intransitive verbs have no object.
The lion _roared_.
The visitor _coughed_ gently.
The log _drifted_ downstream.
We all _listened_ intently.
Compare these sentences with those in § 99. We observe that the verbs (unlike those in § 99) admit no object, since their meaning is complete without the addition of any noun to denote the receiver or product of the action. “The man _struck_----” prompts the inquiry, “Struck _whom_?” But no such question is suggested by “The lion _roared_”; for “Roared _what_?” would be an absurdity.
+102.+ The +predicate nominative+ (§ 88, 2) must not be confused with the +direct object+. They resemble each other in two particulars: (1) both stand in the predicate, and (2) both complete the meaning of the verb. But they differ utterly in their relation to the subject of the sentence. For--
The +predicate nominative+ describes or defines the +subject+. Hence both substantives denote the same person or thing.
Charles [SUBJECT] {is | was | became | was elected} _captain_ [PREDICATE NOMINATIVE].
The +direct object+ neither describes nor defines the subject. On the contrary, it designates that upon which the subject acts. Hence the two substantives regularly[18] denote different persons or things.
Charles [SUBJECT] {struck _James_ [OBJECT]. | threw a _stone_ [OBJECT]. | built a _boat_ [OBJECT].}
Both the direct object and the predicate nominative are classed as +complements+, because they are used to complete the sense of the predicate verb (§ 483).
+103.+ A verb of _asking_ sometimes takes +two direct objects+, one denoting the +person+ and the other the +thing+.
She asked the _boy_ his _name_.
Ask _me_ no _favors_.
I asked the _lawyer_ his _opinion_.
2. Predicate Objective
+104.+ +Verbs of _choosing_, _calling_, _naming_, _making_, and _thinking_ may take two objects referring to the same person or thing.+
+The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective.+
We chose Oscar _president_. [_Oscar_ is the direct object of _chose_; _president_ is the predicate objective.]
I call John my _friend_.
They thought the man a _coward_.
Make my house your _home_.
The predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the objective attribute. It is classed as a complement.
An adjective may serve as predicate objective.
I call this ship _unseaworthy_.
Your letter made your sister _anxious_.
What makes Edwin so _careless_?
3. Indirect Object and Similar Idioms
+105.+ +Some verbs of _giving_, _telling_, _refusing_, and the like, may take two objects, a direct object and an indirect object.+
+The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate.+
DIRECT OBJECT ONLY DIRECT OBJECT AND INDIRECT OBJECT
Dick sold his bicycle. Dick sold _John_ his bicycle. I gave permission. I gave this _man_ permission. He paid a dollar. He paid the _gardener_ a dollar. She taught Latin. She taught my _children_ Latin.
Most of the verbs that admit an indirect object are included in the following list:--
allot, allow, assign, bequeath, bring, deny, ensure, fetch, fling, forbid, forgive, give, grant, guarantee, hand, lease, leave, lend, let, owe, pardon, pass, pay, refund, refuse, remit, restore, sell, send, show, sing, spare, teach, tell, throw, toss, vouchsafe.
Pronouns are commoner as indirect objects than nouns.
They denied _her_ the necessities of life.
I guaranteed _them_ a handsome profit.
The king vouchsafed _them_ an audience.
+It is always possible to insert the preposition _to_ before the indirect object without changing the sense.+
Since the indirect object is equivalent to an adverbial phrase, it is classed as a modifier of the verb.
Thus, in “Dick sold _John_ his bicycle,” _John_ is an adverbial modifier of the predicate verb _sold_.
The indirect object is sometimes used without a direct object expressed. Thus,--
He paid the hatter.
Here _hatter_ may be recognized as an indirect object by inserting _to_ before it and adding a direct object (“his _bill_,” “his _money_,” or the like).
+106.+ The objective case sometimes expresses the person _for whom_ anything is done.
William made his _brother_ a kite [= made a kite for his brother].
Sampson built _me_ a boat [= built a boat for me].
This construction may be called the +objective of service+.
NOTE. The objective of service is often included under the head of the indirect object. But the two constructions differ widely in sense, and should be carefully distinguished. To do an act _to_ a person is not the same thing as to do an act _for_ a person. Contrast “John paid the money _to_ me,” with “John paid the money _for_ me”; “Dick sold a bicycle _to_ me,” with “Dick sold a bicycle _for_ me.”
+107.+ The objective case is used after _like_, _unlike_, _near_, and _next_, which are really adjectives or adverbs, though in this construction they are often regarded as prepositions.
She sang like a _bird_. [_Like_ is an adverb.]
The earth is like a _ball_. [_Like_ is an adjective.]
My office is near the _station_. [_Near_ is an adjective.]
That answer was unlike _Joseph_. [_Unlike_ is an adjective.]
This man walks unlike _Joseph_. [_Unlike_ is an adverb.]
A stream ran near the _hut_. [_Near_ is an adverb.]
The use of the objective after these words is a peculiar idiom similar to the indirect object (§ 105). The nature of the construction may be seen (as in the indirect object) by inserting _to_ or _unto_ (“She sang _like unto_ a bird”).
NOTE. The indirect object, the objective of service, and the objective after _like_, _unlike_, and _near_ are all survivals of old dative constructions. Besides the case of the direct object (often called +accusative+), English once had a case (called the +dative+) which meant _to_ or _for_ [somebody or something]. The dative case is easily distinguished in Greek, Latin, and German, but in English it has long been merged in form with the ordinary objective.
4. Cognate Object
+108.+ +A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own.+
+A noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb and is in the objective case.+
He ran a _race_.
The mayor coughed a dubious, insinuating _cough_.
A scornful _laugh_ laughed he.
The trumpeter blew a loud _blast_.
She sleeps the _sleep_ of death.
NOTE. _Cognate_ means “kindred” or “related.” The cognate object repeats the idea of the verb, often with some modification, and may be classed as an adverbial modifier. Its difference from the direct object may be seen by contrasting “The blacksmith struck the _anvil_” with “The blacksmith struck a mighty _blow_” (cf. “struck _mightily_”). For the pronoun _it_ as cognate object, see § 120.
5. Adverbial Objective
+109.+ +A noun, or a phrase consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an adverbial objective.+
We have waited _years_ for this reform.
I am _years_ older than you are.
The river is _miles_ away.
The water rose _three feet_.
This is _an inch_ too long.
My brother is _twenty years_ old.
I will stay a _short time_.
Wait _a moment_.
Come here _this instant_!
Turn your eyes _this way_.
This silk is _several shades_ too light.
A group of words consisting of an adverbial object with its modifier or modifiers forms an +adverbial phrase+ (§ 41).
6. Objective in Apposition
+110.+ A substantive in apposition with an objective is itself in the objective case.
Yesterday I saw Williams the _expressman_. [Apposition with the direct object of _saw_.]
Tom gave his friend _John_ a book. [Apposition with the indirect object _friend_.]
He lives with Andrews the _blacksmith_. [Apposition with the object of the preposition _with_.]
This rule follows from the general principle that an appositive is in the same case as the substantive to which it is attached (§ 88, 5).
7. Subject of an Infinitive
+111.+ The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.
This construction will be treated in connection with the uses of the infinitive (§ 325).
Parsing
+112.+ To +parse+ a word is to describe its grammatical form and to give its construction.
In parsing a +noun+, we mention the class to which it belongs, give its gender, number, person, and case, and tell why it is in that case. Thus,--
1. Frank shot a wolf.
_Frank_ is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb _shot_.
_Wolf_ is a common noun of the masculine or feminine [or common] gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the objective case, because it is the object [or direct object] of the transitive verb _shot_.
2. Jane, come here.
_Jane_ is a proper noun of the feminine gender, in the singular number and second person. It is in the nominative case, being used as a vocative (or in direct address).
3. The rope is fifteen feet long.
_Feet_ is a common noun of the neuter gender, in the plural number and third person. It is in the objective case, being used as an adverbial modifier of the adjective _long_.
4. Edgar’s boat is a sloop.
_Edgar’s_ is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the possessive case, modifying the noun _boat_.
## CHAPTER III
PRONOUNS
+113.+ +A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.+
+The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.+
+A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person+ (§ 11).
Pronouns have in general the same constructions as nouns.
+114.+ Pronouns may be classified as (1) +personal+, (2) +adjective+, (3) +relative+, and (4) +interrogative+.
Under adjective pronouns are included (_a_) +demonstrative pronouns+ and (_b_) +indefinite pronouns+.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
+115.+ +The personal pronouns serve to distinguish (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, and (3) the person, place, or thing spoken of+ (§ 85).
They are declined as follows:--
THE PRONOUN OF THE FIRST PERSON: _I_
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nominative_ I _Nominative_ we _Possessive_ my _or_ mine _Possessive_ our _or_ ours _Objective_ me _Objective_ us
THE PRONOUN OF THE SECOND PERSON: _thou_
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nominative_ thou _Nominative_ you _or_ ye _Possessive_ thy _or_ thine _Possessive_ your _or_ yours _Objective_ thee _Objective_ you _or_ ye
THE PRONOUN OF THE THIRD PERSON: _he_, _she_, _it_
SINGULAR PLURAL
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER MASCULINE, FEMININE, and NEUTER
_Nominative_ he she it they _Possessive_ his her _or_ hers its their _or_ theirs _Objective_ him her it them
Unlike nouns, most of the personal pronouns have distinct forms for the nominative and the objective.
NOTE. The possessive case of personal pronouns never has the apostrophe. Thus,--_its_, _yours_, _theirs_.
The form _it’s_ is proper only as a contraction of _it is_.
GENDER AND NUMBER
+116.+ The pronouns of the first and second persons (_I_ and _thou_) may be either masculine or feminine.
The pronouns of the third person have different forms for masculine, feminine, and neuter in the +singular+ (_he_, _she_, _it_); but in the +plural+ the form _they_ serves for all three genders.
NOTE. In the oldest English _his_ was both masculine and neuter. The neuter use lasted until the seventeenth century. Thus,--
That same eye whose bend doth awe the world Did lose _his_ lustre.--SHAKSPERE, _Julius Cæsar_, i. 2. 123.
+117.+ _Thou_, _thy_, _thine_, _thee_, and _ye_ are old forms still found in poetry and the solemn style.
In ordinary prose, _you_, _your_, and _yours_ are the only forms used for the second person, whether singular or plural. Yet _you_, even when denoting a single person, always takes the verb-forms that go with plural subjects. Thus,--
My friend, _you were_ [NOT _was_] in error.
Hence _you_ may best be regarded as always plural in form, but may be described as singular in sense when it stands for one person only.
NOTE. Members of the Society of Friends (commonly called Quakers) and of some other religious bodies use _thee_ and _thy_ in their ordinary conversation.
_Ye_ was formerly the regular nominative plural, and _you_ the objective; but the forms were afterwards confused. _Ye_ has gone out of use except in poetry and the solemn style, and _you_ is now the regular form for both nominative and objective.
Where an objective form _ye_ is found printed instead of _you_ (as often in Shakspere,--“A southwest blow on _ye_”), it represents an indistinct pronunciation of _you_ rather than the old nominative _ye_. This indistinct sound may still be heard in rapid or careless speech (“I’ll tell yer the truth”).
_Ye_ as an abbreviation for _the_ (as in “_ye_ old town”) has nothing to do with the pronoun _ye_. The _y_ simply stands for the character þ (an old sign for _th_), and the abbreviation was pronounced _the_, never _ye_.
+118.+ _They_, _you_, and _we_ are often used indefinitely for “one” or “people in general.”
_They_ say that Joe has gone to sea.
To shut off the steam, _you_ close both valves of the radiator.
NOTE. _We_, _our_, and _us_ are used in editorial articles instead of _I_, _my_, and _me_, because the writer represents the whole editorial staff. This practice should not be followed in ordinary composition.
A sovereign ruler may use _we_, _our_, and _us_ when speaking of himself in proclamations and other formal documents. This construction is often called “the plural of majesty.” Thus,--
Know that _we_ have divided In three _our_ kingdom.--SHAKSPERE.
The form _’em_ (as in “Tell me your counsels; I will not disclose _’em_,” in _Julius Cæsar_) is not a contraction of _them_, but of _hem_, an old objective plural of _he_.
CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS
NOMINATIVE CASE
+119.+ +Nominative constructions+ of the personal pronouns are the same as those of nouns (§ 88).
_I_ am ready. [Subject.]
It is _I_. [Predicate nominative.]
Here, _you_ rascal, what are you about? [Vocative, direct address.]
Poor _you_! [Nominative of exclamation.]
General Austin, _he_ and no other, won the battle. [Apposition.]
For the +nominative absolute+, see § 345.
Care must be taken not to use an objective form when a predicate nominative is required.
It is _I_ [NOT _me_].
It is _we_ [NOT _us_] who did it.
It was _he_ [NOT _him_] who told us.
It was _they_ [NOT _them_] who were to blame.
+120.+ _It_ has several peculiar uses in the nominative.
1. _It_ is used as the subject in many expressions like “It rains,” “It snows,” “It lightens,” “It is cold,” where no definite subject is thought of. In this use, _it_ is said to be +impersonal+.
NOTE. An impersonal _it_ also occurs as a cognate object (§ 108) in colloquial language: as,--“Hang it!” “Go it!” “He went it.” “He farmed it for a year.” Other examples of the indefinite and impersonal _it_ in various constructions are: “We are roughing _it_.” “Keep _it_ up.” “You’ll catch _it_.” “Let _it_ all go.” “He made a poor job of _it_.” “He made a success of _it_.”
2. _It_ often serves as grammatical subject merely to introduce the verb _is_, the real subject of the thought standing in the predicate. In this use _it_ is called an +expletive+ (or “filler”).
_It_ is he.
_It_ is Christmas.
_It_ was a tiresome ride.
In these examples, the subject of the thought (_he_, _Christmas_, _ride_) appears as a predicate nominative.
3. The antecedent of _it_ is often a group of words.
Wearing tight shoes is foolish. _It_ deforms the feet.
+121.+ In +imperative sentences+ the subject (_you_) is commonly omitted: as,--“Shut the door.”
NOTE. The subject _I_ is sometimes omitted in wishes (as, “_Would_ he were here!” for “I would that he were here”). So also in “Thank you,” “Pray tell me” (compare _prithee_ for “I pray thee”).
Expressions like “Canst tell?” (for “Canst thou tell?”), “Art there?” (for “Art thou there?”) are common in poetry and older English. These come from the gradual wearing away and final disappearance of the pronoun _thou_ (_canst thou_, _canstow_, _canstë_, _canst_).
POSSESSIVE CASE
+122.+ The +possessive+ forms _my_, _thy_, _our_, _your_, _her_, and _their_ are used when a noun follows; _mine_, _thine_, _ours_, _yours_, _hers_, and _theirs_ cannot be followed by a noun, and stand commonly in the predicate. _His_ may be used in either way.
_My_ brother has arrived. The fault is _mine_.
_Our_ work is done. Those seats are _ours_.
I have torn _your_ glove. This pencil is _yours_.
_Their_ turn has come. That field is _theirs_.
_His_ hair is black. The book is not _his_.
Examples of _mine_, _yours_, etc. not in the predicate are:
_Mine_ was a terrier; _yours_ was a pointer.
_Theirs_ is a red motor car.
_Ours_ broke down last night.
_His_ leaked badly.
_His_ name is Martin; _hers_ is Smith.
In such cases the pronoun is always emphatic. The construction is chiefly colloquial.
NOTE. In older English and in poetry _mine_ and _thine_ are common instead of _my_ and _thy_ before words beginning with a vowel or _h_: as,--
_Mine_ eyes dazzle: she died young.--JOHN WEBSTER.
The very minute bids thee ope _thine_ ear.--SHAKSPERE.
_Mine_ is sometimes used after a vocative noun: as,--_brother mine_.
For expressions like “a friend of _mine_,” “that unruly tongue of _yours_,” see § 96.
+123.+ When two or more separate objects are spoken of as possessed, a possessive should precede the name of each if there is danger of ambiguity.
I will send for our secretary and our treasurer. [Two persons.]
I will send for our secretary and treasurer. [One person.]
I have called for my bread and my milk. [Two things.]
I have called for my bread and milk. [A mixture.]
Have you Bacon’s “Essays and Apophthegms”? [One book.]
Have you Bacon’s “Essays” and his “Advancement of Learning”? [Two books.]
OBJECTIVE CASE
+124.+ The commonest constructions in which personal pronouns take the +objective case+ are the following:--
1. Object of a preposition (§ 97): as,--
Take it from _him_.
2. Direct object of a transitive verb (§ 99): as,--
I will find _you_.
3. Indirect object of a transitive verb (§ 105): as,--
He gave _me_ a dollar.
4. Subject of an infinitive (see § 325).
NOTE. In poetry the objective _me_ is sometimes used in exclamations: as,--“_Me_ miserable!” (MILTON).
In _methinks_ and _meseems_ (“it seems to me”), _me_ is a remnant of the old dative, as in the indirect object (see § 107).
The compounds _thereof_, _therewith_, _therefrom_, etc., are equivalent to _of it_, _with it_, _from it_, etc.: as,--“Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants _thereof_” (_Leviticus_ xxv. 10).
For the impersonal _it_ as cognate object, see § 120.
THE _SELF_-PRONOUNS (COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS)
+125.+ The three +compound personal pronouns+ are made by adding the word _self_ to certain forms of the personal pronouns. Thus,--
myself, _plural_ ourselves;
thyself _or_ yourself, _plural_ yourselves;
himself, herself, itself, _plural_ themselves.
To these may be added the indefinite _oneself_, more commonly written as two words, _one’s self_ (§ 139).
Observe that _yourself_ is singular, and _yourselves_ plural. _Hisself_ and _theirselves_ are incorrect forms. _Ourself_ (not _ourselves_) is the compound pronoun corresponding to the royal _we_ (§ 118).
What touches us _ourself_ shall be last served.--SHAKSPERE.
+126.+ 1. +The compound personal pronouns may be used to emphasize substantives.+
+In this use they are called intensive pronouns.+
I _myself_ will go.
King Alfred _himself_ took the field.
They did the work _themselves_.
An intensive pronoun is in apposition with the substantive to which it refers.
2. +The compound personal pronouns may be used as the objects of transitive verbs or of prepositions when the object denotes the same person or thing as the subject.+
+In this use they are called reflexive pronouns.+
I have hurt _myself_.
King Alfred interested _himself_ in his subjects.
These schemers deceived _themselves_.
Mary was talking to _herself_.
He gave _himself_ a holiday. [Indirect object.]
These pronouns are called +reflexive+ (that is, “bending back”) because they +refer back+ to the subject and repeat its meaning in an object construction.
NOTE. A reflexive pronoun sometimes refers to a substantive in the objective case: as,--“Our captors left _us_ to _ourselves_.”
In older English the simple personal pronouns _me_, _thee_, etc., were often used reflexively: as,--“I held _me_ [= _myself_] still”; “Yield _thee_ [= _thyself_] captive”; “They built _them_ [= for _themselves_] houses” (see § 106). This idiom survives in colloquial language (as, “I have hurt _me_,” “I have bought _me_ a rifle”), but it is avoided in writing except in a few expressions such as: “I must look about _me_”; “We gazed about _us_”; “Look behind _you_.”
+127.+ The adjective _own_ is sometimes inserted between the first and the second part of the _self_-pronouns for emphasis.
EXAMPLES: my own self, your own self, his own self, our own selves, their own selves.
In this use, _self_ is in strictness a noun limited by the possessive and by the adjective _own_, but the phrases may be regarded as compound pronouns. Other adjectives are sometimes inserted between the possessive and _self_: as,--my _very_ self, his _worthless_ self.
+128.+ The intensive pronouns are sometimes used without a substantive. Thus,--
It is _myself_. [_Myself_ = _I myself_.]
You are hardly _yourself_ to-day.
In poetry and older English, the intensives are even found as subjects: as,--“_Ourself_ will mingle with society” (_Macbeth_).
+129.+ The intensive pronouns should not be used as simple personal pronouns.
Thus we should say:--“He was kind to Mary and _me_” (NOT _myself_); “They invited my wife and _me_ (NOT _myself_).”
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS
+130.+ +Some words are used either as adjectives or as pronouns. Such words are called adjective pronouns.+
Adjective pronouns are classified, according to their meaning, as (1) +demonstrative pronouns+ and (2) +indefinite pronouns+.
I. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
+131.+ +The demonstratives are _this_ (plural, _these_), _that_ (plural, _those_). They point out persons or things for special attention.+
The demonstratives may be used either as adjectives or as pronouns.
I. As adjectives:--
_This_ sailor saved my life. _These_ girls are energetic.
Be kind to _this_ child. I am not alarmed by _these_ threats.
Give _this_ boy a dime. _These_ cherries are sour.
_This_ fire is too hot. Look at _these_ acorns.
_That_ saw is dull. _Those_ trees are dying.
We must cross _that_ stream. Take _those_ dishes away.
_That_ train is late. Who are _those_ strangers?
Send _that_ dog home. Do you see _those_ rocks?
I am tired of _that_ tune. I am sorry for _those_ children.
II. As pronouns:--
_This_ is a fine morning.[19] _These_ are cowboys.
_This_ is my uncle. Robert gave me _these_.
Can you do _this_? I never saw _these_ before.
_This_ is the road. Who are _these_?
Look at _this_. _These_ are our rackets.
_That_ is Ellen in the canoe. _Those_ are deer.
_That_ would please him. _Those_ are nasturtiums.
_That_ must be he. What are _those_?
What is _that_? _Those_ are kangaroos.
If the demonstrative is followed by a noun which it limits (as in “_this_ sailor”), it is an adjective. If the demonstrative points out something which it does not name (as in “_This_ is a fine morning”), it takes the place of a noun and is therefore a pronoun. The simple subject of the sentence “This camera is expensive” is the noun _camera_, which is modified by the adjective _this_. The subject of the sentence “_This_ is expensive” is the pronoun _this_.
NOTE. _Yon_, _yond_, and _yonder_ are common as demonstratives in older English and in poetry. Thus,--“Nerissa, cheer _yon_ stranger” (_Merchant of Venice_). “Question _yond_ man” (_As You Like It_). “Is not _yond_ Diomed?” (_Troilus and Cressida_). “Call _yonder_ fellow hither” (_Henry V_). “Is _yonder_ the man?” (_As You Like It_).
+132.+ Demonstratives have only the inflection of number. They have the same form for all three genders. The nominative and objective cases are alike; the possessive is replaced by _of_ with the objective.
SINGULAR PLURAL
_Nom. and Obj._ this _Nom. and Obj._ these _Possessive_ [of this] _Possessive_ [of these]
_Nom. and Obj._ that _Nom. and Obj._ those _Possessive_ [of that] _Possessive_ [of those]
_Yon_, _yond_, and _yonder_ are not inflected.
+133.+ A demonstrative pronoun may be used to avoid the repetition of a noun.
My dog and _that_ [= the dog] of my friend John have been fighting.
Compare these maps with _those_ [= the maps] on the blackboard.
+134.+ The singular forms _this_ and _that_ (not the plurals _these_ and _those_) are used with the nouns _kind_ and _sort_.
I like _this_ kind of grapes.
I have met _this_ sort of people before.
_That_ kind of apples grows in Idaho.
II. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
+135.+ +The indefinite pronouns point out objects less clearly or definitely than demonstratives do.+
EXAMPLES: each, every, either, both, neither, some, any, such, none, other, another, each other, one another.
_Each_ has its merits.
_Some_ are missing.
I cannot give you _any_.
_Either_ is correct.
He knows _neither_ of you.
I like _both_.
+136.+ Most indefinites may be either +pronouns+ or +adjectives+. But _none_ is always a substantive in modern use, and _every_ is always an adjective.
+137.+ _None_ may be either singular or plural. When it means distinctly _not one_, it is singular. In many instances either construction is permissible.
_None_ of us has the key.
_None_ was (_or_ were) left to tell the tale.
+138.+ _Each other_ and _one another_ are regarded as +compound+ pronouns. They designate related persons or things.
My neighbor and I like _each other_.
We must bear with _one another_.
The relation indicated by these pronouns is that of reciprocity. Hence they are often called reciprocal pronouns.
There is no real distinction between _each other_ and _one another_. The rules sometimes given for such a distinction are not supported by the best usage.
+139.+ _One_ (possessive _one’s_) is often used as an indefinite personal pronoun. Thus,--
_One_ does not like _one’s_ [NOT _his_ or _their_] motives to be doubted.
The use of _his_ (for _one’s_) to refer back to a preceding _one_ is found in respectable writers, but is contrary to the best usage.
For the indefinite use of _we_, _you_, _they_, see § 118.
+140.+ _All_, _several_, _few_, _many_, and similar words are often classed as indefinites. They may be used as adjectives or as substantives. _Everybody_, _everything_, _anybody_, _anything_, _somewhat_, _aught_, _naught_,[20] etc., are called indefinite nouns.
+141.+ Care should be taken in framing such sentences as the following:--
Everybody has _his_ [NOT _their_] faults.
If anybody wishes to go, _he_ [NOT _they_] may.
If anybody objects, let _him_ [NOT _them_] speak.
Every member of this class must hand in _his_ [NOT _their_] composition to-day.
Each hurries toward _his_ [NOT _their_] home.
Each of us must lead _his_ [NOT _their_] own life.
In sentences of this kind, the personal pronoun (_he_, _his_, _him_) must be in the singular to agree with its antecedent (_everybody_, _anybody_, etc.) (see § 113).
NOTE. When the antecedent is of common gender (as in the last example), the personal pronouns (_he_, _his_, _him_) may be regarded as of common gender also. In very precise or formal language, one may say _he or she_, _his or her_: as,--“Each of us must lead _his or her_ own life”; but this form of expression is to be avoided unless the distinction is clearly necessary.
