PART THREE
ANALYSIS
## CHAPTER I
THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES
+448.+ +Analysis+ is a Greek word which means “the act of dissolving or breaking up.” In grammar it is applied to the separation of a sentence into its constituent parts, or +elements+. To dissect a sentence in this way is to +analyze+ it.
The elements which make up a +sentence+ are: (1) the +simple subject+; (2) the +simple predicate+; (3) +modifiers+; (4) the +complements+,--direct object, predicate objective, predicate adjective, predicate nominative; and (5) the so-called +independent elements+,--the interjection, the vocative (or nominative of direct address), the exclamatory nominative, and various parenthetical expressions (§ 501).
+449.+ The absolute essentials for a sentence are a +substantive as subject+ and a +verb as predicate+ (§ 35). By combining these two indispensable elements, in various ways, with +modifiers+ and +complements+, the sentence may be extended to any length desired. Indeed, the sole limits are the constructive skill of the writer and the hearer’s ability to follow the thought without losing the thread.
In the present chapter, we shall consider how sentences are built up, or constructed. Our starting point in this study will be the +simple sentence+.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
+450.+ The following statement is a +simple sentence+, for it contains but +one subject+ and +one predicate+ (§ 46):--
The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions.
The framework or skeleton of this simple sentence consists of the subject noun _bear_ (the simple subject) and the predicate verb _lives_ (the simple predicate). To make the +complete subject+, _bear_ takes as +modifiers+ the two adjectives _the_ and _polar_; to make the +complete predicate+, _lives_ takes as +modifier+ the adverbial phrase _in the Arctic regions_.
By attaching another simple subject to _bear_ we make a +compound subject+. Similarly, we make a +compound predicate+ by adding another verb (§ 38).
The polar _bear_ and the _walrus_ | _live_ and _thrive_ in the Arctic regions.
The compound subject is _bear and walrus_; the compound predicate is _live and thrive_. Both verbs are modified by the adverbial phrase _in the Arctic regions_. The sentence itself is still a simple sentence.
In each of the following simple sentences either the subject or the predicate or both are compound:--
Games and carols closed the busy day.--ROGERS.
The stars leap forth, and tremble, and retire before the advancing moon.--GEORGE MEREDITH.
Madame Defarge knitted with nimble fingers and steady eyebrows, and saw nothing.--DICKENS.
Work or worry had left its traces upon his thin, yellow face.--DOYLE.
Crows flutter about the towers and perch on every weathercock.--IRVING.
He gained the door to the landing, pulled it open, and rushed forth.--LYTTON.
Countrymen, butchers, drovers, hawkers, boys, thieves, idlers, and vagabonds of every low grade, were mingled together in a dense mass.--DICKENS.
There stood the broad-wheeled wains and the antique plows and the harrows.--LONGFELLOW.
Both Augustus and Peters joined with him in his design and insisted upon its immediately being carried into effect.--POE.
Women and children, from garrets alike and cellars, through infinite London, look down or look up with loving eyes upon our gay ribbons and our martial laurels.--DE QUINCEY.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
+451.+ If we attach another simple sentence to that in § 450, the result is a +compound sentence+.
The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions, || but || it | sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
This is manifestly a +compound sentence+, for it consists of two +coördinate clauses+, joined by the conjunction _but_ (§ 46).
The framework of the second clause consists of the subject _it_ and the simple predicate _reaches_. To make the complete predicate, the verb _reaches_ takes not only a modifier (the adverb _sometimes_), but a +complement+,--the direct object _latitudes_, which completes the meaning of the verb. This noun is itself modified by the adjective _temperate_. Both clauses are +simple+, for each contains but one subject and one predicate.
+452.+ Obviously, almost any number of simple sentences may be joined (with or without conjunctions) to make one compound sentence.
The quiet August noon has come; A slumberous silence fills the sky; The fields are still, the woods are dumb, In glassy sleep the waters lie.--BRYANT.
States fall, arts fade, but Nature does not die.--BYRON.
The court was sitting; the case was heard; the judge had finished; and only the verdict was yet in arrear.--DE QUINCEY.
He softly blushed; he sighed; he hoped; he feared; he doubted; he sometimes yielded to the delightful idea.--THACKERAY.
A mob appeared before the window, a smart rap was heard at the door, the boys hallooed, and the maid announced Mr. Grenville.--COWPER.
His health had suffered from confinement; his high spirit had been cruelly wounded; and soon after his liberation he died of a broken heart.--MACAULAY.
COMPLEX SENTENCES
+453.+ The simple sentence in § 450 may be made +complex+ by means of a +subordinate clause+ used as a +modifier+ (§ 47).
The polar bear, _which lives in the Arctic regions_, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes _when the ice drifts southward_.
In the first example, the simple subject (_bear_), besides its two adjective modifiers (_the_ and _polar_), takes a third, the adjective clause _which lives in the Arctic regions_ (§ 47). The sentence, then, is +complex+: the main clause is _the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_; the subordinate clause is _which lives in the Arctic regions_.
The second sentence is also complex. The main clause is the same as in the first (_the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_). The subordinate clause is _when the ice drifts southward_, an +adverbial modifier+ of the predicate verb _reaches_.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX CLAUSES
+454.+ Two or more +coördinate clauses+ may be joined to make one +compound clause+.
The polar bear, _which lives in the Arctic regions and whose physical constitution is wonderfully adapted to that frigid climate_, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes _when the floes break up and when the ice drifts southward_.
In the first example, the italicized words form a +compound adjective clause+, modifying the noun _bear_. It consists of two +coördinate adjective clauses+ joined by _and_. These clauses are coördinate because they are of the same +order+ or +rank+ in the sentence (§ 46), each being (if taken singly) an adjective modifier of the noun.
In the second example, the predicate verb _reaches_ is modified by a +compound adverbial clause+, similarly made up.
+455.+ A clause is +complex+ when it contains a modifying clause.
The polar bear, _which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home_, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
Here the +adjective clause+ _which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home_ is +complex+, for it contains the adverbial clause _when it is at home_, modifying the verb _lives_.
COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES
+456.+ Two or more independent complex clauses may be joined to make a +compound complex sentence+.
The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.
This is a +compound complex sentence+, for it consists of two complex clauses joined by the coördinate conjunction _and_. Each of these two clauses is independent of the other, for each might stand by itself as a complex sentence.
The first complex clause contains an adjective clause, _of which there are several varieties_, modifying _bear_; the second contains an adverbial clause, _when the ice drifts southward_, modifying _reaches_.
+457.+ A sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses is also classed as a compound complex sentence if any one of these is complex.
The brown bear is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.
The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
Both of these are compound complex sentences. In one, the first clause is simple (§ 451) and the second is complex. In the other, the first clause is complex and the second is simple.
## CHAPTER II
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
SIMPLE SENTENCES
+458.+ In analyzing a +simple sentence+, we first divide it into the +complete subject+ and the +complete predicate+. Then we point out the +simple subject+ with its +modifiers+, and the +simple predicate+ with its +modifiers+ and +complement+ (if there is one). If either the subject or the predicate is compound, we mention the simple subjects or predicates that are joined.
1. The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions.
This is a simple sentence. The complete subject is _the polar bear_; the complete predicate is _lives in the Arctic regions_. The simple subject is the noun _bear_; the simple predicate is the verb _lives_. _Bear_ is modified by the adjectives _the_ and _polar_; _lives_ is modified by the adverbial phrase _in the Arctic regions_. This phrase consists of the preposition _in_; its object, the noun _regions_; and the adjectives _the_ and _Arctic_, modifying _regions_.
2. The polar bear and the walrus live and thrive in the Arctic regions.
The complete subject is _the polar bear and the walrus_. Two simple subjects (_bear_ and _walrus_) are joined by the conjunction _and_ to make a compound subject, and two simple predicates (_live_ and _thrive_) are joined by _and_ to make a compound predicate. _Live_ and _thrive_ are both modified by the adverbial phrase _in the Arctic regions_.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
+459.+ In analyzing a +compound sentence+ we first divide it into its +coördinate clauses+, and then analyze each clause by itself. Thus,--
The polar bear lives in the Arctic regions, but it sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
This is a compound sentence consisting of two coördinate clauses joined by the conjunction _but_: (1) _the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions_ and (2) _it sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_. The complete subject of the first clause is _the polar bear_ [and so on, as in § 458, above]. The subject of the second clause is _it_; the complete predicate is _sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_. The simple predicate is _reaches_, which is modified by the adverb _sometimes_ and is completed by the direct object _latitudes_. The complement _latitudes_ is modified by the adjective _temperate_.
COMPLEX SENTENCES
+460.+ In analyzing a +complex sentence+, we first divide it into the +main clause+ and the +subordinate clause+.
1. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause is _the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_; the subordinate clause is _which lives in the Arctic regions_. The complete subject of the sentence is _the polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions_; the complete predicate is _sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_. The simple subject is _bear_, which is modified by the adjectives _the_ and _polar_ and by the adjective clause _which lives in the Arctic regions_. The simple predicate is _reaches_, which is modified by the adverb _sometimes_ and completed by the direct object _latitudes_. This complement, _latitudes_, is modified by the adjective _temperate_. The subordinate clause is introduced by the relative pronoun _which_. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.]
2. The polar bear reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause is _the polar bear reaches temperate latitudes_; the subordinate clause is _when the ice drifts southward_. The complete subject of the sentence is _the polar bear_; the complete predicate is _reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward_. The simple subject is _bear_, which is modified by the adjectives _the_ and _polar_. The simple predicate is _reaches_, which is modified by the adverbial clause _when the ice drifts southward_, and completed by the noun _latitudes_ (the direct object of _reaches_). The complement _latitudes_ is modified by the adjective _temperate_. The subordinate clause is introduced by the relative adverb _when_. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.]
3. The polar bear, which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause is _the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_; the subordinate clause is _which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home_, which is complex, since it contains the adverbial clause _when it is at home_, modifying the verb _lives_.
4. He says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause is _he says_; the subordinate clause is _that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions_. The subject of the sentence is _he_, the complete predicate is _says that the polar bear lives in the Arctic regions_. The simple predicate is _says_, which is completed by its direct object, the noun clause _that ... regions_, introduced by the conjunction _that_. [Then analyze the subordinate clause.]
5. That the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes is a familiar fact.
This is a complex sentence. The main clause (_is a familiar fact_) appears as a predicate only, since the subordinate clause (_that the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_) is a noun clause used as the complete subject of the sentence. The simple predicate is _is_, which is completed by the predicate nominative _fact_. This complement is modified by the adjectives _a_ and _familiar_. The subordinate clause, which is used as the complete subject, is introduced by the conjunction _that_. [Then analyze this clause.]
COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES
+461.+ In analyzing a +compound complex+ sentence, we first divide it into the +independent clauses+ (simple or complex) of which it consists, and then analyze each of these as if it were a sentence by itself.
See the examples in §§ 456, 457.
## CHAPTER III
MODIFIERS
+462.+ The various kinds of +modifiers+ and +complements+ have all been studied in preceding chapters,--each in connection with the construction which it illustrates. For purposes of analysis, however, it is necessary to consider modifiers as such and complements as such.
The topics will be taken up in the following order:--(1) modifiers,--of the subject, of the predicate; (2) complements; (3) modifiers of complements; (4) modifiers of modifiers.
+463.+ +A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier+ (§ 19).
{Men | _Able_ men | Men _of ability_} can always find employment.
{Walls | _Battlemented_ walls | Walls _with battlements_} usually enclosed mediæval cities.
{Cottages | _English_ cottages | Cottages _in England_} are often thatched.
The boy listened {_eagerly_. | _with eagerness_.}
I coughed {_purposely_. | _on purpose_.}
The bullet passed {_harmlessly_. | _without doing harm_.}
+464.+ Modifiers may be attached not only to substantives and verbs, but also to adjectives and adverbs.
All modifiers of substantives are called +adjective modifiers+; all modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are called +adverbial modifiers+.
NOTE. The terms +adjective modifier+ and +adjective+ are not synonymous. All adjectives are adjective modifiers, but all adjective modifiers are not adjectives. Thus, in “Henry’s skates are rusty,” the possessive noun _Henry’s_ is an adjective modifier, since it limits the noun _skates_ as an adjective might do.
+465.+ A group of words used as a modifier may be either a +phrase+ or a +clause+ (§§ 40–46).
{_Able_ men | Men _of ability_ | Men _who have ability_} can always find employment.
I spoke {_thoughtlessly_. | _without thinking_. | _before I thought_.}
+A phrase or a clause used as an adjective modifier is called an adjective phrase or clause.+
+A phrase or a clause used as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial phrase or clause.+
Adjective and adverbial clauses are always +subordinate+, because they are used as parts of speech (§ 46).
MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT
+466.+ Any substantive in the sentence may take an adjective modifier, but +modifiers of the subject+ are particularly important.
The simple subject may be modified by (1) an +adjective+, an +adjective phrase+, or an +adjective clause+; (2) a +participle+; (3) an +infinitive+; (4) a +possessive+; (5) an +appositive+.
I. ADJECTIVES, ADJECTIVE PHRASES, ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
+467.+ The simple subject may be modified by an +adjective+, an +adjective phrase+, or an +adjective clause+.
{_Ivory_ trinkets | Trinkets _of ivory_ | Trinkets _which were carved from ivory_} lay scattered about.
{_Treeless_ spots | Spots _without trees_ | Spots _where no trees grew_} were plainly visible.
In each of these groups of sentences, the subject of the first sentence is modified by an +adjective+, that of the second by an +adjective phrase+, that of the third by an +adjective clause+.
Most adjective phrases are +prepositional+ (§ 42), as in the examples.
+468.+ An +adjective clause+ may be introduced by a +relative pronoun+ or a +relative adverb+. For lists, see § 377.
I. RELATIVE PRONOUNS
The architect _who designed this church_ was a man of genius.
The painter _whom Ruskin oftenest mentions_ is Turner.
A piece of amber _which is rubbed briskly_ will attract bits of paper.
The day _that I dreaded_ came at last.
The plain _through which this river flows_ is marvelously fertile.
The book _from which I got this information_ is always regarded as authoritative.
A friend _in whom one can trust_ is a treasure beyond price.
The boys _with whom he associates_ do him no good.
II. RELATIVE ADVERBS
The spot _where the Old Guard made their last stand_ is marked by a bronze eagle.
The morning _when I arrived in Rome_ is one of my pleasantest memories.
The year _after Ashton left home_ brought fresh disaster.
The land _whence Scyld drifted in his magic boat_ will never be known.
NOTE. A preposition and a relative pronoun may often replace a relative adverb. Thus, in the second example, _on which_ might be substituted for _when_.
II. PARTICIPLES
+469.+ The subject may be modified by a +participle+ (with or without modifier or complement).
1. _Smiling_, the child shook his head.
2. My aunt, _reassured_, took up her book again.
3. The prisoner sank back _exhausted_.
4. _Exasperated_ beyond endurance, the captain cut the rope.
5. John, _obeying_ a sudden impulse, took to his heels.
6. _Having broken_ one oar, Robert had to scull.
7. The natives, _fearing_ captivity above all things, leaped into the river.
8. Albert left the room, _looking_ rather sullen.
In the fourth example the participle is modified by an adverbial phrase; in the fifth and sixth, it has an object; in the seventh, it has both an object and a modifier; in the eighth, it is followed by the predicate adjective _sullen_. In analysis, the whole participial phrase (consisting of the participle and accompanying words) may be treated as an adjective phrase modifying the subject; but it is simpler to regard the participle as the modifier, and then to enumerate its modifiers, etc., separately.
Thus, in the seventh example, the simple subject _natives_ is modified by the participle _fearing_, which has for a complement _captivity_ (the direct object) and is modified by the adverbial phrase _above all things_.
NOTE. A participle, though a modifier of the subject, has at the same time a peculiar relation to the predicate, because it may take the place of an adverbial clause. Thus, in the seventh example, _fearing_ is practically equivalent to the clause _because they feared_, which, if substituted for the participle, would of course modify the predicate verb _leaped_. This dual office of the participle comes from its twofold nature as (1) an adjective and (2) a verb. In analyzing, we treat the participle as an adjective modifier of the noun to which it belongs; but its function as a substitute for an adverbial clause is an important means of securing variety in style.
III. INFINITIVES
+470.+ The subject may be modified by an +infinitive+.
Eagerness _to learn_ was young Lincoln’s strongest passion.
Desire _to travel_ made Taylor restless.
The wish _to succeed_ prompted him to do his best.
Ability _to write rapidly_ is a valuable accomplishment.
Howard’s unwillingness _to desert a friend_ cost him his life.
In the fourth example, the infinitive has an adverbial modifier (_rapidly_); and in the fifth, it has a complement, its object (_friend_). In such instances, two methods of analysis are allowable, as in the case of participial phrases (§ 469).
IV. POSSESSIVES
+471.+ The subject may be modified by a substantive in the +possessive case+.
Such a substantive may be called a +possessive modifier+.
_Napoleon’s_ tomb is in Paris.
A _man’s_ house is his castle.
_One’s_ taste in reading changes as one grows older.
A _moment’s_ thought would have saved me.
The _squirrel’s_ teeth grow rapidly.
The _Indians’_ camp was near the river.
_His_ name is Alfred.
_Your_ carriage has arrived.
In each of these examples, a substantive in the possessive case modifies the subject by limiting its meaning precisely as an adjective would do.
NOTE. An adjective phrase may often be substituted for a possessive. Thus, in the first example, instead of “_Napoleon’s_ tomb” one may say “the tomb _of Napoleon_” (§ 93).
V. APPOSITIVES
+472.+ The subject may be modified by a +substantive in apposition+ (§ 88, 5).
Meredith the _carpenter_ lives in that house.
Herbert, our _captain_, has broken his leg.
The idol of the Aztecs, a grotesque _image_, was thrown down by the Spaniards.
Many books, both _pamphlets_ and bound _volumes_, littered the table. [Here the subject (_books_) is modified by two appositives.]
Appositives often have modifiers of their own.
Thus _carpenter_ is modified by the adjective _the_, _captain_ by the possessive _our_, _image_ by the adjectives _a_ and _grotesque_.
In analyzing, the whole appositive phrase (consisting of the appositive and attached words) may be regarded as modifying the subject. It is as well, however, to treat the appositive as the modifier and then to enumerate the adjectives, etc., by which the appositive itself is modified.
+473.+ A +noun clause+ may be used as an appositive, and so may be an adjective modifier (§ 386).
The question _whether Antonio was a citizen_ was settled in the affirmative. [Here the italicized clause is used as a noun in apposition with _question_.]
The statement _that water freezes_ seems absurd to a native of the torrid zone. [The clause _that water freezes_ is in apposition with _statement_.]
An adjective in the appositive position is often called an +appositive adjective+ (§ 172). “A sword, _keen_ and _bright_, flashed from the soldier’s scabbard.”
MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE
+474.+ The +simple predicate+, being a verb or verb-phrase, can have only +adverbial modifiers+.
The simple predicate may be modified by (1) an +adverb+, an +adverbial phrase+, or an +adverbial clause+, (2) an +infinitive+, (3) an +adverbial objective+, (4) a +nominative absolute+, (5) an +indirect object+, (6) a +cognate object+.
I. ADVERB, ADVERBIAL PHRASE, ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
+475.+ The simple predicate may be modified by an +adverb+, an +adverbial phrase+, or an +adverbial clause+.
The landlord collects his rents {_monthly_. | _on the first of every month_. | _when the first of the month comes_.}
The old schoolhouse stands {_there_. | _at the cross-roads_. | _where the roads meet_.}
We left the hall {_early_. | _before the last speech_. | _while the last speech was being delivered_.}
In each of these groups, the simple predicate of the first sentence is modified by an adverb, that of the second by an adverbial phrase, and that of the third by an adverbial clause.
Most adverbial phrases are +prepositional+ (§ 42).
ADVERB ADVERBIAL PHRASE
speedily with speed furiously with fury lately of late instantly in an instant there in that place rapidly at a rapid rate skillfully { in a skillful manner { with skill promptly on the instant to-morrow on the morrow unwillingly against my will
Peculiar adverbial phrases are:--
to and fro, now and then, up and down, again and again, first and last, full speed, full tilt, hit or miss, more or less, head first, upside down, inside out, sink or swim, cash down.
+476.+ An adverbial clause that modifies a verb may be introduced by (1) a +relative adverb+, or (2) a +subordinate conjunction+.
I. RELATIVE ADVERBS
Our colonel was always found _where the fighting was fiercest_.
_When I give the signal_, press the button.
_Whenever I call_, you refuse to see me.
Miller arrived _after the play had begun_.
Everybody listened _while the vagrant told his story_.
My uncle laughed _until the tears came_.
The prisoner has not been seen _since he made his escape_.
II. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
Archer resigned _because his health failed_.
I will give the address _if you will let me choose my subject_.
Brandon insisted on walking, _although the roads were dangerous_.
The child ran with all her might _lest she should be too late_.
I gave you a front seat _in order that you might hear_.
The town lies at the base of a lofty cliff _so that it is sheltered from the north wind_.
II. INFINITIVE
+477.+ The simple predicate may be modified by an +infinitive+ (§ 323).
He lay down _to rest_.
I stopped _to listen_.
The fire continued _to burn_.
The wind began _to subside_.
Jack worked hard _to fell_ the tree.
Will did his best _to win_ the prize.
Kate began _to weep_ bitterly.
That draughtsman seems _to be_ remarkably skilful.
The infinitive may have a complement or a modifier, as in the last four examples.
III. ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE
+478.+ The simple predicate may be modified by an +adverbial objective+ (§ 109).
I have waited _ages_.
We have walked _miles_.
Arthur practised _weeks_.
The addition of modifiers to the adverbial objective makes an adverbial phrase.
Walter ran _the entire distance_.
He stayed _a whole day_.
I will forgive you _this time_.
He came at me _full tilt_.
The wind blew _all night_.
Come with me _a little way_.
In the first sentence, the adverbial phrase _the entire distance_ modifies the verb _ran_ as an adverb would do. This phrase consists of the noun _distance_ with its adjective modifiers, _the_ and _entire_.
IV. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE
+479.+ The simple predicate may be modified by a +nominative absolute+ (§ 345).
A substantive in the +absolute construction+ makes with its modifiers an adverbial phrase.
_The ship having arrived_, we all embarked.
We shall sail on Tuesday, _weather permitting_.
_That done_, repair to Pompey’s theatre.
_The bridge across the chasm being only a single tree trunk_, we hesitated to attempt the passage.
In the first sentence, the adverbial absolute phrase, _the ship having arrived_, is equivalent to the adverbial prepositional phrase, _on the arrival of the ship_, and defines the time of the action expressed by the verb _embarked_.
V. INDIRECT OBJECT
+480.+ The simple predicate may be modified by an +indirect object+ (§ 105).
He gave _me_ a watch. [= He gave a watch _to me_.]
Tom told _me_ the whole story. [= Tom told the whole story _to me_.]
In these sentences, the indirect object _me_, being equivalent to a prepositional phrase, is an adverbial modifier.
The objective of service (§ 106) is also an adverbial modifier.
VI. COGNATE OBJECT
+481.+ The simple predicate may be modified by a +cognate object+ or by a phrase containing such an object (§ 108).
The officer looked _daggers_ at me [= looked at me angrily].
The shepherd sang a merry _song_ [= sang merrily].
The skipper laughed a scornful _laugh_ [= laughed scornfully].
In the first sentence, the cognate object (_daggers_) modifies the predicate verb (_looked_) as the adverb _angrily_ would do. It is therefore an adverbial modifier. In the second and third sentences the modifier of the predicate verb (_sang_, _laughed_) is an adverbial phrase consisting of a cognate object (_song_, _laugh_) with its adjective modifiers (_a merry_, _a scornful_).
## CHAPTER IV
COMPLEMENTS
+482.+ 1. Some verbs have a meaning that is +complete in itself+. Such a verb needs only a subject. When this has been supplied, we have a sentence, for the mere verb, without any additional word or words, is capable of being a predicate.
Birds _fly_.
Fishes _swim_.
The sun _shines_.
The moon _rose_.
The man _scowled_.
The girl _laughed_.
The owls _hooted_.
The clock _ticked_.
Verbs of this kind are sometimes called +complete verbs+, or +verbs of complete predication+.
2. Other verbs are not, by themselves, capable of serving as predicates. Thus,--
The Indians killed ----.
Mr. Harris makes ----.
Tom is ----.
The man seemed ----.
These are not sentences, for the predicate of each is unfinished. The verb requires the addition of a substantive or an adjective to complete its sense.
The Indians killed _deer_.
Mr. Harris makes _shoes_.
Tom is _captain_.
The man seemed _sorry_.
Verbs of this kind are often called +incomplete verbs+, or +verbs of incomplete predication+.
NOTE. The meaning of the verb determines to which of these classes it belongs. Accordingly, the same verb may belong to the first class in some of its senses and to the second in others (§§ 212–215).
+483.+ +A substantive or adjective added to the predicate verb to complete its meaning is called a complement.+
+Complements are of four kinds,--the direct object, the predicate objective, the predicate nominative, and the predicate adjective.+
In the examples in § 482, _deer_ and _shoes_ are +direct objects+,--the former denoting the +receiver+ of the action, the latter denoting the +product+; _captain_ is a +predicate nominative+, denoting the same person as the subject _Tom_ (§ 88, 2); _sorry_ is a predicate adjective describing the subject _man_.
Complements may, of course, be modified. If they are substantives, they may take adjective modifiers; if adjectives, they may take adverbial modifiers (§§ 464, 494).
+484.+ For convenience, the definitions of the four kinds of complements are here repeated, with examples.
1. THE DIRECT OBJECT
+485.+ +Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.+
+A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object+ (§ 100).
The direct object is often called the +object complement+, or merely the +object of the verb+.
Alfred has broken his _arm_.
Morse invented the electric _telegraph_.
Black foxes command a high _price_.
You have accomplished a _task_ of great difficulty.
Have you lost the _dog_ which your uncle gave you?
He asked _me_ the _news_. [Two direct objects (§ 103).]
Most of these objects are modified,--_arm_ by the possessive _his_; _telegraph_ by _the_ and _electric_; _price_ by _a_ and _high_; _task_ by the adjective phrase _of great difficulty_; _dog_ by _the_ and by the adjective clause _which your uncle gave you_.
+486.+ A noun clause may be used as the direct object of a verb (§ 386).
You promised _that my coat should be ready to-day_.
The mayor ordered _that the street should be closed for three hours_.
I begged _that my passport might be returned to me_.
For further examples, see §§ 407, 432, 439, 441.
2. THE PREDICATE OBJECTIVE
+487.+ +Verbs of _choosing_, _calling_, _naming_, _making_, and _thinking_ may take two objects referring to the same person or thing.+
+The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective+ (§ 104).
The +predicate objective+ is often called the +complementary object+ or the +objective attribute+.
The people have elected Chamberlain _governor_.
Peter calls Richard my _shadow_.
The court has appointed you the child’s _guardian_.
John thinks himself a _hero_.
+488.+ An +adjective+ may serve as a +predicate objective+. Thus,--
I thought your decision _hasty_.
I call that answer _impertinent_.
The jury found the prisoner _guilty_.
Your letter made him _joyful_.
Care should be taken not to confuse adverbs with adjectives in _-ly_ serving as predicate objectives.
You called him _sickly_. [Adjective.]
You called him _early_. [Adverb.]
After the passive, a predicate objective becomes a +predicate nominative+ (§ 489).
3. THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
+489.+ +A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative+ (§ 88, 2).
A predicate nominative is often called a +subject complement+ or an +attribute+.
The predicate nominative is common after _is_ and other copulative verbs, and after certain transitive verbs in the passive voice.
Chemistry is a useful _science_.
Boston is the _capital_ of Massachusetts.
Jefferson became _President_.
This bird is called a _flamingo_.
Mr. Hale was appointed _secretary_.
Albert has been chosen _captain_ of the crew.
You are a _friend_ upon whom I can rely.
In most of the examples, the predicate nominative has one or more modifiers. In the first sentence, _science_ is modified by the two adjectives _a_ and _useful_; in the second, _capital_ is modified by the adjective phrase _of Massachusetts_; in the last, _friend_ is modified by the adjective clause _upon whom I can rely_.
For the distinction between the +predicate nominative+ and the +direct object+, see § 102.
+490.+ A +noun clause+ may be used as a predicate nominative (§ 386).
My plan is _that the well should be dug to-morrow_.
His intention was _that you should remain here_.
The result is _that he is bankrupt_.
Ruth’s fear was _that the door might be locked_.
+491.+ An +infinitive+ may be used as a predicate nominative.
To hear is _to obey_.
My hope was _to reach_ the summit before dark.
Their plan was _to undermine_ the tower.
My habit is _to rise_ early.
The infinitive may have a complement or modifiers. In the second and third examples, it takes an object; in the fourth it is modified by an adverb.
4. THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE
+492.+ +An adjective in the predicate belonging to a noun or pronoun in the subject is called a predicate adjective.+
+A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate verb and is therefore a complement+ (§ 172, 3.)
Like the predicate nominative, the predicate adjective is common after copulative verbs and after certain transitive verbs in the passive voice (§§ 172, 3; 252).
John was _angry_.
My knife is growing _dull_.
The task seemed very _easy_.
The report proved _false_ in every particular.
The boat was thought _unsafe_.
The cover was made perfectly _tight_.
In some of these examples, the predicate adjective has a modifier. In the third, _easy_ is modified by the adverb _very_; in the fourth, _false_ is modified by the adverbial phrase _in every particular_; in the last, _tight_ is modified by _perfectly_.
+493.+ An +adjective phrase+ may be used as a predicate adjective. Thus,--
Richard was _out of health_. [Compare: Richard was _ill_.]
Rachel seemed _in a passion_. [Compare: seemed _angry_.]
This act is _against my interests_. [Compare: is _harmful_ to me.]
The adjective phrase may consist of an infinitive with or without the preposition _about_ (§ 319).
I was _about to speak_.
This house is _to let_.
I am _to sail_ to-morrow.
## CHAPTER V
MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF MODIFIERS
COMPLEMENTS MODIFIED
+494.+ Complements, being either substantives or adjectives, may be modified in various ways, most of which have been noted in Chapter III.
1. A +substantive+ used as a +complement+ may have the same kinds of modifiers that are used with the +subject+ (§ 466).
2. An +adjective complement+ admits only +adverbial modifiers+.
+495.+ The following sentences illustrate the modifiers of substantive complements:--
Herbert lost _a gold_ watch. [The direct object (_watch_) is modified by the adjectives _a_ and _gold_.]
The duke built towers _of marble_. [The direct object (_towers_) is modified by the adjective phrase _of marble_.]
My father built _the_ house _in which I was born_. [The direct object (_house_) is modified by the adjective _the_ and the adjective clause _in which I was born_.]
I saw _a_ man _running_ across the field. [The direct object (_man_) is modified by the adjective _a_ and the participle _running_.]
You have forfeited _your_ right _to vote_. [The direct object (_right_) is modified by the possessive pronoun _your_ and the infinitive _to vote_.]
I have seen _Henry’s_ brother. [The direct object (_brother_) is modified by the possessive noun _Henry’s_.]
I must ask _my_ brother, the _mayor_. [The direct object (_brother_) is modified by the possessive pronoun _my_ and the appositive _mayor_.]
The guild has elected Walter _honorary_ president. [The predicate objective (_president_) is modified by the adjective _honorary_.]
Her husband is _an old_ soldier. [The predicate nominative (_soldier_) is modified by the adjectives _an_ and _old_.]
Her sons are veterans _of the Franco-Prussian war_. [The predicate nominative (_veterans_) is modified by the adjective phrase _of the Franco-Prussian war_.]
They are rivals _in business_. [The predicate nominative (_rivals_) is modified by the adjective phrase _in business_.]
The author is Will Jewell, _who was formerly editor of_ “_The Pioneer_.” [The predicate nominative (_Will Jewell_) is modified by the adjective clause _who was formerly editor_, etc.]
Baldwin is _the_ man _standing_ under the tree. [The predicate nominative (_man_) is modified by the adjective _the_ and the
## participle _standing_.]
Your chief fault is _your_ inclination _to procrastinate_. [The predicate nominative (_inclination_) is modified by the possessive pronoun _your_ and the infinitive _to procrastinate_.]
This man is _Gretchen’s_ brother. [The predicate nominative (_brother_) is modified by the possessive noun _Gretchen’s_.]
The first to fall was _the_ bugler, _John Wilson_. [The predicate nominative (_bugler_) is modified by the adjective _the_ and the appositive _John Wilson_.]
+496.+ +Adjective clauses+ are very common as modifiers of substantive complements (cf. § 468).
Have you lost the watch _that your cousin gave you_?
This is the very spot _where the temple of Saturn stood_.
The general issued an order _that all non-combatants should be treated well_.
We have abundant proof _that during his stay on the Continent, Bacon did not neglect literary and scientific pursuits_.
+497.+ An +adjective+ used as a complement may be modified by an +adverb+, an +adverbial phrase+, or an +adverbial clause+.
I am _very_ sorry _for you_. [_Sorry_ is modified by the adverb _very_ and the adverbial phrase _for you_.]
Charles seems {_rather_ | _very_ | _extremely_} angry.
The road is rough {_in places_. | _where they are repairing it_.}
The whole tribe appeared eager _for war_.
He grew envious _of his successful rival_.
Be zealous _in every righteous cause_.
The chief’s face looked dark _with passion_.
He was selfish _beyond belief_. [The predicate adjective (_selfish_) is modified by the adverbial phrase _beyond belief_.]
Ellen seemed desirous _that her friends should admire her_.
The secretary appeared unwilling _to resign_. [See § 321, note.]
MODIFIERS OF OTHER MODIFIERS
+498.+ +Modifiers may themselves be modified.+
The chief varieties of such modification are illustrated in the following sentences.
I. +Adjectives+ or +adjective phrases+ may be modified by +adverbs+ or by words or groups of words used adverbially.
A _very_ old man came to the door.
An _exceedingly_ dangerous curve lay beyond the bridge.
This _rather_ odd proposal interested us.
The quay is _miles_ long. [Adverbial objective (§ 109).]
_At least_ five different amendments have been offered. [_Five_ is modified by the adverbial phrase _at least_.]
The general, _wholly_ in the dark as to the enemy’s intentions, ordered an advance. [The adjective phrase _in the dark_ is modified by _wholly_.]
_Quite_ at his ease, John began to speak. [_At his ease_ is modified by _quite_.]
Her smile, pathetic _in its weariness_, quickly faded. [The adverbial phrase modifies _pathetic_]
This sleeve is _a good two inches_ short. [The phrase modifies _short_.]
II. +Possessive nouns+ may be modified by adjectives or by possessives.
_The poor_ man’s days are numbered.
_Honest_ Tom’s face shone with delight.
_The faithful_ animal’s head drooped.
_My_ uncle’s barn is on fire.
_John’s_ brother’s name is Reginald.
III. +Appositives+ may be modified by adjectives or by groups of words used as adjectives.
Joe, _the old_ butler, met me at the station.
Sam, _the cunning_ rascal, had stolen the oars.
Her mother, a woman _of fashion_, sadly neglected her.
The other, the man _at the table_, laughed rudely.
Ferdinand Oliver, the engineer _who had charge of the construction_, proved incompetent.
Two Englishmen, friends _whom I visited last summer_, are coming to New York in December.
IV. +Adverbs+ or +adverbial phrases+ may be modified by adverbs or by words or groups of words used adverbially.
Jane plays _very_ well.
Robert spoke _almost_ hopefully.
She answered _quite_ at random.
I write to him _at least_ once _a year_.
+499.+ An adjective may be modified by an +infinitive+ (§ 321).
Unable _to move_, I suffered torments of anxiety.
The sailors, eager _to reach_ the island, plunged into the sea.
Reluctant _to act_, but unwilling _to stand_ idle, Burwell was in a pitiful state of indecision.
+500.+ Adjective and adverbial clauses are very common as modifiers of modifiers (cf. § 496).
Geronimo, an old chief _who bore the scars of many battles_, led the attack. [The adjective clause modifies the appositive _chief_.]
The servant, angry _because he had been rebuked_, slammed the door as he went out.
The hunter, confident _that the deer had not heard him_, took deliberate aim.
The fugitive, in a panic _lest he should be overtaken_, made frantic efforts to scale the cliff. [The adverbial clause modifies the adjective phrase _in a panic_.]
## CHAPTER VI
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS
+501.+ +A word or group of words that has no grammatical connection with the sentence in which it stands is called an independent element.+
+Independent elements are of four kinds,--interjections, vocatives (or nominatives by direct address), exclamatory nominatives, and parenthetical expressions.+
_Ah!_ why did I undertake this task?
Help arrived, _alas!_ too late.
You are a strange man, _Arthur_.
_Mary_, come here!
Poor _Charles_! I am sorry for him.
_Clothes! clothes!_ you are always wanting clothes.
Lucky _she_! we are all envious of her prospects.
The first two sentences contain +interjections+ (§ 372); the second two, +vocatives+ (or nominatives by direct address) (§ 88, 3); the last three, +exclamatory nominatives+ (§ 88, 4).
When the independent word has a +modifier+ (as in the fifth and seventh examples), the whole phrase may be treated as an independent element.
+502.+ +A word or group of words attached to or inserted in a sentence as a mere comment, without belonging either to the subject or the predicate, is said to be parenthetical.+
The market, _indeed_, was already closed.
Peter, _to be sure_, was not very trustworthy.
The house, _at all events_, is safe.
The road is, _I admit_, very hilly.
Luttrell’s method, _it must be confessed_, was a little disappointing.
Richard was not a bad fellow, _after all_.
+503.+ In analysis, an independent element is mentioned by itself, and not as a part of the complete subject or the complete predicate.
## CHAPTER VII
COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES
+504.+ The use of subordinate clauses as complements and modifiers, and as modifiers of complements and of modifiers, may produce sentences of great length and complicated structure.
Such sentences, if skilfully composed, are not hard to follow. Their analysis requires merely the intelligent application of a few simple principles, which have already been explained and illustrated.
+505.+ These principles may be summed up as follows:--
I. All clauses are either +independent+ or +subordinate+. A clause is subordinate if it is used as a part of speech (noun, adjective, or adverb); otherwise, it is independent (§ 46).
II. +Coördinate+ means “of the same rank” in the sentence (§ 46).
1. Two or more +independent clauses+ in the same sentence are manifestly coördinate.
_The fire blazed_ and _the wood crackled_. [Two declarative clauses.]
_What is your name_, and _where were you born_? [Interrogative clauses.]
_Sit down_ and _tell me your story_. [Imperative clauses.]
2. Two or more +subordinate clauses+ are coördinate _with each other_ when they are used together in the same construction,--as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
Such a group may be regarded as forming one +compound subordinate clause+.
The truth is, _that I have no money_ and _that my friends have forsaken me_. [Noun clauses.]
The Indians, _who were armed with long lances_, and _who showed great skill in using them_, made a furious attack on the cavalry. [Adjective clauses.]
_When he had spoken_, but _before a vote had been taken_, a strange tumult was heard in the outer room. [Adverbial clauses.]
In the first example, we have a +compound noun clause+; in the second, a +compound adjective clause+; in the third, a +compound adverbial clause+.
3. Coördinate clauses are either joined by coördinate conjunctions (_and_, _or_, _but_, etc.), or such conjunctions may be supplied without changing the sense (§ 362).