+142.+ When used as adjectives, none of the indefinites have any forms of inflection. The same is true when they are pronouns, except as follows:--
_Others_ is used as the plural of _another_. The possessive forms are:--singular, _another’s_; plural, _others’_. _The other_ (possessive, _the other’s_) has in the plural _the others_ (possessive, _the others’_). _Each other_ and _one another_ add _’s_ in the possessive. _One_ has a possessive _one’s_; _the one_ becomes _the ones_ in the plural.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
+143.+ +Relative pronouns+ have a peculiar function in the sentence, since they serve both as +pronouns+ and as +connectives+. Their use may be seen by comparing the two sentences that follow:--
1. This is the sailor, and he saved my life.
2. This is the sailor who saved my life.
Each consists of two parts or clauses (§ 44). In No. 1, the two clauses are connected by the conjunction _and_, which belongs to neither; the pronoun _he_, which stands for _sailor_, is the subject of the second clause. In No. 2, there is no conjunction; instead, we find the word _who_, which replaces _and he_. This _who_ is a +pronoun+, since it stands for _sailor_ (precisely as _he_ does in No. 1) and (like _he_) is the subject of the verb _saved_. But _who_ is also a +connective+, since it joins the two parts of the sentence as _and_ does in No. 1. Such words (which serve both as pronouns and as connectives) are called +relative pronouns+.
In No. 1, the two clauses are +coördinate+. Neither serves as a modifier, and each might stand alone as a complete sentence (“This is the sailor.” “He saved my life”). The sentence is compound (§ 44). In No. 2, on the contrary, the clause _who saved my life_ is a +subordinate+ or +dependent clause+, for it is used as an adjective modifier of the noun _sailor_, which it limits by showing what
## particular sailor is meant. The sentence is +complex+ (§ 44). The
dependent clause (_who saved my life_) is connected with the main clause (_this is the sailor_) by the pronoun _who_, which refers to _sailor_.
+144.+ +Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause.+[21]
+This substantive is the antecedent of the relative+ (§ 11).
Thus in § 143 the noun _sailor_ is the antecedent of _who_.
_Relative_ means “carrying back.” These pronouns are so called because they carry the mind back directly to the antecedent.
+145.+ The simple relative pronouns are _who_, _which_, _that_, _as_, and _what_.
_Who_ and _which_ are declined as follows in both the singular and the plural:--
_Nominative_ who which _Possessive_ whose whose _Objective_ whom which
_That_, _as_, and _what_ are not inflected. They have the same form for both nominative and objective and are not used in the possessive case.
+146.+ _As_ may be used as a relative pronoun when _such_ stands in the main clause.
Such of you _as_ have finished may go.
I have never seen such strawberries _as_ these [are].
Use such powers _as_ you have.
+147.+ _As_ is often used as a relative after _the same_.
This color is the same _as_ that [is].
Other relatives are also used after _the same_.
This is the same book _that_ (or _which_) you were reading yesterday.
This is the same man _that_ (or _whom_) I saw on the pier last Friday.
+148.+ _Who_ is either masculine or feminine; _which_ and _what_ are neuter; _that_ and _as_ are of all three genders.
All _who_ heard, approved.
Here is the lad _whose_ story interested you.
The first woman _whom_ I saw was Mary.
He answered in such English _as_ he could muster.
I saw nobody _that_ I knew.
This is the road _that_ leads to London.
In older English _the which_ is often used for _which_: as,--
Our foster-nurse of nature is repose, _The which_ he lacks.--SHAKSPERE.
For other uses of _as_, see §§ 368, 428–429. For _but_ in such sentences as “There was nobody _but_ believed him,” see § 370.
+149.+ +A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person.+
The sentences in § 148 illustrate the agreement of the relative with its antecedent in +gender+.
Since relative pronouns have the same form for both numbers and for all three persons, their +number and person+ must be discovered, in each instance, by observing the number and person of the +antecedent+.
It is _I who am_ wrong. [First person, singular number: antecedent, _I_.]
All _you who are_ ready may go. [Second person plural: antecedent, _you_.]
Give help to _him who needs it_. [Third person, singular: antecedent, _him_.]
The _road that leads_ to the shore is sandy. [Third person singular: antecedent, _road_.]
The _roads that lead_ to the shore are sandy. [Third person plural: antecedent, _roads_.]
To determine the number and person of a relative pronoun is
## particularly necessary when it is the +subject of the clause+, for the
form of the verb varies (as the examples show) according to the number and person of the subject (§ 222). Hence the rule for the agreement of a relative with its antecedent is of much practical importance.
+150.+ +The case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent, but depends on the construction of its own clause.+
The servant _who_ opened the door wore livery. [_Who_ is in the nominative case, being the subject of _opened_.]
He discharged his servant, _who_ immediately left town. [_Who_ is in the nominative case, since it is the subject of _left_, although its antecedent (_servant_) is in the objective.]
The servant _whom_ you discharged has returned. [_Whom_ is in the objective case, since it is the direct object of _discharged_. The antecedent (_servant_) is, on the other hand, in the nominative, because it is the subject of _has returned_.]
Here is such money _as_ I have. [_As_ is in the objective case, being the object of _have_. The antecedent (_money_) is in the nominative.]
+151.+ A relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted.
Here is the book _which_ you wanted. Here is the book you wanted.
The noise _that_ I heard was the wind. The noise I heard was the wind.
The man _whom_ I met was a carpenter. The man I met was a carpenter.
NOTE. In older English a relative in the nominative is often omitted: as,--“There’s two or three of us _have_ seen strange sights” (_Julius Cæsar_), that is, “There are two or three of us _who have_ seen,” etc. The same omission is often made in rapid or careless colloquial speech. It is approved in clauses with _there_ in such sentences as “He is one of the best men there are in the world” (§ 232).
+152.+ Certain questions of +gender+ call for particular attention.
1. _Which_ is commonly used in referring to the lower animals unless these are regarded as persons. This is true even when _he_ or _she_ is used of the same animals (§ 69).
This is the dog _which_ I mentioned. Isn’t _he_ a fine fellow?
We have one cow _which_ we prize highly. _She_ is a Jersey.
2. The possessive _whose_ may be used of any object that has life.
This is the man _whose_ watch was stolen.
I have a cat _whose_ name is Tabby.
This is the tree _whose_ leaves were destroyed. _It_ is quite dead.
3. In the case of things without animal life, _of which_ and _whose_ are both common. The tendency is to prefer _of which_ in prose, but _whose_ is often used because of its more agreeable sound. In poetry, _whose_ is especially frequent.
A broad river, the name _of which_ I have forgotten, forms the northern boundary of the province.
Jack was fishing with a bamboo rod, to the end _of which_ he had tied a short piece of ordinary twine.
She was gazing into the pool, _whose_ calm surface reflected her features like a mirror. [“The surface _of which_” would not sound so well.]
NOTE. In older English, _which_ is often used for _who_ or _whom_: as,--“He _which_ hath your noble father slain, pursued my life” (_Hamlet_).
The compounds _whereof_, _wherefrom_, _wherewith_, etc., are equivalent to _of which_, _from which_, etc. (cf. § 124). Thus,--“Esau hated Jacob because of the blessing _wherewith_ his father blessed him” (_Genesis_ xxvii. 41).
DESCRIPTIVE AND RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES
+153.+ The clause introduced by a relative pronoun is an +adjective clause+, since it serves as an adjective modifier of the antecedent (§ 143). There are two different ways in which the antecedent may be thus modified.
1. The Italian, _who wore a flower in his coat_, smiled at me.
2. The Italian _who wore a flower in his coat_ smiled at me.
In the first sentence, the italicized relative clause serves simply to +describe+ the Italian, not to identify him. The flower is a mere detail of the picture.
In the second sentence, the relative clause serves not merely to describe the Italian, but also to distinguish him from all others. The flower is mentioned as a means of +identification+. The relative clause confines or +restricts+ the meaning of the antecedent (_Italian_).
+154.+ +A relative pronoun that serves merely to introduce a descriptive fact is called a descriptive relative.+
+A relative pronoun that introduces a clause confining or limiting the application of the antecedent is called a restrictive relative.+
Thus in the first example in § 153, _who_ is a descriptive relative; in the second, it is a restrictive relative.
+155.+ Before a descriptive relative we regularly make a pause in speaking, but never before a restrictive relative. Hence the rule:--
+A descriptive relative is preceded by a comma; a restrictive relative is not.+
Three sailors, _who_ were loitering on the pier, sprang to the rescue.
A clumsy weapon, _which_ I took for a blunderbuss, hung over the fireplace.
I told the news to the first man _that_ (or _whom_) I met.
The coins _that_ (or _which_) you showed me are doubloons.
Nothing _that_ I have ever read has moved me more profoundly than the third act of “King Lear.”
+156.+ _Who_, _which_, and _that_ are all used as restrictive relatives; but some writers prefer _that_ to _which_, especially in the nominative case.
NOTE. _That_ is not now employed as a descriptive relative, though it was common in this use not very long ago. Thus in 1844 Disraeli wrote: “The deer, _that_ abounded, lived here in a world as savage as themselves” (_Coningsby_, book iii, chapter 5).
The omission of the relative (§ 151) is possible only when the relative is restrictive.
The boy [_whom_] I saw at your house has left town. [Restrictive.]
Charles, _whom_ I saw yesterday, had not heard the news. [Descriptive.]
THE RELATIVE PRONOUN _WHAT_
+157.+ The relative pronoun _what_ is equivalent to _that which_, and has a +double construction+:--(1) the construction of the +omitted+ or +implied antecedent+ (_that_); (2) the construction of the +relative+ (_which_).
{_What_ | _That which_} was said is true. [Here _what_, being equivalent to _that which_, serves as the subject both of _was said_ and of _is_.]
Tom always remembers {_what_ | _that which_} is said to him. [Here _what_, being equivalent to _that which_, serves as both the object of _remembers_ and as the subject of _is said_.]
Tom always remembers {_what_ | _that which_} he learns. [Here _what_ serves both as the object of _remembers_ and as the object of _learns_.]
In parsing _what_, mention both of its constructions.
NOTE. Another method of dealing with the relative _what_ is to regard the whole clause (_what was said_; _what is said to him_; _what he learns_) as a +noun clause+. Thus the clause _what was said_ in the first sentence would be the subject of _is_; in the second and third sentences, the clause would be the object of _remembers_. _What_, in the first sentence, would be parsed as the subject of _was said_; in the second, as the subject of _is said_; and in the third, as the object of _learns_. Neither view is incorrect, and each has its special advantages. The student may well be familiar with both methods, remembering that grammar cannot be treated like mathematics.
COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS
+158.+ +The compound relative pronouns are formed by adding _ever_ or _soever_ to _who_, _which_, and _what_.+
They are declined as follows:--
SINGULAR AND PLURAL
_Nominative_ whoever (whosoever) whichever (whichsoever) _Possessive_ whosever (whosesoever) ---- ---- _Objective_ whomever (whomsoever) whichever (whichsoever)
_Whatever_ (_whatsoever_) has no inflection. The nominative and the objective are alike, and the possessive is supplied by the phrase _of whatever_ (_of whatsoever_).
The phrase _of whichever_ (_of whichsoever_) is used instead of _whosever_ exactly as _of which_ is used instead of _whose_ (§ 152).
+159.+ +The compound relative pronouns may include or imply their own antecedents and hence may have a double construction.+
_Whoever_ calls, _he_ must be admitted. [Here _he_, the antecedent of _whoever_, is the subject of _must be admitted_, and _whoever_ is the subject of _calls_.]
_Whoever calls_ must be admitted. [Here the antecedent _he_ is omitted, being implied in _whoever_. _Whoever_ has therefore a double construction, being the subject of both _calls_ and _must be admitted_.]
He shall have _whatever_ he wishes.
I will do _whichever_ you say.
In such sentences, care should be taken to use _whoever_ and _whomever_ correctly. The nominative (_whoever_) is required when the relative is the subject of its own clause.
He asked _whoever_ came.
He told the story to _whoever_ would listen.
He asked _whomever_ he knew.
He told the story to _whomever_ he met.
+160.+ The compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent expressed or implied.
_Whoever_ deserts you, I will remain faithful.
_Whomever_ it offends, I will speak the truth.
_Whatever_ he attempts, he is sure to fail.
_Whichever_ you choose, you will be disappointed.
NOTE. This construction is closely related to that explained in § 159. “Whoever deserts you, I will remain faithful,” is practically equivalent to “Whoever deserts you, let him desert you! I will remain faithful.” No antecedent, however, is felt by the speaker, and hence none need be supplied in parsing. Compare concessive clauses (§ 401).
+161.+ _Which_, _what_, _whichever_, and _whatever_ are often used as adjectives.
Use _what_ (or _whatever_) powers you have.
_Whichever_ plan you adopt, you have my best wishes.
+162.+ A noun limited by the adjectives _what_, _whichever_, and _whatever_, may have the same double construction that these relatives have when they are used as pronouns (§ 159). Thus,--
Take _whichever_ pen is not in use. [Here _pen_ is both the direct object of _take_, and the subject of _is_.]
_Whoso_ for _whosoever_ and _whatso_ for _whatsoever_ are common in older English.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
+163.+ +The interrogative pronouns are _who_, _which_, and _what_. They are used in asking questions.+[22]
_Who_ is your neighbor?
_Who_ goes there?
_Whom_ have you chosen?
From _whom_ did you learn this?
_Whose_ voice is that?
_Which_ shall I take?
_Which_ is correct?
_What_ did he say?
_What_ is lacking?
With _what_ are you so delighted?
+164.+ _Who_ has a possessive _whose_, and an objective _whom_. _Which_ and _what_ are not inflected.
_Who_ may be either masculine or feminine; _which_ and _what_ may be of any gender.
+165.+ The +objective+ _whom_ often begins a question (as in the third example in § 163). Care should be taken not to write _who_ for _whom_.
+166.+ _Which_ and _what_ are used as +interrogative adjectives+.
_Which_ street shall I take?
_What_ village is this?
+167.+ The interrogative adjective _what_ may be used in a peculiar form of exclamatory sentence. Thus,--
_What_ a cold night this is!
_What_ courage he must have had!
_What!_ by itself often serves as an exclamation: as,--“_What!_ do you really think so?” In this use _what_ may be regarded as an interjection.
+168.+ In +parsing pronouns+ the following models may be used:--
1. _He_ was my earliest friend.
_He_ is a personal pronoun of the third person. It is in the masculine gender, the singular number, and the nominative case, being the subject of the verb _was_.
2. A policeman _whom_ I met showed me the house.
_Whom_ is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, _policeman_. It is in the objective case, being the direct object of the transitive verb _met_.
3. The corporal, _whose_ name was Scott, came from Leith.
_Whose_ is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, _corporal_. It is in the possessive case, modifying the noun _name_.
4. _Whose_ birthday do we celebrate in February?
_Whose_ is an interrogative pronoun in the masculine or feminine gender, singular number, and possessive case, modifying the noun _birthday_.
5. He injured _himself_ severely.
_Himself_ is a compound personal pronoun of the third person, used reflexively. It is of the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, _he_. It is in the objective case, being the direct object of the transitive verb _injured_.
## CHAPTER IV
ADJECTIVES
CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES
+169.+ +An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.+
+An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.+
+An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective; one which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective+ (§ 13).
Most adjectives are descriptive: as,--_round_, _cold_, _red_, _angry_, _graceful_, _excessive_, _young_, _sudden_, _Roman_.
NOTE. Many descriptive adjectives are +compound+ (see § 64): as,--steadfast, lionlike, fireproof, downright, heartsick, everlasting, brown-eyed, broad-shouldered, ill-tempered, dear-bought, far-fetched, never-ending, self-evident, self-important. “He was a _matter-of-fact_ person.” “Tom is _hail-fellow-well-met_ with everybody.” “This is an _out-of-the-way_ place.” “A dashing, _down-at-the-heel_ youth answered my knock.”
+170.+ A proper noun used as an adjective, or an adjective derived from a proper noun, is called a +proper adjective+ and usually begins with a capital letter.
EXAMPLES: a _Panama_ hat, _Florida_ oranges, a _Bunsen_ burner; Virginian, Spenserian, Newtonian, Icelandic, Miltonic, Byronic, Turkish, English, Veronese.
NOTE. Many so-called proper adjectives begin with a small letter because their origin is forgotten or disregarded: as,--_china_ dishes, _italic_ type, _mesmeric_ power, a _jovial_ air, a _saturnine_ expression, a _mercurial_ temperament, a _stentorian_ voice.
+171.+ +Definitive adjectives+ include:--pronouns used as adjectives (as, _this_ opportunity; _those_ pictures; _either_ table; _what_ time is it?); numeral adjectives (as, _two_ stars; the _third_ year); the +articles+, _a_ (or _an_) and _the_.
Pronouns used as adjectives (often called pronominal adjectives) have been studied under Pronouns--demonstratives (§§ 131–134), indefinites (§§ 135–142), relatives (§§ 143–162), interrogatives (§§ 163–167).
Numeral adjectives will be treated, along with other numerals (nouns and adverbs), in §§ 204–208.
The articles will be treated in §§ 173–180.
+172.+ Adjectives may be classified, according to their position in the sentence, as +attributive+, +appositive+, and +predicate adjectives+.
1. An +attributive adjective+ is closely attached to its noun and regularly precedes it.
The _angry_ spot doth glow on Cæsar’s brow.
O you _hard_ hearts, you _cruel_ men of Rome!
_Yond_ Cassius has a _lean_ and _hungry_ look.
2. An +appositive adjective+ is added to its noun to explain it, like a noun in apposition (§ 88, 5).
NOUN IN APPOSITION APPOSITIVE ADJECTIVE
The castle, a _ruin_, The castle, _ancient_ and _ruinous_, stood on the edge of the cliff. stood on the edge of the cliff.
Bertram, the _ringleader_, Bertram, _undaunted_, refused to surrender. refused to surrender.
3. A +predicate adjective+ completes the meaning of the predicate verb, but describes or limits the subject.
Predicate adjectives are common after _is_ (in its various forms) and other copulative verbs, particularly _become_ and _seem_ (§ 17).
The sea is _rough_ to-day.
Burton soon became _cautious_ in his judgments.
You seem _anxious_ about your future.
The air grew _hot_ and _sultry_.
Our first experiment proved _unsuccessful_.
The milk turned _sour_.
Our agent proved _trustworthy_.
NOTE. The construction of the predicate adjective is similar to that of the predicate nominative (§ 88, 2). Both are known as +complements+, because they complete the meaning of a verb.
After _look_, _sound_, _taste_, _smell_, _feel_, a predicate adjective is used to describe the subject. Thus,--
Your flowers look _thrifty_. [NOT: look thriftily.]
Their voices sound _shrill_. [NOT: sound shrilly.]
This apple tastes _sweet_. [NOT: tastes sweetly.]
The air smells _good_. [NOT: smells well.]
The patient feels _comfortable_. [NOT: feels comfortably.]
For predicate adjectives after passive verbs, see § 492.
For the use of an adjective as predicate objective, see § 104.
THE ARTICLES
+173.+ +The adjectives _a_ (or _an_) and _the_ are called articles.+
1. +The definite article _the_ points out one or more particular objects as distinct from others of the same kind.+
_The_ train is late.
Here is _the_ key.
_The_ children are in _the_ next room.
2. +The indefinite article _a_ (or _an_) designates an object as merely one of a general class or kind.+
Lend me _a_ pencil.
I have _a_ cold.
_A_ young man answered my knock.
The article _a_ is a fragment of _ān_ (pronounced _ahn_), the ancient form of the numeral _one_; _an_ keeps the _n_, which _a_ has lost. _The_ is an old demonstrative, related to _that_.
+174.+ _The_ with a singular noun sometimes indicates a +class+ or +kind+ of objects.
_The scholar_ is not necessarily a dryasdust.
_The elephant_ is the largest of quadrupeds.
_The aëroplane_ is a very recent invention.
Resin is obtained from _the pine_.
NOTE. In this use _the_ is often called the +generic article+ (from the Latin _genus_, “kind” or “sort”). The singular number with the generic _the_ is practically equivalent to the plural without an article. Thus in the first example the sense would be the same if we had, “_Scholars_ are not necessarily dryasdusts.”
+175.+ An adjective preceded by _the_ may be used as a plural noun.
_The brave_ are honored.
_The rich_ have many cares.
_The strong_ should protect _the weak_.
+176.+ +_An_ is used before words beginning with a vowel or silent _h_; _a_ before other words.+ Thus,--
_an_ owl; _an_ apple; _an_ honest man; _a_ stone; _a_ pear.
+177.+ Special rules for _a_ or _an_ are the following:--
1. Before words beginning with the sound of _y_ or _w_, the form _a_, not _an_, is used.
EXAMPLES: a union, a university, a yew, a ewe, a eulogy, a Utopian scheme, such a one.
This rule covers all words beginning with _eu_ and many beginning with _u_. Note that the initial sound is a consonant, not a vowel. _An_ was formerly common before such words (as,--_an_ union, such _an_ one), but _a_ is now the settled form.
2. Before words beginning with _h_ and not accented on the first syllable, _an_ is often used. Thus, we say--
_a_ his´tory; BUT, _an_ histor´ical novel.
In such cases, the _h_ is very weak in sound, and is sometimes quite silent, so that the word practically begins with a vowel. Usage varies, but careful writers favor the rule here given. _An_ was formerly more common before _h_ than at present.
+178.+ With two or more connected nouns or adjectives the article should be repeated whenever clearness requires (cf. § 123).
I have consulted _the_ secretary and _the_ treasurer. [“The secretary and treasurer” would imply that the same person held both offices.]
I found _an_ anchor and _a_ chain. [“An anchor and chain” would suggest that the chain was attached to the anchor.]
In some towns there are separate schools for _the_ boys and _the_ girls; in others _the_ boys and girls attend the same schools.
He waved _a_ red and white flag.
He waved _a_ red and _a_ white flag.
+179.+ _A_ is often used distributively, in the sense of _each_.
I paid five dollars _a_ pair for my shoes.
The letter-carrier calls twice _a_ day.
My class meets three times _a_ week.
In such phrases _a_ is better than _per_, except in strictly commercial language.
+180.+ When used with adjectives, the articles precede, except in a few phrases: as,--
Such an uproar was never heard.
Many a man has tried in vain.
For the adverb _the_, which is quite distinct from the article in use and meaning, see § 195.
For the preposition _a_ (as in “He went _a_-fishing”), see § 352.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
+181.+ In +comparing+ objects with each other, we may use three different forms of the same adjective.
Thomas is _strong_.
William is _stronger_ than Thomas.
Herbert is _strongest_ of the three.
This inflection of adjectives is called +comparison+, and the three forms are called +degrees of comparison+.
+182.+ +The degrees of comparison indicate by their form in what degree of intensity the quality described by the adjective exists.+
+There are three degrees of comparison,--the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.+
1. +The positive degree is the simplest form of the adjective, and has no special ending.+
It merely describes the quality, without expressing or suggesting any comparison.
Thomas is _strong_.
Thus, the positive degree of the adjective _strong_ is _strong_.
2. +The comparative degree of an adjective is formed by adding the termination _er_ to the positive degree.+
It denotes that the quality exists in the object described in a higher degree than in some other object.
William is _stronger_ than Thomas.
Thus, the comparative degree of the adjective _strong_ is _stronger_.
3. +The superlative degree is formed by adding _est_ to the positive degree.+
It denotes that the quality exists in the highest degree in the object described.
Herbert is _strongest_ of the three.
Other examples of the +comparison of adjectives+ are:--
POSITIVE DEGREE COMPARATIVE DEGREE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE
rich richer richest poor poorer poorest fast faster fastest firm firmer firmest
+183.+ RULES OF SPELLING.
1. Adjectives ending in silent _e_ drop this letter before the comparative ending _er_ and the superlative ending _est_. Thus,--
wise, wiser, wisest; pure, purer, purest; handsome, handsomer, handsomest.
2. Most adjectives ending in _y_ change _y_ to _i_ before the endings _er_ and _est_. Thus,--
silky, silkier, silkiest; glossy, glossier, glossiest; sorry, sorrier, sorriest.
3. Adjectives having a short vowel and ending in a single consonant double this before the endings _er_ and _est_. Thus,--
dim, dimmer, dimmest; sad, sadder, saddest; fit, fitter, fittest; big, bigger, biggest; red, redder, reddest; hot, hotter, hottest.
+184.+ +Many adjectives are compared by prefixing the adverbs _more_ and _most_ to the positive degree.+
Many adjectives of two syllables and most adjectives of three or more syllables are so compared. Thus,--
recent, more recent, most recent; terrible, more terrible, most terrible; triumphant, more triumphant, most triumphant; economical, more economical, most economical.
Some adjectives may be compared in either way.
EXAMPLES: intense, intenser, intensest; OR intense, more intense, most intense. So also--profound, sublime, unkind.
NOTE. The adverbs _less_ and _least_ may be used with an adjective, if one wishes to run _down_ the scale of comparison: as,--_terrible_, _less terrible_, _least terrible_. This idiom, however, should not be regarded as comparison of the adjective. “Superlative” means “in the highest degree,” and is not applicable to _least terrible_, which means “terrible in the _lowest_ degree.”
IRREGULAR COMPARISON
+185.+ Several adjectives have irregular comparison.[23]
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
bad (evil, ill) worse worst far farther farthest ---- further furthest good better best late later, latter latest, last well (in health) better ---- little less, lesser least much, many more most
_Old_ has comparative _older_ or _elder_, superlative _oldest_ or _eldest_. _Elder_ or _eldest_ may be used with certain nouns of relationship, or in the phrases _the elder_ and _the eldest_.
This is my _elder_ brother. My brother is _older_ than yours. Jane was the _eldest_ I shall wear my _oldest_ clothes. of six children.
_Elder_ is also used as a noun: as,--“You should respect your _elders_.”
_Next_ is a superlative of _nigh_. It is used only in the sense of “the very nearest.”
I live in the _next_ street.