The good-natured old gentleman, _who was friendly to both parties_, [AND] _who did not lack courage_, AND _who hated a quarrel_, spoke his mind with complete frankness.
III. A subordinate clause may depend on another subordinate clause.
The horse shied _when he saw the locomotive_. [The subordinate clause depends upon the independent (main) clause.]
The horse shied when he saw the locomotive, _which was puffing violently_. [The second subordinate clause depends upon the first, being an adjective modifier of _locomotive_.]
In such cases, the whole group of subordinate clauses may be taken together as forming one +complex subordinate clause+.
Thus, in the second example, _when he saw the locomotive, which was puffing violently_ may be regarded as a complex adverbial clause modifying _shied_, and containing an adjective clause (_which was puffing violently_).
+506.+ From the principles summarized in § 505, it appears that--
+Clauses (like sentences) may be simple, compound, or complex.+
1. A +simple clause+ contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound (§ 451).
2. A +compound clause+ consists of two or more coördinate clauses (§ 454).
3. A +complex clause+ consists of at least two clauses, one of which is subordinate to the other.
+507.+ The +unit+ in all combinations of clauses is clearly the +simple sentence+, which, when used as a part of a more complicated sentence, becomes a +simple clause+.
The processes used in such combinations, as we have seen, are really but two in number,--+coördination+ and +subordination+.
+Coördination of clauses produces compound sentences or compound clauses; subordination of one clause to another produces complex sentences or complex clauses.+
+508.+ Every sentence, however long and complicated, belongs (in structure) to one of the three classes,--+simple+, +compound+, and +complex+.
SIMPLE SENTENCES
+509.+ A simple sentence may have a +compound subject or predicate+ (or both), and may also include a number of modifiers and complements.
Obviously, then, a simple sentence need not be short. It remains +simple in structure+ so long as it contains but one simple or compound subject and one simple or compound predicate. Thus,--
1. You leave Glasgow in a steamboat, go down the Clyde fourteen miles, and then come to Dumbarton Castle, a huge rock five or six hundred feet high, not connected with any other high land, and with a fortress at the top.--WEBSTER.
The length of this sentence is due partly to its compound predicate,
## partly to the modifier (and modifiers of the modifier) attached to
the noun _Dumbarton Castle_.
2. He was little disposed to exchange his lordly repose for the insecure and agitated life of a conspirator, to be in the power of accomplices, to live in constant dread of warrants and king’s messengers, nay, perhaps, to end his days on a scaffold, or to live on alms in some back street of the Hague.--MACAULAY.
This sentence is lengthened by means of a series of infinitives used as adverbial modifiers of the complement _disposed_ (a participle used as an adjective). Each of these infinitives takes a complement or a modifier (or both).
3. The arbitrary measures of Charles I, the bold schemes of Strafford, and the intolerant bigotry of Laud, precipitated a collision between the opposite principles of government, and divided the whole country into Cavaliers and Roundheads.--MAY.
Both the subject and the predicate are compound. Each of the three nouns in the compound subject has modifiers. The two verbs in the compound predicate have each a complement, and the second has an adverbial modifier (a phrase).
4. Twenty of the savages now got on board and proceeded to ramble over every part of the deck and scramble about among the rigging, making themselves much at home and examining every article with great inquisitiveness.--POE.
The predicate is compound. The sentence is extended by the use of
## participles (_making_ and _examining_), which modify the simple
subject _twenty_.
5. She was tumbled early, by accident or design, into a spacious closet of good old English reading, without much selection or prohibition, and browsed at will upon that fair and wholesome pasturage.--LAMB.
6. The mermaid was still seen to glide along the waters, and mingling her voice with the sighing breeze, was often heard to sing of subterranean wonders, or to chant prophecies of future events.--SCOTT.
7. With early dawn, they were under arms, and, without waiting for the movement of the Spaniards, poured into the city and attacked them in their own quarters.--PRESCOTT.
8. Arming a desperate troop of slaves and gladiators, he overpowered the feeble guard of the domestic tranquillity of Rome, received the homage of the Senate, and, assuming the title of Augustus, precariously reigned during a tumult of twenty-eight days.--GIBBON.
NOTE. A +simple sentence with compound predicate+ often differs very slightly from a +compound sentence+. Thus in examples 4–7 the insertion of a single pronoun (_they_, _she_) to serve as a subject for the second verb (_proceeded_, _browsed_, etc.) will make the sentence compound.
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
+510.+ Every sentence that is not simple must be either +compound+ or +complex+.
A sentence is +compound+ if it consists of two or more independent clauses; +complex+, if it consists of one independent (main) clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
+511.+ An ordinary +compound sentence+ consists of two or more coördinate simple clauses.
Such a sentence may be of great length (as in the last example below), but its structure is usually transparent.
A cricket chirps on the hearth, | and | we are reminded of Christmas gambols long ago.--HAZLITT.
The moments were numbered; | the strife was finished; | the vision was closed.--DE QUINCEY.
The old king had retired to his couch that night in one of the strongest towers of the Alhambra, | but | his restless anxiety kept him from repose.--IRVING.
The clock has just struck two; | the expiring taper rises and sinks in the socket; | the watchman forgets his hour in slumber; | the laborious and the happy are at rest; | and | nothing wakes but meditation, guilt, revelry, and despair.--GOLDSMITH.
The present, indeed, is not a contest for distant or contingent objects; | it is not a contest for acquisition of territory; | it is not a contest for power and glory; | as little is it carried on merely for any commercial advantage, or any particular form of government; | but | it is a contest for the security, the tranquillity, and the very existence of Great Britain, connected with that of every established government and every country in Europe.--PITT.
+512.+ A +complex sentence+, in its most elementary form, consists of one simple independent (main) clause and one simple subordinate clause.
The gas exploded when I struck a match.
Though he is idle, he is not lazy.
The carpenter who fell from the roof has recovered from his injuries.
Their eyes were so fatigued with the eternal dazzle and whiteness, that they lay down on their backs upon deck to relieve their sight on the blue sky.--KEATS.
The shouts of thousands, their menacing gestures, the fierce clashing of their arms, astonished and subdued the courage of Vetranio, who stood, amidst the defection of his followers, in anxious and silent suspense.--GIBBON.
+513.+ Both compound sentences and complex sentences admit of much variety in structure, according to the nature and the relations of the clauses that compose them.
COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES
+514.+ +Any or all of the coördinate clauses that make up a compound sentence may be complex. In that case, the sentence is called a compound complex sentence.+
NOTE. Compound complex sentences form a special class or subdivision under the general head of compound sentences.[49]
Old Uncle Venner was just coming out of his door, with a wood-horse and saw on his shoulder; and, trudging along the street, he scrupled not to keep company with Phœbe, so far as their paths lay together; nor, in spite of his patched coat and rusty beaver, and the curious fashion of his tow-cloth trousers, could she find it in her heart to outwalk him.--HAWTHORNE.
This sentence consists of +three coördinate clauses+, each independent of the others. These are joined by the coördinate conjunctions _and_, _nor_. The first and the third clause are +simple+, but the second clause is +complex+. Hence the whole forms one +compound complex sentence+.
The complex clause consists of two clauses, the second of which is subordinate to the first. Taken as a whole, however, this complex clause is manifestly coördinate with the two simple clauses, since the three form a series joined by coördinate conjunctions.
+515.+ Further examples of +compound complex sentences+ are:--
1. The people drove out King Athamas, because he had killed his child; and he roamed about in his misery, till he came to the Oracle in Delphi.--KINGSLEY.
2. Society is the stage on which manners are shown; novels are their literature.--EMERSON.
3. We keep no bees, but if I lived in a hive I should scarcely have more of their music.--COWPER.
4. The same river ran on as it had run on before, but the cheerful faces that had once been reflected in its stream had passed away.--FROUDE.
5. There are some laws and customs in this empire very peculiar; and if they were not so directly contrary to those of my own dear country, I should be tempted to say a little in their justification.--SWIFT.
6. Here they arrived about noon, and Joseph proposed to Adams that they should rest awhile in this delightful place.--FIELDING.
7. I never saw a busier person than she seemed to be; yet it was difficult to say what she did.--C. BRONTË.
8. Malaga possessed a brave and numerous garrison, and the common people were active, hardy, and resolute; but the city was rich and commercial, and under the habitual control of opulent merchants, who dreaded the ruinous consequences of a siege.--IRVING.
9. The Spaniards were not to be taken by surprise; and, before the barbarian horde had come within their lines, they opened such a deadly fire from their heavy guns, supported by the musketry and crossbows, that the assailants were compelled to fall back slowly, but fearfully mangled, to their former position.--PRESCOTT.
10. Her cheeks were as pale as marble, but of a cold, unhealthy, ashen white; and my heart ached to think that they had been bleached, most probably, by bitter and continual tears.--HOOD.
11. The hawk, having in spiral motion achieved the upper flight, fell like a thunderbolt on the raven, stunned him with the blow, clutched him in his talons, folded him in his wings, and, the hawk undermost, they tumbled down like a black ball, till within a short distance from the earth.--TRELAWNY.
In this sentence _they were_ is understood after _till_.
VARIETIES OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
+516.+ A complex sentence may be expanded either by compounding the main clause, or by increasing the number of subordinate clauses. Both methods may be used in the same sentence.
+517.+ +The independent (main) clause of a complex sentence may be compound.+
When they saw the ship, _they shouted for joy and some of them burst into tears_.
As they turned down from the knoll to rejoin their comrades, _the sun dipped and disappeared, and the woods fell instantly into the gravity and grayness of the early night_.--STEVENSON.
_The eye of the young monarch kindled and his dark cheek flushed with sudden anger_, as he listened to proposals so humiliating.--PRESCOTT.
_Sharpe was so hated in Scotland during his life, and his death won him so many friends, or pitying observers_, that it is not easy to write of him without prejudice or favor.--A. LANG.
As has been the case with many another good fellow of his nation, _his life was tracked and his substance wasted by crowds of hungry beggars and lazy dependents_.--THACKERAY.
Note that the subordinate clause depends on the compound main clause, not upon either of its members.
Thus, in the first example, the subordinate clause (_when they saw the ship_) depends upon the compound main clause, _they shouted for joy and some of them burst into tears_. It is an adverbial modifier of both _shouted_ and _burst_.
+518.+ Though a complex sentence can have but one (simple or compound) main clause, there is, in theory, no limit to the number of subordinate clauses.
+519.+ Subordinate clauses may be attached to the main clause (1) as +separate modifiers or complements+; (2) in a +coördinate series of clauses+, all in the same construction, and forming one +compound clause+; (3) in a series of +successively subordinate clauses+, forming one +complex clause+.
+520.+ +Two or more subordinate clauses may be attached to the main clause separately, each as a distinct modifier or complement.+
The bridge, _which had been weakened by the ice_, fell with a crash _while the locomotive was crossing it_. [The first subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of _bridge_; the second is an adverbial modifier of _fell_.]
The architect _who drew the plans_ says _that the house will cost ten thousand dollars_. [The first subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of _architect_; the second is a complement, being the object of _says_.]
Isabella, _whom every incident was sufficient to dismay_, hesitated _whether she should proceed_.--H. WALPOLE.
As the boat drew nearer to the city, the coast which the traveller had just left sank behind him into one long, low, sad-colored line.--RUSKIN.
Those dangers which, in the vigor of youth, we had learned to despise, assume new terrors as we grow old.--GOLDSMITH.
When Farmer Oak smiled, the corners of his mouth spread till they were within an unimportant distance of his ears.--HARDY.
As Florian Deleal walked, one hot afternoon, he overtook by the wayside a poor aged man, and, as he seemed weary with the road, helped him on with the burden which he carried, a certain distance.--PATER.
While Joe was absent on this errand, the elder Willet and his three companions continued to smoke with profound gravity and in a deep silence, each having his eyes fixed on a huge copper boiler that was suspended over the fire.--DICKENS.
+521.+ +Two or more subordinate clauses in the same construction, forming one compound clause, may be attached to the main clause as a modifier or complement.+
1. The truth was _that Leonard had overslept, that he had missed the train, and that he had failed to keep his appointment_.
2. The guide told us _that the road was impassable, that the river was in flood, and that the bridge had been swept away_.
3. Ellis, _whose pockets were empty and whose courage was at a low ebb_, stared dismally at the passing crowd.
4. _Before the battle was over and while the result was still in doubt_, the general ordered a retreat.
5. _After we had arrived at the hotel, but before we had engaged our rooms_, we received an invitation to stay at the castle.
6. My first thought was, _that all was lost, and that my only chance for executing a retreat was to sacrifice my baggage_.--DE QUINCEY.
7. The author fully convinced his readers _that they were a race of cowards and scoundrels, that nothing could save them, that they were on the point of being enslaved by their enemies, and that they richly deserved their fate_.--MACAULAY.
In the first and second examples, three coördinate noun clauses are joined to make one compound clause, which is used as a complement,--as a predicate nominative in the first sentence, as the direct object of _told_ in the second.
In the third example, a compound adjective clause modifies _Ellis_. In the fourth and fifth, a compound adverbial clause modifies the predicate verb (_ordered_, _received_). In the seventh, four _that_-clauses unite in one compound clause.
+522.+ +Two or more successively subordinate clauses, forming one complex clause, may be joined to the main clause as a modifier or complement.+
In such a series, the first subordinate clause is attached directly to the main clause, the second is subordinate to the first, the third to the second, and so on in succession.
In the course of my travels, I met a good-natured old gentleman, (_a_) _who was born in the village_ (_b_) _where my parents lived_ (_c_) _before they came to America_.
Here _gentleman_ (a complement in the main clause) is modified by the adjective clause _who was born in the village_ (_a_). _Village_, in clause _a_, is modified by the adjective clause _where my parents lived_ (_b_). _Lived_, the predicate verb of clause _b_, is modified by the adverbial clause _before they came to America_ (_c_).
Thus it appears that _a_ is subordinate to the main clause, and that _b_, in turn, is subordinate to _a_, and _c_ to _b_. In other words, the three clauses (_a_, _b_, _c_) are united to make one complex clause,--_who was born in the village where my parents lived before they came to America_. This clause, taken as a whole, serves as an adjective modifier describing _gentleman_.
+523.+ Further examples of the +successive subordination+ of one clause to another may be seen in the following sentences:--
I have passed my latter years in this city, _where I am frequently seen in public places, though there are not above half-a-dozen of my select friends that know me_.--ADDISON.
In this manner they advanced by moonlight _till they came within view of the two towering rocks that form a kind of portal to the valley, at the extremity of which rose the vast ruins of Istakar_.--BECKFORD.
The young fellow uttered this with an accent and a look so perfectly in tune to a feeling heart, _that I instantly made a vow I would give him a four-and-twenty sous piece, when I got to Marseilles_.--STERNE. [The conjunction _that_ is omitted before _I would_ (§ 388).]
Three years had scarcely elapsed _before the sons of Constantine seemed impatient to convince mankind that they were incapable of contenting themselves with the dominions which they were unqualified to govern_.--GIBBON.
Mr. Lewis sent me an account of Dr. Arbuthnot’s illness, _which is a very sensible affliction to me, who, by living so long out of the world, have lost that hardness of heart contracted by years and general conversation_.--SWIFT.
NOTE. The method of forming complex clauses by successive subordination, if overworked, produces long, straggling, shapeless sentences, as in the following example from Borrow:--“I scouted the idea that Slingsby would have stolen this blacksmith’s gear; for I had the highest opinion of his honesty, _which_ opinion I still retain at the present day, _which_ is upwards of twenty years from the time of _which_ I am speaking, during the whole of _which_ period I have neither seen the poor fellow nor received any intelligence of him.” A famous instance of the use of this structure for comic effect is “The House that Jack Built.”
SPECIAL COMPLICATIONS
+524.+ The processes of +coördination and subordination+ (§§ 514–523) may be so utilized in one and the same sentence as to produce a very complicated structure.
Examples of such sentences are given below, for reference (§§ 525–526). Their structure, however elaborate, is always either +complex+ or +compound complex+.
I. IN COMPLEX SENTENCES
+525.+ The following sentences are complex. They contain either compound or complex clauses, or both.
1. They preferred the silver with which they were familiar, and which they were constantly passing about from hand to hand, to the gold which they had never before seen, and with the value of which they were unacquainted.--MACAULAY.
The main clause of this complex sentence is _they preferred the silver to the gold_. To this are separately attached (§ 520) two adjective clauses, both +compound+: (1) _with which ... hand_, modifying _silver_; (2) _which they had ... unacquainted_, modifying _gold_.
2. All London crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet where hung the rotting remains of a prince who had made England the dread of the world, who had been the chief founder of her maritime greatness and of her colonial empire, who had conquered Scotland and Ireland, who had humbled Holland and Spain.--MACAULAY.
The sentence is +complex+. The main clause is _all London crowded to shout and laugh round the gibbet_. The rest of the sentence (_where ... Spain_) forms one long complex adjective clause, modifying _gibbet_. In this complex clause, the first clause (_where ... prince_) has dependent on it a compound adjective clause (modifying _prince_), made up of four coördinate clauses, each beginning with _who_. The subordination of this compound clause to that which precedes (_where ... prince_) produces the long complex subordinate clause _where ... Spain_.
3. As we cannot at present get Mr. Joseph out of the inn, we shall leave him in it, and carry our reader on after Parson Adams, who, his mind being perfectly at ease, fell into a contemplation on a passage in Æschylus, which entertained him for three miles together, without suffering him once to reflect on his fellow-traveller.--FIELDING.
In this +complex sentence+, two subordinate clauses are separately attached to the main clause: (1) the adverbial clause _as ... inn_; (2) the adjective clause _who ... fellow-traveller_. This latter clause is complex, since it contains the adjective clause _which ... fellow-traveller_, dependent on _who ... Æschylus_, and modifying _passage_.
4. As I sit by my window this summer afternoon, hawks are circling about my clearing; the tantivy of wild pigeons, flying by twos and threes athwart my view, or perching restlessly on the white pine boughs behind my house, gives a voice to the air; a fishhawk dimples the glassy surface of the pond and brings up a fish; a mink steals out of the marsh before my door and seizes a frog by the shore; the sedge is bending under the weight of the reed-birds flitting hither and hither; and for the last half hour I have heard the rattle of railroad cars, now dying away and then revving like the beat of a partridge, conveying travellers from Boston to the country.--THOREAU.
This sentence is +complex+. Its main clause is compound, consisting of a series of six coördinate simple clauses. The whole of this long compound main clause is modified by the adverbial clause with which the sentence begins (_as ... afternoon_).
5. That they had sprung from obscurity, that they had acquired great wealth, that they exhibited it insolently, that they spent it extravagantly, that they raised the price of everything in their neighborhood, from fresh eggs to rotten boroughs; that their liveries outshone those of dukes, that their coaches were finer than that of the Lord Mayor, that the examples of their large and ill-governed households corrupted half the servants in the country; that some of them, with all their magnificence, could not catch the tone of good society, but in spite of the stud and the crowd of menials, of the plate and the Dresden china, of the venison and the Burgundy, were still low men,--these were things which excited, both in the class from which they had sprung, and in that into which they attempted to force themselves, that bitter aversion which is the effect of mingled envy and contempt.--MACAULAY.
This +complex sentence+, though very long, is perfectly easy to follow. It begins with a long compound noun clause (consisting of nine coördinate _that_-clauses). This would be the subject of the main predicate verb _were_, but for the fact that the pronoun _these_ is inserted to act as the subject (referring back to the compound noun clause and summing it up in a single word). To the complement _things_ is attached the adjective clause _which excited ... contempt_. This clause is complex, for it contains three adjective clauses, (1) _from which they had sprung_ (modifying _class_), (2) _into which ... themselves_ (modifying _that_), and (3) _which is ... contempt_ (modifying _aversion_). All three are separately attached to the clause on which they depend, _which excited that bitter aversion_. Thus all that portion of the sentence which follows _things_ forms one complex clause, modifying that noun.
6. That I may avoid the imputation of throwing out, even privately, any loose, random imputations against the public conduct of a gentleman for whom I once entertained a very warm affection, and whose abilities I regard with the greatest admiration, I will put down, distinctly and articulately, some of the matters of objection which I feel to his late doctrines and proceedings, trusting that I shall be able to demonstrate to the friends whose good opinion I would still cultivate, that not levity, nor caprice, nor less defensible motives, but that very grave reasons, influence my judgment.--BURKE.
This is a fine example of a long, but well-constructed +complex sentence+. The main clause is _I will put down, distinctly and articulately, some of the matters of objection_. Upon this simple clause, everything else in the sentence depends in one way or another.
II. IN COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES
+526.+ Any complex sentence, however elaborate, may be used as one of the +coördinate complex clauses+ that make up a +compound complex sentence+.
1. While the king was treated at this rude rate, Cromwell, with his army, was in Scotland, obstructing the motions that were making in his favor; but on the approach of the Scots, who were much superior in number, he was forced to retire towards Dunbar, where his ships and provisions lay.--BURNET.
In this +compound complex sentence+, both coördinate clauses are complex. In each, the main clause has two subordinate clauses attached to it separately (§ 520).
2. They had seen me cut the cables, and thought my design was only to let the ships run adrift, or fall foul on each other; but when they perceived the whole fleet moving in order, and saw me pulling at the end, they set up such a scream of grief and despair as it is almost impossible to describe or conceive.--SWIFT.
In this +compound complex sentence+, both of the two coördinate clauses are complex. The first contains the noun clause [_that_] _my design ... each other_, used as the object of _thought_. The second contains two subordinate clauses, separately attached to the main clause (_they set ... despair_). For the infinitive _cut_, see § 322. The infinitive _to let_ is used as a predicate nominative (§ 491); it has as its object the infinitive clause _the ships ... each other_, containing two infinitives, _run_ and _fall_ (§ 325).
3. While things went on quietly, while there was no opposition, while everything was given by the favor of a small ruling junto, Fox had a decided advantage over Pitt; but when dangerous times came, when Europe was convulsed with war, when Parliament was broken up into factions, when the public mind was violently excited, the favorite of the people rose to supreme power.--MACAULAY.
This +compound complex sentence+ consists of two complex clauses, joined by the coördinate conjunction _but_. In each of these, the subordinate clause is compound (§ 521), consisting of several coördinate adverbial clauses introduced by relative adverbs (_while_ in the first, _when_ in the second).
4. The clear and agreeable language of his despatches had early attracted the notice of his employers; and before the Peace of Breda he had, at the request of Arlington, published a pamphlet on the war, of which nothing is now known, except that it had some vogue at the time, and that Charles, not a contemptible judge, pronounced it to be very well written.--MACAULAY.
In this +compound complex sentence+, the first coördinate clause is simple, the second is complex. In the second, the adjective clause _of which nothing is known_ has dependent on it the group of words _except ... well written_, consisting of the preposition _except_ and its object (the compound noun clause, _that ... time, and that ... well written_). This group serves as an adjective modifier of the noun _nothing_. The whole passage _of which ... well written_ forms a complex adjective clause, modifying _pamphlet_. _It to be very well written_ is a complement, being an infinitive clause used as the object of _pronounced_ (§ 325).
## CHAPTER VIII
ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES
+527.+ Good usage does not demand that all sentences shall be absolutely complete. It often allows (and sometimes requires) the omission of words that, though necessary to the construction, are so easily supplied by the mind that it would be mere waste of time to utter them.
+528.+ +The omission of a word or words necessary to the grammatical completeness of a clause or sentence is called ellipsis.+
+A clause or sentence that shows ellipsis is said to be elliptical.+
+Ellipsis+ is a Greek word meaning “omission.”
In the following examples the omitted words are supplied in brackets.
[I] thank you.
[I] pray do not [you] move.
[You] pass me that book.
Her hair is light, her eyes [are] dark blue.
Some of the strangers spoke French, others [spoke] Spanish.
Some of the patriots were armed with old flintlocks, others [were armed] with swords, still others [were armed] with pitchforks.
When [he was] a youth, he travelled in the East.
Though [he is] timid, he is no coward.
They were amused, though [they were] somewhat vexed.
While [we were] drifting downstream, we grounded on a sand bar.
If [it is] possible, send me word to-night.
You shall have the money this week, if [it is] necessary.
They marched slowly as if [they were] worn out.
Why [are] these tears?
Why [are you] so dejected?
He was ten years of age, his brother [was] eight [years of age].
I have more confidence in James than [I have] in Edmund.
Mary is younger than George [is young].
Tom likes you better than [he likes] me.
You like him better than I do [like him].
I like him better than Charles does [like him].
This racket is not so heavy as that [is heavy].
You are not so old as I [am old].
Peace [be] to his memory!
This is the only pencil [that] I have.
Is that the boy [whom] you hired yesterday?
They say [that] you are going to Europe soon.
+529.+ The examples in § 528 show that most cases of ellipsis fall under two heads:
1. To avoid repetition, words are often omitted in one part of the sentence when they occur in another part.
2. Pronouns, the conjunction _that_, and some forms of the verb _is_, are often omitted when they are readily supplied.
Under the second head come (1) the ellipsis of the subject (_thou_ or _you_) in imperative sentences (§ 268), (2) that of relative pronouns in the objective case (§ 151), (3) that of _is_, _are_, etc. (with the subject pronoun) in subordinate clauses introduced by _when_, _though_, _if_, and the like (§§ 397, 399, 417).
NOTE. The so-called “telegraphic style” omits _I_ with any verb or with all verbs. It should be confined to telegrams, where space is money.
+530.+ Adverbs indicating direction (like _forward_, _back_) are often used without a verb in imperative sentences.
_Forward_, brave companions!
_Down_ on your knees!
_Up_, guards, and at them!
NOTE. In older English, the omission of the verb of motion was common, even in sentences not imperative, as in the following examples from _Julius Cæsar_:--“We’ll along ourselves, and meet them”; “Shall we on, and not depend on you?”
+531.+ The ellipsis of the subordinate conjunction _that_ is very common, especially in indirect discourse (§§ 388, 433).
I know [_that_] you are my friend.
Jack said [_that_] the boat had sunk.
He told me [_that_] he was sorry.
+532.+ Many constructions, originally elliptical, have become established idioms in which no ellipsis is felt. In such cases it is usually better to take the sentence as it stands, and not to supply the omitted words.
Thus, in “He eats _as if he were famished_” the italicized words are properly treated as a subordinate clause modifying _eats_ and introduced by the compound conjunction _as if_. Yet in strictness this construction is an ellipsis for “He eats as [_he would eat_] if he were famished.”
+533.+ Various ellipses are illustrated in the following sentences:--
1. Although in a friendly country, they marched always as if in a land of enemies.
2. The aspect of the country was as wild and dreary as the climate.
3. Do not serious and earnest men discuss Hamlet as they would Cromwell or Lincoln?--LOWELL.
4. Not so with the others.
5. Though rather shy and distrustful of this new acquaintance, Rip complied with his usual alacrity.
6. Arras was famed for its rich tapestries, Brussels for its carpets, Cambrai for its fine cambric, Lisle for its thread and the fabrics woven from it.
7. Every day brings its task, which, if neglected, is doubled on the morrow.
8. It is not easy to recover an art when once lost.
9. I wish you would go down with me to Newstead.
10. The men are all soldiers, and war and the chase their sole occupation.
11. While in this state of irresolution, she was startled by a low knock.
12. The house was tall, the skylight small and dirty, the day blind with fog.
13. I little thought you would have deserted me.
14. He is the best Oriental scholar I know.
15. Cromwell was evidently laying, though in an irregular manner, the foundations of an admirable system.
16. He was a foot taller than I.
17. This concerns you rather than me.
18. My father loved Sir Rowland as his soul.
EXERCISES
EXERCISE 1
(§§ 1–5, pp. 1–3)
1. Tell whether each of the following sentences is declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. If a sentence is both declarative and exclamatory, mention the fact. Mention the subject and the predicate of each sentence. Note all instances of the inverted order (§ 5).
1. You need not answer this letter. 2. Many surmises of evil alarm the hearts of the people.--LONGFELLOW. 3. Here I am again in the land of old Bunyan. 4. Me this uncharter’d freedom tires.--WORDSWORTH. 5. Twilight’s soft dews steal o’er the village green.--ROGERS. 6. Were there many robbers in the band? 7. How will posterity the deed proclaim!--BYRON. 8. At dawn the towers of Stirling rang.--SCOTT. 9. You cannot recall the spoken word.--EMERSON. 10. The boughs over my head seemed shadowy with solemn thoughts as well as with rustling leaves.--HAWTHORNE. 11. So you don’t like Raphael! 12. All around lay a frightful wilderness. 13. Why does the sea moan evermore?--ROSSETTI. 14. What lonely straggler looks along the wave?--BYRON. 15. Off went his wig! 16. For some minutes he continued to scrutinize the drawing minutely. 17. Our strength grows out of our weakness.--EMERSON. 18. Rudely carved was the porch. 19. What hopes the prince to gain by Lacy’s death? 20. Trust thyself.
21. The rest of the men were morose and silent. 22. Here are the ruins of the emperor’s palace. 23. Now rumbles along the carriage of some magnate of the city. 24. Wild was the life we led. 25. How poor, and dull, and sleepy, and squalid it seemed! 26. Built are the house and the barn. 27. With what tenderness he sings! 28. Marked ye the younger stranger’s eye? 29. One or two idlers, of forbidding aspect, hung about in the murky gaslight. 30. Several mountains crowned with snow shone brilliantly in the distance. 31. Follow me through this passage. 32. Stop me not at your peril. 33. Carry thou this scroll to the castle.
2. Write ten interrogative sentences concerning each topic. Reply in declarative sentences.
(1) The American Revolution; (2) the Pilgrim Fathers; (3) the history of your own state; (4) the government of the United States; (5) hygiene; (6) the manufactures (or other industries) of your town or city.
3. Write ten imperative sentences, each giving an order concerning--
(1) the playing of a game; (2) the building or sailing of a boat; (3) the care of the health; (4) the manufacture of some article of common use; (5) the writing of a business letter.
4. Write ten exclamatory sentences. Tell whether each is declarative, interrogative, or imperative.
EXERCISE 2
(§§ 6–25, pp. 3–11)
1. Tell the parts of speech (including verb-phrases).
1. The rain pattered upon the roof and the sky gloomed through the dusty garret windows.--HAWTHORNE. 2. Make yourself necessary to somebody.--EMERSON. 3. I have a regard for every man on board that ship, from the captain down to the crew. 4. “An artist,” said Michael Angelo, “must have his measuring tools not in the hand, but in the eye.”--EMERSON. 5. Time had wintered o’er his locks. 6. Must we in all things look for the how, and the why, and the wherefore? 7. Power dwells with cheerfulness.--EMERSON. 8. What hurrahs rang out! 9. He sneaked about with a gallows air. 10. So! you see things go on as when you were with us.
11. Rigby and his brother hirelings frightened them with hideous fables and ugly words.--DISRAELI. 12. These are prize peaches. 13. Ha ha! how vilely doth this cynic rhyme! 14. O Antony, beg not your death of us. 45. Wordsworth was praised to me in Westmoreland because he afforded to his country neighbors an example of a modest household where comfort and culture were secured without display.
16. Shake hands with this knot of good fellows. 17. He had been deserted by the Moderates. 18. The moderate Liberals held a meeting very early in the struggle. 19. After a dreadful night of anxiety, perplexity, and peril, the darkness, which I thought had lasted an eternity, slowly disappeared.--TRELAWNY.
2. Use the following words in sentences of your own:--
Sleep (_noun_, _verb_); dry (_adjective_, _verb_, _noun_); very (_adverb_, _adjective_); express (_noun_, _verb_, _adjective_); bellow (_verb_, _noun_); American (_adjective_, _noun_); future (_adjective_, _noun_); to-morrow (_noun_, _adverb_); flower (_noun_, _verb_); sovereign (_noun_, _adjective_); summer (_noun_, _verb_, _adjective_); double (_adjective_, _adverb_, _verb_); well (_adjective_, _adverb_); fast (_adjective_, _adverb_, _noun_, _verb_); content (_noun_, _adjective_, _verb_); last (_adjective_, _adverb_, _verb_, _noun_); down (_adverb_, _preposition_); for (_preposition_, _conjunction_); downright (_adjective_, _adverb_); home (_noun_, _adjective_, _adverb_); lower (_adjective_, _adverb_, _verb_); iron (_noun_, _adjective_, _verb_); off (_adverb_, _preposition_, _adjective_); up (_adverb_, _preposition_); high (_adjective_, _adverb_, _noun_); except (_verb_, _preposition_); inside (_adjective_, _adverb_, _preposition_, _noun_); past (_noun_, _adjective_, _preposition_); what (_adjective_, _pronoun_, _interjection_); round (_noun_, _adjective_, _verb_, _preposition_, _adverb_); sound (_noun_, _verb_, _adjective_, _adverb_); black (_noun_, _verb_, _adjective_); all (_noun_, _adjective_, _adverb_); open (_noun_, _adjective_, _verb_); while (_noun_, _verb_).
EXERCISE 3
(§§ 26–33, pp. 11–13)
Point out the infinitives and the participles. Tell when they occur in verb-phrases. Use them in sentences.
1. I did wrong to smile. 2. Luttrell adjured me with mock pathos to spare his blushes. 3. I begged my friend Sir Roger to go with me into her hovel. 4. I was wonderfully pleased to see the workings of instinct in a hen followed by a brood of ducks. 5. A man’s first care should be to avoid the reproaches of his own heart.--ADDISON. 6. I was highly entertained to see the gentlemen of the county gathering about my old friend, and striving who should compliment him most. 7. He was let loose among the woods as soon as he was able to ride on horseback. 8. Plutarch says very finely that a man should not allow himself to hate even his enemies. 9. It gives me a serious concern to see such a spirit of dissension in the country.
10. It was his intention to remain there for two or three days. 11. Every part of every carriage had been cleaned, every horse had been groomed. 12. Liberated from the embarrassments of the city, and issuing into the broad uncrowded avenues of the northern suburbs, we soon begin to enter upon our natural pace of ten miles an hour. 13. The beggar, rearing himself against the wall, forgets his lameness. 14. Three miles beyond Barnet, we see approaching another private carriage. 15. We saw many lights moving about as we drew near.
EXERCISE 4
(§§ 34–39, pp. 13–15)
1. Mention the simple subject and the simple predicate of each sentence in Exercise 1 (p. 227). Tell whether the simple subject is a noun or a pronoun, and whether the simple predicate is a verb or a verb-phrase.
2. Study in the same way your own sentences in Exercise 1.
3. Divide each sentence into the complete subject and the complete predicate. If the sentence has a compound subject, mention the substantives that compose it; if the sentence has a compound predicate, mention the verbs (or verb-phrases).
1. The Queen and Prince Albert came to London from Windsor on Saturday morning. 2. You and Lockhart must not abandon the good cause. 3. I saw that he was weak, and took advantage of a pause to remind him not to forget his drive. 4. Two or three of my English biographies have something of the same historical character. 5. Lord Grey, Clanricarde, Labouchere, Vernon Smith, and Seymour will fill up the places. 6. Every change of season, every change of weather, indeed, every hour of the day, produces some change in the magical hues and shapes of these mountains.--IRVING. 7. He looked round, and could see nothing but a crow winging its solitary flight across the mountain. 8. They suddenly desisted from their play and stared at him. 9. The sea flashes along the pebbly margin of its silver beach, forming a thousand little bays and inlets, or comes tumbling in among the cliffs of a rock-bound coast, and beats against its massive barriers with a distant, hollow, continual roar.--LONGFELLOW.
10. A wide gateway ushered the traveller into the interior of the building, and conducted him to a low-roofed apartment, paved with round stones. 11. The strange visitant gruffly saluted me, and, after making several ineffectual efforts to urge his horse in at the door, dismounted and followed me into the room.--WHITTIER. 12. The foolish and the dead alone never change their opinion.--LOWELL. 13. They will slink into their kennels in disgrace, or perchance run wild and strike a league with the wolf and the fox.--THOREAU. 14. Strong will and keen perception overpower old manners and create new.--EMERSON. 15. Neither Aristotle, nor Leibnitz, nor Junius, nor Champollion has set down the grammar-rules of this dialect. 16. His mantle and hood were of the best Flanders cloth, and fell in ample and not ungraceful folds. 17. A deep fosse or ditch was drawn round the whole building.
EXERCISE 5
(§§ 40–42, p. 16)
1. Point out the noun-phrases, verb-phrases, adjective phrases, and adverbial phrases. Which of these phrases are prepositional?
1. Sometimes he spent hours together in the great libraries of Paris. 2. He assumed the garb of a common sailor, and in this disguise reached the Dutch coast in safety. 3. Some of the frigate’s men were still endeavoring to escape. 4. Was Milton rich or at his ease when he composed “Paradise Lost”? 5. It was a cold-blooded exhibition of marksmanship. 6. He then continued on to the place of rendezvous at Speedwell’s Iron Works on Troublesome Creek.--IRVING. 7. The gates of Amsterdam had been barred against him. 8. They heard his confession with suspicion and disdain. 9. The stagecoach always drew up before the door of the cottage. 10. The wind moaned through the silent streets. 11. The clouds are scudding across the moon. 12. Steele had known Addison from childhood. 13. A broad ray of light fell into the garret.--DICKENS. 14. The fate of his insulted and broken-hearted brother still rankled in his mind. 15. All day with fruitless strife they toiled.--SCOTT.
2. Fill each blank with a single word. Substitute for the word a phrase with the same meaning. Mention in each instance (1) the part of speech, (2) the kind of phrase.
1. He spoke to me ----.
2. The grounds were shut in by a high ---- wall.
3. The fire engine ---- past.
4. The three girls were laughing ----.
5. The poor child looked ---- at the toys.
6. Harold ---- the bunch of grapes.
7. The proprietor is a ---- man.
8. The archbishop placed upon the king’s head a ---- crown.
9. The book which I hold in my hand is ----.
10. The ---- ordered the _Conqueror_ to open fire.
11. The enemy retreated ----.
12. The rain ---- heavily all day.
13. The rain came down ---- all day.
14. The ---- is in his office.
15. A ---- boy came to the door.
16. My brother is president of ----.
EXERCISE 6
(§§ 43–51, pp. 16–21)
1. Tell whether each sentence is simple, compound, or complex. If the sentence is compound, divide it into its independent clauses, and mention the simple subject (noun or pronoun) and the simple predicate (verb or verb-phrase) of each clause.
If the sentence is complex, divide it into the main (independent) and the subordinate clause, and tell whether the latter is used as an adjective or as an adverb.
1. The great gate slowly opened, and a steward and several serving-men appeared. 2. The victors set fire to the wigwams and the fort; the whole was soon in a blaze; many of the old men, the women, and the children perished in the flames. 3. Night closed in, but still no guest arrived. 4. The black waves rolled by them, and the light at the horizon began to fade, and the stars were coming out one by one.--WILLIAM BLACK. 5. Mr. Nickleby closed an account book which lay on his desk. 6. By ceaseless action all that is subsists.--COWPER. 7. When the morning broke, the Moorish army had vanished. 8. At midnight, when the town was hushed in sleep, they all went quietly on board. 9. Fortune had cast him into a cavern, and he was groping darkly round. 10. I paced the deserted chambers where he had composed his poem. 11. I strove to speak; my voice utterly failed me. 12. The only avenue by which the town could be easily approached, was protected by a stone wall more than twenty feet high and of great thickness.