The _next_ time he comes, I shall refuse to see him.
+186.+ A few superlatives end in _-most_. With these, one or both of the other degrees are commonly wanting.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
---- (former) foremost hind hinder hindmost ---- inner inmost, innermost (out, _adverb_) { outer outmost, outermost { (utter) utmost, uttermost (up, _adverb_) upper uppermost ---- ---- endmost ---- nether nethermost top ---- topmost ---- ---- furthermost north ---- northmost northern (more northern) northernmost south ---- southmost southern (more southern) southernmost east, eastern (more eastern) easternmost west, western (more western) westernmost
NOTE. The ending _-most_ is not the adverb _most_. It is a very old superlative ending _-mest_ changed under the influence of the adverb _most_.
+187.+ For adjectives incapable of comparison, see § 202. For special rules for the use of comparative and superlative, see §§ 199–203.
+188.+ In +parsing+ an adjective, tell whether it is descriptive or definitive, mention the substantive to which it belongs, and specify the degree of comparison.
## CHAPTER V
ADVERBS
+189.+ +An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.+
The storm ceased _suddenly_.
A _very_ disastrous storm swept the coast.
The storm ceased _very_ suddenly.
+190.+ Adverbs are classified according to their meaning as: (1) adverbs of +manner+; (2) adverbs of +time+; (3) adverbs of +place+; (4) adverbs of +degree+.[24]
1. Adverbs of manner answer the question “How?” “In what way?”
They modify verbs or adjectives, rarely adverbs. Most of them are formed from adjectives by adding _ly_.
Tom answered _courageously_.
The poor child looked _helplessly_ about.
_Softly_ and _silently_ fell the snow.
The pain was _terribly_ severe.
The river rose _surprisingly_ fast.
2. Adverbs of time answer the question “When?” They usually modify verbs. Thus,--
The old castle is _now_ a museum.
He was _recently_ promoted.
I have been disturbed _lately_.
My friend arrives _to-day_.
James was _then_ a boy of seven.
I have _already_ rung the bell.
_Afterwards_ he regretted his haste.
3. Adverbs of place answer the question “Where?” They usually modify verbs. Thus,--
Come _here_.
_Yonder_ stands the culprit.
An old sailor came _forward_.
My sister is _out_.
I was _abroad_ that winter.
4. Adverbs of degree answer the question “To what degree or extent?” They modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Thus,--
Arthur is _rather_ tall.
Father was _much_ pleased.
Father was _very much_ pleased.
The task seemed _utterly_ hopeless.
That is _hardly_ possible.
That is _not_ possible.
+191.+ Some adverbs have the same form as the corresponding adjectives.
You have guessed _right_.
How _fast_ the tide ebbs!
The horse was sold _cheap_.
Tired men sleep _sound_.
Other examples are:--wrong, straight, early, late, quick, hard, far, near, slow, high, low, loud, ill, well, deep, close, just, very, much, little.
Under this head come certain adverbs of degree used to modify adjectives.
His eyes were _dark_ blue. [Compare: _very_ blue.]
That silk is _light_ yellow. [Compare: _rather_ yellow.]
These flowers are _deep_ purple. [Compare: _intensely_ purple.]
The water was _icy_ cold. [Compare: _extremely_ cold.]
That _dark_, _light_, etc., are adverbs in this use appears from the fact that they answer the question “How?” Thus,--“His eyes were blue.” “_How_ blue?” “_Dark_ blue.”
NOTE. In the oldest English many adverbs ended in _-ë_, as if formed directly from adjectives by means of this ending. Thus, the adjective for _hot_ was _hāt_, side by side with which was an adverb _hātë_ (dissyllabic), meaning _hotly_. In the fourteenth century this distinction was still kept up. Thus, Chaucer used both the adjective _hōt_ and the dissyllabic adverb _hōtë_, meaning _hotly_. Between 1400 and 1500 all weak final _e_’s disappeared from the language. In this way the adverb _hotë_, for example, became simply _hot_. Thus these adverbs in _-ë_ became identical in form with the corresponding adjectives. Hence in the time of Shakspere there existed, in common use, not only the adjective _hot_, but also the adverb _hot_ (identical in form with the adjective but really descended from the adverb _hotë_). One could say not only “The fire is _hot_” (adjective), but “The fire burns _hot_” (adverb of manner).
The tendency in modern English has been to confine the form without ending to the adjective use and to restrict the adverbial function to forms in _-ly_. Thus, a writer of the present time would not say, in prose, “The fire burns _hot_,” but “The fire burns _hotly_.” Nevertheless, a number of the old adverbs without ending still remain in good use, and must not be regarded as erroneous.
In poetry, moreover, such adverbs are freely employed; as,--“The boy like a gray goshawk stared _wild_.” [In prose: stared _wildly_.]
For adverbial phrases, see §§ 41–42, 475.
For the adverbial objective, see § 109.
+192.+ _Yes_ and _no_ are peculiar adverbs used in assenting and denying. Thus,--
Are you hungry? No.
NOTE. As now used, _yes_ and _no_ stand for complete sentences. Originally, however, they were modifiers, and hence they are still classed as adverbs. The original meaning of _no_ was “never.” Compare _never_ as an emphatic negative in modern English: as,--“Will you surrender?” “_Never!_” The oldest affirmative adverb was _yea_. _Yes_ was originally a compound of _yea_ with a form of _so_, and was used in emphatic affirmatives (like our _just so!_).
Other adverbs or adverbial phrases are sometimes used like _yes_ or _no_. Such are _certainly_, _assuredly_, _by no means_, _not at all_. In these cases, however, the modifying effect of the word or phrase may easily be seen when the sentence is supplied. Thus,--“Will you help me?” “_Certainly_ [I _will help_ you].”
+193.+ _There_ is often used merely to introduce a sentence in the inverted order (§ 5).
There is a hole in my shoe.
There are many strangers in town.
There rose a thick smoke from the volcano.
In this use, _there_ is sometimes called an +expletive+ (or “filler”). It is unemphatic, and has lost all its force as an adverb of place. Contrast “THERE [emphatic] stood an Indian under a tree” with, “There [unemphatic expletive] stood an Indian under a tree.”
RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS
+194.+ +Relative adverbs introduce subordinate clauses and are similar in their use to relative pronouns.+
I know a farmhouse {in which | _where_} we can spend the night.
_Where_ is an adverb of place, modifying _can spend_. But it also introduces the subordinate clause, as the relative pronoun _which_ does. Hence _where_ is called a +relative adverb+.
+195.+ The principal relative adverbs are:--_where_, _whence_, _whither_, _wherever_, _when_, _whenever_, _while_, _as_, _how_, _why_, _before_, _after_, _till_, _until_, _since_.
Because of their similarity to conjunctions, these words are often called +conjunctive adverbs+.
He had a fever _when_ he was in Spain.
Work _while_ it is day.
_As_ the ship passed, we observed that her decks were crowded with Malays. [Time.]
Keep to the right, _as_ the law directs. [Manner.]
You started _before_ I was ready.
Wait _until_ the car stops.
_Since_ you came, it has rained constantly.
_As_ and _since_ in the sense of “because,” and _while_ in the sense of “although,” are classed as conjunctions (§ 368).
The clauses introduced by relative adverbs may be either adjective or adverbial (§§ 49–50, 379–382).
NOTE. In “_The_ more you waste, _the_ sooner you will want” (and similar sentences) _the_ is not an article, but an old case-form of the pronoun _that_, used as an adverb of degree. We may expand the sentence as follows: “_To what extent_ you waste more, _to that extent_ you will want sooner.” Thus it appears that the first _the_ has a relative force, and the second _the_ a demonstrative force.
+196.+ +An interrogative adverb introduces a question.+
_Where_, _when_, _whence_, _whither_, _how_, _why_, may be used as +interrogative adverbs+. Thus,--
_Where_ are you going?
_Why_ must you go?
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
+197.+ +Adverbs have three degrees of comparison,--the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.+
1. +Most adverbs are compared by means of _more_ and _most_.+
John came _promptly_. [Positive.]
Richard came _more promptly_ than John. [Comparative.]
Henry came _most promptly_ of all. [Superlative.]
2. +A few adverbs are compared by means of the endings _er_ and _est_.+ Thus,--
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
near nearer nearest soon sooner soonest
Further examples are:--cheap, dear, early, fast, hard, high, long, loud, quick, slow, deep.[25]
Some adverbs are compared in both ways. Thus,--
often, oftener _or_ more often, oftenest _or_ most often.
+198.+ Several adverbs have irregular comparison.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
far } { farther { farthest forth } { further { furthest ill } worse worst badly } nigh nigher { nighest { next well better best { latest late later { last little less least much more most
These adverbs in the main have the same forms as the adjectives studied in § 185 above. Note, however: (1) that _good_ and _bad_ are never adverbs; (2) that _ill_ and _well_, _better_ and _best_, _worse_ and _worst_, may be either adverbs or adjectives. _Rather_ is now used in the comparative only.
USE OF THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE
+199.+ +The comparative degree, not the superlative, is used in comparing two persons or things.+
+The superlative is used in comparing one person or thing with two or more.+
Right: Mary is the _more agreeable_ of the two. Mary is the _most agreeable_ of all the family.
Wrong: I like both Mary and Jane, but I am _fondest_ of Mary. I am studying Latin, history, and geometry, but I dislike the _latter_.
The same principle applies to adverbs.
John runs _faster_ than Tom. [Here the acts of two persons are compared.]
Which of you three can run _fastest_? [Here the acts of more than two are compared.]
NOTE. In older English the superlative sometimes occurs when only two objects are thought of. This use is still found in a few proverbial phrases: as,--“Put your _best_ foot _foremost_.”
+200.+ The superlative is sometimes used merely for emphasis, without implying any definite comparison: as--“My _dearest_ Kate!”
The superlative of emphasis is very common with _most_.
_Most potent_, _grave_, and _reverend_ signiors.--SHAKSPERE.
Justice had been _most cruelly_ defrauded.--WORDSWORTH.
Excessive use of this construction (like frequent repetition of _very_) is tiresome and weakens style.
Double comparison (as _more worthier_, _most unkindest_) is common in older English, but is now a gross error.
+201.+ When two adjectives or adverbs are contrasted by means of _than_, _more_ is used with the first.
Such indulgence is _more kind_ than wise.
This scheme is _more clever_ than honest.
He acts _more boldly_ than discreetly.
NOTE. The adverb _rather_ is often used with the first adjective or adverb (as,--“_rather_ kind than wise” or “kind _rather_ than wise”), but in a slightly different sense.
+202.+ Many adjectives and adverbs are, from their meaning, incapable of comparison. Such are:--
1. Adjectives expressing a quality as absolute or complete, and adverbs derived from such adjectives.
EXAMPLES: unique, universal, single, matchless, instantaneous, triangular, everlasting, infinite, mortal; uniquely, singly, eternally, mortally.
2. The adverbs _here_, _there_, _then_, _now_, _when_, and the like.
NOTE. Words like _perfect_, _exact_, _straight_, etc., are commonly said to be incapable of comparison, but this is an error. For each of these words may vary in sense. When _perfect_ (for example) denotes _absolute perfection_, it cannot be compared. But _perfect_ has also another sense: namely, “partaking in a higher or lower degree of the qualities that make up absolute perfection,” so that we may describe one statue as _more perfect_ than another, or one of three statues as the _most perfect_ of them all. In this use, which is unobjectionable, we simply admit that nothing in the world is absolutely flawless, and assert that the three statues approach ideal perfection in various degrees.
+203.+ An adjective phrase may sometimes be compared by means of _more_ and _most_.
I was never _more out of humor_ [= more vexed].
I think your last suggestion _most in keeping_ [= most appropriate].
NUMERALS--ADJECTIVES, NOUNS, AND ADVERBS
+204.+ +Words indicating number are called numerals. They are adjectives, nouns, or adverbs.+
There are _seven_ days in the week. [Adjective.]
_Twelve_ make a _dozen_. [Noun.]
I have called _twice_. [Adverb.]
+205.+ The chief classes of numerals are +cardinals+ and +ordinals+.
1. +Cardinal numeral adjectives (_one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, etc.) are used in counting, and answer the question “How many?”+
I had to pay _three_ dollars.
There were _forty-two_ vessels in the fleet.
NOTE. In such expressions as “The boy was _sixteen_,” the numeral is a predicate adjective limiting _boy_ (§ 172, 3). We need not expand _sixteen_ to “sixteen years old.”
2. +Ordinal numeral adjectives (_first_, _second_, _third_, etc.) denote the position or order of a person or thing in a series.+
Carl plays the _second_ violin.
Your friend is sitting in the _fifth_ row.
+206.+ All the cardinal and ordinal numerals may become nouns and may take a plural ending in some of their senses.
_One_ is enough.
_Four_ are missing.
The _nine_ played an excellent game.
Three _twos_ are six.
The men formed by _fours_.
_Thousands_ perished by the way.
Eight is two _thirds_ of twelve. [So regularly in +fractional parts+.]
NOTE. _Hundred_, _thousand_, _million_ were originally nouns, but are now equally common as adjectives. Other numeral nouns are:--twain, couple, pair, brace, trio, quartette, quintette, foursome, dozen, score, century.
+207.+ Certain numeral adjectives (_single_, _double_, _triple_, etc.) indicate how many times a thing is taken or of how many like parts it consists.
A _double_ row of policemen stood on guard.
A _fourfold_ layer of chilled steel forms the door.
Some of these words may be used as adverbs.
The cabman charged _double_.
His fear increased _tenfold_.
+208.+ Certain numeral adverbs and adverbial phrases indicate how many times an action takes place.
_Once_ my assailant slipped.
I rang the bell _twice_.
The river hath _thrice_ flow’d, no ebb between.--SHAKSPERE.
The only adverbs of this kind in ordinary use are _once_ and _twice_. For larger numbers an adverbial phrase (_three times_, _four times_, etc.) is employed. _Thrice_, however, is still common in poetry and the solemn style.
## CHAPTER VI
VERBS
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS
+209.+ +A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing+ (§ 14).
Most verbs express +action+. Some, however, merely express +state+ or +condition+. Thus,--
1. We _jumped_ for joy. Rabbits _burrow_ into the sides of hills.
2. While memory _lasts_, I can never forget you. This mountain _belongs_ to the Appalachian range.
+A verb-phrase is a group of words that is used as a verb (§ 15).+
The leaves _are turning_.
The money _has been found_.
+210.+ Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind (§ 16).
The auxiliary verbs are _is_ (_are_, _was_, _were_, etc.), _may_, _can_, _must_, _might_, _shall_, _will_, _could_, _would_, _should_, _have_, _had_, _do_, _did_.
I am writing.
We must go.
You will fall.
He has forgotten me.
We had failed.
I do see him.
The auxiliary verb may be separated from the rest of the verb-phrase by other words.
I _have_ always _liked_ him.
I _shall_ soon _send_ for you.
Robert _was_ completely _bewildered_.
He _has_ hardly ever _spoken_ to me.
+211.+ Verbs are either +transitive+ or +intransitive+ (§ 99).
+Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.+
+A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object.+
In the following sentences, the first four verbs are +transitive+ (with objects), the last five are +intransitive+ (without objects):--
Lightning _shattered_ the oak.
Clouds _darkened_ the sky.
Chemists _extract_ radium from pitchblende.
The orator _quoted_ Tennyson incorrectly.
Look where he _stands_ and _glares_!
The bankrupt _absconded_.
The orange sky of evening _died_ away.
The words _differ_ in a single letter.
+212.+ +A verb which is transitive in one of its senses may be intransitive in another.+
TRANSITIVE (WITH OBJECT) INTRANSITIVE (WITHOUT OBJECT)
Boys _fly_ kites. Birds _fly_. The pirates _sank_ the ship. The stone _sank_. I _closed_ my eyes. School _closed_ yesterday. Tom _tore_ his coat. The cloth _tore_ easily.
+213.+ +Many transitive verbs may be used absolutely,--that is, merely to express action without any indication of the direct object.+
TRANSITIVE VERB TRANSITIVE VERB USED ABSOLUTELY WITH OBJECT EXPRESSED
The horses _drank_ water. The horses _drank_ from the brook. The farmer _plows_ his fields. The farmer _plows_ in the spring. Charles is _drawing_ a picture. Charles _is drawing_.
There is a sharp contrast between a transitive verb used absolutely and a real intransitive verb. To the former we can always add an object; with the latter no object is possible.
+214.+ _Is_ (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject (§ 17).
Such verbs are called +copulative+ (that is, “joining”) verbs.
_Is_ in this use is often called the +copula+ (or “link”).
Time _is_ money.
Grant _was_ a tireless worker.
Macbeth _became_ a tyrant.
His swans always _prove_ geese.
The current _is_ sluggish.
Lions _are_ carnivorous.
This village _looks_ prosperous.
The consul’s brow _grew_ stern.
The queen _turned_ pale.
In the first four examples, the copulative verb (the simple predicate[26]) is followed by a predicate nominative (§ 88, 2); in the last five by a predicate adjective (§ 172, 3).
The copulative verbs are intransitive, since they take no object. Sometimes, however, they are regarded as a third class distinct both from transitive and intransitive verbs.
+215.+ The verb _is_ is not always a copula. It is sometimes emphatic and has the sense of _exist_.
I think. Therefore I _am_. [That is, I _exist_.]
Whatever _is_, is right. [The second _is_ is the copula.]
Most of the other copulative verbs may be used in some sense in which they cease to be copulative.
The lawyer _proved_ his case.
Walnut trees _grow_ slowly.
Mr. Watson _grows_ peaches.
The wheel _turned_ slowly on the axle.
He _turned_ his head and _looked_ at me.
INFLECTION OF VERBS
+216.+ Verbs have inflections of +tense+, +person+ and +number+, and +mood+. They also have the distinction of +voice+, which is expressed by the help of verb-phrases.
+Tense+ indicates time; +person+ and +number+ correspond with person and number in substantives; +mood+ shows the manner in which the action is expressed; +voice+ indicates whether the subject acts or is acted upon.
TENSE OF VERBS
+217.+ +The tense of a verb indicates its time.+[27]
+Verbs have forms of tense to indicate present, past, or future time.+
1. +A verb in the present tense refers to present time.+
2. +A verb in the past tense refers to past time.[28]+
3. +A verb in the future tense refers to future time.+
+The present, the past, and the future are called simple tenses.+
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE FUTURE TENSE
He _lives_ here. He _lived_ here. He _will live_ here. The sun _shines_. The sun _shone_. The sun _will shine_. I _know_ him. I _knew_ him. I _shall know_ him.
FORMS OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST
+218.+ The +present+ and the +past+ tense have special forms of inflection.
For the moment we will consider the form which the verb has when its subject is the first personal pronoun _I_.
+In the present tense the verb has its simplest form, without any inflectional ending.+
I _like_ it.
I _hope_ for the best.
I _dwell_ in the wilderness.
I _find_ him amusing.
+219.+ The past tense is formed in two ways, and a verb is classed as +weak+ or +strong+ in accordance with the way in which it forms this tense.
1. +Weak verbs form the past tense by adding _ed_, _d_, or _t_ to the present.+
EXAMPLES: mend, mended; select, selected; fill, filled; glow, glowed; talk, talked; revere, revered; dwell, dwelt.
2. +Strong verbs form the past tense by changing the vowel of the present, without the addition of an ending.+
EXAMPLES: drink, drank; begin, began; come, came; rise, rose; bind, bound; cling, clung; stick, stuck; wear, wore.[29]
Weak verbs are sometimes called +regular+, and strong verbs +irregular verbs+.
For a list of the strong verbs see pp. 291–297.
NOTE. The terms +strong+ and +weak+ were first applied to verbs for a somewhat fanciful reason. The strong verbs were so called because they seemed to form the past tense out of their own resources, without calling to their assistance any ending. The weak verbs were so called because they could not form the past tense without the aid of the ending _ed_, _d_, or _t_.
+220.+ The ending that is written _ed_ is fully pronounced only when _d_ or _t_ precedes (as,--_thread_, _threaded_; _attract_, _attracted_). Otherwise, _e_ is silent, so that the ending becomes, in pronunciation, _d_ or _t_ (as,--_entered_, pronounced _enter’d_; _rocked_, pronounced _rockt_).
In poetry and the solemn style, however, the silent _e_ in the ending _ed_ is sometimes restored to its ancient rights.
+221.+ Many +weak verbs+ show special irregularities in the +past tense+.
1. _Make_ has _made_ in the past, and _have_ has _had_.
2. Some verbs in _-nd_ and _-ld_ form their past tense by changing this _d_ to _t_.
EXAMPLES: bend, bent; send, sent; lend, lent; rend, rent; spend, spent; build, built.
3. A few verbs add _d_ or _t_ in the past and also change the vowel of the present. Thus,--
sell sold tell told shoe shod say said (pronounced _sed_) hear heard (pronounced _herd_) bring brought buy bought catch caught seek sought beseech besought teach taught methinks methought
_Work_ has an old past tense _wrought_, common in poetry; its usual past is _worked_. For _must_, _would_, etc., see p. 299.
4. Some verbs that have a long vowel sound in the present have in the past a short vowel sound before the ending _t_.
EXAMPLES: creep, crept; keep, kept; sleep, slept; sweep, swept; weep, wept; feel, felt; deal, dealt (pronounced _delt_); mean, meant (pronounced _ment_); lose, lost; leave, left.[30]
5. Some verbs in _d_ or _t_ preceded by a long vowel sound have a short vowel in the past but add no ending.
EXAMPLES: bleed, bled; breed, bred; feed, fed; speed, sped; lead, led; read (pronounced _reed_), read (pronounced _red_); meet, met; light, lit (_also_ lighted).
6. Some verbs in _d_ or _t_ have in the past the same form as in the present.
EXAMPLES: shed, _past_ shed; spread, _past_ spread; bet, _past_ bet; hit, _past_ hit; set, _past_ set; put, _past_ put; shut, _past_ shut; cut, _past_ cut; hurt, _past_ hurt; cast, _past_ cast.
NOTE. The verbs in 5 and 6 might appear to be strong verbs, since they have no ending in the past and some of them change the vowel. They are, however, all weak verbs. Their lack of ending is due to the fact that the _d_ or _t_ of the termination has been absorbed in the final _d_ or _t_ of the verb itself. Thus, the past _set_ was originally _settë_ (dissyllabic), and this form, after the loss of _-ë_, became indistinguishable in sound from _set_, the present.
For lists of irregular weak verbs, see pp. 291–299.
PERSON AND NUMBER--THE PERSONAL ENDINGS
+222.+ +A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.+
+Verbs, like substantives, have two numbers (singular and plural) and three persons (first, second, and third).+
+The singular number denotes a single person or thing. The plural number denotes more than one person or thing.+
+The first person denotes the speaker; the second person denotes the person spoken to; the third person denotes the person or thing spoken of.+
+223.+ The inflections of +person and number+ in verbs may be seen by framing sentences with the personal pronouns as subjects. Thus,--
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I walk. 1. We walk. 2. Thou walk-_est_. 2. You walk. 3. He walk-_s_ [old form, walk-_eth_]. 3. They walk.
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I walked. 1. We walked. 2. Thou walked-_st_. 2. You walked. 3. He walked. 3. They walked.
From the sentences it is evident (1) that the +person+ and +number+ of a verb are usually shown by its subject only, but (2) that some verb-forms have special +endings+ which denote person and number.
+224.+ +The endings by means of which a verb indicates person and number are called personal endings.+
1. In the present tense a verb has two personal endings, _est_ for the second person singular and s for the third person singular (old form _eth_).
The first person singular and all three persons of the plural are alike. The simplest form of the verb is used and no personal ending is added.
2. The past tense has but one personal ending,--_est_ or _st_ in the second person singular.[31]
The forms in _est_ or _st_ are confined to poetry and the solemn style. In ordinary language, the second person plural is used to address a single person.
The following table shows the +personal endings+ of the present and the past tense:--
PERSONAL ENDINGS
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. [_no ending_] 1. } 2. -est, -st 2. } [_no ending_] 3. -s [_old_, -eth] 3. }
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. [_no ending_] 1. } 2. -est, -st 2. } [_no ending_] 3. [_no ending_] 3. }
CONJUGATION OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST
+225.+ The inflection of a verb is called its +conjugation+ (§ 53). When we inflect a verb we are said to +conjugate+ it.
CONJUGATION OF THE WEAK VERB _WALK_
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I walk. 1. We walk. 2. Thou walkest.[32] 2. You walk. 3. He walks. 3. They walk.
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I walked. 1. We walked. 2. Thou walkedst. 2. You walked. 3. He walked. 3. They walked.
CONJUGATION OF THE STRONG VERB _FIND_
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I find. 1. We find. 2. Thou findest. 2. You find. 3. He finds. 3. They find.
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I found. 1. We found. 2. Thou foundest. 2. You found. 3. He found. 3. They found.
CONJUGATION OF THE COPULA
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I am. 1. We are. 2. Thou art. 2. You are. 3. He is. 3. They are.
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I was. 1. We were. 2. Thou wast. 2. You were. 3. He was. 3. They were.
NOTE. The English verb formerly had more personal endings. In Chaucer, for instance, the typical inflection of the present is:--
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I walkë. 1. We walken (_or_ walkë). 2. Thou walkest. 2. Ye walken (_or_ walkë). 3. He walketh. 3. They walken (_or_ walkë).
The disappearance of all weak final _e_’s in the fifteenth century (§ 191) reduced the first person singular and the whole plural to the single form _walk_. Later, _walks_ (a dialect form) was substituted for _walketh_, and still later the second person singular was replaced in ordinary use by the plural. The result has been that in modern speech there are only two common forms in the present tense,--_walk_ and _walks_. In poetry and the solemn style, however, _walkest_ and _walketh_ are still in use. The plural in _en_ is frequently adopted by Spenser as an ancient form (or +archaism+): as,--“You _deemen_ the spring is come.”