13. The night fell tempestuous and wild, and no vestige of the hapless sloop was ever after seen. 14. The simple majesty of this anecdote can gain nothing from any comment which we might make on it. 15. Raleigh speaks the language of the heart of his country when he urges the English statesmen to colonize Guiana.--FROUDE. 16. Men, in their youth, go to push their fortune in the colony; they succeed; they acquire property there; they return to their native land; they continue to draw the income from their colonial estates.--BROUGHAM. 17. The moonlight glistened upon traces of the gilding which had once covered both rider and steed. 18. While this brief conversation passed, Donatello had once or twice glanced aside with a watchful air. 19. Pray for us, Hilda; we need it.
2. Divide the compound complex sentences into their coördinate clauses. Tell whether each of these clauses, when standing alone, is a simple or a complex sentence.
1. It would be dark before he could reach the village, and he heaved a heavy sigh when he thought of encountering the terrors of Dame Van Winkle. 2. Language gradually varies, and with it fade away the writings of authors who have lived their allotted time. 3. The tallest and handsomest men whom England could produce guarded the passage from the palace gate to the river-side, and all seemed in readiness for the queen’s coming forth, although the hour was yet so early. 4. Edward the Confessor died on the fifth of January, 1066, and on the following day an assembly of the thanes and prelates present in London, and of the citizens of the metropolis, declared that Harold should be their king.
EXERCISE 7
(§§ 54–64, pp. 27–30)
1. Point out all the common nouns and all the proper nouns. Mention all the examples of personification.
1. There Guilt his anxious revel kept.--SCOTT. 2. The first vessel we fell in with was a schooner, which, after a long chase, we made out to be an American. 3. You will be sauntering in St. Peter’s perhaps, or standing on the Capitol while the sun sets. 4. I am very deep in my Aristophanes. 5. I saw a most lovely Sir Joshua at Christie’s a week ago.--FITZ GERALD. 6. I hear there is scarce a village in England that has not a Moll White in it.--ADDISON. 7. Such a spirit is Liberty. At times she takes the form of a hateful reptile. She grovels, she hisses, she stings. But woe to those who in disgust shall venture to crush her!--MACAULAY. 8. Rough Wulfstane trimmed his shafts and bow.--SCOTT. 9. To-day we have been a delightful drive through Ettrick Forest, and to the ruins of Newark--the hall of Newark, where the ladies bent their necks of snow to hear “The Lay of the Last Minstrel.”--MARIA EDGEWORTH.
10. The same waves wash the moles of the new-built Californian towns, and lave the faded but still gorgeous skirts of Asiatic lands, older than Abraham; while all between float milky-ways of coral isles, and low-lying, endless, unknown Archipelagoes and impenetrable Japans.--MELVILLE. 11. The duchess said haughtily that she had done her best for the Esmonds. 12. To see with one’s own eyes men and countries is better than reading all the books of travel in the world.--THACKERAY. 13. Defeat and mortification had only hardened the king’s heart. 14. Earth, Ocean, Air, beloved brotherhood!--SHELLEY. 15. The iron tongue of St. Paul’s has told twelve. 16. The Indians, brandishing their weapons, answered only with gestures of angry defiance.
2. Point out all the abstract, all the collective, and all the compound nouns.
1. The poet binds together by passion and knowledge the vast empire of human society.--WORDSWORTH. 2. The country is now showing symptoms of greenness and warmth. 3. When the public are gone, we at once put up the great iron shutters. 4. Washington returned to headquarters at Newbury. 5. The Bruce’s band moves swiftly on.--SCOTT. 6. He shall with speed to England.--SHAKSPERE. 7. Soon were dismissed the courtly throng.--SCOTT. 8. Sickness, desertion, and the loss sustained at Guilford Courthouse had reduced his little army. 9. A detachment was sent against them. 10. Never before this summer have the kingbirds, handsomest of flycatchers, built in my orchard. 11. The young suddenly disperse on your approach, as if a whirlwind had swept them away.--THOREAU. 12. This lighthouse, known to our mariners as Cape Cod or Highland Light, is one of our “primary seacoast lights.” 13. We have some salt of our youth in us.--SHAKSPERE. 14. Thou hast nor youth nor age.--SHAKSPERE.
15. The passion for hunting had revived with Washington on returning to his old hunting grounds. 16. A circle there of merry listeners stand.--BYRON. 17. The act of the Congress of Vienna remains the eternal monument of their diplomatic knowledge and political sagacity.--DISRAELI. 18. Lee undertook the task with alacrity. 19. A row of surfboats and canoes lay along the beach. 20. The situation he had held as aide-de-camp to the commander-in-chief had given him an opportunity of observing the course of affairs. 21. The ground was frozen to a great depth. 22. He was aware of his unpopularity. 23. The stern old war-gods shook their heads.--EMERSON.
24. Freckled nest eggs thou shalt see Hatching in the hawthorn tree.--KEATS.
25. Fair morn ascends, and sunny June has shed Ambrosial odors o’er the garden-bed, And wild bees seek the cherry’s sweet perfume Or cluster round the full-blown apple-bloom.--CAMPBELL.
26. For in their looks divine The image of their glorious Maker shone, Truth, wisdom, sanctitude severe and pure.--MILTON.
27. Steer, helmsman, till you steer our way By stars beyond the line.--CAMPBELL.
28. Say I sent thee thither: I, that have neither pity, love, nor fear.--SHAKSPERE.
EXERCISE 8
(§§ 66–84, pp. 31–39)
1. Make a list containing thirty nouns, ten in each of the three genders. Use each of these nouns in a sentence.
2. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun of common gender.
3. Write sentences containing the masculine forms corresponding to the feminine forms in this list, and the feminine forms corresponding to the masculine:--
earl, abbess, schoolmaster, porter, hind, mare, ram, sire, witch, sultan, czar, widow, marquis, executor, salesman, tailor, hero, bride, songster, great-uncle, nephew, buck, horseman, bachelor, belle.
4. Mention the gender and the number of each noun. Tell whether the gender is shown by the form, by the meaning, or by both. Whenever it is possible, give the plural of each noun that is singular, and the singular of each noun that is plural.
1. Oft Music changed, but never ceased her tone.--BYRON. 2. Grace Crawley was at this time living with the two Miss Prettymans.--TROLLOPE. 3. The Catos and the Scipios of the village had gathered in front of the hotel. 4. This gunner was an excellent mathematician, a good scholar, and a complete sailor.--DEFOE. 5. I was, in fact, in the chapel of the Knights Templars.--IRVING. 6. The luckless culprit was brought in, forlorn and chapfallen, in the custody of gamekeepers, huntsmen, and whippers-in, and followed by a rabble rout of country clowns.--IRVING. 7. The hare now came still nearer to the place where she was at first started.--BUDGELL. 8. The Fairfaxes were no longer at hand.--IRVING. 9. All the peers and peeresses put on their coronets. 10. Time is no longer slow; his sickle mows quickly in this age.--DISRAELI. 11. Under the humblest roof, the commonest person in plain clothes sits there massive, cheerful, yet formidable, like the Egyptian colossi.--EMERSON.
12. Within forty-eight hours, hundreds of horse and foot came by various roads to the city. 13. The hart and hind wandered in a wilderness abounding in ferny coverts and green and stately trees.--DISRAELI. 14. The ship had received a great deal of damage, and it required some time to repair her.--DEFOE. 15. When Mary, the nurse, returns with the little Miss Smiths from Master Brown’s birthday party, she is narrowly questioned as to their behavior. 16. Of all our fleet, consisting of a hundred and fifty sail, scarce twelve appeared.--SMOLLETT. 17. Hindoos, Russians, Chinese, Spaniards, Portuguese, Englishmen, Frenchmen, Genoese, Neapolitans, Venetians, Greeks, Turks, descendants from all the builders of Babel, come to trade at Marseilles, sought the shade alike.--DICKENS. 18. There lies the port; the vessel puffs her sail.--TENNYSON. 19. I had desire to see the old family seat of the Lucys.--IRVING.
20. The Miss Lambs were the belles of little Britain.--IRVING. 21. Lord Culloden at length appeared with his daughters, Ladies Flora and Grizell.--DISRAELI. 22. Still his honied wealth Hymettus yields.--BYRON. 23. Josephine has been made executrix of her father’s estate. 24. Georgette crouched by the fire, reading a wonderful tale of kings, princesses, enchanted castles, knights and ladies, monks and nuns, wizards and witches. 25. She was a vixen when she went to school.--SHAKSPERE. 26. Keep a gamester from the dice and a good student from his book.--SHAKSPERE. 27. They are sheep and calves which seek out assurance in that.--SHAKSPERE. 28. A score of good ewes may be worth ten pounds.--SHAKSPERE. 29. Let ay’s seem no’s and no’s seem ay’s.--GAY.
30. She clasps a bright child on her upgathered knee; It laughs at the lightning, it mocks the mixed thunder Of the air and the sea.--SHELLEY.
EXERCISE 9
(§§ 71–84, pp. 34–39)
1. Write sentences in which the following words, letters, or figures are used in the plural number:--
German, radius, lens, moose, wharf, index, piano, thesis, 4, 500, p, q, and, syllabus, staff, die, s, t, seraph, hero, stimulus, crisis, elf, heathen, brother-in-law, July, March, spoonful, memorandum, Miss Allen, Master Allen, Mr. Hayes, General Raymond, Knight Templar, head (of cattle), animalcule, potato, valley, formula, penny, curriculum, dwarf, man-child.
2. Write sentences in which the following nouns are used in the singular number:--
strata, phenomena, alumnæ, alumni, candelabra, species, cherubim, errata, bacteria, Japanese, beaux, vertebræ, Messrs., theses, oases.
EXERCISE 10
(§ 88, pp. 41–42)
Mention all the nouns that are in the nominative case, and give the construction (or syntax) of each,--as subject, predicate nominative, vocative (or nominative of direct address), exclamatory nominative, or nominative in apposition.[50]
1. A weary lot is thine, fair maid.--SCOTT. 2. At last, our small acquaintance, Ned Higgins, trudged up the street, on his way to school.--HAWTHORNE. 3. The soil is in general a moist and retentive clay. 4. Rumors alone were their guides through a wild and desolate country.--LONGFELLOW. 5. Young man, have you challenged Charles the wrestler?--SHAKSPERE. 6. Ralph was an Eton boy, and hence, being robust and shrewd, a swimmer and a cricketer. 7. Here Harold was received a welcome guest.--SCOTT. 8. The tall Highlander remained obdurate. 9. The beams and rafters, roughly hewn and with strips of bark still on them, and the rude masonry of the chimneys, made the garret look wild and uncivilized. 10. Deathlike the silence seemed. 11. Sorrow and silence are strong, and patient endurance is godlike.--LONGFELLOW. 12. Fly, fly, detested thoughts, forever from my view!--BEATTIE. 13. Time must not be counted by calendars, but by sensation, by thought.--DISRAELI.
14. This is the history of Charlotte Corday. 15. The nabobs soon became a most unpopular class of men. 16. Before him stretched the long, laborious road, dry, empty, and white.--HARDY. 17. With the great mass of mankind, the test of integrity in a public man is consistency.--MACAULAY. 18. These are trifles, Mr. Premium. 19. My thanks are due to you for your trouble and care. 20. Here’s my great uncle, Sir Richard Ravelin. 21. Rowley, my old friend, I am sure you congratulate me. 22. David, you are a coward! 23. Here come other Pyncheons, the whole tribe, in their half-a-dozen generations. 24. Uncle Venner, trundling a wheelbarrow, was the earliest person stirring in the neighborhood. 25. Up the chimney roared the fire, and brightened the room with its broad blaze. 26. Liberty! freedom! tyranny is dead!--SHAKSPERE. 27. The hostess’s daughter, a plump Flanders lass, with long gold pendants in her ears, was at a side window.--IRVING.
28. Horses! can these be horses that bound off with the action and gesture of leopards?--DE QUINCEY. 29. Peace! silence! Brutus speaks. 30. The rains, frosts, and tempests splinter the chalk above and the waves gnaw it away below.--GEIKIE.
EXERCISE 11
(§§ 89–96, pp. 43–47)
1. Point out all the nouns in the possessive case, and parse them according to the model in § 112.
1. James’s parliament contained a most unusual proportion of new ministers. 2. I live in general quietly at my brother-in-law’s in Norfolk (see § 96). 3. There is a small cottage of my father’s close to the lawn gates. 4. We had found, in that day’s heap of earth, about fifty pounds’ weight of gold dust.--DEFOE. 5. Much the most striking incident in Burns’s life is his journey to Edinburgh. 6. As to freaks like this of Miss Brooke’s, Mrs. Cadwallader had no patience with them.--GEORGE ELIOT. 7. Homeward they bore him through the dark woods’ gloom.--MORRIS. 8. The eye travels down to Oxford’s towers.--ARNOLD. 9. I obeyed all my brother’s military commands with the utmost docility. 10. Tellson’s wanted not elbowroom, Tellson’s wanted no light, Tellson’s wanted no embellishment. Noakes & Co.’s might, or Snooks Brothers’ might; but Tellson’s--thank heaven!--DICKENS.
2. Examine the nouns in the possessive case in 1 (above), and tell which of the possessives might be replaced by an _of_-phrase. Mention
## particularly those passages in which the possessive would not be used
in modern prose.
3. Write sentences containing the possessive singular of--
Henry, James, Thomas, Mr. Fox, child, Charles Price, Mrs. Gibbs, Edward, General Edwards, horse, Hortense, Miss Bellows, father-in-law, Major Ellis, commander-in-chief, Thompson and Howard (_a firm_), Eustis and Morris (_a firm_), Messrs. Cartwright and Robbins, Apollo, Brutus, Ulysses.
4. Write sentences containing the possessive plural of--
Englishman, fireman, washerwoman, fox, sheep, horse, ox, child, emperor, empress, robin, Norman, German, hawk, Knight Templar, lady, sailor, heir, heiress, teacher, whale, walrus, critic, poet, vireo.
5. In which of the sentences that you have written (under 3 and 4) would it be possible to substitute an _of_-phrase for the possessive? In which of them (if any) would this phrase be preferable? Why?
EXERCISE 12
(§§ 97–110, pp. 47–53)
Parse the nouns in the objective case, according to the model in § 112. Tell the particular construction in each instance,--direct object, predicate objective, indirect object, etc.
1. Such was the narrative of Jack Grant, the mate. 2. Rippling waters made a pleasant moan.--BYRON. 3. Swiftly they hurried away to the forge of Basil the blacksmith.--LONGFELLOW. 4. A pale fog hung over London. 5. So like a shattered column lay the king.--TENNYSON. 6. Then sing, ye birds, sing, sing a joyous song.--WORDSWORTH. 7. A blighted spring makes a barren year.--JOHNSON. 8. Dark and neglected locks overshadowed his brow. 9. Imagine the wind howling, the sea roaring, the rain beating. 10. Lay these vain regrets aside. 11. Birds of passage sailed through the leaden air. 12. Authority forgets a dying king.--TENNYSON. 13. Three years she grew in sun and shower.--WORDSWORTH. 14. The sound of horns came floating from the valley, prolonged by the mountain echoes. 15. Hours had passed away like minutes. 16. Your mistrust cannot make me a traitor.--SHAKSPERE.
17. She halted a moment before speaking. 18. The room opened on a terrace adorned with statues and orange trees. 19. The sun is coming down to earth, and the fields and the waters shout to him golden shouts.--MEREDITH. 20. England is unrivalled for two things--sports and politics.--DISRAELI. 21. Thus we lived several years in a state of much happiness. 22. The old gentleman’s whole countenance beamed with a serene look of indwelling delight. 23. I am reading Selwyn’s “Correspondence,” a remarkable book. 24. I have lived my life.--TENNYSON. 25. My heart is like a singing bird.--CHRISTINA ROSSETTI. 26. How like a winter hath my absence been.--SHAKSPERE. 27. Three weeks we westward bore.--LONGFELLOW. 28. It rains pitchforks.--FITZ GERALD. 29. The sublimer and more passionate poets I still read, by snatches and occasionally.--DE QUINCEY. 30. Coningsby slept the deep sleep of youth and health.--DISRAELI.
31. Thou mightst call him a goodly person. 32. My father named me Autolycus. 33. A country fellow brought him a huge fish. 34. I’ll make you the queen of Naples. 35. You call honorable boldness impudent sauciness.--SHAKSPERE. 36. Sir Roger generally goes two or three miles from his house before he beats about in search of a hare or partridge. 37. This misconception caused Washington some embarrassment. 38. I now thank you for Beattie, the most agreeable and amiable writer I ever met with.--COWPER.
EXERCISE 13
(§§ 97–110, pp. 47–53)
1. Write fifteen sentences, each containing a transitive verb and its direct object (§§ 99–100).
2. Substitute a pronoun for each noun in the objective case.
3. Write ten sentences containing both a direct object and a predicate objective (§ 104).
4. Use in sentences fifteen of the verbs in the list in § 105, each with both a direct and an indirect object.
5. For each indirect object, substitute _to_ with an object. Change the order, if necessary.
6. Write ten sentences, each containing a cognate object (§ 108).
7. Write ten sentences, each containing an adverbial objective (§ 109).
8. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun in apposition with a noun in the objective case (§ 110).
EXERCISE 14
(§§ 54–112, pp. 27–54)
Parse every noun, according to the models in § 112.
1. Pennon and banner wave no more. 2. They soon gained the utmost verge of the forest, and entered the country inhabited by men without vice.--GOLDSMITH. 3. Our avenue is strewn with the whole crop of autumn’s withered leaves.--HAWTHORNE. 4. He is the rich man who can avail himself of all men’s faculties.--EMERSON. 5. Like an awakened conscience, the sea was moaning and tossing.--LONGFELLOW. 6. He again called and whistled after his dog. 7. She wrote and addressed a hurried note. 8. The light and warmth of that long-vanished day live with me still. 9. Violet and primrose girls, and organ boys with military monkeys, and systematic bands very determined in tone if not in tune, filled the atmosphere.--MEREDITH. 10. The blood left Wilfrid’s ashen cheek. 11. Give us manners, virtue, freedom, power!--WORDSWORTH. 12. A great deal of shrubbery clusters along the base of the stone wall, and takes away the hardness of its outline.
13. I travelled the whole four hundred miles between this and Madras on men’s shoulders. 14. Here we set up twelve little huts like soldiers’ tents. 15. Swiftly they glided away, like the shade of a cloud on the prairie. 16. Athens, even long after the decline of the Roman empire, still continued the seat of learning, politeness, and wisdom.--GOLDSMITH. 17. Four times the sun had risen and set. 18. Speak! speak! thou fearful guest! 19. The oak rose before me like a pillar of darkness. 20. Another long blast filled the old courts of the castle with its echoes, and was answered by the warder from the walls. 21. Sound, sound the clarion, fill the fife!--SCOTT. 22. Now, Falstaff, where have you been all this while? 23. Sounds of a horn they heard, and the distant lowing of cattle. 24. Homer was always his companion now. 25. Forgive me these injurious suspicions. 26. O, pride! pride! it deceives me with the subtlety of a serpent. 27. I made Mr. Wright’s gardener a present of fifty sorts of plant seeds. 28. Your mother and I last week made a trip to Gayhurst, the seat of Mr. Wright, about four miles off. 29. Beneath the shelter of one hut, in the bright blaze of the same fire, sat this varied group of adventurers. 30. The cares of to-day are seldom the cares of to-morrow.--COWPER.
EXERCISE 15
(§§ 115–129, pp. 55–62)
1. Parse the personal pronouns, using the models in § 168.
1. She peeped from the window into the garden. 2. The little marquis immediately threw himself into the attitude of a man about to tell a long story. 3. It pours and it thunders, it lightens amain.--SCOTT. 4. Master, master, look about you! 5. Leontine, with his own and his wife’s fortune, bought a farm of three hundred a year.--ADDISON. 6. The Tories carry it among the new members six to one.--SWIFT. 7. I wrote to him, but could tell him nothing. 8. On the next morning after breakfast the major went out for a walk by himself. 9. Their hearts quaked within them, at the idea of taking one step farther. 10. Mrs. Forrester’s surprise was equal to ours. 11. It’s twenty years since he went away from home. 12. I seated myself in a recess of a large bow window. 13. At the last moment his heart failed him, and he looked round him for some mode of escape. 14. A friend of mine has been spending some time at Sir Walter Scott’s.