SPECIAL RULES OF NUMBER AND PERSON
+226.+ When the subject is compound (§ 38), the number of the verb is determined by the following rules:--
1. A compound subject with _and_ usually takes a verb in the plural number.
My brother and sister _play_ tennis.
The governor and the mayor _are_ cousins.
2. A compound subject with _or_ or _nor_ takes a verb in the singular number if the substantives are singular.
Either my brother or my sister _is_ sure to win.
Neither the governor nor the mayor _favors_ this appointment.
3. A compound subject with _and_ expressing but a single idea sometimes takes a verb in the singular number.
The sum and substance [= gist] of the matter _is_ this.
NOTE. This construction is rare in modern English prose. It is for the most part confined to such idiomatic phrases as _end and aim_ (= _purpose_), _the long and short of it_, etc. The poets, however, use the construction freely (as in Kipling’s “The tumult and the shouting dies”).
4. If the substantives connected by _or_ or _nor_ differ in number or person, the verb usually agrees with the nearer.
Either you or he _is_ to blame.
Neither you nor he _is_ an Austrian.
Neither John nor we _were_ at home.
Neither the mayor nor the aldermen _favor_ this law.
But colloquial usage varies, and such expressions are avoided by careful writers. The following sentences show how this may be done:--
Either you are to blame, or he is.
One of you two is to blame.
Neither of you is an Austrian.
He is not afraid; neither am I.
Both John and we were away from home.
+227.+ In such expressions as the following, the subject is not compound, and the verb agrees with its singular subject:--
The _governor_ with his staff _is_ present.
_John_, as well as Mary, _is_ in London.
_Tom_, along with his friends Dick and Bob, _is taking_ a sail.
+228.+ Nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense commonly take a verb in the singular number (§ 84).
Economics _is_ an important study.
The gallows _has been_ abolished in Massachusetts.
In some words usage varies. Thus, _pains_, in the sense of _care_ or _effort_, is sometimes regarded as a singular and sometimes as a plural.
Great _pains has_ (or _have_) been taken about the matter.
+229.+ +Collective nouns+ take sometimes a singular and sometimes a plural verb.
When the persons or things denoted are thought of as +individuals+, the plural should be used. When the collection is regarded as a +unit+, the singular should be used.[33]
1. The Senior Class _requests_ the pleasure of your company. [Here the class is thought of +collectively+, acting as a unit.]
2. The Senior Class _are_ unable to agree upon a president. [Here the speaker has in mind the +individuals+ of whom the class is composed.]
3. The nation _welcomes_ Prince Joseph. [The whole nation unites as a single individual to welcome a distinguished guest.]
4. The American nation _are_ descended from every other nation on earth. [The separate qualities of the individuals who constitute the nation are in the speaker’s mind.]
+230.+ A _number_ in the sense of “several” or “many” regularly takes the plural; _the number_ takes the singular.
A number of sailors _were loitering_ on the pier.
The number of tickets _is limited_.
+231.+ _Half_, _part_, _portion_, and the like, take either the singular or the plural according to sense.
_Half_ of a circle _is_ a semicircle.
_Half_ of the passengers _were_ lost.
+232.+ A verb which has for its subject a +relative pronoun+ is in the same person and number as the antecedent. For examples, see § 149.
Errors are especially common in such sentences as,--
This is one of the strangest sights that ever _were_ seen. [The antecedent of _that_ is _sights_ (not _one_); hence the relative (_that_) is plural, and accordingly the verb is plural (_were_, not _was_).]
Mr. Winn’s oration was among the most eloquent that _have_ [NOT _has_] been delivered in this state for many years.
This is one of the finest paintings there _are_ in the hall. [For the omission of the relative, see § 151.]
THE FUTURE TENSE
+233.+ The +future tense+ is a verb-phrase consisting of the auxiliary verb _shall_ or _will_ followed by the infinitive without _to_ (§ 29).
The following table shows the form of the +future+ for each of the three persons (1) in +assertions+ and (2) in +questions+:--
FUTURE TENSE
ASSERTIONS (DECLARATIVE)
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I shall fall. 1. We shall fall. 2. Thou wilt fall. 2. You will fall. 3. He will fall. 3. They will fall.
QUESTIONS (INTERROGATIVE)
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. Shall I fall? 1. Shall we fall? 2. Shalt thou fall? 2. Shall you fall? 3. Will he fall? 3. Will they fall?
+234.+ Common errors are the use of _will_ for _shall_ (1) in the +first person+ in +assertions+ and +questions+, and (2) in the +second person+ in +questions+.
In the following sentences the first person of the future tense is correctly formed:--
I shall [NOT _will_] drown. Shall [NOT _will_] I drown? I shall [NOT _will_] fail. Shall [NOT _will_] I fail? We shall [NOT _will_] sink. Shall [NOT _will_] we sink?
The verb-phrases with _shall_ express merely the action of the verb in +future+ time. They do not indicate any +willingness+ or +desire+ on the part of the subject.
Contrast the following sentences, in which _I will_ or _we will_ is used:--
I will go with you.
I will give you what you ask.
I will not endure it.
We will allow you to enter.
We will have the truth.
Here the verb-phrases with _will_ do not (as in the previous examples of _I shall_) express the action of the verb in future time. They express the +present willingness+ or +desire+ or +determination+ of the speaker to do something in the future.
Hence such verb-phrases with _will_ in the first person are not forms of the future tense. They are special verb-phrases expressing willingness or desire.
+235.+ +In the first person _shall_, not _will_, is the auxiliary of the future tense in both assertions and questions. It denotes simple futurity, without expressing willingness, desire, or determination+.
+_Will_ in the first person is used in promising, threatening, consenting, and expressing resolution. It never denotes simple futurity.+
I. SIMPLE FUTURITY (FUTURE TENSE)
_I shall be_ eighteen years old in July. [NOT: _will be_.]
Hurry, or _we shall miss_ our train. [NOT: _will miss_.]
_We shall be_ glad to see him. [NOT: _will be_.]
II. PROMISES, THREATS, ETC.
I _will subscribe_ to your fund. [Promise.]
We _will do_ our best. [Promise.]
I _will discharge_ you if you are late again. [Threat.]
We _will permit_ you to go. [Consent.]
I _will have_ obedience. [Resolution.]
_I’ll_ and _we’ll_ are contractions of _I will_ and _we will_ and can never stand for _I shall_ and _we shall_.
_I’ll_ meet you at noon. [Promise.]
_I’ll_ never consent. [Resolution.]
_We’ll_ be revenged on you. [Threat.]
+236.+ When willingness is expressed by an +adjective+, _I shall_ is correct; when by an +adverb+, _I will_. Thus,--
I _shall be glad_ to help you.
I _will gladly_ help you.
NOTE. Such expressions as _I shall be glad_, _I shall be willing_, _I shall be charmed to do this_, express willingness not by means of _shall_ but in the adjectives _glad_, _willing_, _charmed_. To say, “I will be glad to do this,” then, would be wrong, for it would be to express volition twice. Such a sentence could only mean “_I am determined_ to be glad to do this.”
On the other hand, in “I _will gladly help_ you,” volition is expressed by the verb-phrase _will help_ and the adverb merely modifies the phrase by emphasizing the speaker’s willingness. Hence _I will_ is correct.
+237.+ _Will_, when +emphasized+, always expresses determination on the part of the subject, even in the second and third persons.
I WILL go, no matter what you say.
{You WILL | He WILL} act foolishly, in spite of my advice.
+238.+ +In the second person _Shall you?_ not _Will you?_ is the proper form of the future tense in questions.+
+_Will you?_ always denotes willingness, consent, or determination, and never simple futurity.+
Note that in questions in the second person, the auxiliary used is the same as that expected in the answer.
I. FUTURE TENSE (SIMPLE FUTURITY)
_Shall_ you _be_ disappointed if he does not come? [I shall.]
_Shall_ you _regret_ his absence? [I shall.]
_Shall_ you _go_ by boat or by train? [I shall go by boat.]
II. VERB-PHRASE DENOTING WILLINGNESS, ETC.
_Will_ you _write_ often? [I will.]
_Will_ you _allow_ me to help you? [I will.]
_Will_ you _be_ so kind as to open the window? [I will.]
+239.+ _Shall_ in the +second+ and +third persons+ is not the sign of the +future+ tense in declarative sentences.
It is used in +commanding+, +promising+, +threatening+, and expressing +resolution+, the volition being that of the speaker.
Thou _shalt_ not _kill_. [Command.]
You _shall have_ the hat before Monday. [Promise.]
You _shall pay_ for this insult! [Threat.]
She _shall_ not _regret_ her generosity. [Resolution.]
In prophetic language, _shall_ is common in the second and third persons, even when there is no idea of commanding or the like.
The sun _shall be turned_ into darkness and the moon into blood.--_Joel_ ii. 31.
+240.+ In military orders and official communications, custom permits the more courteous _will_ in the place of _shall_ in the second and third persons.
You _will_ immediately report for orders.
Heads of Departments _will submit_ their estimates before January first.
For _shall_ and _will_ in subordinate clauses, see pp. 130–132.
+241.+ Future time may also be expressed by the present tense, or by _about_ or _going_ with the infinitive (§ 319).
We _sail_ for Havana on Tuesday.
They are _about to begin_ the study of Greek.
COMPLETE OR COMPOUND TENSES
+242.+ +Completed action+ is denoted by special +verb-phrases+ made by prefixing to the +past participle+ some form of the auxiliary verb _have_.
These are called the +complete+ or +compound tenses+.
There are three +complete+ or +compound+ tenses,--the +perfect+ (or +present perfect+), the +pluperfect+ (or +past perfect+), and the +future perfect+.
1. +The perfect (or present perfect) tense denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking. It is formed by prefixing _have_ (_hast_, _has_) to the past participle.+
I _have learned_ my lesson.
He _has convinced_ me.
NOTE. With several verbs of motion the auxiliary _be_ is sometimes used instead of _have_: as,--“My friends _are gone_” (or “_have gone_”); “Your time _is come_” (or “_has come_”).
2. +The pluperfect (or past perfect) tense denotes that the action was completed at some point in past time. It is formed by prefixing _had_ (_hadst_) to the past participle.+
Before night fell, I _had finished_ the book.
When Blake _had spoken_, Allen rose to reply.
3. +The future perfect tense denotes that the action will be completed at some point in future time. It is formed by prefixing the future tense of _have_ (_shall have_, etc.) to the past participle.+
Before I hear from you again, I _shall have landed_ at Naples.
The future perfect tense is rare except in very formal writing.
+243.+ The forms of the past participle will be studied in § 334. Meanwhile, the following practical rule will serve every purpose:--
+The past participle is that verb-form which is used after _I have_.+
EXAMPLES: [I have] mended, tried, swept, bought, broken, forgotten, found, sunk, dug.
+244.+ A verb-phrase made by prefixing _having_ to the past participle is called the +perfect participle+.
_Having reached_ my destination, I stopped.
A verb-phrase made by prefixing _to have_ to the past participle is called the +perfect infinitive+.
I am sorry _to have missed_ you.
+245.+ Three forms of the verb are so important that they are called the +principal parts+. These are:--
(1) the first person singular of the present;
(2) the first person singular of the past;
(3) the past participle.
PRESENT PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
(I) walk (I) walked walked (I) think (I) thought thought (I) see (I) saw seen (I) come (I) came come (I) make (I) made made
VOICE--ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
+246.+ +Voice is that property of verbs which indicates whether the subject acts or is acted upon.+
There are two voices, active and passive.
1. +A verb is in the active voice when it represents the subject as the doer of an act.+
Richard _shot_ the bear.
Mr. Hardy _builds_ carriages.
Dr. Wilson _has cured_ my father.
2. +A verb is in the passive voice when it represents the subject as the receiver or the product of an action.+
The bear was _shot by_ Richard.
Carriages _are built_ by Mr. Hardy.
My father _has been cured_ by Dr. Wilson.
+247.+ +The passive voice of a verb is expressed by a verb-phrase made by prefixing some form of the copula (is, was, etc.) to the past
## participle.+
In the passive voice of the +complete tenses+, the past participle _been_ follows the proper form of the auxiliary _have_ (as in the third example in § 246, 2).
The passive of the +infinitive+ is made by prefixing _to be_ (perfect, _to have been_) to the past participle. Thus,--
PRESENT INFINITIVE PASSIVE: to be struck.
PERFECT INFINITIVE PASSIVE: to have been struck.
+248.+ The following table gives the +conjugation+ of the verb _strike_ in the active and passive of the six tenses:--
## ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR 1. I strike. 1. I am struck. 2. Thou strikest. 2. Thou art struck. 3. He strikes. 3. He is struck.
PLURAL 1. We strike. 1. We are struck. 2. You strike. 2. You are struck. 3. They strike. 3. They are struck.
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR 1. I struck. 1. I was struck. 2. Thou struckest. 2. Thou wast (_or_ wert) struck. 3. He struck. 3. He was struck.
PLURAL 1. We struck. 1. We were struck. 2. You struck. 2. You were struck. 3. They struck. 3. They were struck.
FUTURE TENSE
SINGULAR 1. I shall strike. 1. I shall be struck. 2. Thou wilt strike. 2. Thou wilt be struck. 3. He will strike. 3. He will be struck.
PLURAL 1. We shall strike. 1. We shall be struck. 2. You will strike. 2. You will be struck. 3. They will strike. 3. They will be struck.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
SINGULAR 1. I have struck. 1. I have been struck. 2. Thou hast struck. 2. Thou hast been struck. 3. He has struck. 3. He has been struck.
PLURAL 1. We have struck. 1. We have been struck. 2. You have struck. 2. You have been struck. 3. They have struck. 3. They have been struck.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
SINGULAR 1. I had struck. 1. I had been struck. 2. Thou hadst struck. 2. Thou hadst been struck. 3. He had struck. 3. He had been struck.
PLURAL 1. We had struck. 1. We had been struck. 2. You had struck. 2. You had been struck. 3. They had struck. 3. They had been struck.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
SINGULAR 1. I shall have struck. 1. I shall have been struck. 2. Thou wilt have struck. 2. Thou wilt have been struck. 3. He will have struck. 3. He will have been struck.
PLURAL 1. We shall have struck. 1. We shall have been struck. 2. You will have struck. 2. You will have been struck. 3. They will have struck. 3. They will have been struck.
USE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE
+249.+ Any sentence of which the predicate is a transitive verb followed by an object, may be changed from the active to the passive form without affecting the sense.
## ACTIVE. Richard _shot_ the bear.
PASSIVE. The bear _was shot_ by Richard.
In this change, (1) _bear_, the object of the active verb _shot_, becomes the subject of the passive verb _was shot_; and (2) _Richard_, the subject of the active verb _shot_, becomes _by Richard_, an adverbial phrase, modifying the passive verb _was shot_. Thus we have the rule:--
+The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial phrase modifying the predicate verb.+
## ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
My cat caught a bird. A bird was caught by my cat.
Austin thanked Charles. Charles was thanked by Austin.
The bullet penetrated a tree. A tree was penetrated by the bullet.
Sargent painted that portrait. That portrait was painted by Sargent.
The fireman had saved the child. The child had been saved by the fireman.
+250.+ +Intransitive verbs+ are ordinarily used in the active voice only.
The bystanders _laughed_.
The watchdogs _bark_.
Snow is _falling_.
+251.+ An intransitive verb followed by a preposition is often used in the passive, the object of the preposition becoming the subject of the verb.
## ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
Everybody _laughed_ at him. He _was laughed at_ by everybody.
The attorney general _has_ This bill _has_ not yet not yet _passed upon_ this bill. _been passed upon_.
He _has tampered with_ this lock. This lock _has been tampered with_.
The cart _ran over_ me. I _was run over_ by the cart.
Other examples are: talk about (= discuss), look or inquire into (= investigate), look upon (= regard), jeer at (= deride), reason with, object to, insist upon, act upon.
NOTE. In this idiom, the preposition is treated like an +ending+ attached to the verb to make it transitive. In other words, _laugh at_, _pass upon_, etc., are treated as compound verbs, and the object of the preposition is, in effect, the object of the compound. In the passive, this object becomes the subject and the preposition (now lacking an object) remains attached to the verb. The passive construction is well established, but not always graceful.
+252.+ The passive of some verbs of _choosing_, _calling_, _naming_, _making_, and _thinking_ may be followed by a +predicate nominative+ (§ 88, 2).
## ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(PREDICATE OBJECTIVE) (PREDICATE NOMINATIVE)
We elected John _president_. John was elected _president_.
The Roman people called The chief was called the chief _friend_. _friend_ by the Roman people.
The herald proclaimed him _emperor_. He was proclaimed _emperor_ by the herald.
NOTE. In the active voice, these verbs may take two objects referring to the same person or thing,--a +direct object+ and a +predicate objective+ (§ 104). In the passive, the direct object becomes the subject, and the predicate objective becomes a predicate nominative, agreeing with the subject (§ 88, 2).
OBJECT OF THE PASSIVE
+253.+ When a verb takes both a +direct+ and an +indirect object+, one of the two is often retained after the passive, the other becoming the subject. Thus,--
1. The +indirect object+ is retained.
## ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
My aunt gave _me_ this watch. This watch was given _me_ by my aunt.
We allowed _them_ free choice. Free choice was allowed _them_.
He allowed each _speaker_ an hour. An hour was allowed each _speaker_.
Congress granted _me_ a pension. A pension was granted _me_.
NOTE. The preposition _to_ is often inserted in the passive construction, especially with a noun; as,--“A small pension was granted _to Dr. Johnson_.”
2. The +direct object+ is retained.
## ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
We allowed them their _choice_. They were allowed their _choice_.
He allowed each speaker an _hour_. Each speaker was allowed an _hour_.
They showed me the _way_. I was shown the _way_.
Experience has taught me _wisdom_. I have been taught _wisdom_ by experience.
The direct object after a passive verb is often called the +retained object+.
NOTE. This construction, though common, is avoided by many careful writers, except in a few well-established idioms. Its habitual use gives one’s style a heavy and awkward air. Instead of “He was given permission,” one may say “He received permission”; instead of “I was given this watch by my aunt,” either “It was my aunt who gave me this watch” or “This watch was a present from my aunt.”
+254.+ The verb _ask_, which may take two direct objects,--one denoting the person, the other the thing,--sometimes retains its second object in the passive construction (§ 103).
## ACTIVE. We asked _him_ his _opinion_.
PASSIVE. He was asked his _opinion_.
PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES
+255.+ In addition to the tense-forms already described, verbs have so-called +progressive forms+.
+The progressive form of a tense represents the action of the verb as going on or continuing at the time referred to.+
I _ate_ my dinner.
I _was eating_ my dinner.
While I _was_ quietly _reading_ by my fireside, strange things _were taking_ place in the square.
Both _ate_ and _was eating_ are in the past tense. But _ate_ merely expresses a past action, whereas _was eating_ describes this action as +continuing+ or +in progress+ in past time.
+256.+ +The progressive form is a verb-phrase made by prefixing to the present participle some form of the verb _to be_.+
PROGRESSIVE FORM
## ACTIVE VOICE PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I am striking. 1. We are striking. 2. Thou art striking. 2. You are striking. 3. He is striking. 3. They are striking.
So in the other tenses:
PAST I was striking, etc. FUTURE I shall be striking, etc. PERFECT I have been striking, etc. PLUPERFECT I had been striking, etc. FUTURE PERFECT I shall have been striking, etc.
PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT I am being struck, etc. PAST I was being struck, etc.
+257.+ In the passive, the progressive forms are confined to the present and the past tense.
He _is being helped_ by his brother. [Present.]
I _am being trained_ by Arthur Ray. [Present.]
When I called, tea _was being served_. [Past.]
+258.+ In subordinate clauses, the verb _is_ (in its various forms) with its subject is often omitted in progressive phrases.
While _waiting_ for the train, I bought a newspaper. [That is, While I was waiting.]
Though [he was] _swimming_ vigorously, he could not stem the tide.
When [I am] _reading_, I like to have the light shine over my left shoulder.
In parsing, the omitted words should be supplied.
+259.+ For such progressive forms as _is building_ for _is being built_, see § 352.
EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES
+260.+ +The present or the past of a verb in the active voice may be expressed with emphasis by means of a verb-phrase consisting of _do_ or _did_ and the infinitive without _to_.+
+Such a phrase is called the emphatic form of the present or past tense.+
“I do see you” and “I did go” differ from “I see you” and “I went” merely in emphasis. Hence _do see_ is called the +emphatic form+ of the present tense of _see_, and _did go_ the emphatic form of the past tense of _go_.
+261.+ In questions and in negative statements the emphatic forms are used without the effect of emphasis.
Did you go? I did not go.
NOTE. _Do_ often stands for some other verb which has just been used: as, “Jack _swims_ better than I _do_,” “You _looked_ as tired as she _did_.” This idiom comes from the omission of the infinitive in the verb-phrase:--“Jack swims better than I _do_ [_swim_].”
In poetry and older English the verb-phrase with _do_ or _did_ in declarative sentences often carries no emphasis, but merely takes the place of the present or past: as,--“The serpent beguiled me, and I _did eat_.”
MOOD OF VERBS
+262.+ +Mood is that property of verbs which shows the manner in which the action or state is expressed.+
+Mood+ (or +mode+) is derived from the Latin word _modus_, “manner.”
Compare the following sentences, noting the form of the verb in each:
Richard _is_ quiet.
_Is_ Richard quiet?
If Richard _were_ quiet, I might study.
Richard, _be_ quiet.
In the first and second sentences, the form _is_ is used to assert or question a +fact+; in the third, the form _were_ expresses a +condition+ or +supposition+ that is contrary to fact; in the fourth, the form _be_ expresses a +command+ or +request+.
The difference in form seen in the verb in these sentences is called a difference of +mood+.
+263.+ +There are three moods,--the indicative, the imperative, and the subjunctive.+
1. +The indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation, but it is used in other constructions also.+
2. +The imperative is the mood of command or request.+
3. +The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of wish, condition, and the like.+
Thus, in the examples in § 262, _is_ is in the +indicative+, _were_ in the +subjunctive+, and _be_ in the +imperative+ mood.
I. INDICATIVE MOOD
+264.+ The ordinary +forms+ of the +indicative mood+ in the active and the passive voice and in all six tenses,--present, past, future, perfect (or present perfect), pluperfect (or past perfect), and future perfect,--may be seen in the table on pp. 108–110.
For the +progressive form+ of the indicative, see § 256; for the +emphatic form+, see § 260.
+265.+ The commonest +uses+ of the +indicative mood+ are in statements or questions as to matters of fact; but it may express almost any other form of thought. Thus,
Time and tide _wait_ for no man. [Assertion.]
How _goes_ the world with you? [Interrogation.]
How it _rains_! [Exclamation.]
If the river _rises_, the dam will be swept away. [Supposition.]
I suspect that he _has absconded_. [Doubt.]
I hope that John _will come_ soon. [Desire.]
Though Ellen _dislikes_ algebra, she never shirks. [Concession.]
You _will report_ for duty immediately. [Command.]
_Will_ you _allow_ me to use your knife? [Request.]
NOTE. The indicative and the subjunctive were originally quite distinct in form, and each had its own set of constructions. But, as our language has grown simpler in its structure, the forms of these two moods have become almost identical, and the uses of the indicative have been greatly multiplied at the expense of the subjunctive. Indeed, there is scarcely any variety of thought expressed by the subjunctive or the imperative for which the indicative cannot also be employed. It is therefore impossible to frame any satisfactory definition of the indicative. Its functions are too varied to be included in one general statement. The indicative is often described as the mood which asserts thought _as a fact_, and the subjunctive as the mood which expresses thought as supposition (or _as mere thought_). But the indicative, as well as the subjunctive, may express supposition, condition, doubt, desire, concession, etc. Hence the definitions in § 263 are as exact as the facts of the language allow. All the efforts of grammarians to devise more “accurate” definitions break down when tested by actual usage.
II. IMPERATIVE MOOD
+266.+ +The imperative is the mood of command or request.+
_Hurry!_
_Lie_ down.
_Shut_ the door.
_Have_ patience.
_Light_ the lamp.
_Show_ us the way.
_Wait_ a moment.
_Come_ to dinner.
The imperative has both voices, +active+ and +passive+, but only one tense,--the +present+. It has both numbers, the +singular+ and the +plural+, but only one person, the +second+. It has the same form for both the +singular+ and the +plural+.
+267.+ 1. +The imperative active is the verb in its simplest form.+
For examples, see § 266.
The imperative of the verb _to be_ is _be_. Thus,--
_Be_ brave.
_Be_ careful.
_Be_ sure you are right.
_Be_ here at noon.
2. +The imperative passive is a verb-phrase consisting of be and a past
## participle.+
_Be trusted_ rather than feared.
Study your failures and _be instructed_ by them.
+268.+ +The subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is emphatic.+
The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative: as,--_You sit here_.
NOTE. In older English, the subject often followed the imperative: as,--_Go thou, Go you, Hear ye._ This use is now confined to the solemn style and to poetry.
+269.+ The +emphatic form+ of the imperative consists of the imperative _do_, followed by the infinitive without _to_.
_Do tell_ me what he said.
_Do stand_ still.
The form with _do_ is often used when the subject is expressed as,--_Do you remain_.
+270.+ +Prohibition+ (or +negative command+) is commonly expressed by means of the form with _do_.
_Do_ not _open_ a closed door without knocking.
_Do_ not _forget_ to say “thank you.”
In poetry and the solemn style prohibition is often expressed by the simple imperative with _not_.
_Tell_ me _not_ what too well I know.
_Devise not_ evil against thy neighbor.
_Seek not_ to learn my name.
+271.+ Commands are sometimes expressed in the indicative by means of _shall_ or _will_ (§§ 239–240).
Thou _shalt_ not _steal_.
You _will leave_ the room immediately.
For such expressions as “Forward!” “Off with you!” and the like, see § 530.
For the imperative in +conditions+, see § 418.
III: SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE
+272.+ +The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of wish, condition, and the like.+
In older English, the +subjunctive+ forms were common in a variety of uses, as they still are in poetry and the solemn style. In ordinary prose, however, subjunctive forms are rare, and in conversation they are hardly ever heard, except in the case of the +copula+ _be_.
The subjunctive forms of _be_ are the following:--
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. If I be. 1. If we be. 2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 3. If he be. 3. If they be.
PAST TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. If I were. 1. If we were. 2. If thou wert. 2. If you were. 3. If he were. 3. If they were.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. If I have been. 1. If we have been. 2. If thou have been. 2. If you have been. 3. If he have been. 3. If they have been.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. If I had been. 1. If we had been. 2. If thou hadst been. 2. If you had been. 3. If he had been. 3. If they had been.
_If_ is used in the paradigm because it is in clauses beginning with _if_ that the subjunctive is commonest in modern English; but _if_ is of course no part of the subjunctive inflection.
+273.+ In other verbs, the +subjunctive active+ has the same forms as the +indicative+, except in the +second+ and +third persons singular+ of the +present+ and the +perfect+, which are like the +first+ person:--
PRESENT PERFECT
1. If I strike. 1. If I have struck. 2. If thou strike. 2. If thou have struck. 3. If he strike. 3. If he have struck.
In the +passive subjunctive+, the subjunctive forms of the copula (§ 272) are used as auxiliaries:--present, _If I be struck_; past, _If I were struck_; perfect, _If I have been struck_; pluperfect, _If I had been struck_. (See table, p. 304.)
+274.+ +Progressive verb-phrases+ in the subjunctive may be formed by means of the copula:--present, _If I be striking_; past, _If I were striking_. The present is rare; the past is common.
USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE
Subjunctive in Wishes and Exhortations
+275.+ +The subjunctive is often used in wishes or prayers.+
Angels and ministers of grace _defend_ us!
Heaven _help_ him!
The saints _preserve_ us!
God _bless_ you!
Long _live_ the king!
O that _I had listened_ to him!
O that we _were_ rid of him!
In the first five examples, the wish is expressed in an independent sentence. In the last two, the construction is subordinate,--the _that_-clause being the object of an unexpressed “I wish” (§ 407).
+276.+ The subjunctive _be_ is often omitted when it may easily be supplied.
Peace [_be_] to his ashes!
Honor [_be_] to his memory!
Honor [_be_] to whom honor is due!
+277.+ Wishes are often introduced by _may_ or _would_.
_May_ you never want!
_Would_ that he _were_ safe!
_Would_ you _were_ with us! [For _Would that_.]
_May_ and _would_ in such expressions were originally subjunctives; _would_ stands for _I would_, that is, _I should wish_. _Want_ in the first example is an infinitive without _to_ (§ 311). For wishes expressed by the infinitive, see § 320.
+278.+ +Exhortations+ in the first person plural sometimes take the subjunctive in elevated or poetical style.
_Hear we_ the king!
_Join we_ in a hymn of praise!
Exhortation is ordinarily expressed by _let us_ followed by the infinitive without _to_.
Let us join hands.
Let us have peace.
Let’s camp here.
_Let_ is a verb in the imperative mood, _us_ is its object, and the infinitive (_join_, _have_, _camp_) depends on _let_.
Subjunctives in Concessions, Conditions, etc.
+279.+ +The subjunctive is used after _though_, _although_, to express an admission or concession not as a fact but as a supposition.+
Though he _slay_ me, yet will I trust in him.
Though he _were_ to beg this on his knees, I should still refuse.
When the concession is stated as an admitted +fact+, the +indicative+ is regular.
Although he _is_ a foreigner, he speaks good English.
Though he sometimes _sings_, he is not now in good voice.
+280.+ After _if_ and _unless_, expressing +condition+, the +subjunctive+ may be used in a variety of ways.
1. If this _be_ gold, our fortune is made. [It may or may not be gold.]
2. If he _confess_, I shall overlook the offence. [He may or may not confess.]
3. Unless he _confess_, he cannot be convicted. [He may or may not confess.]
4. If this _were_ gold, our fortune would be made. [It is _not_ gold; hence our fortune is not made.]
5. If he _stood_ before me at this moment, I should tell him my opinion. [He does _not_ stand before me; hence I do not tell him.]
6. If he _had confessed_, I should have overlooked his fault. [He did not confess; hence I did not overlook it.]
7. Unless he _had confessed_, he could not have been convicted. [He did confess; hence he was convicted.]
In conditional clauses, the +present subjunctive+ denotes either +present+ or +future+ time. It puts the supposed case doubtfully, but not necessarily as improbable. (See examples 1–3.)
The +past subjunctive+ refers to +present+ time. It implies that the supposed case +is not now a fact+. (See examples 4 and 5.)
The +pluperfect+ (or +past perfect+) +subjunctive+ refers to +past+ time. It implies that the supposed case +was not a fact+. (See 6 and 7.)
For details of conditional sentences, see pp. 167–172.
+281.+ +Concession+ or +condition+ may be expressed by the +subjunctive+ without _though_ or _if_, the verb preceding the subject, which is sometimes omitted.
I. CONCESSION
_Try_ as we may, we cannot swim to that rock.
_Say_ what he will, he can never convince me.
_Come_ what will, I’ll stand my ground.
_Be_ that as it may, my mind is made up.
II. CONDITION
_Were_ I asked, I could tell all the facts. [If I were asked, etc.]
_Had_ I known, I would have written to you. [If I had known, etc.]
I shall be twenty years old, _come_ Tuesday. [If Tuesday come, etc.]
I will go, _rain_ or _shine_. [If it rain, or if it shine, etc.]
_Be_ he prince or _be_ he pauper, every guest is welcome here.
NOTE. The subjunctive in these concessive and conditional uses is really the same as that in exhortations (§ 278). “_Try_ [_we_] as we may” means literally, “_Let us try_ as hard as we can,” and this has the force of “However hard we try” or “_Although we try_ ever so hard.”
+282.+ After _as if_ (_as though_), the +past subjunctive+ is used.
He looks as if he _were_ about to speak. [NOT: as if he _was_ about to speak.]
I act as if I _were_ crazy. [NOT: as if I _was_ crazy.]
+283.+ The +subjunctive+ may express not what +is+ or +was+, but what +would be+ or +would have been+, the case.
It _were_ safer to travel by day. [It would be safer, etc.]
I _had been_ wiser had I forded the river. [I should have been wiser if I had.]
This construction is old-fashioned. Modern English commonly uses _should_ (or _would_) _be_, _should_ (or _would_) _have been_, instead.
+284.+ The +subjunctive+ is occasionally used after _that_, _lest_, _before_, _until_, etc., in subordinate clauses referring to the future and commonly expressing +purpose+ or +expectation+.
Take heed that he _escape_ not. [Purpose.]
Give him food lest he _perish_. [Purpose.]
Let us tarry until he _come_. [Expectation.]
This construction is confined to poetry and the solemn or formal style. In ordinary language the indicative or a verb-phrase with _may_ is used.
Take heed that he _does_ not _escape_.
Give him food in order that he _may_ not _perish_.
Let us wait till he _comes_.
+285.+ The +past subjunctive+ _had_ is common in _had rather_ and similar phrases.
I _had rather_ wait a day.
You _had better_ leave the room.
He _had as lief_ go as stay.
NOTE. _Had_ in this construction is sometimes condemned as erroneous or inelegant; but the idiom is well-established.
_Might better_, _would better_, and _would rather_ may be used instead of _had better_, etc.; but _would better_ is improper in the first person.
+286.+ The subjunctive forms are often replaced by verb-phrases containing the auxiliaries _may_, _might_, _could_, _would_, _should_.
1. In wishes (§ 277).
_May_ you _live_ long and _prosper_!
_May_ he never _repent_ this act!
Ah, _could_ I but _live_ a hundred years!
2. In concessions and conditions (§§ 279–280).
Though {I | you | he} _should fail_, there would still be hope.
If {I | you | he} _should fail_, all would be lost.
3. In sentences expressing not what +is+ or +was+, but what +would be+ or +would have been+, the case (§ 283).
{I _should_ | You _would_ | He _would_} _write_ to Charles if I knew his address.
It _would have been_ better to telegraph.
4. In subordinate clauses introduced by _that_, _lest_, _before_, _until_, etc. (§ 284).
I will take care that nothing _may prevent_.
I took care that nothing {_might_ | _should_} _prevent_.
The general determined to wait until fresh troops _should arrive_.
POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES
USE OF MODAL AUXILIARIES
+287.+ +Several auxiliary verbs are used to form verb-phrases indicating ability, possibility, obligation, or necessity.+
Such verb-phrases are called +potential phrases+, that is, “phrases of possibility.”
The auxiliary verbs used in +potential phrases+ are:--_may_, _can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and _should_. They are called +modal auxiliaries+ and are followed by the infinitive without _to_.
We _may ask_ him a few questions.
I _can manage_ a motor car.
You _must inquire_ the way.
He _might give_ you a chance.
I _could show_ you his house if you _would permit_ me.
I _should enjoy_ a sea-voyage.
NOTE. The fact that _give_, etc., in such phrases as _can give_, are infinitives may be seen by comparing “I can _strike_” with “I am able _to strike_,” “I may _strike_” with “I am permitted _to strike_,” “I must _strike_” with “I am obliged _to strike_,” and so on. In earlier periods of the language, when the infinitive had a special ending (_-an_ or _-en_), the nature of the construction was unmistakable.
+288.+ +Potential phrases+ may be arranged in tables of conjugation, like that on pp. 108–110. They are often called, collectively, the +potential mood+.
## ACTIVE VOICE
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I may strike.[34] 1. We may strike. 2. Thou mayst strike. 2. You may strike. 3. He may strike. 3. They may strike.
PAST TENSE
1. I might strike.[35] 1. We might strike. 2. Thou mightst strike. 2. You might strike. 3. He might strike. 3. They might strike.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. I may have struck.[36] 1. We may have struck. 2. Thou mayst have struck. 2. You may have struck. 3. He may have struck. 3. They may have struck.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. I might have struck.[37] 1. We might have struck. 2. Thou mightst have struck. 2. You might have struck. 3. He might have struck. 3. They might have struck.
PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT TENSE
I may be struck, etc. We may be struck, etc.
PAST TENSE
I might be struck, etc. We might be struck, etc.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
I may have been struck, etc. We may have been struck, etc.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
I might have been struck, etc. We might have been struck, etc.
+289.+ _Can_ (past tense, _could_) regularly indicates that the subject +is able+ to do something.
John _can_ ride a bicycle.
Harry _could_ swim.
+290.+ _May_ (past tense, _might_) indicates (1) +permission+, (2) +possibility+ or +doubtful intention+, (3) a +wish+.
(1) You _may_ borrow my pencil. I told him that he _might_ join our party.
(2) He _may_ accept my offer. You _might_ not like it.
(3) _May_ good fortune attend you!
+291.+ In asking permission, the proper form is “_May_ I?” not “_Can_ I?” With negatives, however, _can_ is more common than _may_, except in questions. Thus,--
QUESTION. _May_ I (or _mayn’t_ I) play ball this morning? ANSWER. No, you _cannot_; but you _may_ play this afternoon.
+292.+ _Must_ expresses +necessity+ or +obligation+.
We _must_ all die sometime.
You _must_ wait for the train.
You _must_ not be discouraged by failure.
NOTE. _Must_, though originally a past tense, is in modern English almost always used as a present. Past necessity may be expressed by _had to_ with the infinitive: as,--“I _had to wait_ for the train.”
+293.+ _Ought_ with the +present infinitive+, expresses a present duty or moral obligation; with the +perfect infinitive+, a past duty or obligation. _Should_ is often used in the same sense.
I _ought to write_ that letter. [Present.]
You _ought_ not _to object_. [Present.]
This roof _ought to be mended_. [Present.]
I _ought to have known_ better. [Past.]
Your dog _ought_ not _to have been unleashed_. [Past.]
You _should be_ careful. [Present.]
The garden _should have been weeded_ yesterday. [Past.]
NOTE. _Ought_ is really an old past tense of the verb _owe_, but is now +always+ a present. Its former meaning may be seen in Dame Quickly’s “You _ought_ him a thousand pound” (SHAKSPERE, _1 Henry IV_, iii. 3. 152).
_Had_ should never be prefixed to _ought_.
CORRECT INCORRECT
You _ought_ to stay at home. You had ought to stay at home.
We _ought_n’t to make so much noise. We hadn’t ought to make so much noise.
John ought to begin, _ought_n’t he? John ought to begin, hadn’t he?
+294.+ _Should_ and _ought_ sometimes express what would certainly be expected in the case supposed.
Three weeks {_should_ | _ought to_} suffice.
If the train is on time, he {_should_ | _ought to_} arrive at six.
+295.+ _Would_ in all three persons sometimes indicates +habitual
## action+ in the past.
_I would_ gaze at the sea for hours at a time.
Whenever we asked Edward about his adventures, _he would begin_ to talk of something else.
SPECIAL RULES FOR _SHOULD_ AND _WOULD_
+296.+ _Should_ is the past tense of _shall_, and _would_ is the past tense of _will_. Hence the rules for _should_ and _would_ are similar to those for _shall_ and _will_ (§§ 233–239). But there is much variation, especially in subordinate clauses.
I. IN SIMPLE SENTENCES AND INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
+297.+ Except in certain kinds of subordinate clauses, the distinction between _should_ and _would_ is practically the same as that between _shall_ and _will_.
When the auxiliary verb expresses +futurity+ without any idea of +wishing+, +consenting+, or the like, the forms are as follows:--
ASSERTIONS (DECLARATIVE)
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I should fall. 1. We should fall. 2. Thou wouldst fall. 2. You would fall. 3. He would fall. 3. They would fall.
QUESTIONS (INTERROGATIVE)
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. Should I fall? 1. Should we fall? 2. Shouldst thou fall? 2. Should you fall? 3. Would he fall? 3. Would they fall?
+298.+ Common errors are the use of _I would_ for _I should_ in assertions, and that of _Would I?_ and _Would you?_ for _Should I?_ and _Should you?_ in questions.
The correct forms are shown in the following sentences.
I. _I should_ (_we should_) and _I would_ (_we would_) in +assertions+:--
1. _I should_ break my neck if I fell.
2. _I should_ hesitate to try this experiment.
3. _I should_n’t wonder if he escaped.
4. _We should_ regret any misunderstanding.
5. _I should_ wish to examine the plans again before deciding.
6. _I should_ be glad to accept any fair offer.
7. _I would_ give five dollars for a ticket.
8. _I would_ help you if I could.
9. _I would_ never agree to such a proposition.
10. _We would_ rather die than surrender.
11. _We would_ pay our bill to-day if we had the money.
12. _I would_ gladly accept any fair offer.
In the first six examples, _I_ (or _we_) _should_ is correct, because the auxiliary gives no suggestion of the speaker’s will (or volition). In the last six, on the contrary, the speaker’s willingness or desire is plainly expressed by the auxiliary, and _I_ (or _we_) _would_ is therefore used.
NOTE. In such sentences as the fifth,--“I should wish to examine the plans again before deciding,”--_wish_ expresses volition. Hence “I _would_ wish” is incorrect, for it expresses volition twice and can mean only “I desire to wish.” On the same principle we say “I should prefer,” “I should be glad,” etc. (see § 236).
Sometimes either _I would_ or _I should_ may be used, but with a difference in meaning. Thus, in the eighth example, “I should help you” might be substituted for “I would help you.” This change, however, makes the remark sound less cordial and sympathetic; for _I should_ (unlike _I would_) gives no hint of the speaker’s desire to be of service.
II. _Should I_ (or _we_)? in +questions+:--
1. _Should I_ break my neck if I fell?
2. _Should I_ be poisoned if I ate those berries?
3. _Should I_ take cold without my overcoat?
4. _Should I_ disturb you if I were to practise my music lesson?
5. _Should we_ run aground if we missed the channel?
NOTE. _Would I?_ is confined, for the most part, to questions in which one repeats the words or thought of another. Thus,--“_You would_ give five dollars for a ticket.” “_Would I?_ No, I wouldn’t!” In this use it is chiefly colloquial.
III. _Should you?_ and _Would you?_ in questions:--
1. _Should you_ drown if the boat were to capsize? [Yes, _I should_ drown, for I do not know how to swim.]
2. _Should you_ despair if this plan were a failure? [No, _I should_ not, for I have other resources.]
3. _Should you_ think that ten yards of velvet would be enough? [Yes, _I should_ think so.]
4. _Should you_ be offended if I were to speak frankly? [No, _I should_ not be offended.]
5. _Should you_ wish to examine the plans again before deciding? [Yes, _I should_ (see note under I, above).]
6. _Would you_ wear a hat or a cap? [_I would_ wear a cap if I were you.]
7. _Would you_ study Greek if you were in my place? [Yes, _I would_.]
8. _Would you_ accept my apology if it were offered? [Certainly, _I would_ accept it gladly.]
9. _Would you_ be so kind as to lend me your compasses? [Certainly _I would_ lend them, if I had not lost them.]
10. _Would you_ allow me to use your name as a reference? [_I would._]
The choice between _should_ and _would_ in these sentences corresponds to the form expected in the answer (§ 238).
+299.+ The chief occasions on which _Would you?_ is correct are:--(1) in +asking advice+ in a matter of doubt, and (2) in +asking consent+ or +permission+.
In examples 6 and 7 in § 298, III, the speaker asks advice; in 8, 9, and 10, he asks consent or permission.
+300.+ Note that the proper forms are _I should like_, _Should I like?_ and _Should you like?_
_I should_ like to read that book.
_Should I_ like to go to Rome? Indeed, _I should_.
_Should you_ like to receive a copy of our catalogue? [_I should_ like to receive one.]
NOTE. _Would_ is very common in these phrases, even among writers of repute, but it is still contrary to the best usage. The reason for _should_ is the same as in _I should wish_ (§ 298, I, note).
+301.+ _I’d_ and _we’d_ are contractions of _I would_ and _we would_. Hence they can never stand for _I should_ and _we should_ (§ 235).
+302.+ _Should_ in the +second+ and +third persons+ may be used in simple declarative sentences and independent clauses to express the will of the speaker (§ 239).
If I had my way, _you should_ be prosecuted. [That is: I would take care that you were prosecuted.]
If I had the money, _you should_ be paid immediately. [Compare: _You shall_ be paid.]
If I were you, _she should_ not regret her generosity. [Compare: _She shall_ not regret it.]
II. _SHOULD_ AND _WOULD_ IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
+303.+ In some kinds of +subordinate clauses+, the use of _should_ and _would_ differs considerably from that in simple sentences and principal clauses.
The following classes require attention:--(1) clauses of purpose or expectation (§ 304), (2) conditional and concessive clauses (§ 305), (3) clauses expressing volition not that of the subject (§ 306), (4) clauses stating something as an idea (§ 307), (5) indirect discourse (§ 308).
+304.+ In subordinate clauses expressing the +purpose+ or +expectation+ with which anything is done, _shall_ and _should_ are used in all three persons.
Charleton took great pains that {_I_ | _you_ | _they_} _should_ understand the details of the treaty.
Scott {_is_ | _was_} very careful that _nothing_ {_shall_ | _should_} interfere with his plans.
They took every precaution lest {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _should_ suspect the plot.
Anderson waited patiently until {_I_ | _you_ | _they_} _should_ arrive with the horses.
We strained every nerve to reach the cave before the _storm should_ break.
+305.+ In +conditional+ or +concessive+ clauses expressing a +future supposed case+ doubtfully, _shall_ and _should_ are used in +all three persons+; but _will_ and _would_ are proper when the subject is thought of as +wishing+ or +consenting+.
1. What would happen if {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _should_ not carry out the commander’s instructions?
2. If {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _should_ miss the steamer, our friends would be alarmed.
3. _Whoever_ {_shall_ | _should_} violate this law {shall | should} pay the penalty. [That is: If anybody shall violate, etc.]
4. Whenever {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _shall_ find an opportunity, let us try the experiment. [That is: If ever I shall find, etc.]
5. He promised to assist you whenever _you should_ need help. [Whenever = if ever.]
6. Though {_we_ | _you_ | _they_} _should_ fail, others would make the attempt. [Concession.]
7. Though _Evans should_ disappoint me, I should not lose confidence in him.
8. Vernon will do his part if {_I_ | _you_ | _they_} _will_ coöperate with him.
9. If {_I_ | _you_ | _he_} _will_ only make the effort, success is certain.
10. Edmund would reveal the secret if {_I_ | _you_ | _they_} _would_ assist him in his search for the treasure.
11. If _we would_ take pains, our parents would be satisfied.
12. _Whoever will_ join us may be sure of a pleasant and profitable journey. [That is: If any one will join us, he may be sure, etc.]
When a +future supposed case+ is admitted or conceded as +certain+, _will_ may be used in the second and third persons to denote mere futurity.
Though {_you_ | _he_} _will_ certainly fail, {you | he} may make the attempt.
Though the _ship will_ not sink for some hours, let us take to the boats.
+306.+ _Shall_ and _should_ are often used in the second and third persons in subordinate clauses to express volition which is not that of the subject.
Templeton insists that _you shall_ accompany him.
This letter directs where _you shall_ station yourself.
We gave orders that the _gates should_ be closed.
My wish is that {_you_ | _he_} _should_ remain at home.
The law prescribed when and to whom the _tax should_ be paid.
+307.+ When a clause with _that_ states something, not as a +fact+ but as an +idea+ to be considered, _should_ is the proper auxiliary in all three persons.
I am not surprised that you _should_ find your lesson rather difficult. [That is: “When I consider the matter, I do not find the idea surprising.” In “I am not surprised _that you find_,” etc., the subordinate clause makes the statement +as a fact+.]
It is strange that Tom _should_ neglect his swimming lessons. [Contrast: It is strange that Tom _neglects_.]
That Napoleon _should_ have chafed at captivity is only natural. [Contrast: That Napoleon _chafed_.]
+308.+ For _shall_ and _will_, _should_ and _would_, in +indirect discourse+, see §§ 438–439.
THE INFINITIVE
+309.+ The +infinitive+ is a +verb-form+ that has some of the properties of a +noun+ (§ 28). Its two-sided character comes out clearly when it is used as the subject of a sentence.
1. _To hope_ is our only resource.
2. _To flatter_ is not my custom.
3. _To sleep_ was an impossibility.
4. _To surrender_ seemed disgraceful.
5. _To choose_ wisely was my greatest difficulty.
6. _To scale_ the wall was the work of a moment.
Each of these infinitives (_to hope_, _to flatter_, etc.) is a +noun+, for each is the simple subject of a sentence. Besides, an ordinary noun may be substituted for each infinitive with no change in meaning; as,--“_Hope_ is our only resource”; “_Flattery_ is not my custom”; “_Sleep_ was an impossibility.”
But each of these infinitives is also a +verb+,--for (1) it expresses
## action; (2) it may be modified by an adverb, as in No. 5; (3) it takes
an object if it is transitive, as in No. 6.
An infinitive (as the examples show) has regularly no subject and therefore lacks both number and person. Hence it is not bound by the general rule for the agreement of a verb with its subject (§ 222). From this fact it derives its name, +infinitive+, which means “unrestricted” or “free from limitations.”[38]
+310.+ +The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It expresses action or state in the simplest possible way, without person or number.+
+It is commonly preceded by the preposition _to_, which is called the sign of the infinitive.+
_To_ is not, in strictness, a part of the infinitive, but it may be so regarded for convenience, since the infinitive, in most of its uses, is preceded by _to_.
NOTE. _To_ sometimes stands for an infinitive in careless speech: as,--“You may go if you wish _to_” (that is, “if you wish _to go_”). Such expressions are to be avoided. It is better to say, “You may go if you wish.”
+311.+ The infinitive often lacks _to_, especially in verb-phrases with the auxiliaries _will_, _shall_, _may_, _can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, _should_, _do_, _did_. For examples, see pp. 102, 114, 124.
+312.+ The infinitive has two tenses,--the +present+ and the +perfect+.
1. The +present infinitive+ is the verb in its simplest form, usually preceded by _to_: as,--_to live_, _to teach_, _to bind_, _to strike_.
2. The +perfect infinitive+ is made by prefixing the infinitive of the auxiliary verb _have_ to the past participle (§ 243): as,--_to have lived_, _to have taught_, _to have bound_, _to have struck_.
+313.+ An infinitive may be modified by an +adverb+, an +adverbial phrase+, or an +adverbial clause+.
To write _legibly_ is a valuable accomplishment.
It would be useless to search _longer_.
They allowed him to go _in peace_. [Adverbial phrase.]
To dive _among those weeds_ would be folly.
Theodore promises to come _when I send for him_. [Adverbial clause.]
+No modifier should be inserted between _to_ and the infinitive.+
I beg you to inquire carefully into this matter. [NOT: to carefully inquire.]
Mr. Harris moved to postpone the question indefinitely. [NOT: to indefinitely postpone.]
I expect always to be poor. [NOT: to always be poor.]
NOTE. Careless writers pay slight attention to this rule, and some good writers and speakers defy it, hoping to break it down. But it is unquestionably still in accord with the best usage.
+314.+ +The infinitive may take an object if its meaning allows.+
I long to visit _Italy_.
My mother feared to enter the _house_.
To launch a _boat_ was impossible.
To grant your _request_ is a pleasure.
To give _him money_ is useless. [_Money_ is the direct object of _to give_, and _him_ the indirect object.]
+315.+ The infinitive is used in a variety of constructions,--(1) as a +noun+, (2) as an +adjective modifier+ or +adverbial modifier+, (3) in the so-called +infinitive clause+.
I. THE INFINITIVE AS NOUN
+316.+ The infinitive is used in various +noun constructions+,--as subject, as predicate nominative, as nominative of exclamation, as appositive, as object of certain prepositions, as modifier.