15. Send me a letter directed to me at Mr. Watcham’s. 16. I have lately received from my bookseller a copy of my subscribers’ names. 17. We came in our first morning’s march to very good springs of fresh water. 18. We are both of us inclined to be a little too positive. 19. Heyne’s best teacher was himself.--CARLYLE.
20. Aspasia, you have lived but few years in the world, and with only one philosopher--yourself. 21. I got to the side in time to see a huge liner’s dim shape slide by like a street at night; she would have been invisible but for her row of lights. 22. The cataracts blow their trumpets from the steep.--WORDSWORTH. 23. I am he they call Old Care.--PEACOCK. 24. The sharp and peevish tinkle of the shop-bell made itself audible. 25. The heroes themselves say, as often as not, that fame is their object. 26. He seems to himself to touch things with muffled hands. 27. She took counsel with herself what must be done. 28. The head of the Pyncheons found himself involved in serious financial difficulties. 29. Ha! here is Hepzibah herself!
2. Write sentences in which the personal pronoun of the first person is used as direct object, as indirect object, as predicate nominative; in the possessive singular with a noun; in the possessive singular without a noun.
3. Fill the blanks with personal pronouns of the first or the third person.
1. He thought the burglars were ----.
2. He mistook the burglars for ----.
3. William is better at his lessons than ----.
4. It is ----.
5. These are ----.
6. Nobody volunteered except Edward and ----.
7. ---- boys have formed a debating club.
8. Mr. Jones is going to give ---- boys a baseball field.
9. Who is there? ----.
10. Between you and ----, I am not sorry that he has resigned.
11. If I were ---- I would study art.
12. Arthur likes you better than ----.
13. Behind Ruth and ---- came the guest of honor.
14. Automobiles are not for such as ----.
15. It was ---- that Joseph meant.
16. ---- two are always together.
17. Richard dislikes everybody, ---- most of all.
4. Write sentences in which _myself_, _yourself_, _ourselves_, _himself_, _herself_, _themselves_ are used (1) intensively, (2) reflexively as direct object, (3) reflexively as indirect object.
EXERCISE 16
(§§ 131–142, pp. 62–65)
1. Parse the demonstratives and the indefinites. In parsing the word, tell whether it is used as a pronoun or as an adjective. If it is used as a pronoun, tell the number and the case and give the reason for the case. If it is used as an adjective, mention the substantive which it modifies.
1. What is the meaning of all this? 2. On either side extended a ruinous wooden fence. 3. You have seen that picture, then! 4. This very Judge Pyncheon was the original of the miniature. 5. Twenty years ago this man was equally capable of crime or heroism; now he is fit for neither.--STEVENSON. 6. None are all evil. 7. Solitude has many a dreary hour. 8. Every science has its hitherto undiscovered mysteries.--GOLDSMITH. 9. The same day we visited the shores of the isle in the ship’s boats. 10. None but picked recruits were enlisted. 11. A longing for the brightness and silence of fallen snow seizes him at such times. 12. Such were Addison’s talents for conversation. 13. Nicholas Vedder! why, he is dead and gone these eighteen years! 14. What a lamentable situation was that of the poor baron! 15. Several houses were pillaged and destroyed.
16. Each warrior was a chosen man. 17. See how yond justice rails upon yond simple thief!--SHAKSPERE. 18. Our naval annals owe some of their interest to the fantastic and beautiful appearance of old warships.--STEVENSON. 19. Some are too indolent to read anything till its reputation is established.--JOHNSON. 20. In both sexes, occasionally, this lifelong croak, accompanying each word of joy or sorrow, is one of the symptoms of settled melancholy.--HAWTHORNE. 21. Such voices have put on mourning for dead hopes. 22. Another phenomenon was a package of lucifer matches. 23. How few appear in those streets which but some few hours ago were crowded! 24. This was a very different camp from that of the night before.
25. Alternations of wild hope and cold despair succeeded each other. 26. The poor know best how to console each other’s sorrows. 27. Everybody has his own interpretation for that picture. 28. I strove with none, for none was worth my strife.--LANDOR. 29. Scarcely any of the items in the above-drawn parallel occurred to Phœbe. 30. He went about moping. None spake to him. No one would play with him.--LAMB. 31. Ah, that good Kent! He said it would be thus. 32. How easy is the explanation to those who know! 33. There has been a quarrel between him and Hepzibah this many a day.
2. Fill each blank with a personal pronoun (§ 141).
1. Each of us should do ---- best.
2. Everybody thinks ---- own way is wise.
3. If anybody has a better plan, now is the time for ---- to speak.
4. It was an old-fashioned picnic, every person furnishing ---- share of the provisions.
5. When anybody is talking, it is bad manners to interrupt ----.
EXERCISE 17
(§§ 143–156, pp. 66–71)
1. Parse the relative pronouns, using the models in § 168.
1. The lights in the shops could hardly struggle through the heavy mist, which thickened every moment. 2. I shall not budge from the position that I have taken up. 3. The land of literature is a fairy land to those who view it at a distance.--IRVING. 4. I hate people who meet Time half-way.--LAMB. 5. The weather, which had been stormy and unsettled, moderated toward the evening. 6. He that once indulges idle fears will never be at rest.--JOHNSON. 7. The only ford by which the travellers could cross was guarded by a party of militia. 8. One dark unruly night she issued secretly out of a small postern gate of the castle, which the enemy had neglected to guard. 9. I paused to contemplate a tomb on which lay the effigy of a knight in complete armor. 10. He who loves the sea loves also the ship’s routine.--CONRAD. 11. There were two or three indefatigable men among them, by whose courage and industry all the rest were upheld.--DEFOE.
12. Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea.--WORDSWORTH. 13. They slander thee sorely who say thy vows are frail.--MOORE. 14. The first great poet whose works have come down to us, sang of war long before war became a science or a trade.---MACAULAY. 15. The gusts that drove against the high house seemed ready to tear it from its foothold of rock. 16. At its western side is a deep ravine or valley, through which a small stream rushes. 17. A weak mother, who perpetually threatens and never performs, is laying up miseries both for herself and for her children.--SPENCER. 18. As they approached, a raven, who sat upon the topmost stone, black against the bright blue sky, flapped lazily away.--KINGSLEY. 19. To such of her neighbors as needed other attention, she would give her time, her assistance, her skill. 20. It was such a battle-axe as Rustum may have wielded in fight upon the banks of Oxus. 21. I may neither choose whom I would, nor refuse whom I dislike.
2. Point out the descriptive and the restrictive relatives in 1 (above).
3. Write ten sentences, each containing a descriptive relative; ten sentences, each containing a restrictive relative.
4. Fill the blanks with relatives. In the first eight sentences, at least, use _who_ or _whom_.
1. This is the boy ---- I recommended.
2. The boy ---- I recommended is a Swede.
3. The boy ---- brought the letter is not the one ---- I recommended.
4. I told Anna, ---- I knew would keep my secret.
5. I told Anna, ---- I knew I could trust.
6. I told Anna, ---- I knew to be trustworthy.
7. I told Anna, ---- I knew intimately.
8. No one ---- you know lives in this street.
9. All ---- I can say is, I am sorry.
10. Give me the same horse ---- I had yesterday.
11. A dog, ---- showed his teeth and growled, blocked the way.
12. Choose the partner ---- you like best.
13. The policeman was leading a little child ---- had lost its mother.
14. Take such measures ---- you deem necessary.
15. Take ---- measures seem necessary.
16. Take the measures ---- seem to you necessary.
17. My hat is of the same size ---- yours.
18. This is the picture ---- I am so proud of.
19. This is the picture of ---- I am so proud.
20. The man ---- is talking to Henry is the one ---- owns this house.
5. Supply the relatives that are “understood” (§ 151).
1. It was a bold step she had taken.
2. I am not altogether unqualified for the business I have in hand.
3. His taste of books is a little too just for the age he lives in.
4. Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being eminent.
5. Who is the wittiest man you know?
6. Morton was the only friend I had.
7. That sonata was the first piece I learned.
8. Ten dollars is the price he asks.
9. Are you the man I bought the coat of?
10. This is the book we are reading evenings.
11. Take any seat you like.
12. “Faust” is the only opera I care for.
13. I have done all I can.
EXERCISE 18
(§§ 157–162, pp. 71–73)
Parse the relatives.
1. Whatever wisdom and energy could do William did. 2. Whatever is done skilfully appears to be done with ease. 3. We must suspect what we see, distrust what we hear, and doubt even what we feel!--MISS BURNEY. 4. Whoever has been in a state of nervous agitation, must know that the longer it continues the more uncontrollable it grows.--IRVING. 5. Time hath reft whate’er my soul enjoyed.--BYRON. 6. The gallant major showed no hesitation whatever. 7. Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must remember the Kaatskill Mountains. 8. A recollection of what I had seen and felt the preceding night still haunted my mind. 9. Hard work was what he needed now. 10. Whatever regrets Mrs. Thorverton might indulge in secret, she had had the strength of mind to hide them. 11. Like all weak men, they had recourse to what they called strong measures. 12. We see in him a freer, purer development of whatever is noblest in ourselves. 13. Sir Roger was what you call a fine gentleman. 14. Sweet princes, what I did, I did in honor.--SHAKSPERE. 15. He was really interested in what Coningsby had seen and what he had felt. 16. What was to be seen at Naples, Addison saw.
EXERCISE 19
(§§ 163–168, pp. 73–74)
Parse the interrogative pronouns, mentioning gender, number, person, and case. If the interrogative word is an adjective, tell what noun it limits.
1. Who would not sing for Lycidas? 2. What that sigh meant I cannot say. 3. Columns, arches, pyramids, what are they but heaps of sand? 4. Which of the two was daughter to the duke? 5. Whom next shall we summon from the dusty dead?--LAMB. 6. Why! Peggy, what have you brought us? 7. What’s fame? A fancied life in others’ breath.--POPE. 8. To what shall I compare it? 9. And what art thou, O melancholy voice?--SHELLEY. 10. Proud sufferer, who art thou? 11. What were Swigby’s former pursuits I can’t tell. What need we care? Hadn’t he five hundred a year? Ay, that he had.--THACKERAY. 12. What does it matter? 13. Which way have you looked for Master Caius? 14. What business had they in Prussia?
EXERCISE 20
(§§ 163–168, pp. 73–74)
Fill each blank with _who_ or _whom_, as the construction may require.
1. He asked me ---- was elected.
2. From ---- did she hear this news?
3. To ---- did you apply for assistance?
4. ---- do you regard as the better scholar of the two?
5. ---- shall I ask for the key?
6. ---- did you see when you called?
7. ---- do you think is the best physician in town?
8. ---- can I trust in such an emergency?
9. With ---- have you discussed this affair?
10. ---- do you suppose this letter is from?
11. ---- do you suppose I am?
12. ---- do you suppose I saw?
13. ---- do you think will help us?
EXERCISE 21
(§§ 113–168, pp. 55–74)
Point out each pronoun; tell to what class it belongs, and give its construction.
1. His mind now misgave him. 2. Under the dark and haunted garret were attic chambers which themselves had histories. 3. Passion itself is very figurative, and often bursts out into metaphors.--GOLDSMITH. 4. He had a wiry, well-trained, elastic figure, a stiff military throw-back of his head, and a springing step, which made him appear much younger than he was. 5. It was the owl that shrieked. 6. Slowly, slowly, slowly the days succeeded each other. 7. Say nothing to the men, but have all your wits about you. 8. He saw that it would be dark long before he could reach the village. 9. I must do myself the justice to open the work with my own history. 10. Economy in our affairs has the same effect upon our fortunes which good breeding has upon our conversations.--STEELE. 11. It was a cloudy night, with frequent showers of rain. 12. “Fair sirs,” said Arthur, “wherefore sit ye here?” 13. Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow.--BYRON. 14. This is my son, mine own Telemachus.--TENNYSON.
15. Richard bade them adieu. 16. Ye men of Kent, ’tis victory or death!--WORDSWORTH. 17. We dined yesterday with your friend and mine, the most companionable and domestic Mr. C. 18. Great is the power of the man who has nothing to lose.--DOYLE. 19. Each hamlet started at the sound. 20. Look on me with thine own calm look. 21. Mr. Rigby was not a man who ever confessed himself at fault. 22. They were conversing with much earnestness among themselves. 23. He heard the deep behind him, and a cry before. 24. When Deerslayer reached the fire, he found himself surrounded by no less than eight grim savages. 25. Mine hostess, indeed, gave me a long history how the goblet had been handed down from generation to generation. 26. The uncle and nephew looked at each other for some seconds without speaking. 27. We had yet seen no wild beasts, or, at least, none that came very near us.--DEFOE. 28. We envy you your sea-breezes. 29. Which is he that killed the deer? 30. There was the choice, and it was still open to him to take which side he pleased. 31. There is always something to worry you. It comes as regularly as sunrise.
EXERCISE 22
(§§ 169–188, pp. 75–82)
1. Point out every adjective. Tell whether it is descriptive or definitive (§§ 169–171), and mention the substantive to which it belongs. If the adjective can be compared, give its three degrees of comparison.[51]
1. The old, unpainted shingles of the house were black with moisture. 2. “My very dog,” sighed poor Rip, “has forgotten me!” 3. Loud was the lightsome tumult on the shore.--BYRON. 4. Sweet are the shy recesses of the woodland. 5. Rows of pewter and earthen dishes glittered along the dresser. 6. The major spoke in a matter-of-fact way. 7. The sheep and the cow have no cutting teeth, but only a hard pad in the upper jaw.--HUXLEY. 8. The faint, foggy daylight glimmered dimly on the bare floor and stairs. 9. He wiped his serious, perplexed face on a red bandanna handkerchief, a shade lighter than his complexion. 10. The yellow moonlight sleeps on all the hills.--BEATTIE. 11. The young hostess seemed to perform her office with a certain degree of desperate determination. 12. This warning is meant in a friendly spirit.
13. The house remained untenanted for three years. 14. Numberless torrents, with ceaseless sound, descend to the ocean. 15. The contest between the two branches of the legislature lasted some days longer.
2. Write five sentences containing descriptive adjectives; five containing definitive adjectives.
3. Write sentences containing demonstrative, indefinite, relative, and interrogative adjectives.
4. Write sentences in which the indefinite article is directly followed by--
honorable, youthful, yew, ewe, euphonious, historical, history, hymn, humble, hilarious, university, express, horticultural, oratorio, automatic, heritage, harmonious.
EXERCISE 23
(§§ 181–187, pp. 79–82)
Point out the comparatives and the superlatives. Mention any superlatives used for emphasis (§ 200).
1. The Governor-General is the frankest and best-natured of men. 2. The company grew merrier and louder as their jokes grew duller. 3. A knock alarmed the outer gate. 4. At once there came the politest and friendliest reply. 5. Many a poet has been poorer than Burns, but no one was ever prouder.--CARLYLE. 6. The last tyrant ever proves the worst.--POPE. 7. The profoundest secrecy was observed in the whole transaction. 8. Earth has not anything to show more fair. 9. The natural principle of war is to do the most harm to our enemy with the least harm to ourselves.--IRVING. 10. During the rest of the journey, Rose was in the strangest state of mind. 11. There’s not a nobler man in Rome than Antony. 12. Little he ate, and less he spake. 13. Our journey hither was through the most beautiful part of the finest country in the world. 14. Meanwhile the throng without was constantly becoming more numerous and more savage. 15. Vain are his weapons, vainer is his force. 16. She might have been more lenient.
17. You’ll have to be more practical. 18. How does a love of gain transform the gravest of mankind into the most contemptible and ridiculous!--GOLDSMITH. 19. Most authors speak of their fame as if it were quite a priceless matter.
20. Loveliest and best! thou little know’st The rank, the honor, thou hast lost!--SCOTT.
21. Of two such lessons, why forget The nobler and the manlier one?--BYRON.
EXERCISE 24
(§§ 189–198, pp. 83–87)
1. Parse each adverb by telling whether it is an adverb of manner, time, place, or degree, and by mentioning the verb, adjective, or adverb which it modifies. Compare the adverbs which are capable of comparison.
1. A great part of the island is rather level. 2. They had worked very hard and very cheerfully. 3. When spake I such a word? 4. We can ill spare the commanding social benefits of cities.--EMERSON. 5. She looked up and met his eyes, and thereupon both became very grave. 6. The silence of the prairie at night was well-nigh terrible. 7. Far in the West there lies a desert land. 8. The whistling ploughman stalks afield. 9. Swiftly they glided along. 10. He has only just arrived in England. 11. Fast the white rocks faded from his view. 12. Whole ranks instantly laid down their pikes and muskets. 13. Thick clouds of dust afar appeared. 14. Bitter sobs came thick and fast. 15. How long are you going to be in Paris? 16. To-morrow I intend to hunt again. 17. Answer made King Arthur, breathing hard. 18. Some of us laughed heartily. 19. They had spoken simply and openly about that from the very start.
2. Form an adverb of manner from each of the following adjectives. Use each adverb in a sentence. Tell what it modifies.
Proud, careless, vehement, tender, vigorous, dainty, brave, formal, courteous, blunt, sharp, keen, weary, heavy, true, skilful, legible.
3. Fill each blank with an adverb of degree modifying the adjective or the adverb.
1. Ogilvie was ---- lucky that day.
2. They were thought to be ---- fashionable people.
3. She made her objections ---- delicately as she could.
4. July has been ---- hot.
5. Carlyle was ---- dainty about his food.
6. Jack did not come early ---- to find a seat.
7. The tide runs ---- fast round this point.
8. The balloon soared ---- high that it disappeared.
9. The fugitive reached the pier ---- late to take the steamer.
10. The bear growled ---- savagely that the dogs were frightened.
11. You write ---- more legibly than I.
EXERCISE 25
(§§ 194–196, p. 86)
1. Point out the relative adverbs, and mention the subordinate clause introduced by each. Tell whether each adverb expresses time, place, or manner.
1. Just as the sun went down, they heard a murmur of voices. 2. On waking, he found himself on the green knoll whence he had first seen the old man of the glen. 3. There is no place of general resort wherein I do not often make my appearance. 4. Wherever he determines to sleep, there he prepares himself a sort of nest. 5. I hastened to the spot whence I had come. 6. Where rolled the ocean, thereon was his home.--BYRON. 7. Where shineth thy spirit, there liberty shineth too!--MOORE. 8. He will look on the world, wheresoever he can catch a glimpse of it, with eager curiosity. 9. Until Lady Glenmore came to call next day, we heard of nothing unusual. 10. When she and Miss Pole left us, we endeavored to subside into calmness. 11. Small service is true service while it lasts. 12. Long before we saw the sea, its spray was on our lips. 13. As they ascended, Rip every now and then heard long rolling peals, like distant thunder. 14. The village clock struck five as Mr. Millbank and his guests entered the gardens of the mansion. 15. When only a small space was left between the armies, the Highlanders suddenly drew their broadswords and rushed forward with a fearful yell.--MACAULAY. 16. When he rejoined his companions, he said something to them in Welsh.
2. Point out the interrogative adverbs, and tell what each modifies.
1. Why look’st thou so? 2. Whence came ye, jolly satyrs? whence came ye?--KEATS. 3. Where now shall I go, poor, forsaken, and blind?--CAMPBELL. 4. Why weep ye by the tide?--SCOTT. 5. See how the world its veterans rewards!--POPE. 6. How wildly will ambition steer!--DRYDEN. 7. Where have you been these twenty long years? 8. Here was a Cæsar! When comes such another?--SHAKSPERE. 9. When shall we three meet again? 10. History is clarified experience, and yet how little do men profit by it! Nay, how should we expect it of those who so seldom are taught anything by their own?--LOWELL. 11. Why did you not bring what I asked for?