+317.+ +An infinitive with or without a complement or modifiers, may be used as the subject of a sentence, as a predicate nominative, or as an appositive.+
_To descend_ was extremely difficult. [Subject.]
_To secure_ a seat was impossible.
_To sing_ well requires practice.
His delight was _to travel_. [Predicate nominative.]
The governor’s policy is _to wait_.
My wish is _to see_ you immediately.
_To decide_ was _to act_. [The first infinitive is the subject, and the second is a predicate nominative.]
Both alternatives, _to advance_ and _to retreat_, seemed equally hazardous. [Apposition with the subject.]
My first plan, _to tunnel_ under the wall, proved a failure.
He has but one aim in life, _to succeed_. [Apposition with the object.]
I have written with a definite purpose, _to dissuade_ you.
I give you three choices,--_to buy_, _to lease_, or _to build_.
+318.+ An infinitive in the predicate is often in apposition with the expletive subject _it_.
It was a pleasure _to see_ him. [Instead of: To see him was a pleasure.]
It is easy _to understand_ you.
It will be impossible _to forget_.
It proved very difficult _to find_ evidence against him.
In this use the infinitive, though grammatically in apposition with _it_, is really the subject of the thought (see § 120, 2).
+319.+ The infinitive may be used as the +object+ of the prepositions _but_, _except_, _about_.
There was nothing to do but _walk_ (or _to walk_).
He will do anything except _resign_ (or except _to resign_).
We are about _to object_. [An idiom expressing futurity.]
The train is about _to start_.
NOTE. _Can but_ and _cannot but_ are distinct idioms. (1) In “I _can but_ thank you,” _but_ is an adverb (= _only_). The sentence means: “I can _only_ thank you--simply that and nothing more!” (2) In “I _cannot but_ thank you,” _but_ is a preposition (= _except_). The idiom is shortened from “I cannot _choose but_ thank you,”--that is, “I have _no choice except_ to do so,” or, in other words, “I cannot help it.”
The infinitive after _for_ (now a gross error) was once in good use: as,--
What sweeter music can we bring Than a carol _for to sing_.--HERRICK.
+320.+ The infinitive may be used as a +nominative of exclamation+ (§ 88, 4).
_To sleep!_ perchance _to dream_!
_To suffer_ and _be_ silent!
O _to be_ a boy again! [A wish.]
O _to have lived_ in the brave days of old!
II. THE INFINITIVE AS A MODIFIER
+321.+ +An infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or as an adverbial modifier of an adjective.+
+In this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it modifies.+
WITH NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVES (ADJECTIVE MODIFIER) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIER)
An opportunity _to advance_ The men are _ready to advance_. came.
Determination _to win_ John is eager _to win_. brings success.
Willingness _to oblige_ I shall be glad _to oblige_ you. makes friends.
I wish I had the ability We are all able _to swim_. _to swim_.
His anxiety _to please_ us He is anxious _to please_ everybody. was laughable.
NOTE. This use is due to the fact that the infinitive with _to_ is really a prepositional phrase (§ 42). Thus, “determination _to win_” is equivalent to “determination for victory,” and “eager _to win_” to “eager _for victory_.” The adjective force of the infinitive comes out clearly in “nothing _to eat_,” where _to eat_ is practically synonymous with _eatable_.
In its adjective use, the present infinitive sometimes shows no distinction in voice, so that the active and the passive are interchangeable: as,--“a house _to let_” or “_to be let_”; “an axe _to grind_” or “_to be ground_.” In such expressions the active form is usually preferable.
+322.+ The infinitive without _to_ may be used as an adjective modifier after the direct object of _see_, _hear_, _feel_, and some other verbs of like meaning.
I saw the policeman _arrest_ him.
Hear the sea _roar_!
Can you feel the ground _tremble_?
Ruth watched the tide _come_ in.
In this use the infinitive is practically equivalent to a participle. Compare “I heard him _shout_” with “I heard him _shouting_.” Hence the substantive may be regarded as an object, and the infinitive as its modifier. But the construction closely approaches that of an infinitive clause (§§ 324–325).
+323.+ +An infinitive may modify a verb (1) by completing its meaning, or (2) by expressing the purpose of the action.+
I. COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE
The ship began _to roll_.
The rain continued _to fall_ heavily.
Every boy desires _to succeed_.
The officer neglected _to watch_ his men.
The prisoners attempted _to escape_.
You promised _to come_ to-night.
After _dare_, the complementary infinitive may or may not have _to_. Thus,--“I dare not _do_ it”; “Who will dare _to speak_?”
II. INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE
He went to New York _to study_ medicine.
He opened his lips _to speak_.
She closed her eyes _to shut_ out the sight.
Elsa lifted the cover _to see_ what was inside.
The conductor signalled _to stop_ the train.
Harold waited _to assist_ his teacher.
Both the +complementary infinitive+ and the +infinitive of purpose+ may be regarded as +adverbial phrases+ modifying the verb.
NOTE. After some verbs the infinitive approaches the construction of a pure noun and is often regarded as an object. Thus,--“I desire _to see_ you” (compare “I desire a _sight_ of you”). It is simpler, however, to regard all such infinitives as complementary and to treat them as adverbial modifiers. For it is impossible to distinguish the construction of the infinitive after certain adjectives (as in “I am eager _to see_ you”) from its construction after such verbs as _wish_ and _desire_.
III. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE
+324.+ A peculiar infinitive construction often replaces a _that_-clause as the object of a verb. Thus,--
I wished {_that he should go_. | _him to go_.}
In the first sentence, the noun clause _that he should go_ is the object of _wished_; in the second, this clause is replaced by _him to go_, but without any change in meaning. This expression consists of two parts:--(1) _him_, a pronoun in the objective case, which replaces the subject _he_; and (2) an infinitive _to go_, which replaces the predicate _should go_. Thus it is plain that _him to go_ is also a noun clause, of which _him_ is the subject, and _to go_ the predicate. Such an expression is called an +infinitive clause+.
+325.+ +A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective case followed by an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain verbs.+
+Such clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.+
+The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.+
+Infinitive clauses+ are used (1) after verbs of _wishing_, _commanding_, _advising_, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of _believing_, _declaring_, and _perceiving_.[39] Thus,--
The colonel commanded _them to charge_ [= that they should charge].
I believe _him to be trustworthy_ [= that he is trustworthy].
The judge declared _him to be a dangerous man_ [= that he was, etc.].
After a few verbs the infinitive without _to_ is used in infinitive clauses.
Mr. Esmond bade his servant _pack_ a portmanteau and _get_ horses. [Compare: ordered his servant _to pack_, etc.]
What makes him _cry_? [Compare: What causes him _to cry_?]
I let him _sleep_. [Compare: I allowed him _to sleep_.]
NOTE. Ordinarily the infinitive cannot assert and hence has no subject (§ 309). The infinitive clause is, therefore, a peculiar exception, for _him to go_ makes an assertion as clearly as _that he should go_ does. That _him_ is really the subject of _to go_ and not the object of _wished_ is manifest, for _I wished him_ makes no sense. The object of _wished_ is the whole clause (_him to go_).
Originally, to be sure, the noun or pronoun in the objective was felt to be the object of the main verb, and this relation may still be felt in “I ordered him to go”; but even here the real object of _ordered_ is the clause (as may be seen in “I ordered the castle to be blown up”). The substantive has come to be the real subject of the infinitive, and should be so treated in parsing.
+326.+ A +predicate pronoun+ after _to be_ in an infinitive clause is in the +objective case+, agreeing with the subject of the infinitive.
Care should be taken not to confuse this construction with the +predicate nominative+ (§ 88, 2).
PREDICATE PRONOUN AFTER _TO BE_ PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
I believed it to be _her_. I believed that it was _she_.
We know the author to be _him_. We know that the author is _he_. The author is known to be _he_.
He thought Richard to be _me_. He thought that Richard was _I_. Richard was thought to be _I_.
We suspected the intruders We suspected that the intruders to be _them_. were _they_.
Note the case of the +relatives+ and of the +predicate pronouns+ in the following sentences:--
A boy _whom_ I thought to be honest deceived me. [_Whom_ is the subject of the infinitive _to be_ and is therefore in the objective case.]
A boy _who_, I thought, was honest deceived me. [_Who_ is the subject of _was_ and is therefore nominative. _I thought_ is parenthetical (§ 502).]
A boy _whom_ I believe to be _him_ just passed me.
A boy _who_, I believe, was _he_, just passed me.
+327.+ An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition _for_. Thus,--
I wrote for _him to come_. [The clause _him to come_ is the object of _for_; _him_ is the subject of _to come_.]
They are waiting on the shore For _the bark to take them home_.--NOEL.
I long for _him to come back_.
+328.+ An infinitive clause with _for_ may be used as a subject, as a predicate nominative, or as the object of a preposition.
_For us to delay_ would be fatal to your enterprise. [Compare: _Our delay_ would be fatal.]
Our best plan is _for the boat to shoot the rapids_. [Predicate nominative agreeing with the subject _plan_.]
I see no way out of the difficulty except _for them to offer an apology_. [Compare: except the _offer_ of an apology on their part.]
## PARTICIPLES
+329.+ Certain words unite in themselves some of the properties of +adjectives+ with some of the properties of +verbs+. Such words are called +participles+ (§ 31). Thus,--
_Shattered_ and _sinking_, but gallantly _returning_ the enemy’s fire, the frigate drifted out to sea.
_Shattered_, _sinking_, and _returning_ are verb-forms which are in some respects similar to infinitives: for (1) they express action; (2) they have no subject to agree with, and hence have neither person nor number; and (3) one of them takes a direct object. They differ from infinitives, however, in that they resemble, not nouns, but adjectives, for they describe the substantive _frigate_ to which they belong.
Such verb-forms are called +participles+, because they share (or
## participate in) the nature of adjectives.
+330.+ +The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.+
Who _thundering_ comes on blackest steed?--BYRON.
_Clinging_ to the horns of the altar, voiceless she stood.--DE QUINCEY.
_Deserted_, _surrounded_, _outnumbered_, and with everything at stake, he did not even deign to stand on the defensive.--MACAULAY.
_Shrouded_ in such baleful vapors, the genius of Burns was never seen in clear azure splendor, _enlightening_ the world.--CARLYLE.
FORMS OF PARTICIPLES
+331.+ Verbs have three participles,--the +present+, the +past+, and the +perfect+.
+332.+ The +present participle+ ends in _-ing_. It usually describes an
## action as taking place at the same time with some other action.
Tom came _sauntering_ up the path.
The beggar shambled down the steps, _grumbling_.
_Reaching_ for the flower, I lost my balance.
+333.+ The present participle often refers to time preceding that denoted by the predicate verb.
_Rising_ from his chair, he bowed. [That is, when he had risen.]
_Learning_ that your brother was in trouble, I hastened to his aid.
+334.+ +The past participle is always associated with the idea of past time or completed action.+
1. +The past participle of a weak verb has the same form as the past tense.+[40]
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
I _mend_ chairs. I _mended_ the chairs. The chairs are _mended_. I _sweep_ the rooms. I _swept_ the rooms. The rooms are _swept_. I _seek_ treasure. I _sought_ treasure. Treasure is _sought_. I _lose_ money. I _lost_ money. The money is _lost_.
2. +The past participle of strong verbs shows a change from the vowel of the present tense.+
+All strong verbs had originally the ending _en_ (_n_) in the past
## participle, but this ending has been lost in many verbs.+
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
He _speaks_. He _spoke_. (He has) _spoken_. He _draws_. He _drew_. (He has) _drawn_. He _sings_. He _sang_. (He has) _sung_. He _wins_. He _won_. (He has) _won_.
The forms show great variety and must be learned by practice. (See pp. 291–297 for a list.)
+335.+ The +perfect participle+ is made by prefixing _having_ to the past participle.
_Having mended_ the watch, I sent it to the owner.
_Having lost_ his money, James was forced to walk home.
+336.+ The present participle is used in forming the progressive verb-phrases (§§ 255–259).
The past participle is used in forming the complete tenses (§§ 242–244) and the passive voice (§ 247).
CONSTRUCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES
+337.+ Since the participle has adjective properties, its constructions are in the main like those of adjectives.
+338.+ +A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.+
Rupert, _missing_ his companion, stepped to the door. [The present
## participle _missing_ belongs to the subject _Rupert_.]
_Rising_, she opened the window. [_Rising_ belongs to _she_.]
I heard the rain _falling_. [_Falling_ belongs to the object _rain_.]
Tom’s arm, _broken_ by the blow, hung useless. [The past participle _broken_ belongs to the subject _arm_.]
_Having climbed_ the hill with great difficulty, I stopped to rest. [The perfect participle _having climbed_ belongs to the subject _I_.]
+339.+ +A participle should not be used without some substantive to which it may belong.+
RIGHT: _Entering_ the room, we saw a strange sight. [The participle _entering_ belongs to the pronoun _we_.]
WRONG: _Entering_ the room, a strange sight was seen. [Since there is no substantive to which _entering_ can belong, it has no construction.]
Apparent exceptions are _concerning_, _considering_, _pending_, _generally speaking_, etc. The first three may be classed as prepositions (§ 355), the last as an independent participle.
We fought every day, and, _generally speaking_, twice every day.--DE QUINCEY.
NOTE. The rule in § 339 does not apply to such phrases as _on entering_, _after investigating_, etc., in which the words in _-ing_ are not participles, but verbal nouns (§ 348). Thus the following sentences are grammatical:--“_On entering_ the room, a strange sight appeared”; “_After investigating_ the subject, the plan was adopted.” Such expressions, however, should be used with caution, since they are sometimes awkward or ambiguous.
+340.+ +A participle may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause.+
Smiling _brightly_, she extended her hand. [Adverb.]
He leaped forward, shrieking _with all his might_. [Adverbial phrase.]
Laughing _until he cried_, he sank into a chair. [Adverbial clause.]
+341.+ +A participle may take an object if its meaning allows.+
I found the old man mending his _net_.
Lifting the _box_, he moved toward the door.
Giving _me_ a friendly _nod_, he passed on. [Here _nod_ is the direct object of _giving_, and _me_ is the indirect object.]
The participle, with its modifiers and such other words as are attached to it, is sometimes called a +participial phrase+.
+342.+ A participle may be used as a pure adjective.
A _grinning_ boy confronted me.
A _battered_ hat hung on the peg.
Kate was playing with a _broken_ doll.
We could hear a _rushing_ stream.
_Willing_ hands make light work.
He was struck by a _spent_ ball.
+343.+ The past participle is often used as a +predicate adjective+ expressing state or condition.
This construction is easily confused with the passive of verbs. The distinction may be seen in the following examples:--
The rain began to fall heavily, and every time a gust of wind struck us we _were drenched_ by it.
When the rain at last ceased, we were _drenched_ [that is, _very wet_].
In the first sentence, _were drenched_ is the past passive of the verb _drench_ (compare the active “every time a gust of wind struck us, it _drenched_ us”). In the second, the participle _drenched_ expresses mere condition, and is therefore a predicate adjective. The distinction, however, is not always sharp, and in cases of doubt the phrase may be taken together as a passive verb.
NOTE. The real test is the following. Whenever a person or thing is distinctly present to the mind as the doer of the action, we have a passive verb-phrase. Whenever, on the other hand, the participle merely describes condition with no thought of its being the result of an antecedent act, the construction is that of a predicate adjective (§ 172, 3).
NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE
+344.+ A substantive, with the participle belonging to it, is often used to make a peculiar form of adverbial modifying phrase: as,--
_The wind failing_, we lowered the sail.
Here _the wind failing_ is equivalent to an adverbial phrase (_on the failure of the wind_) or an adverbial clause (_when the wind failed_). It defines the time of the action.
{_The wind failing_, | _On the failure of the wind_, | _When the wind failed_,} we lowered the sail.
+345.+ +A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, or circumstances of an action.+
+This is called the absolute construction.+
+The substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative absolute.+
_My knife slipping_, I cut myself severely. [The phrase _my knife slipping_ is equivalent to _because my knife slipped_: it expresses +cause+.]
_Two days having elapsed_, we again set forward. [The phrase in italics is equivalent to _when two days had elapsed_: it expresses +time+.]
Evenings he read aloud, _his wife sewing by his side_. [The phrase expresses one of the +circumstances+ that attended the reading.]
_This done_, proceed to business. [The phrase _this done_ is equivalent to the clause _since_ (or _when_) _this is done_, and indicates +cause+ or +time+.]
NOTE. This construction is called +absolute+ (that is, “free” or “loosened”) because the substantive is not in any one of the constructions (subject, object, apposition, etc.) which ordinarily attach nouns grammatically to other words in the sentence. Nevertheless, the whole phrase, though standing apart from the rest of the sentence, is in meaning an adverbial modifier of some verb.
+346.+ The participle _being_ is sometimes omitted in the absolute construction.
Allen once mayor, my chance of advancement would be ruined. [That is: _Allen_ once _being mayor_.]
Peter stood before me, his hands in his pockets.
His clothing in shreds, he presented a sorry sight.
VERBAL NOUNS IN _-ING_ (PARTICIPIAL NOUNS)
+347.+ English has a large and important class of +verbal nouns+ that end in _-ing_, and that serve as the +names of actions+.
These are identical in form with +present participles+, for which they are frequently mistaken. The distinction, however, is clear, for the present participle is never used as the name of an action. Hence no such word in _-ing_ that is a subject or an object, or stands in any other noun construction, can be a participle.
While I was _travelling_ in Mexico, I met with an accident. [Participle.]
_Travelling_ broadens the mind. [Verbal noun, used as subject.]
He enjoys _travelling_. [Verbal noun, used as object of a verb.]
He spends his time in _travelling_. [Verbal noun, object of a preposition.]
Tom’s favorite exercise is _swimming_. [Verbal noun, predicate nominative.]
This sport, _fishing_, has been called the contemplative man’s recreation. [Verbal noun, in apposition with _sport_.]
That nouns in _-ing_ are real nouns may be proved by putting ordinary nouns in their place.
_Travelling_ broadens the mind. _Travel_ broadens the mind. _Talking_ is useless. _Talk_ is useless. He is afraid of _falling_. He is afraid of a _fall_.
+348.+ +From nearly every English verb there may be formed a verbal noun in _-ing_.+
+Verbal nouns in _-ing_ have the form of present participles, but the construction of nouns.+
They are often called +participial nouns+.
Such nouns are freely used, either by themselves or in a series along with ordinary nouns.
_Mining_ is a dangerous occupation.
_Painting_ and _sculpture_ are sister arts.
The Indians of Massachusetts spent their time in _hunting_, _fishing_, _agriculture_, and _warfare_.
_Reading_, _writing_, and _arithmetic_ are jocosely called “the three r’s.”
+349.+ Verbal nouns in _-ing_ have certain properties of the +verb+.
1. +Verbal nouns in _-ing_ may take a direct or an indirect object if their meaning allows.+
Digging _gold_ seems to the uninitiated like finding buried _treasure_.
Lending _him money_ is useless; it merely fosters his unthrifty habits. [Here the noun _lending_, which is the simple subject of the sentence, takes both a direct object (_money_) and an indirect object (_him_), precisely as the verb _lend_ might do.]
2. +A verbal noun in _-ing_ may take an adverbial modifier.+
Speaking _extemporaneously_ is good practice. [Here the verbal noun _speaking_ is the simple subject; but it is modified by the adverb _extemporaneously_, precisely as if it were a verb.]
But verbal nouns in _-ing_, like other nouns, may be modified by +adjectives+.
_Extemporaneous_ speaking is good practice.
3. +To the verbal nouns _being_ and _having_, past participles may be attached, so as to give the effect of voice and tense.+
After _being instructed_ in my duties, I was ordered to wait on the king.
There were grave doubts expressed as to his _having seen_ the mastodon.
After _having been treated_ in so harsh a fashion, I had no wish to repeat the interview.
Such expressions are +verbal noun-phrases+.
+350.+ Verbal nouns in _-ing_ are similar in some of their constructions to infinitives used as nouns (p. 135).
INFINITIVE AS NOUN VERBAL NOUN IN _-ing_
_To swim_ was difficult. _Swimming_ was difficult. My business is _to make_ shoes. My business is _making_ shoes. _To see_ is _to believe_. _Seeing_ is _believing_.
Nouns in _-ing_ are sometimes called +infinitives+ or +gerunds+.
+351.+ A noun in _-ing_ may be used as an +adjective+, or as the adjective element in a +compound noun+ (§ 64).
The _sleeping_ car was completely wrecked.
William has plenty of _spending_ money.
NOTE. Other examples are:--_a working day_, _an ironing board_, _drinking water_, _smelling salts_, _marching orders_, _a walking tour_, _a swimming race_, _a vaulting pole_. In such cases it makes little difference whether the two nouns are taken together as a compound, or whether the first is regarded as an adjective modifying the second. The difference between this use and that of the participle is perfectly clear. A “_sleeping_ dog” is a dog _that sleeps_; a “_sleeping_ car” is a car for _sleeping_. Sometimes, indeed, either explanation is possible. Thus, a “_hoisting_ engine” may be understood either as an “engine _that hoists_,” or as an “engine _for hoisting_.” But it is better to class these exceptions with the nouns in _-ing_.
+352.+ +When a verbal noun in _-ing_ is preceded by an article or any other adjective, it cannot take an object.+
{Shooting song-birds | The shooting _of_ song-birds} is forbidden.
{Launching a ship | The launching _of_ a ship} requires care and skill.
{Drawing maps | The drawing _of_ maps} is a useful exercise.
{Eating confectionery constantly | Constant eating _of_ confectionery} is bad for the teeth.
My business is {driving wells. | the driving _of_ wells.}
Observe that, in each instance, the +object+ (_song-birds_, _ship_, _maps_, _confectionery_, _wells_) is replaced by a +prepositional phrase+ when an article or other adjective precedes the verbal noun.
NOTE. In such expressions as “I went a-fishing,” _a_ is a shortened form of the preposition _on_, and _fishing_ is a verbal noun used as its object. When _a_ is omitted we have “I went fishing,” “The house is building,” and the like, in which the word in _-ing_ seems to be a
## participle, but is really the object of the omitted _a_ (= _on_).
+353.+ The possessive case of a noun or pronoun may be used to limit a verbal noun in _-ing_.
I was sure of its _being_ he. [NOT: _it_.]
I heard of Allen’s _being_ elected. [NOT: _Allen_.]
## CHAPTER VII
PREPOSITIONS
+354.+ +A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.+
+The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object and is in the objective case.+
+A phrase consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without other words, is called a prepositional phrase.+
_On_ the floor lay a heap _of_ nuts.
He stood _behind_ the tree _for_ some time.
_From_ morning _till_ night he remained _at_ his post.
The fire destroyed everything _except_ a few articles _of_ furniture.
A +prepositional phrase+ may be either adjective or adverbial.
Thus, in the first example, _of nuts_ is an adjective phrase modifying the noun _heap_, and _on the floor_ is an adverbial phrase modifying the verb _lay_. In the second sentence, the verb _stood_ is modified by two adverbial phrases, _behind the tree_ and _for some time_.
+355.+ The following list includes most of the prepositions:
aboard about above according to across after against along along with amid, amidst among, amongst apart from around as for, as to at athwart barring because of before behind below beneath beside, besides between betwixt beyond but (= except) by by dint of by means of by reason of by virtue of by way of concerning considering despite down during ere except, excepting for for the sake of from from among from between from under in in accordance with in addition to in case of in compliance with in consequence of in consideration of in front of in lieu of in opposition to in place of in preference to in regard to in spite of inside (inside of) instead of into notwithstanding of off on on account of out of outside (outside of) over over against past pending regarding respecting round round about save, saving since through throughout to, unto touching toward, towards under underneath until, till up upon with within without with reference to with regard to with respect to
NOTE. Such expressions as _by means of_, _in accordance with_, _in spite of_, etc., are really phrases, but may be regarded as compound prepositions.
Several participles like _concerning_, _considering_, _pending_, are common in a prepositional use and are therefore included in the list (§ 339).
For _a_ (a form of _on_) in _abed_, _asleep_, _afire_, _a-fishing_, etc., see § 352.
_Per_ is confined to the strictly commercial style except in such expressions as _perforce_, _per cent_, _per annum_ (§ 179).
+356.+ A preposition may stand at the end of a sentence or clause.
_Whom_ did you ask _for_? [Compare: _For whom_ did you ask?]
The box _which_ it came _in_ has been destroyed. [Compare: The box _in which_ it came.]
NOTE. This order, though informal, is common in the best authors; but, if carelessly used, it may result in awkwardness of style. Sometimes a relative which is the object of the preposition is omitted (see § 151). Thus, in the second sentence, _which_ might be dropped, and the object of _in_ would then be “_which_, understood.” For “He was laughed at,” and the like, see § 251.
In poetry a preposition sometimes follows its object directly: as,--“Barefoot plod I the cold ground _upon_” (SHAKSPERE).
+357.+ Certain adverbial expressions like “on Sunday,” “on March first,” occur both with and without the preposition.
He came Sunday (_or_, on Sunday).
We sail March first (_or_, on March first).
NOTE. The forms without _on_ are good colloquial English, but are avoided in the more formal style. No preposition need be supplied in parsing. The noun is an adverbial objective (§ 109).
+358.+ Care is required in the use of +pronouns+ as the +objects of prepositions+.
{He has been very friendly | The old house will seem lonely | That makes no difference} to you and _me_. [NOT: you and _I_.]
{Tom’s carelessness makes trouble | There are letters at the post office} for you and _me_.
I have invitations for {you and _him_. | you and _her_.}
He will divide the reward between you and _me_.
{_Whom_ are you waiting for? | _Whom_ were you speaking to?} [NOT: _who_.]
+359.+ Several words are used either as +adverbs+ or +prepositions+.