3. Write ten sentences containing relative adverbs; ten containing interrogative adverbs.
EXERCISE 26
(§§ 197–203, pp. 87–89)
1. Point out the comparatives and superlatives. Tell whether each is an adjective or an adverb.
1. I thought it the most prudent method to lie still. 2. When the people observed I was quiet, they discharged no more arrows. 3. You know your own feelings best. 4. He was taller than any of the other three who attended him. 5. The song and the laugh grew less and less frequent. 6. The harder I try to forget it, the more it comes into my mind. 7. The night grew darker and darker; the stars seemed to sink deeper in the sky. 8. I answered in a few words, but in a most submissive manner. 9. Their sight is much more acute than ours. 10. The natives came by degrees to be less apprehensive of any danger from me. 11. Whoever performs his part with the most agility, and holds out longest in leaping, is rewarded with the blue-colored silk. 12. It received less damage than I expected. 13. Long live the most puissant king of Lilliput! 14. Fast are the flying moments, faster are the hoofs of our horses. 15. Nigh come the strangers and more nigh.--SCOTT.
2. Write sentences containing either the comparative or the superlative of the following words:--
merry, uncomfortable, ill, joyfully, northern, old (_both forms_), far, in, out, early, little (_adjective_), little (_adverb_), badly, often, worthy, wonderful, accurate, far, nigh, top, much, severe.
3. Write six sentences containing adverbs which are incapable of comparison; six containing adjectives which are incapable of comparison.
EXERCISE 27
(§§ 204–208, pp. 89–90)
1. Write five sentences in which cardinal numerals are adjectives, five in which they are nouns. Use the same numerals in the ordinal form as adjectives, as nouns.
2. Write five sentences, each containing a numeral adverb; five containing an adverbial phrase that includes a numeral.
EXERCISE 28
(§§ 209–215, pp. 91–93)
1. Point out all the verbs and verb-phrases. Tell whether each is transitive or intransitive. Tell which are copulative; which are auxiliary. Mention any examples of the copula.
1. Little tasks make large return. 2. We must now return to the fortress of Tillietudlem and its inhabitants. 3. Though I look old, yet I am strong and lusty. 4. The sunshine might now be seen stealing down the front of the opposite house. 5. He sat apart from them all, and looked at them with a melancholy, haughty countenance; while the rest hallooed and sang and laughed, and the room rang. 6. You cannot relieve me, but you may add to the torments I suffer. 7. One gains nothing by attempting to shut out the sprites of the weather. They come in at the keyhole; they peer through the dripping panes; they insinuate themselves through the crevices of the casement, or plump themselves down chimney astride of the raindrops.--WHITTIER. 8. A large lamp threw a strong mass of light upon the group. 9. The baron pardoned the young couple on the spot. 10. Every now and then he would turn his head slowly round.
11. The river sleeps along its course and dreams of the sky and of the clustering foliage. 12. A severe gale compelled him to seek shelter. 13. Miss Betsy Barker dried her eyes and thanked the Captain heartily. 14. Pray you, look not sad. 15. I am! yet what I am who cares, or knows?--CLARE. 16. After all, it is a glorious pastime to find oneself in a real gale of wind, in a big ship, with not a rock to run against within a thousand miles.--KINGSLEY. 17. We will talk over all this another time. 18. What is progress? Movement. But what if it be movement in the wrong direction?--DISRAELI. 19. They say you are a melancholy fellow. 20. The valiant Clifford is no more. 21. The wreck had evidently drifted about for many months; clusters of shellfish had fastened about it, and long seaweed flaunted at its sides.--IRVING. 22. Times grew worse and worse with Rip Van Winkle as years of matrimony rolled on.
2. Frame twenty sentences, each containing a verb-phrase. Use the auxiliaries mentioned in § 210. Let some of the sentences be interrogative.
3. Make a list of twenty verbs that are transitive in one sense, intransitive in another (§ 212). Use these verbs in sentences.
4. Illustrate the absolute use of transitive verbs by framing ten sentences (§ 213).
5. Make a list of six copulative verbs (§ 214). Use them in sentences. Frame sentences in which the same verbs are not copulative (§ 215).
6. Use the copula (§ 214) in twenty sentences, several of which shall illustrate its use in verb-phrases.
EXERCISE 29
(§§ 217–225, pp. 94–99)
1. Write ten sentences in each of which a weak (or regular) verb is used in the past tense; ten, in each of which a strong (or irregular) verb is used in the past tense.
2. Construct sentences in which the past tense of each of the following verbs is used: _drink_, _lie_, _sow_, _get_, _wake_, _dwell_, _sing_, _pay_, _bid_, _light_, _bereave_, _build_, _ride_, _hang_, _swim_, _lay_, _split_, _shrink_, _slay_, _wring_, _weave_, _thrive_, _spin_, _tread_, _shake_, _burst_, _slink_, _dive_, _flee_, _fly_, _swing_, _wet_, _fling_, _kneel_, _let_, _chide_.
3. Point out all the verbs (except the copula and auxiliaries) in Exercise 28, 1, and conjugate them in the present and the past tense. Tell which are weak (regular) and which are strong (irregular). Account for the person and number.
EXERCISE 30
(§§ 226–232, pp. 100–102)
1. Fill each blank with _am_, _is_, or _are_.
1. England and the United States ---- at peace.
2. Neither Arthur nor John ---- right.
3. Either a saw or an axe ---- necessary.
4. Either you or Dorothy ---- going.
5. You and I ---- going.
6. You and he ---- going.
7. Is it Mr. Allen or is it his children who ---- going?
8. Either he ---- going or you ----.
9. Either you ---- going or I ----.
10. The sum and substance of the article ---- this.
11. Half the sheep ---- missing.
12. A number of Italians ---- present.
13. The number of Italians in this town ---- small.
14. Mathematics ---- my most difficult study.
15. The number of applicants ---- not sufficient
16. A number of reasons ---- alleged.
17. The jury ---- in agreement.
18. The jury ---- being charged by the judge.
19. The committee ---- composed of five members.
20. The committee ---- always wrangling with one another.
21. I, who ---- only a beginner, cannot compete with Richards, who ---- an expert.
22. He is one of those men who ---- always out of work.
23. I am not a man who ---- easily frightened.
24. Walter is one of the best fellows there ---- in this town.
25. Is it the king and queen who ---- coming?
26. Is it the king or the queen who ---- coming?
27. They made me, who ---- the shyest of mortals, respond to a toast.
28. A gift of four hundred books, eighteen maps, and ten plaster casts ---- to be made to our school.
29. Vocal and instrumental music ---- taught here.
30. Neither vocal nor instrumental music ---- taught here.
31. Neither elementary nor advanced physics ---- taught here.
32. Neither organic nor inorganic chemists ---- trained here.
33. One or two pages ---- missing.
34. Physics, together with algebra and Latin, ---- taught the first year.
35. Stevenson’s “Memories and Portraits” ---- lying on the table.
36. The insurgent general with ten of his followers ---- said to have surrendered.
37. James, as well as his sisters, ---- coming.
38. Six months ---- a long time to wait.
39. A series of lectures ---- given here every winter.
2. Make a list of ten collective nouns. Use them in sentences (1) with a singular verb, (2) with a plural verb. Explain the difference in meaning.
3. Use the relative _who_ in ten sentences in which the antecedent is in the first or the second person.
EXERCISE 31
(§§ 233–241, pp. 102–105)
1. Explain the use of _will_ and _shall_ in the following sentences.
1. We shall never forget what you have done for us. 2. “You ought to know my military secretary,” said the general, as Lothair entered, “and therefore I will introduce you.” 3. I am very patient; I will wait. 4. If I do return, I will vote against them. But I will not return. I have made up my mind to that. 5. I will send you Jennings’s poem, if you like. 6. You will of course make a drawing and an estimate, and send them to me (§ 240). 7. Do congratulate her for me, will you? 8. Another Athens shall arise.--SHELLEY. 9. “I won’t allow it!” cried Lady Niton, “he sha’n’t go!” 10. Shall I find you at home if I call some day soon, between five and six o’clock? 11. You must be convinced, and on reflection you will be convinced. 12. Before my journey to Rochdale, you shall have due notice where to address me. 13. I consider myself a first-rate shot, and you shall practise with me. 14. Shall I ever forget that party? 15. Shall you hunt to-morrow, Mr. Deronda? 16. When shall you be at Cambridge?
17. Lady St. Jerome is a little indisposed--a cold caught at one of her bazaars. She will hold them, and they say that no one ever sells so much.--DISRAELI. 18. Will you be good enough to keep an account of all the manuscripts you receive, for fear of omission? 19. O rest ye, brother mariners, we will not wander more.--TENNYSON. 20. Will you forward the inclosed immediately to Corbet, whose address I do not exactly remember? 21. Byron was no common man: yet if we examine his poetry with this view, we shall find it far enough from faultless.--CARLYLE. 22. I shall be in town by Sunday next, and will call and have some conversation on the subject of Westall’s proposed design. 23. Will you go down, dear? I will follow you in a moment. 24. Will not your trip to Bath afford you an opportunity to take a peep at Weston? 25. Never, as long as I live, will I speak to you again, nor shall Harry, whom you have humiliated!
26. Yet he for whom I grieve shall never know it. 27. Shall you let him go to Italy? 28. Prone to the dust Oppression shall be hurled.--CAMPBELL. 29. You sha’n’t go on with this affair, I tell you, Harry. 30. I shall probably return this evening, but I will see you before I go.--TROLLOPE. 31. In the interim I shall leave town; on Sunday I shall set out for Herefordshire, from whence, when wanted, I will return. 32. If my father does not return with me in the spring, it shall not be for want of urging on my part.--COOPER.
2. Fill each blank with _will_ or _shall_.
1. I ---- be glad to see you.
2. We ---- be obliged to go home early.
3. I ---- help you whenever you wish.
4. I promise that he ---- not trouble you again.
5. You ---- be kind enough to take your seat.
6. We ---- miss our train, I fear.
7. I must hurry or I ---- be late.
8. Robert ---- have as much as is good for him.
9. Arthur ---- disobey me in spite of all I can do.
10. Arthur ---- obey you, I am sure.
11. Arthur ---- obey me, or I ---- punish him.
12. If we reject these offers, we ---- regret it.
13. I ---- no longer endure his insolence.
14. ---- they return in season for dinner?
15. I ---- have to excuse you this time, I suppose.
16. I ---- gladly see you at any time.
17. You ---- not leave this room until you have confessed.
18. He ---- give you the money, I feel confident.
19. He ---- give you the money, or I ---- have no more to do with him.
20. ---- we allow them to do as they please?
3. Write declarative sentences, using _will_ or _shall_ in the first person (singular or plural) to express a threat, a promise, resolution, consent, desire, determination, simple futurity.
4. Fill the blanks in the following questions with _will_ or _shall_. Write sentences (using _will_ or _shall_) in answer.
1. ---- you promise to do better?
2. ---- you make any promises if he insists?
3. ---- we miss our train?
4. ---- we go? Just ask us!
5. ---- I go now? I fear I am wearying you.
6. ---- I tell you what I really think?
7. ---- you call a cab for me, if you please?
8. ---- you be glad to see him?
9. ---- you see me if I call at one o’clock?
10. ---- we see you this evening?
11. ---- you be kind enough to open that door, or ---- I?
12. ---- you miss your brother?
13. ---- we wait here, or ---- you relent and let us go with you?
14. ---- we allow this evil to continue?
15. ---- you forgive me?
EXERCISE 32
(§§ 242–245, pp. 106–107)
1. Name all the complete (or compound) tenses and explain their formation.
1. Four long years in the times of the war had he languished a captive.--LONGFELLOW. 2. The adventurer has subsequently returned to his native country. 3. Spiders had built their webs in the angles of the walls and ceilings. 4. Whole fleets had been cast away. Large mansions had been blown down. 5. I am just returned from staying three days at a delightful inn by the river Ouse, where we always go to fish (§ 242, 1, note).--FITZ GERALD. 6. In the evening we reached a village where I had determined to pass the night. 7. I have sent by the Gisbornes a copy of the “Elegy on Keats.” 8. I have really done my best. 9. Our visits to the islands have been more like dreams than realities. 10. We are here arrived at the crisis of Burns’s life. 11. The chills of a long winter had suddenly given way; the north wind had spent its last gasp; and a mild air came stealing from the west. 12. The officer at last turned away, having satisfied himself that the room was empty. 13. Carson will have reached shelter long before this.
2. Construct ten sentences in which the verbs in Exercise 29, 2 are used in the perfect tense.
3. Turn the verbs in these sentences into the pluperfect tense; into the future perfect tense. Write sentences in which the same verbs are used as perfect participles; as perfect infinitives.
EXERCISE 33
(§§ 246–254, pp. 107–112)
1. Tell whether each verb is in the active or the passive voice.
2. If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make such other changes as may be necessary. If the verb is passive, change it to the
## active.
3. Conjugate each verb in the tense in which it occurs.
1. The customs of mankind are influenced in many ways by climate. 2. The door, which was slightly ajar, was suddenly pushed open. 3. The landlord handed the stranger the newspaper. 4. After a short pause, my host resumed his narration. 5. During the greater part of that night my slumbers were disturbed by strange dreams. 6. Not a word was spoken, not a sound was made. 7. The great willow tree had caught and retained among its leaves a whole cataract of water. 8. Early in the morning I was awakened by the voices of Peter and his wife. 9. He that is loudly praised will be clamorously censured.--JOHNSON. 10. Out of this story he formed a tragedy. 11. The assailants were repulsed in their first attack, and several of their bravest officers were shot down in the act of storming the fortress sword in hand. 12. This fatal question has disturbed the quiet of many other minds. 13. No genius was ever blasted by the breath of critics.--JOHNSON. 14. The jury then heard the opinion of the judge.
15. What cruel maxims are we taught by a knowledge of the world!--MISS BURNEY. 16. Their departure made another material change at Mansfield. 17. The appearance of a housemaid prevented any further conversation. 18. Each word of this leave-taking was overheard by Kezia. 19. Before nine o’clock next morning the two canoes were installed on a light country cart. 20. An old harper was summoned from the servants’ hall. 21. He had been wounded at Waterloo. 22. This advice struck the disputants dumb. 23. Through the night were heard the mysterious sounds of the desert. 24. A violent storm of rain obliged them to take shelter in an inn. 25. Far was heard the fox’s yell.--SCOTT. 26. Adams highly commended the doctor’s opinion.
4. Rewrite the following sentences, changing the form of the verbs from
## active to passive, or from passive to active. Notice the effect upon
subjects and objects.
1. I was brought up by my uncle. 2. I have found them. 3. We were delayed by the storm. 4. They were warned by the pilot. 5. She saw us. 6. That winter will never be forgotten by any of us. 7. You surprise me. 8. Will you meet me? 9. Was he struck by a bullet? 10. Have you forgotten me? 11. How the crowd cheered him! 12. Tom, the blacksmith, makes horseshoes. 13. The schooner was run down by the steamship. 14. The old man has opened a little shop. 15. Mary has invited Ellen. 16. Mary might have invited Ellen. 17. Mary will invite Ellen. 18. The storm has made great havoc along the coast. 19. The children have been called home by their nurse. 20. He vexes me. 21. The tower was struck by lightning yesterday. 22. A policeman helped her over the crossing. 23. I was amused by your letter.
5. Use each of the following verbs in both the active and the passive of the past, the future, and the perfect (or present perfect):--_send_, _bring_, _teach_, _drink_, _get_, _set_, _lay_, _leave_, _find_, _forget_.
6. Use each of the verbs in § 105 in the active voice of the past tense with both a direct and an indirect object. Change to the passive.
EXERCISE 34
(§§ 255–261, pp. 113–114)
1. Point out all the progressive and all the emphatic verb-phrases. Mention the tense and voice of each. Note any instances where _do_ and _did_ are not emphatic.
1. Thus did the long sad years glide on. 2. Now pray do settle in England. 3. Meanwhile, I go about in my little ship, where I do think I have two honest fellows to deal with. 4. I remember. I do indeed remember--too well! 5. Not until it was broad daylight did I quit the haunted house. 6. Do but look on her eyes. 7. Roland reached the boat just as the gang plank was being hauled in. 8. We are being entertained by the Archers. 9. The man at our wheel was spinning his spokes desperately to avoid banging into vessels we could not see, but whose bells were ringing everywhere about us. 10. Wild weeds are gathering on the wall. 11. I did actually pick up a French crown piece, worth about a dollar and six cents, near high-water mark. 12. I was loitering about the old gray cloisters of Westminster Abbey. 13. The friends of Coningsby were now hourly arriving. 14. My eyes have been leaving me in the lurch again.
15. They had been for some time passing through narrow gorges of the mountains, along the edges of a tumbling stream. 16. We are just sitting down to dinner with a pleasant party. 17. The large Newfoundland house-dog was standing by the door. 18. “Do thou,” said Bertram, “lead the way.”--SCOTT. 19. Music in his ears his beating heart did make. 20. Over the hillsides the wild knell is tolling.--HOLMES.
2. Write sentences in which the verb _teach_ is used in the present progressive, past progressive, future progressive, perfect progressive, pluperfect progressive, and future perfect progressive tenses of the
## active voice.
3. Write ten questions containing some form of _do_ (or _did_).
EXERCISE 35
(§§ 262–286, pp. 115–123)
Point out all the verbs in the imperative or the subjunctive mood. Tell the subjects of the imperatives and explain the forms and uses of the subjunctives.
1. And now dispatch we toward the court, my lords.--SHAKSPERE. 2. I think you had better speak to Lady Corisande yourself (§ 285). 3. My dear boy, God bless thee a thousand times over! 4. O that the desert were my dwelling place! 5. “Rest we here,” Matilda said.--SCOTT. 6. Go where thy destiny calls thee. 7. Now Hesper guide my feet.--AKENSIDE. 8. O that such hills upheld a freeborn race!--BYRON. 9. Perish those riches which are acquired at the expense of my honor or my humanity!--GOLDSMITH. 10. Would all were well! but that will never be.--SHAKSPERE. 11. The distaff were more fitting for you. 12. Robert hesitated, as if he were inclined to refuse. 13. Do what they might, the hook was in their gills.--GEORGE MEREDITH. 14. Fare you well, fair gentlemen.--SHAKSPERE. 15. Suffice it to say, the robbers were defeated. 16. Disclose thy treachery, or die! 17. Let us not be influenced by any angry feelings. 18. Be that as it may, Kidd never returned to recover his wealth.
19. I would to God my heart were flint, like Edward’s.--SHAKSPERE. 20. Move we on.--SCOTT. 21. Mark that the signal-gun be duly fired.--BYRON. 22. The hull drives on, though mast and sail be torn. 23. I am glad that you liked my song, and, if I liked the others myself so well as that I sent you, I would transcribe them for you also.--COWPER. 24. I beseech you, punish me not with your hard thoughts.--SHAKSPERE. 25. If there be change, no change I see.--LANDOR. 26. Be it as thou wilt. 27. Weep you no more, sad fountains. 28. If thou leave thy father, he will die.--WORDSWORTH. 29. Come thou no more for ransom, gentle herald.--SHAKSPERE. 30. Learn thou his purpose. 31. Come, go we in procession to the village.--SHAKSPERE. 32. The destruction of property which took place within a few weeks would be incredible, if it were not attested by witnesses unconnected with each other and attached to very different interests.
33. I wish I were as I have been, Hunting the hart in forest green.--SCOTT.
34. Come what come may, Time and the hour runs through the roughest day.--SHAKSPERE.
35. Buried be all that has been done, Or say that naught is done amiss.--CRABBE.
EXERCISE 36
(§§ 272–286, pp. 118–123)
Fill each blank with a verb in the appropriate form.
1. O that he ---- here!
2. Would that I ---- there!
3. If he ---- a little older, I should take him into partnership.
4. ---- you asked me to go, I should have refused.