AS ADVERB AS PREPOSITION
I fell _down_. I fell _down_ the steps. Stand _by_! He stood _by_ the window. A big dog ran _behind_. A dog ran _behind_ the carriage. Keep _off_! Keep _off_ the grass.
Other examples are:--aboard, above, after, along, before, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, ere, in, inside, on, outside, past, round, since, under, up, within, without.
For words used either as prepositions or as conjunctions, see pp. 152–154.
+360.+ Prepositions show various distinctions in use and meaning which must be learned by practice and by the study of synonyms in a large dictionary.
The following groups afford opportunity for such study:--at, in; in, into; between, among, amid; on, upon; from, off; round, around, about; to, with; beside, besides; agree with, agree to; change for, change with; disappoint in, of; differ with, from; confide in, to; correspond with, to; part from, with; compare to, with; join with, to; connect with, to; come up with, to; talk to, with; speak to, with; hang on, from, to; live at, in, on; argue with, against; contend with, against; depart from, for, at, on, in.
## CHAPTER VIII
CONJUNCTIONS
+361.+ +Conjunctions connect words or groups of words.+
+Conjunctions are either coördinate or subordinate.+[41]
1. +A coördinate conjunction connects words or groups of words that are independent of each other.+
1. Hay _and_ grain are sold here.
2. Will you take tea _or_ coffee?
3. He was pale _but_ undaunted.
4. The messenger replied courteously _but_ firmly.
5. The troops embarked rapidly _but_ without confusion.
6. Noon came, _and_ the task was still unfinished.
7. We must hide here until night falls _and_ the street is deserted.
In each of the first four sentences, the conjunction (_and_, _or_, _but_) connects single words that are in the same construction (subjects, objects, predicate adjectives, adverbs). In the fifth, _but_ connects an adverb with an adverbial phrase (both being modifiers of the verb _embarked_). In the sixth, _and_ joins the two coördinate clauses of a compound sentence (§ 44). In the seventh, _and_ joins two coördinate clauses which, taken together, make up the subordinate clause _until ... deserted_; this clause may therefore be called a compound subordinate clause (see § 454).
2. +A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause with the clause on which it depends.+
Harmon did not quail, _though_ he saw the danger.
Take this seat, _if_ you prefer.
I hesitated _because_ I remembered your warning.
_Unless_ you reform, your career will be ruined.
+362.+ The chief +coördinate conjunctions+ are:--
and (both ... and) not only ... but also or (either ... or) nor (neither ... nor) but for however moreover therefore then yet still nevertheless notwithstanding
Several of these are much used for +transition+, whether from sentence to sentence or from one paragraph to another.
Such are:--however, moreover, therefore, then, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet, still.
+363.+ _Then_ is an adverb when it denotes time, a conjunction when it denotes consequence or the like.
_Then_ the boat glided up to the pier. [Time.]
Men are imperfect creatures: we must not, _then_, expect them to be angels. [Consequence.]
+364.+ _Yet_ and _still_ are adverbs when they express time or degree, conjunctions when they connect.
We have not started _yet_. [Time.]
It is _still_ raining. [Time.]
This hatchet is dull, but that is duller _still_. [Degree.]
I miss him, _yet_ I am glad he went. [Conjunction.]
I like dogs; _still_ I do not care to own one. [Conjunction.]
+365.+ _For_ and _notwithstanding_ may be either prepositions or conjunctions.
PREPOSITIONS CONJUNCTIONS
I am waiting _for_ you. We must go, _for_ it is late.
Jane is coming, It is a hard storm. _notwithstanding_ the storm. She will come, _notwithstanding_.
NOTE. _For_ is sometimes classified as a subordinate conjunction, but the fact that it may be used to begin an independent sentence (even when such a sentence opens a paragraph) justifies its inclusion among the coördinates.
+366.+ The chief +subordinate conjunctions+ are:--
although, though as as if (as though) because if lest since (= because) than that unless whereas whether (whether ... or)
A few phrases may be regarded as compound conjunctions. Such are:--_in order that_, _so that_, _provided that_, _in case that_, _but that_, _as if_, _as though_, _even if_. _Provided_, and _in case_ (without _that_) may also be used as conjunctions: as,--“I will go _provided_ it doesn’t rain.”
+367.+ The subordinate conjunction _that_ is often omitted when it may readily be supplied.
He said [that] he was starving.
They feared [that] they were betrayed.
I cannot believe [that] you would try to injure me.
NOTE. This omission is similar to that of the relative pronoun (§ 151). It is extremely common, not only in colloquial language but also in literature, whether prose or verse.
+368.+ _As_ and _since_ in the sense of “because,” and _while_ in the sense of “though,” are conjunctions.
When denoting +time+, _as_ is an adverb, _while_ is a noun or an adverb, and _since_ is an adverb or a preposition.
_As_ (or _since_) you will not listen, I will say no more. [Conjunction.]
_As_ we crossed the bridge, I looked down at the rushing stream. [Adverb.]
Ten years have passed _since_ my uncle went to sea. [Adverb.]
The house has been empty _since_ Christmas. [Preposition.]
+369.+ Conjunctions used in pairs are called +correlative conjunctions+.
The chief correlatives are:--
both ... and not only ... but also either ... or neither ... nor though ... yet (still) although ... yet (still) since ... therefore if ... then
Examples of correlatives may be seen in the following sentences:--
_Both_ lions _and_ wolves are carnivorous.
The culprit looked _both_ angry _and_ ashamed.
William II is _not only_ German Emperor _but also_ King of Prussia.
_Either_ brass _or_ copper will do.
_Neither_ Keats _nor_ Shelley lived to be old.
He asked me _whether_ I was an Austrian _or_ a Russian.
_Though_ the roads were very bad, _yet_ he managed to reach Utica before midnight.
_Although_ he has wronged me, _still_ I cannot believe he is my enemy.
_Since_ four is the square of two, _therefore_ two is the square root of four.
_If_ Allen’s testimony is true, _then_ Gilbert’s must be false.
+370.+ _But_ is used as a subordinate conjunction in the sense of _but that_ or _unless_.
There is no doubt _but that_ they are murderers.--SHELLEY.
Your uncle must not know _but_ [= _but that_] you are dead.--SHAKSPERE.
Ne’er may I look on day _but_ [= _unless_] she tells your highness the truth.--SHAKSPERE. [This use is obsolete.]
There is not a wave of the Seine _but_ is associated in my mind with the first rise of the sandstones and forest pines of Fontainebleau.--RUSKIN.
There was nobody _but_ loved her.
NOTE. In the last two examples the subject of the subordinate clause is omitted:--“There is not a wave _but_ [_it_] is associated,” “There was nobody _but_ [_he_] loved her.” In such cases, _but_ is sometimes regarded as a relative pronoun.
_Notwithstanding_ is used as a subordinate conjunction in the sense of _though_.
I shall go, _notwithstanding_ the road is said to be impassable.
+371.+ +Relative adverbs+ are similar in their use to conjunctions, and are therefore often called +conjunctive adverbs+ (§§ 194–195).
NOTE. Most conjunctions, historically considered, are merely adverbs (or adverbial phrases) which have come to be used in so peculiar a way as to form a special class among the parts of speech. Thus the adverbs _since_ and _while_ become conjunctions when they cease to denote time; _because_ is a corruption of the phrase _by cause_; _but_ is developed from an old adverb meaning “outside.”
## CHAPTER IX
INTERJECTIONS
+372.+ +An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.+
EXAMPLES: O (_or_ oh), ah, hullo (holloa, halloo), bah, pshaw, fie, whew, tut-tut, st (_often spelled_ hist), ha, aha, ha ha, ho, hey, hum, hem, heigh-ho (heigh-o), alas, bravo, lo.
When written, interjections are often followed by an exclamation point (!).
+373.+ Among interjections are properly included calls to animals (like “whoa!”) and imitations of sounds such as “mew!” “cock-a-doodle-do!” “ding dong!” “swish!” “tu-whit-tu-who!”
+374.+ +Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the phrases or sentences in which they stand.+
Hence they are counted among the “independent elements” of a sentence (§ 501).
Sometimes, however, a substantive is connected with an interjection by means of a preposition. Thus,--
_O for_ a camera!
_Alas for_ my hopes!
Adjectives and adverbs are also found in this use: as,--“Good for you!” “Up with it!”
NOTE. All such expressions are often regarded as elliptical sentences, as if “O for a camera!” stood for “O, I wish for a camera!” and “Good for you!” for “That is good for you!” But it is better to treat them as +exclamatory phrases+.[42] Other exclamatory phrases are “Dear me!” “Goodness gracious!” “O my!” and the like.
+375.+ Almost any part of speech may be used as an exclamation.
_Nonsense!_ I do not believe it. Fire! Halt! _Good!_ I like that! Forward! On! Away! _Back_, villains! _I!_ not a bit of it! But----!
Such words are often called interjections, but it is better to describe them as nouns, adjectives, etc., used in exclamation, and to confine the term +interjection+ to words which belong to no other part of speech.
NOTE. Thus _nonsense!_ and _fire!_ are nouns in the exclamatory nominative; _I!_ is a pronoun in the same construction; _halt!_ is a verb in the imperative (compare _hark!_ _hush!_ _behold!_ _look!_); _good!_ is an adjective; _forward!_ _on!_ _away!_ and _back!_ are adverbs; _but!_ is a conjunction.
The following examples illustrate various +exclamatory expressions+,--words, phrases, and sentences:--
1. How late I shuddered on the brink!--YOUNG.
2. “Right! right!” a thousand tongues exclaimed.--SOUTHEY.
3. The pale stars are gone!--SHELLEY.
4. Poor widowed wretch! ’twas there she wept in vain.--CAMPBELL.
5. O heartfelt raptures! Bliss beyond compare!--BURNS.
6. ’Tis done! dread Winter spreads his latest glooms.--THOMSON.
7. Heigh-ho! sing heigh-ho! unto the green holly.--SHAKSPERE.
8. I had--ah! have I now?--a friend.--BYRON.
9. “To arms!” cried Mortimer, and couched his quivering lance.--GRAY.
10. O for the gentleness of old Romance!--KEATS.
11. “Run!” exclaims she, with a toss of indignant astonishment.--CARLYLE.
12. Can he keep himself still if he would! Oh, not he!--WORDSWORTH.
## CHAPTER X
CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH
+376.+ +A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.+
+A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause (§ 46).+
+377.+ A subordinate clause may be introduced by (1) a relative or an interrogative pronoun, (2) a relative or an interrogative adverb, (3) a subordinate conjunction.
The +relative pronouns+ are: _who_, _which_, _what_, _that_ (= _who_ or _which_), _as_ (after _such_ or _same_), and the compound relatives _whoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_. Their uses have already been studied (pp. 66–73).
The chief +relative adverbs+ are: _where_, _whence_, _whither_, _wherever_, _when_, _whenever_, _while_, _before_, _after_, _till_, _until_, _since_, _as_, _how_, _why_ (p. 86).
The +interrogative pronouns+ are: _who_, _which_, _what_ (§§ 163–165).
The +interrogative adverbs+ are: _where_, _when_, _whence_, _whither_, _how_, _why_.
The most important +subordinate conjunctions+ are: _because_, _since_ (= _because_), _though_, _although_, _if_, _unless_, _that_ (_in order that_, _so that_), _lest_, _as_, _as if_, _as though_, _than_, _whether_ (_whether ... or_).
+378.+ According to their use as parts of speech, subordinate clauses are +adjective+, +adverbial+, or +noun clauses+.
I. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
+379.+ +A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause+ (§ 47).
{_Able_ men | Men _of ability_ | Men _who show ability_} can always find employment.
{_Treeless_ spots | Spots _without trees_ | Spots _where no trees grew_} were plainly visible.
In each of these groups, a noun (_men_, _spots_) is modified (1) by an adjective, (2) by an adjective phrase, (3) by an adjective clause. The sense remains unchanged.
+380.+ Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by +relative pronouns+, (2) by +relative adverbs+ of place (_where_, _whence_, _whither_, etc.) or time (_when_, _while_, etc.).
II. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
+381.+ +A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause (§ 47).+
Jack spoke {_thoughtlessly_. | _without thinking_. | _before he thought_.}
The schoolhouse stands {_there_. | _at the crossroads_. | _where the roads meet_.}
We pay our rent {_monthly_. | _on the first of every month_. | _when the first of the month comes_.}
In each of these groups, the verb (_spoke_, _stands_, _pay_) is modified (1) by an adverb, (2) by an adverbial phrase, (3) by an adverbial clause.
+382.+ Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by relative adverbs (_when_, _where_, _before_, etc.); (2) by subordinate conjunctions (_if_, _though_, _because_, etc.); (3) by relative or interrogative pronouns.
+383.+ Adverbial clauses oftenest modify verbs, but they are also common as modifiers of adjectives and adverbs.
Angry _because he had failed_, he abandoned the undertaking. [The clause modifies _angry_.]
I am uncertain _which road I should take_. [The clause modifies _uncertain_.]
Farther _than eye could see_ extended the waste of tossing waters. [The clause modifies _farther_.]
Here, _where the cliff was steepest_, a low wall protected the path. [The clause modifies _here_.]
+384.+ An adverbial clause with _that_ may be used to modify verbs and adjectives.
He rejoiced _that the victory was won_.
I am glad _that you are coming_.
He was positive _that no harm had been done_.
They were unwilling _that the case should be brought to trial_.
NOTE. In this use _that_ is equivalent either to “because” or to “as to the fact that.” The clause may be explained as a noun clause in the adverbial objective construction (§ 109).
For the classification of adverbial clauses according to their meaning (place, time, cause, concession, etc.), see pp. 163–182.
III. NOUN (OR SUBSTANTIVE) CLAUSES
+385.+ +A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause (§ 47).+
{_Agreement_ | _To agree_ | _That we should agree_} seemed impossible.
{_Victory_ | _To win_ | _That we should win_} was out of the question.
The merchant feared {_loss_. | _to lose_. | _that he might lose money_.}
I expect {_success_. | _to succeed_. | _that I shall succeed_.}
In each of these groups a noun (_agreement_, _victory_, etc.) is replaced (1) by an infinitive, (2) by a noun clause. In the first two examples, the noun clause is the subject; in the last two, it is the object of a verb (_feared_, _expect_).
+386.+ Noun clauses may be used in any of the more important constructions of nouns:--(1) as +subject+, (2) as +direct object+ of a transitive verb, (3) +in apposition+ with a substantive, (4) as a +predicate nominative+.
_That Milton was spared_ has often caused surprise. [Subject.]
Brutus said _that Cæsar was a tyrant_. [Object of _said_.]
Cæsar commanded _that the prisoners should be spared_. [Object.]
I wish _that you would work harder_. [Object.]
The traveller inquired _where he could find the inn_. [Object.]
He asked me _what my name was_. [Second object of _asked_.]
My fear _that the bridge might fall proved groundless_. [Apposition with _fear_.]
One fact is undoubted,--_that the state of America has been kept in continual agitation_.--BURKE. [Apposition with _fact_.]
The old saying is _that misery loves company_. [Predicate nominative.]
+387.+ Noun clauses may be introduced (1) by the subordinate conjunctions _that_, _whether_ (_whether ... or_), and _if_ (in the sense of _whether_); (2) by the interrogative pronouns _who_, _which_, _what_; (3) by the interrogative adverbs _where_, _whence_, _whither_, _how_, _why_, _when_ (§ 196).
+388.+ Noun clauses are common as objects of verbs (1) of _commanding_, _desiring_, etc.; (2) of _telling_, _thinking_, etc.; (3) of _asking_, _doubting_, etc.
See (1) clauses of purpose (§ 406); (2) indirect discourse (§§ 431–437); (3) indirect questions (§ 443).
Object clauses frequently omit _that_ (§ 367).
Charles said [that] _he was sorry_.
I hope _you will come_.
I wish _he would help me_.
For the infinitive clause replacing a _that_-clause as object, see §§ 324–325.
+389.+ A noun clause may be used as the +retained object+ of a passive verb (§ 253).
## ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(CLAUSE AS OBJECT) (RETAINED OBJECT)
They informed me I was informed _that the train was late_. _that the train was late_.
Charles told us We were told _that the ice was thin_. _that the ice was thin_.
They asked me _whether_ I was asked _whether I liked tennis_. (or _if_) I _liked tennis_.
+390.+ A noun clause may be the object of a preposition.
I see no reason for a lawsuit except _that both parties are stubborn_. [Compare: except the _stubbornness_ of both.]
She never studies, except _when she can find nothing else to do_.
I could say nothing but [=except] _that I was sorry_.
Justice was well administered in his time, save _where the king was party_.--BACON.
She could see me from _where she stood_.
There is a dispute as to _which of the miners first staked out the claim_.
For a noun clause used as an adverbial objective, see § 384.
+391.+ Noun clauses with _that_ are common in the predicate when the expletive _it_ is the grammatical subject (§ 120, 2).
It was plain _that war was at hand_.
It was clear _that this administration would last but a very short time_.
It must be admitted _that there were many extenuating circumstances_.
It was by slow degrees _that Fox became a brilliant and powerful debater_.
It was under the command of a foreign general _that the British had triumphed at Minden_.
In such sentences the real subject of the thought is the clause. This, however, may be regarded as grammatically in apposition with _it_, as if one said “_It_ (that war was at hand) was plain.”
NOTE. This useful idiom enables us to adopt a kind of inverted order (§ 5), and thus to shift the emphasis. Contrast “_That war was at hand_ was plain” with “_It was plain_ that war was at hand.” In the former sentence, the noun clause is made prominent; in the latter, the adjective _plain_.
+392.+ The following sentences, taken from distinguished authors of different periods, illustrate the usefulness of the noun clause in its various constructions.
1. That the king would ever again have received Becket into favor is not to be believed.--SOUTHEY.
2. That in education we should proceed from the simple to the complex is a truth which has always been to some extent acted on.--SPENCER.
3. How great his reputation was, is proved by the embassies sent to him.--COLERIDGE.
4. It vexed old Hawkins that his counsel was not followed.--FULLER.
5. It became necessary, at last, that I should arouse both master and valet to the expediency of removing the treasure.--POE.
6. There is no doubt that breeds may be made as different as species in many physiological characteristics.--HUXLEY.
7. The main definition you could give of old Marquis Mirabeau is, that he was of the pedant species.--CARLYLE.
8. The fact seems to be that we have survived the tremendous explosion.--BROUGHAM.
9. The question is, whether the feigned image of poesy, or the regular instruction of philosophy, have the more force in teaching.--SIDNEY.
10. I feared that some serious disaster had befallen my friend.--POE.
11. I think with you that the most magnificent object under heaven is the great deep.--COWPER.
12. Aureolus soon discovered that the success of his artifices had only raised up a more determined adversary.--GIBBON.
13. Harold alleged that he was appointed by Edward.--TEMPLE.
14. That we shall die, we know.--SHAKSPERE.
15. Her Majesty has promised that the treaty shall be laid before her Parliament.--SWIFT.
16. Deerslayer proposed that they should circle the point in the canoe.--COOPER.
17. I remembered how soft was the hand of Sleep.--LANDOR.
18. I cannot see what objection can justly be made to the practice.--REYNOLDS.
19. No man knew what was to be expected from this strange tribunal.--MACAULAY.
20. We may imagine with what sensations the stupefied Spaniards must have gazed on this horrid spectacle.--PRESCOTT.
21. Observe how graciously Nature instructs her human children.--COLERIDGE.
22. My friend asked me if there would not be some danger in coming home late.--ADDISON.
23. A message came that the committee was sitting at Kensington Palace.--THACKERAY.
24. Jeffreys had obtained of the king a promise that he would not pardon her.--BURNET.
25. The present age seems pretty well agreed in an opinion that the utmost scope and end of reading is amusement only.--FIELDING.
26. He suddenly alarmed me by a startling question--whether I had seen the show of prize cattle that morning in Smithfield.--LAMB.
27. I am told that the Lancashire system is perfect.--KINGSLEY.
## CHAPTER XI
THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
+393.+ Subordinate clauses may be classified not only according to their use as parts of speech, but also, in quite a different way, in accordance with their +various meanings+. These distinctions in idea are of capital importance for the accurate and forcible expression of thought.
+394.+ The variety of meanings which subordinate clauses may express is great, but most of these meanings come under the following heads:--(1) +place+ or +time+, (2) +cause+, (3) +concession+, (4) +purpose+, (5) +result+, (6) +condition+, (7) +comparison+,[43] (8) +indirect discourse+, (9) +indirect question+.
The general meaning of the clause is usually indicated by the word which introduces it.
I. CLAUSES OF PLACE AND TIME
+395.+ +An adjective or an adverbial clause may express place or time.+
I. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
The house _where the robbery occurred_ is No. 14.
The bridge _over which we rode_ is in ruins.
There is a point _beyond which you cannot go_.
The day _when_ (or _on which_) _I was to sail_ arrived at last.
The day _before you came_ was rainy.
His terror _while it thundered_ was pitiable.
II. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Remain _where I can see you_.
That belongs _where you found it_.
_Whithersoever I go_, fear dogs my steps.
_Whenever the bell rings_, you must take down the receiver.
Esmond heard the chimes _as he sat in his own chamber_.
I have lived in Cairo _since my father died_.
+396.+ Adjective clauses of place and time may be introduced by relative pronouns (see examples above).
Adjective and adverbial clauses of place and time may be introduced by relative adverbs. Thus,--
PLACE: where, whence, whither, wherever, whithersoever, wherefrom, whereto, etc.
TIME: when, whenever, while, as, before, after, until, since.
For _as_ and _since_ in causal clauses, see § 398; for _while_ in concessive clauses, see § 399.
+397.+ Clauses of time are sometimes shortened by the omission of the copula and its subject.
When [_he was_] rescued, he was almost dead.
Tom was attacked by cramp _while swimming_ across the river.
II. CAUSAL CLAUSES
+398.+ +An adverbial clause may express cause.+
+Causal clauses+ are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions _because_, _since_, _as_, _inasmuch as_, and sometimes _that_.
I came home _because I was tired_.
_As the day was clear_, we decided to climb the mountain.
_Since you will not relent_, you must take the consequences.
We were glad _that the wreck was no worse_.
Tom was delighted _that his friend was safe_.
_Since_ is a preposition or an adverb when it denotes +time+; +as+ is an adverb when it denotes +time+. Both _since_ and _as_ are conjunctions when they express +cause+. For _as_ used as a relative pronoun, see § 147.
III. CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
+399.+ +An adverbial clause may express concession.+
A +concessive clause+ is usually introduced by a subordinate conjunction, _though_, _although_, or _even if_. It +admits+ (or concedes) some fact or supposition +in spite of which+ the assertion in the main clause is made.
_Although I do not like his manners_, I respect his character.
We won the game, _though we expected to lose_.
_Even if you fail_, you will have gained experience.
_Even if you were a king_, you would find somebody or something more powerful than yourself.
_Though he should read books forever_, he would not grow wise.
NOTE. _While_ is often used as a weaker or more courteous synonym for _although_.
The main clause, when it follows the concessive clause, may be emphasized by means of _yet_, _still_, _nevertheless_.
Although the task was heavy, _yet_ his courage never failed. [_Although_ and _yet_ are correlative conjunctions (§ 369).]
Though his reputation was great at home, _yet_ it was greater abroad.
Concessive clauses sometimes omit the copula and its subject.
_Though_ [_he was_] _tired_, he was not disheartened.
This punishment, _though perhaps necessary_, seems rather severe.
+400.+ For the distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive in concessive clauses, see § 279; for that between _should_ and _would_, see § 305.
+401.+ A concessive clause may be introduced by the conjunction _as_, or by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb.
{_Whatever_ you say, | _Whichever_ argument you present, | _However_ much you object,} he will carry his point.
_Weak as I am_, I will make the effort.
_Gay as the scene was_, ’twas but a dreary place for Mr. Esmond.
NOTE. The adverbial use of _however_ is quite distinct from its use as a coördinate conjunction (§ 362).
+402.+ Concession is sometimes expressed by a subjunctive clause without a conjunction to introduce it (§ 281).
_Be it ever so humble_, there’s no place like home.
I will help you, _cost what it may_!
IV–V. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AND OF RESULT
+403.+ +A subordinate clause may express purpose or result.+
I. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE
These men died _that we might live_.
I will take care _that you are not harmed_.
John worked day and night _that the plans might be ready in time_.
We threw our ballast overboard, _so that the airship might clear the treetops_.
All our arrangements have been made with the utmost precision, _in order that the ship may be launched promptly and without accident_.
II. CLAUSES OF RESULT
He has recovered his strength, _so that he can now work_.
The town stood at the foot of the volcano, _so that every building was destroyed_.
Quentin started _so_ suddenly _that he almost dropped his weapon_.
His rancor against the duke was _so_ apparent _that one saw it in the first half-hour’s conversation_.
Their minds were _so_ much embittered _that they imputed to each other nothing less than deliberate villany_.
You make _such_ a noise _that I cannot hear the music_.
+404.+ +Clauses of purpose+ may be introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_ or by a phrase containing it (_so that_, _in order that_, _to the end that_, etc.).
Negative clauses of purpose may be introduced by _that ... not_ or by _lest_. For _lest_ with the subjunctive, see § 284.
Take heed _lest thou fall_.
I feared _lest I might anger thee_.--SHAKSPERE.
+405.+ +Clauses of result+ may be introduced by the phrase _so that_, consisting of the adverb _so_ and the subordinate conjunction _that_; or by _that_ alone, especially when _so_, _such_, or some similar word stands in the main clause.
+406.+ A clause of +purpose+ or of +result+ may be either an +adverbial clause+ (as in § 403) or a +substantive clause+.
I intend _that you shall be elected_. [Object.]
My intention is _that you shall be appointed_. [Predicate nominative.]
The result is _that he is bankrupt_. [Predicate nominative.]
His exertions had this effect, _that the vote was unanimous_. [Appositive.]
+407.+ A substantive clause of purpose is often used as the +object+ of a verb of _commanding_, _desiring_, or the like.
The general ordered _that the fort should be blown up_.
The prisoner begged _that his fetters might be struck off_.
+408.+ For subordinate clauses with _shall_ or _should_, implying purpose or expectation, see § 304.
+409.+ Purpose may be expressed by the infinitive with _to_ or _in order to_, and result by the infinitive with _to_ or _as to_.
He abandoned his profession _to_ [or _in order to_] _become a missionary_. [Purpose.]
He was kind enough _to help me_. [Result. Compare: He was so kind _that he helped me_.]
He was so kind _as to help me_. [Result.]
+Negative result+ is often expressed by the adverb _too_ and the infinitive.
Iron is _too_ heavy _to float_. [Compare: Iron is so heavy _that it does not float_.]
+410.+ Purpose may be expressed by an +infinitive clause+ (§ 325).
The teacher intended _us to finish the book_. [Compare: The teacher intended _that we should finish the book_.]
The foreman ordered _the engine to be stopped_. [Compare: The foreman ordered _that the engine should be stopped_.]
VI. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
+411.+ +A clause that expresses a condition introduced by _if_, or by some equivalent word or phrase, is called a conditional clause.+
+A sentence that contains a conditional clause is called a conditional sentence.+
_If it rains_, we shall remain at home.
I shall attend the convention _if I am in town_.
I will take this book, _if you please_.
+412.+ A _conditional sentence_ in its simplest form consists of two parts:--
(1) A subordinate (adverbial) clause, commonly introduced by _if_, and expressing the +condition+.
(2) A main clause expressing the +conclusion+, that is, the statement which is true in case the condition expressed in the _if_-clause is true.
Thus in the first example in § 411, the +condition+ is _if it rains_; the +conclusion+ is _we shall remain at home_.
Either the condition or the conclusion may come first.
The conditional clause is often called the +protasis+, and the conclusion is often called the +apodosis+.
The +conclusion+ of a conditional sentence may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
If you go to Philadelphia, _where shall you stay_? [Interrogative.]
_Sit here_, if you wish. [Imperative.]
If you win the prize, _how glad I shall be_! [Exclamatory.]
+413.+ A conditional clause may be introduced by _provided_ (or _provided that_), _granted that_, _supposing_ (or _suppose_), _on condition that_.
I will permit you to go, _on condition that_ you come home early.
You may have the money, _provided_ you will put it in the bank.
_Supposing_ (or _suppose_) it rains, what shall we do?
_Suppose_ is really an imperative and _supposing_ a participle, the clause being the object.
+414.+ A +negative condition+ is commonly introduced by _if ... not_ or _unless_.
I will wait for him, _if_ you do _not_ object.
_Unless_ you overcome that habit, you will be ruined.
+415.+ +Double+ (or +alternative+) +conditions+ may be introduced by _whether ... or_.
_Whether_ he goes or stays, he must pay a week’s board. [Compare: _If_ he goes _or if_ he stays, etc.]
He is determined to buy that car, _whether_ you approve _or_ not. [That is: _if_ you approve _or if_ you do not approve.]
+416.+ A conditional clause may be introduced by _whoever_, _whenever_, or some similar compound (§§ 159, 195).
_Whoever_ offends, is punished. [Compare: _If anybody_ offends, he is punished.]
_Whoever_ shall offend, shall be punished.
_Whomever_ you ask, you will be disappointed. [Compare: If you shall ask anybody.]
He will come _whenever_ [= _if ever_] he is called.
NOTE. In older English and in poetry, _who_ is common in this construction: as,--“_Who_ [= _whoever_] steals my purse, steals trash” (SHAKSPERE).
+417.+ A conditional clause sometimes omits the copula and its subject.
I will go if [_it is_] necessary.
If [_it is_] possible, come to-morrow.
The _if_-clause is sometimes used as an exclamation, with the conclusion omitted.
If I only had a rifle!
+418.+ A condition may be expressed by means of an assertion, a question, an imperative, or the absolute construction (§ 345).
We take the receiver from the hook, and the operator answers. We replace it, and the connection is broken. [Compare: If we take the receiver from the hook, the operator answers, etc.]
Press that button, and the bell will ring.
Do you refuse? Then you must take the consequences.
We shall sail on Monday, weather permitting.
NOTE. In such cases, there is no subordinate conditional clause. Thus, in the first example, we have two independent coördinate clauses, making a compound sentence (§ 44).
FORMS OF CONDITIONS
+419.+ Conditional sentences show great variety of form, but it is easy to classify them according to the +time+ of the supposed case and the +degree of doubt+ that the speaker expresses.
+420.+ Conditions may be +present+, +past+, or +future+.
PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS
+421.+ Present and past conditions may be either (1) +non-committal+ or (2) +contrary to fact+.
1. A condition is +non-committal+ when it implies nothing as to the truth or falsity of the case supposed.
_If James is angry_, I am sorry. [Perhaps James is angry, perhaps not.]
2. A condition is +contrary to fact+ when it implies that the supposed case is not or was not true.
_If James were angry_, I should be sorry. [James is _not_ angry.]
+422.+ In a +non-committal present condition+, the _if_-clause[44] takes the present indicative; in a +non-committal past condition+, the past, the perfect, or the pluperfect.
The conclusion may be in any form that the sense allows.
I. PRESENT CONDITION, NON-COMMITTAL
_If this pebble is a diamond_, {it is valuable. | guard it carefully. | you have made a great discovery. | you will get a large sum for it. | why are you so careless of it? | what a prize it is!}
_If it is raining_, shut the window.
_If Jack lives in this house_, {he is a lucky boy. | ring the bell. | he has moved since last May.}
II. PAST CONDITION, NON-COMMITTAL
_If that pebble was a diamond_, {it was valuable. | why did you throw it away? | go back and look for it.}
_If Tom has apologized_, {he has done his duty. | you ought to excuse him. | forgive him.}
_If John had reached home before we started_, he must have made a quick journey.
In each of these examples, the speaker declines to commit himself as to the truth of the supposed case. Perhaps the pebble was a diamond, perhaps not; Tom may or may not have apologized; whether or not John had reached home, we cannot tell.
+423.+ In a +condition contrary to fact+, the _if_-clause takes the past subjunctive when the condition refers to present time, the pluperfect subjunctive when it refers to past time.
The conclusion regularly takes _should_ or _would_ (§ 286, 3).
If John _were_ here, I _should recognize_ him. [Present condition, present conclusion.]
If John _were_ here, I _should have recognized_ him before this. [Present condition, past conclusion.]
If I _had offended_ him, I _should have regretted_ it. [Past condition, past conclusion.]
If I _had_ then _offended_ him, I _should regret_ it now. [Past condition, present conclusion.]
In each of these sentences, the speaker distinctly implies that the supposed case (or +condition+) _is_ (or _was_) _not a fact_. It follows, of course, that the +conclusion+ is not a fact:--John is _not_ here; therefore I _do not_ recognize him.
+424.+ In conditions contrary to fact, the subjunctive without _if_ is common. In this use, the subject follows the verb (§ 281).
_Were_ he my friend, I should expect his help. [= If he _were_ my friend. Present condition, contrary to fact.]
_Had_ he _been_ my friend, I should have expected his help. [= If he _had been_ my friend. Past condition, contrary to fact.]
NOTE. In older English, the subjunctive may be used in both clauses: as,--“He _were_ no lion, _were_ not Romans hinds” (SHAKSPERE).
FUTURE CONDITIONS
+425.+ +Future conditions+ always imply +doubt+, for no one can tell what may or may not happen to-morrow.
+426.+ In all future conditions, some verb-form denoting future time is used in both clauses.
1. In a future condition which suggests nothing as to the probability or improbability of the case supposed, the present indicative is regularly used in the _if_-clause, and the future indicative in the conclusion.
If it _rains_ to-morrow, I _shall_ not _go_.
In very formal or exact language a verb-phrase with _shall_ may be used in the _if_-clause: as,--“If it _shall rain_ to-morrow, I shall not go.”
2. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in the _if_-clause. This form commonly suggests more doubt than the present indicative.
If it _rain_ to-morrow, I shall not go.
3. In a future condition which puts the supposed case rather vaguely, often with a considerable suggestion of doubt, a verb-phrase with _should_ or _would_ is used in both clauses.
If it _should rain_ to-morrow, I _should_ not _go_.
For the use of _should_ or _would_ in such clauses, see § 305.
A phrase with _were to_ may replace the _should_-phrase in the _if_-clause. This form often emphasizes the suggestion of doubt.
If it _were to rain_ to-morrow, I should not go.
The past subjunctive may stand in the _if_-clause instead of the _should_-phrase.
If it _rained_ to-morrow, I should not go.
NOTE. The comparative amount of doubt implied in the different kinds of future conditions cannot be defined with precision; for it varies with the circumstances or the context, and often depends on emphasis or the tone of the voice. Thus, in “if it should rain to-morrow,” _should_ may be so emphasized as to make the supposed case seem highly improbable, whereas an emphasis on _to-morrow_ would have a very different effect. As to the subjunctive, its use is often due rather to the writer’s liking for that mood than to any special doubt in his mind.
+427.+ For _even if_ in concessive clauses, see § 399; for _as if_ in clauses of comparison, see § 428; for _if_ (in the sense of _whether_) in indirect questions, see § 442.
VII. CLAUSES OF COMPARISON
+428.+ +An adverbial clause introduced by _as if_ may express comparison.+[45]
You speak _as if you were angry_.[46]
He breathes _as if he were exhausted_.
She cared for me _as if I had been her son_.
_As though_ is also used, but _as if_ is now preferred by most writers.
The subjunctive _were_, not the indicative _was_, is used after _as if_ (§ 282).
+429.+ _As_ and _than_, as subordinate conjunctions, introduce +clauses of comparison+ or +degree+.
You are as old _as he_ [_is_].
I am younger _than you_ [_are_].
He weighs as much _as I_ [_weigh_].
I pity you more _than_ [_I pity_] _her_.
When the verb is omitted, the substantive that follows _as_ or _than_ is in the same case in which it would stand if the verb were expressed. Thus,--
You are stronger than _he_. [NOT: than _him_.]
I see you oftener than _him_. [NOT: than _he_.]
He plays a better game than _I_. [NOT: than _me_.]
They will miss John more than _me_. [That is: more than they miss _me_.]
VIII. INDIRECT DISCOURSE
+430.+ A quotation may be +direct+ or +indirect+.
A +direct quotation+ repeats a speech or thought in its original form.
I replied: “I am sorry to hear it.”
“Henceforth,” he explained, “I shall call on Tuesdays.”
“You must see California,” she insisted.
“Elizabeth no longer lives here,” he said.
“I know nothing about it,” was the witness’s reply.
“Where,” thought I, “are the crew?”[47]
An +indirect quotation+ repeats a speech or thought in substance, but usually with some change in its form.
An indirect quotation, when a statement, is a subordinate clause dependent on some word of _saying_ or _thinking_, and introduced by the conjunction _that_.
I replied _that I was sorry to hear it_. [Direct: I am sorry.]
He explained _that henceforth he should call on Tuesdays_.
She insisted _that I must see California_.
+A direct quotation+ begins with a +capital letter+, unless it is a fragment of a sentence. It is enclosed in +quotation marks+.
+An indirect quotation+ begins with a +small letter+. It usually has no quotation marks.
+431.+ +A substantive clause introduced by _that_ may be used with verbs and other expressions of _telling_, _thinking_, _knowing_, and _perceiving_, to report the words or thought of a person in substance, but usually with some change of form.+
+Such clauses are said to be in the indirect discourse.+
For distinction, a remark or a thought in its original form (as in a direct quotation) is said to be in the +direct discourse+.
+432.+ Statements in _indirect discourse_, being substantive clauses, may be used in various noun constructions: (1) as +object+ of some verb of _telling_, _thinking_, or the like, (2) as +subject+, (3) as +predicate nominative+, (4) as +appositive+.
He said _that the box was empty_. [Object.]
_That the box was empty_ was all he could say. [Subject.]
My remark was _that the bill is a menace_. [Predicate nominative.]
Your remark, _that the bill is a menace_, has aroused vigorous protest. [Apposition.]
+433.+ The conjunction _that_ is often omitted.
Jack said [_that_] he was sorry.
I hope [_that_] you can come.
I know he is too busy a man to have leisure for me.--COWPER.
+434.+ In indirect discourse, after the past or the pluperfect tense, the present tense of the direct discourse becomes past, and the perfect becomes pluperfect.
1. DIRECT: I _am_ tired. INDIRECT: John {said | had said} that he _was_ tired.
2. DIRECT: I _have won_. INDIRECT: John {said | had said} that he _had won_.
But a general or universal truth always remains in the present tense.
DIRECT: Air _is_ a gas. INDIRECT: I told him that air _is_ a gas. INDIRECT: I had told him a hundred times that air _is_ a gas.
+435.+ The clause with _that_ in indirect discourse is sometimes replaced by an infinitive clause (§ 325).
The jury declared _him to be innocent_. [Compare: The jury declared _that he was innocent_.]
Morton admitted _them to be counterfeit_. [Compare: Morton admitted _that they were counterfeit_.]
In these sentences, _him_ and _them_ are, of course, the subjects of the infinitives, not the objects of _declared_ and _admitted_.
+436.+ When the verb of _telling_ or _thinking_ is in the +passive voice+, three constructions occur:--
1. A clause with _that_ is used as the subject of the passive verb.
That Rogers desires the office is commonly reported.
2. The expletive _it_ is used as the grammatical subject, and a _that_-clause follows the passive verb.
It is commonly reported that Rogers desires the office.
3. The subject of the _that_-clause becomes the subject of the passive verb, and the verb of the clause is replaced by an infinitive.
Rogers is commonly reported to desire the office.
The choice among these three idioms is largely a matter of emphasis or euphony. The first may easily become heavy or awkward, and it is therefore less common than either of the others.
NOTE. The third of these idioms is often called the +personal construction+, to distinguish it from the second, in which the grammatical subject is the impersonal _it_ (§ 120, 1). The infinitive in this third idiom may be regarded as a peculiar adverbial modifier of the passive verb.
Further examples of the three constructions with passive verbs of _telling_, _thinking_, etc., are the following:--
That in vivacity, humor, and eloquence, the Irish stand high among the nations of the world is now universally acknowledged.--MACAULAY.
It is admitted that the exercise of the imagination is most delightful.--SHELLEY.
It must be owned that Charles’s life has points of some originality.--STEVENSON.
Porto Bello is still said to be impregnable, and it is reported the Dutch have declared war against us.--GRAY.
He was generally believed to have been a pirate.--LYTTON.
Pope may be said to write always with his reputation in his head.--JOHNSON.
She was observed to flutter her fan with such vehement rapidity that the elaborate delicacy of its workmanship gave way.--HAWTHORNE.
This is said to be the only château in France in which the ancient furniture of its original age is preserved.--LONGFELLOW.
+437.+ A substantive clause with _that_ is common after _it seems_, _it is true_, _it is evident_, and similar expressions.
It seems _that Robert has lost all his money_.
It is true _that genius does not always bring happiness with it_.
It is evident _that Andrews tells the truth_.
This construction is really the same as that in § 436, 2.
+438.+ The uses of _shall_ and _will_, _should_ and _would_, in +indirect discourse+ are the same as in the +direct+,[48] with the following exception:--
+When the first person with _shall_ or _should_ in direct discourse becomes the second or third person in the indirect, _shall_ or _should_ is retained.+
DIRECT: You say, “_I shall_ die.” INDIRECT: You say that _you shall_ die.
DIRECT: You said, “_I shall_ die.” INDIRECT: You said that _you should_ die.
DIRECT: He says, “_I shall_ die.” INDIRECT: He says that _he shall_ die.
DIRECT: He said, “_I shall_ die.” INDIRECT: He said that _he should_ die.
The reason for the retention of _shall_ or _should_ is that, in such cases, the second or third person of the indirect discourse represents the first person of the direct.
The change from _shall_ (after _says_) to _should_ (after _said_) is a mere change of tense, according to the rule in § 434.
NOTE. The general principle is, to retain in the indirect discourse the auxiliary of the direct, simply changing the tense if necessary (§ 434). This principle of course covers the use of _you_ or _he shall_ or _should_ to represent _I shall_ or _should_. There is, however, one important exception to the general principle: when its application would result in the use of _I will_ or _I would_ to express mere futurity, _I shall_ or _I should_ is employed. Thus, John says to Charles, “If you fall overboard, _you will_ drown”; but Charles, reporting this, must say, “John tells me that, if I fall overboard, _I shall_ [NOT _will_] drown.” The general rule, then, may be stated as follows: The indirect discourse retains the auxiliary of the direct (with a change in tense, if necessary), unless such retention makes _will_ or _would_ express simple futurity in the first person,--in that case, _shall_ or _should_ is used.
+439.+ The following sentences illustrate the correct use of _shall_ and _will_, _should_ and _would_, in the indirect discourse:--
1. He writes me that he believes _he shall_ be at Eton till the middle of November.--GRAY. [Direct: I shall be at Eton.]
2. He that would pass the latter part of his life with honor and decency, must, while he is young, consider that _he shall_ one day be old.--JOHNSON. [Direct: I shall one day be old.]
3. Could he but reduce the Aztec capital, he felt that _he should_ be safe.--PRESCOTT. [Direct: I shall be safe.]
4. Plantagenet took it into his head that _he should_ like to learn to play at bowls.--DISRAELI. [Direct: I should like.]
5. He answered that _he should_ be very proud of hoisting his flag under Sir John’s command.--SOUTHEY. [Direct: I shall (_or_ should) be, etc.]
6. He knew that if he applied himself in earnest to the work of reformation, _he should_ raise every bad passion in arms against him.--MACAULAY. [Direct: If I apply myself ..., I shall raise, etc.]
7. He was pleased to say that _he should_ like to have the author in his service.--CARLYLE. [Direct: I should like.]
8. Mr. Tristram at last declared that _he_ was overcome with fatigue, and _should_ be happy to sit down.--HENRY JAMES. [Direct: I should be happy.]
9. She vowed that unless he made a great match, _she should_ never die easy.--THACKERAY. [Direct: Unless you make a great match, I shall never die easy.]
10. You think now _I shall_ get into a scrape at home. You think _I shall_ scream and plunge and spoil everything.--GEORGE ELIOT. [Direct: She will get into a scrape, etc.]
11. You in a manner impose upon them the necessity of being silent, by declaring that _you will_ be so yourself.--COWPER. [Determination: I will be silent.]
12. He [Swift] tells them that _he will_ run away and leave them, if they do not instantly make a provision for him.--JEFFREY. [Threat: I will run away.]
13. The king declared that _he would_ not reprieve her for one day.--MACKINTOSH. [Direct: I will not.]
14. Horace declares that _he would_ not for all the world get into a boat with a man who had divulged the Eleusinian mysteries.--COWPER. [Direct: I would not.]
15. I called up Sirboko, and told him, if _he would_ liberate this one man to please me, _he should_ be no loser.--SPEKE. [Direct: If you will liberate, etc., you shall be no loser.]
16. We concluded that, if we did not come at some water in ten days’ time, _we would_ return.--DE FOE. [Direct: If we do not, etc., we will return.]
17. With a theatrical gesture and the remark that _I should_ see, he opened some cages and released half a dozen cats.--W. J. LOCKE. [Direct: You shall see.]
IX. INDIRECT QUESTIONS
+440.+ +A question expressed in the form actually used in asking it is called a direct question.+
What is your name?
“What is your name?” he asked.
The direct form may be retained when the question is quoted or reported, as in the second example above. Often, however, a question is quoted or reported, not in the direct form, but in the form of a +subordinate clause+: as,--
He asked _what my name was_.
Such a clause is called an +indirect question+.
+441.+ +An indirect question expresses the substance of a direct question in the form of a subordinate clause.+
+Indirect questions depend on verbs or other expressions of _asking_, _doubting_, _thinking_, _perceiving_, and the like.+
Franklin asked _where the difficulty lay_. [Direct question: “Where does the difficulty lie?”]
The sergeant wondered _how he should escape_. [Direct question: “How shall I escape?”]
I have not decided _which train I shall take_. [Direct question: “Which train shall I take?”]
+442.+ Both +direct+ and +indirect questions+ may be introduced (1) by the interrogative pronouns _who_, _which_, _what_; (2) by the interrogative adverbs _when_, _where_, _whence_, _whither_, _how_, _why_.
+Indirect questions+ may be introduced by the subordinate conjunctions _whether_ (_whether ... or_) and _if_.
The use of +tenses+ in indirect questions is the same as in the indirect discourse (§ 434).
The constable inquired _whether_ (or _if_) _I lived in Casterbridge_. [His question was: Do you live in Casterbridge?]
Your father wishes to know _if you have been playing truant_. [Direct question: Have you been playing truant?]
I considered _whether I should apply to Kent or to Arnold_. [Direct question: Shall I apply to Kent or to Arnold?]
+443.+ Indirect questions are usually noun clauses. They may be used in various noun constructions: (1) as +object+ of some verb of +asking+ or the like, (2) as +subject+, (3) as +predicate nominative+, (4) as +appositive+, (5) as +object+ of a preposition.
The skipper asked _what had become of the cook_. [Object.]
He was asked _what his profession was_. [Retained object after the passive (§§ 253, 389).]
_How we could escape_ was a difficult question. [Subject.]
The problem was _how they should find food_. [Predicate nominative.]
The question _who was to blame_ has never been settled. [Apposition with _question_.]
They all felt great perplexity as to _what they should do_. [Object of a preposition.]
An indirect question may be an adverbial clause.
They were uncertain _what course they should take_. [The clause modifies _uncertain_.]
Edmund was in doubt _where he should spend the night_. [The clause modifies the adjective phrase _in doubt_.]
+444.+ Since the pronouns _who_, _which_, and _what_ may be either interrogative or relative, an indirect question may closely resemble a relative clause. These two constructions, however, are sharply distinguished. A relative clause always +asserts+ something. An indirect question, on the contrary, has an +interrogative+ sense which may be seen by turning the question into the direct form.
The sailor _who saved the child_ is a Portuguese. [The clause _who saved the child_ is a relative clause, for it makes a distinct assertion about the sailor,--namely, that he saved the child. _Who_ is a relative pronoun and _sailor_ is its antecedent.]
{I asked | I do not know | It is still a question | It is doubtful} _who saved the child_. [Here the clause _who saved the child_ makes no assertion. On the contrary, it expresses a question which may easily be put in a direct form with an interrogation point: “Who saved the child?” _Who_ is an interrogative pronoun. It has no antecedent.]
The following examples further illustrate the difference between these two constructions:--
1. I foresee the course _which he will take_. [Relative clause.] I foresee _which course he will take_. [Indirect question.]
2. I heard _what he said_. [Relative clause. _What_ = “that which.”] I wondered _what he said_. [Indirect question. _What_ is an interrogative pronoun.]
3. This is the man _who brought the news_. [Relative clause.] The king asked _who brought the news_. [Indirect question.]
4. Here is a paper _which you must sign_. [Relative clause.] The clerk will tell you _which paper you must sign_. [Indirect question.]
NOTE. In such a sentence as “Tom knows _who saved the child_,” the indirect question may at first appear to be a relative clause with an omitted antecedent (_the man_, or _the person_). If, however, we insert such an antecedent (“Tom knows _the man_ who saved the child”), the meaning is completely changed. In the original sentence, it is stated that Tom knows the answer to the question, “Who saved the child?” In the new form of the sentence, it is stated that Tom is acquainted with a certain person, and to this is added an assertion about this person in the form of a relative clause.
+445.+ An indirect question is sometimes expressed by means of an interrogative pronoun or adverb followed by an infinitive.
_Whom to choose_ is a serious question. [Direct question: Whom shall we choose?]
John asked _what to do_. [John’s question was: What shall I do?]
I know _where to go_. [Direct question: Where shall I go?]
Tell me _when to strike the bell_.
I was at a loss _how to reply_.
I am in doubt _how to begin this essay_.
In the first four examples the italicized phrase is used as a noun (either as subject or object). In the fifth, the phrase _how to reply_ is adverbial, modifying the adjective phrase _at a loss_.
+446.+ The subjunctive was formerly common in indirect questions, and is still occasionally used after _if_ or _whether_.
I doubt if it _be_ true.
Elton questioned whether the project _were_ wise.
+447.+ The rule for _shall_ (_should_) and _will_ (_would_) in indirect questions is, to retain the auxiliary used in the direct question, merely changing the tense (_shall_ to _should_; _will_ to _would_) when necessary (§ 442).
I. MERE FUTURITY
1. DIRECT: What _shall I_ do?
INDIRECT: I wonder what _I shall_ do. You ask me what _you shall_ do. He asks me what _he shall_ do. I wondered what _I should_ do. You asked me what _you should_ do. He asked me what _he should_ do.
2. DIRECT: _Shall you_ lose your position?
INDIRECT: {I ask | He asks} you if _you shall_ lose your position. {I asked | He asked} you if _you should_ lose your position.
3. DIRECT: _Will Charles_ lose his position?
INDIRECT: I ask if _Charles will_ lose his position. {I | You | Tom} asked if _Charles would_ lose his position.
II. VOLITION
4. DIRECT: _Will you_ help me?
INDIRECT: You ask if _I will_ help you. He asks if _I will_ help him. You asked if _I would_ help you. He asked if _I would_ help him. {I asked him | You asked him | Tom asked him} if _he would_ {help me. | help you. | help him.}
NOTE. There is a single exception to the rule in § 447. When, in changing from a direct to an indirect question, the third person with _will_ or _would_ becomes the first, _shall_ or _should_ is substituted unless volition is expressed. Thus, John says to Thomas, “_Will Charles_ die of his wound?” Charles, reporting John’s question, says, “John asked Thomas whether _I should_ die of my wound.” Compare § 438, note.