5. ---- you to ask me, I should refuse.
6. If you ---- there, I should have seen you.
7. I am glad I saw the play, even if I ---- a little disappointed.
8. I should have been glad to see the play, even if I ---- a little disappointed.
9. I should be glad to see the play, even if I ---- a little disappointed.
10. I shall be glad to see the play, even if I ---- a little disappointed.
11. Though he ---- to increase my salary, I should not remain in his employ. [Use the copula.]
12. Unless he ---- to increase my salary, I should not remain in his employ. [Use the copula.]
13. When Tom saw you, you looked as if you ---- angry. [Use the copula.]
14. When Tom sees you, I suppose you will look as if you ---- angry.
15. I must remind him to post this letter, lest he ---- it.
EXERCISE 37
(§§ 287–295, pp. 124–127)
Explain the meaning of each potential verb-phrase, and parse the phrase. In parsing such a phrase, describe it merely as a potential verb-phrase and tell the tense, voice, person, and number, without assigning it to any mood.
1. Enough! You may depart. 2. Men should travel. 3. What must be shall be. That’s a certain text.--SHAKSPERE. 4. At times, with a strong effort, he would glance at the open door which still seemed to repel his eyes. 5. Nothing can bring you peace but yourself.--EMERSON. 6. It was sometimes sad enough to watch him as he sat alone. He would have a book near him, and for a while would keep it in his hands.--TROLLOPE. 7. O, my friend! may I believe you? May I speak to you? 8. Presently he faced Adrian, crying, “And I might have stopped it!” 9. Nothing is impossible to the man who can will.--EMERSON. 10. A scholar may be a well-bred man, or he may not.--EMERSON. 11. “I trust we’re at liberty to enter,” said the elder lady with urbanity. “We were told that we might come at any time.” 12. I sent for you that I might have your counsel and assistance. 13. I could no longer doubt the doom prepared for me.
14. I am as well as I can expect to be under the excitement which I suffer. 15. I can become a party to no such absurd proceeding. 16. I could scarcely refrain from tears. 17. Come! we must go back. 18. We must be strangers to each other in future. 19. As my horse must now have eaten his provender, I must needs thank you for your good cheer, and pray you to show me this man’s residence, that I may have the means of proceeding on my journey.
EXERCISE 38
(§§ 289–291, pp. 125–126)
1. Fill each blank with _can_ or _may_.
1. ---- I borrow your pen?
2. Yes, you ----.
3. No, you ---- not.
4. I ---- swim across this river some day, for I know well enough that I ----.
5. I shall ask my father if I ---- swim across this river. I know well enough that I ----.
6. My father is confident that I ---- swim across the river safely.
7. My father says that I ---- swim across the river if I will wait until he ---- go with me.
8. ---- I trouble you to give me that tennis racket?
9. It ---- be that you will regret this.
10. It ---- not be that you will regret this.
11. ---- you take a vacation this year, or is permission still refused?
12. Why not ask if you ---- take a vacation?
13. You ---- take your vacation after I have taken mine.
14. The weather man says we ---- hope for sunshine to-morrow.
15. He ---- be thankful that he escaped so easily.
16. When you are twenty-one, you ---- have your own way.
2. Write sentences asking permission in the first, second, and third persons. Write sentences (1) granting these requests; (2) refusing them.
EXERCISE 39
(§§ 297–308, pp. 127–132)
1. Justify the use of the auxiliary (_should_ or _would_). In some of the sentences, _should_ might be substituted for _would_. Which are they?
1. If I were you, I would not dwell too much on this fancy of yours. 2. I have neither servants nor clothes, and, if it had not been for these good people, I should not have had food. 3. I should delight in having her for a sister-in-law. 4. I should hardly wish to go out before Friday. 5. I shouldn’t wonder if this made him set his teeth. 6. Well, that’s over! and I’m sure neither Oliver nor I would go through it again for a million of money. 7. If I were you, I would turn it over in my mind. 8. I should be afraid to express myself in this manner, if the matter were not clear and indisputable.--BURKE. 9. I should like to remain where I am for another week or ten days. 10. Would you do me the favor to look at a few specimens of my portrait-painting?--DICKENS. 11. “Would you come?” she said, with a serious, searching glance, and in a kind of coaxing manner.--“I should be an intruder, my dear lady,” said Theodore, declining the suggestion.--DISRAELI.
12. I should not like to be out of my seat were the House in session.--W. J. LOCKE. 13. If I were you I would not tempt Fate by remaining here a day longer.--W. E. NORRIS. 14. Candidates would rather, I suppose, climb in at a window than be absolutely excluded.--COWPER. 15. Impey would not hear of mercy or delay. 16. I should not be surprised if he were here immediately. 17. There’s a plantation of sugar-canes at the foot of that rock: should you like to look?--GEORGE ELIOT.
2. Explain the use of the auxiliary (_shall_, _should_, or _will_, _would_) in each subordinate clause.
1. With this purpose in view, he sent a skilful architect to build him such a palace as should be fit for a man of his vast wealth to live in. 2. Their majesties commanded me to submit to whatever Bobadilla should order in their name. 3. Should you find yourself able to push on to Braemar, your visit will be most welcome. 4. It’s a simple affair enough, if you’ll just leave it as it stands. 5. Fearing to awaken Joseph a second time, lest he should again hazard all by his thoughtlessness, he crept softly out of the wigwam. 6. I watched the grapes from day to day till they should have secreted sugar enough from the sunbeams. 7. If an old prophecy should come to pass, we may see a man, some time or other, with exactly such a face as that. 8. He kept his heart continually open, and thus was sure to catch the blessing from on high, when it should come.--HAWTHORNE. 9. This law provided that the presidency of Bengal should exercise a control over the other possessions of the Company. 10. It is time that we should proceed.
11. It is necessary that he should have some work to do. 12. I shall be thankful if you will condescend to enlighten my ignorance. 13. It was natural that the leading authors should affect a style of levity and derision.--JEFFREY. 14. I will take care that you shall not be troubled by him again. 15. That the Duke of Wellington should cordially approve is singular enough. 16. “Boys,” interrupted Wilder, “it is now proper that you should know something of my future movements.”--COOPER. 17. We all stood ready to succor them if there should be occasion.--DEFOE. 18. You are so well qualified for the task yourself that it is impossible you should need any assistance; at least, it is hardly possible that I should afford you any.--COWPER. 19. The brave sufferer refused to purchase liberty, though liberty to him would have been life, by recognizing the authority which had confined him. 20. I meant that he should walk off, but he did not choose to understand me. 21. When time shall serve, you shall have the fruit of my labors.--COWPER.
22. I shall be so glad if you will tell me what to read.--GEORGE ELIOT. 23. I protest against such a combat, until the king of England shall have repaid the fifty thousand bezants.--SCOTT. 24. Unless something should go wrong, I flatter myself that the performance will elicit your generous approbation. 25. A seat in the cabinet was offered to him, on condition that he would give efficient support to the ministry in Parliament. 26. The proposition which he made was, that Fox should be Secretary of State.
27. That night he put forth a proclamation, directing that the posts should be stopped, and that no person should, at his peril, venture to harbor the accused members.--MACAULAY. 28. Hyde interfered, and proposed that the question should be divided. 29. I am sorry that you should be bothered in this way. 30. I am sorry that Murray should groan on my account.--BYRON. 31. There are old brass andirons, waiting until time shall revenge them on their paltry substitutes. 32. Should he be acquitted, that, I imagine, should end the matter. 33. A rumor was circulated that some new pageant was about to be exhibited, which should put a fitting close to the splendid festivities. 34. If this new purpose of conquest shall be abandoned, Richard may yet become King of Jerusalem by compact.--SCOTT. 35. Saladin desires no converts save those whom the holy prophet shall dispose to submit themselves to his law. 36. Pride now came to Montezuma’s aid, and, since he must go, he preferred that it should appear to be with his own free will. 37. God forbid that I should regret those gifts!
EXERCISE 40
(§§ 309–323, pp. 132–137)
1. Point out each infinitive and explain its construction as noun, as complementary infinitive, as infinitive of purpose, as modifier of a noun or an adjective, or as part of a verb-phrase (with an auxiliary).
2. Point out any modifiers or objects of infinitives.
1. To advance toward London would have been madness. 2. To trace the exact boundary between rightful and wrongful resistance is impossible.--MACAULAY. 3. I was too young to keep any journal of this voyage. 4. The baron hastened to receive his future son-in-law. 5. It was her habit to go over to the deanery (§ 318). 6. He could not consent to turn his back upon a party of helpless travellers. 7. The fixed purpose of these men was to break the foreign yoke. 8. Here rise no cliffs the vale to shade. 9. They saw the gleaming river seaward flow (§ 322). 10. She perceived one of the eyes of the portrait move. 11. His first scheme was to seize Bristol. 12. The first business of the Commons was to elect a Speaker. 13. The old man frequently stretched his eyes ahead to gaze over the tract that he had yet to traverse. 14. When other things sank brooding to sleep, the heath appeared slowly to awake and listen.--HARDY. 15. All were anxious to hear the story of the mysterious picture. 16. I see the lights of the village gleam through the rain and the mist. 17. Then the bishop rose from his chair to speak.
18. To dismiss him from his high post was to emancipate him from all restraint. 19. This is not a time to hesitate. 20. Burghers hastened to man the wall. 21. I felt Leslie’s hand tremble on my arm. 22. He heard a mighty bowstring twang.--MORRIS. 23. Mr. Ralph Nickleby sat in his private office one morning, ready dressed to walk abroad. 24. I put down the letters, and began to muse over their contents. 25. Waves of clear sea are, indeed, lovely to watch. 26. Halifax had now nothing to give. 27. The neighborhood seemed to breathe a tranquil prosperity. 28. It is always perilous to adopt expediency as a guide. 29. Soldiers were drawn up to keep the passage clear.
3. Write sentences containing an infinitive used as subject, as predicate nominative, as appositive, as the object of a preposition, as an adjective; a complementary infinitive; an infinitive of purpose; an infinitive used with _shall_, with _will_, with _must_.
4. Note any modifiers or objects that you have used with the infinitives.
EXERCISE 41
(§§ 324–328, pp. 137–139)
1. Point out each infinitive clause. Mention the verb of which it is the object. Find the subject of each infinitive. When it is possible, substitute a _that_-clause for the infinitive clause.
1. It might seem irreverent to make the gray cathedral and the tall time-worn palaces echo back the exuberant vociferation of the market. 2. We have made you wait. 3. We then went to Pembroke College, and waited on his old friend Dr. Adams, the master of it, whom I found to be a most polite, pleasing, communicative man.--BOSWELL. 4. The doctor expects Captain Starbuck to recover. 5. For a good sailor to foul the first buoy was ludicrous enough. 6. Will you ask Annie to feed the parrot? 7. I believe it to be a speaking likeness. 8. I suppose them to be utterly ignorant of their own condition.
9. Hepzibah bade her young guest sit down. 10. Calamity and peril often force men to combine. 11. He knew himself to be a liar whom nobody trusted. 12. I must not ask the reader to suppose that he was cheerful. 13. I felt this melancholy to be infectious. 14. No one on seeing Mr. Crawley took him to be a happy man, or a weak man, or an ignorant man, or a wise man.--TROLLOPE. 15. Humanity impelled him to rescue the poor wretch.
2. Write sentences containing infinitive clauses used after verbs of _wishing_, _commanding_, _believing_, _declaring_, _perceiving_.
3. Fill each blank with a personal pronoun.
1. He believes the author to be ----. [First person.]
2. He believes that the author is ----. [First person.]
3. I knew the thief to be ----. [Third person.]
4. I thought that the thief was ----. [Third person.]
5. We thought the strangers to be ----. [Third person.]
6. We thought that the strangers were ----. [Third person.]
4. Fill each blank with _who_ or _whom_.
1. The man ---- I believe to be responsible for this accident is the engineer.
2. I believe that the man ---- is responsible for this accident is the engineer.
3. My knock was answered by a lad ---- I believed to be a lodger.
4. You are not the person ---- I believed you to be.
EXERCISE 42
(§§ 329–343, pp. 140–143)
1. Point out all the participles, present and past, and tell what substantive each modifies. Mention such as are used as pure adjectives. Mention any modifiers or objects of participles.
1. The ship is anchored safe and sound, its voyage closed and done.--WHITMAN. 2. Even the tight windows and the heavy silken curtains drawn close could not shut out the sound of the driving sleet. 3. Godolphin was not a reading man. 4. Mr. Sikes, dragging Oliver after him, elbowed his way through the thickest of the crowd. 5. Betrayed, deserted, disorganized, unprovided with resources, begirt with enemies, the noble city was still no easy conquest. 6. Thus regretted and cautioned on all hands, Mordaunt took leave of the hospitable household. 7. Far away, an angry white stain undulating on the surface of steely-gray waters, shot with gleams of green, diminished swiftly, without a hiss, like a patch of pure snow melting in the sun.--CONRAD. 8. I set her on my pacing steed.--KEATS.
9. But the poor traveller paused here barely for a minute, and then went on, stumbling through the mud, striking his ill-covered feet against the rough stones in the dark, sweating in his weakness, almost tottering at times, and calculating whether his remaining strength would serve to carry him home.--TROLLOPE. 10. His teeth are set, his hand is clenched. 11. Passing through the ravine, they came to a hollow, like a small amphitheatre. 12. He found the house gone to decay--the roof fallen in, the windows shattered, and the doors off the hinges. 13. And now, sir, when you next go to the British Museum, look for a poet named Vaughan. 14. A heavy sea struck us on our starboard quarter, almost throwing us on our beam-ends. 15. He stood chuckling and rubbing his hands, and scarcely hearing a word the parson said. 16. The light struggles dimly through windows darkened by dust. 17. We sailed merrily forward for several days, meeting with nothing to interrupt us.
2. Write sentences containing the past participles of six weak verbs; of six strong verbs.
3. Write sentences containing a participle used as a pure adjective; a participle used as a predicate adjective; a participle modified adverbially; a participle taking an object.
4. Write ten sentences each containing a perfect participle. Substitute for each a clause introduced by _when_.
EXERCISE 43
(§§ 344–346, p. 144)
Explain all examples of the nominative absolute. Substitute a modifying clause in each sentence.
1. A carriage, drawn by half a dozen horses, came driving at a furious rate, the postilions smacking their whips like mad. 2. As far as the eye could reach, the sea in every direction was of a deep blue color, the waves running high and fresh, and sparkling in the light. 3. For some years past there had been a difficulty about the rent, things not having gone at the Dragon of Wantly as smoothly as they had used to go. 4. He began to talk rapidly, all diffidence subdued. 5. Noon coming, and the Doctor not returning, Mr. Lorry advised with Lucie. 6. The second mate falling ill during the passage, I was promoted to officer of the watch. 7. The dog now roused himself and sat on his haunches, his ears moving quickly backward and forward. 8. This done, Mazeppa spread his cloak. 9. She was seated alone, her arms on the table, her head bent down. 10. There being some time upon his hands, he left his luggage at the cloak-room, and went on foot along Bedford Street to the church.
EXERCISE 44
(§§ 347–353, pp. 145–147)
1. Point out the present participles, and also the verbal nouns in _-ing_ (participial nouns). Show the difference. Mention any modifiers or complements used with either.
1. The consternation was extreme. Some were for closing the gates and resisting; some for submitting; some for temporizing. 2. A troop of strange children ran at his heels, hooting after him, and pointing at his gray head. 3. The wicket opened on a stone staircase leading upward. 4. Watching and toil were to me pleasure, for my body was strong, and my spirits winged. 5. The lingerings of decent pride were visible in her appearance. 6. His deep bass voice had a quavering in it, his eyes looked dim, and the lines on his face were deep. 7. There were several French privateers hovering on the coast. 8. He does not like talking of these matters to strangers. 9. Miss Matty cared much more for the circumstance of her being a very good card-player. 10. His discourse was broken off by his man’s telling him he had called a coach. 11. Swallows and martens skimmed twittering about the eaves. 12. I have loved, lived with, and left the sea without ever seeing a ship’s tall fabric of sticks, cobwebs, and gossamer go by the board.--CONRAD.
13. The sexton was a meek, acquiescing little man, of a bowing, lowly habit; yet he had a pleasant twinkling in his eye. 14. The rain always made a point of setting in just as he had some outdoor work to do. 15. I have been employed this morning in composing a Latin motto for the king’s clock. 16. Two more of the boats were lost by being stove and swamped alongside. 17. I heard the ripple washing in the reeds. 18. After wandering through two or three streets, I found my way to Shakspere’s birthplace. 19. Rip’s heart died away at hearing of these sad changes in his home and friends. 20. The fish did not bite freely, and we frequently changed our fishing ground without bettering our luck. 21. Lady Niton sat blinking and speechless. 22. I cannot help hearing things, and reading things, and observing things, and they fill me with disquietude. 23. Here was circumstance after circumstance goading me onward. 24. I sat staring at a book of my own making. 25. That thought actually drove out of my head the more pressing danger.
2. Write sentences in which (1) a verbal noun and (2) a present
## participle are formed from--
run, hunt, leap, swim, strike, find, speak, sing, shout, play, skate, blow, spend, listen, eat, move, translate, recite, murmur, whisper, read, talk, complain, paint, build, give, breathe, teach, flow, shine.
3. Whenever it is possible, substitute either a noun or an infinitive for each verbal noun in your sentences.
4. Select three of these verbal nouns, and write other sentences in which each is used (1) as a subject, (2) with a direct and an indirect object, (3) with an adjective modifier, (4) with an adverbial modifier.
EXERCISE 45
(§§ 354–371, pp. 148–154)
1. Point out and parse the prepositions and conjunctions.
In parsing a preposition, tell (1) the object, and (2) the word to which the preposition shows the relation of the object.
In parsing a conjunction, indicate the words or groups of words which it connects, tell whether it is coördinate or subordinate, and mention its correlative (§ 369) if it has one.
1. Neither witch nor warlock crossed Mordaunt’s path. 2. But I will be bolder, and do not doubt to make it good, though a paradox, that one great reason why prose is not to be used in serious plays, is, because it is too near the nature of converse.--DRYDEN. 3. All down that immense vista of gloomy arches there was one blaze of scarlet and gold. 4. No doubt, something of Shakspere’s punning must be attributed to his age, in which direct and formal combats of wit were a favorite pastime of the courtly and accomplished.--COLERIDGE. 5. Bodily labor is of two kinds: either that which a man submits to for his livelihood, or that which he undergoes for his pleasure.--ADDISON. 6. Early upon the morrow the march was resumed. 7. The camp was broken up, and the troops were sent to quarters in different parts of the country. 8. My attention was called off for a moment by the cries of birds and the bleatings of sheep. 9. This is well to be weighed, that boldness is ever blind, for it seeth not dangers and inconveniences.--BACON. 10. At a little distance from Sir Roger’s house, among the ruins of an old abbey, there is a long walk of aged elms. 11. Then I sent you the Greek instead of the Persian whom you asked for?--FITZ GERALD. 12. Rowland’s allowance at college was barely sufficient to maintain him decently, and, his degree nevertheless achieved, he was taken into his father’s counting-house to do small drudgery on a proportionate stipend.
13. Though this lady never expressed an idea, Richard was not mistaken in her cleverness. 14. If I am tired, your letter will refresh me. 15. The young ladies however, and Mr. Pecksniff likewise, remained in the very best of spirits in spite of these severe trials, though with something of a mysterious understanding among themselves. 16. He went along almost gaily, nor felt the fatigue of the road.
2. Write sentences in which, the following words are used as indicated:--
for (_preposition_, _conjunction_), then (_conjunction_, _adverb_), notwithstanding (_preposition_, _conjunction_), since (_preposition_, _adverb_, _relative adverb_), until (_preposition_, _relative adverb_), as (_conjunction_, _relative pronoun_, _relative adverb_), that (_conjunction_, _relative pronoun_, _demonstrative adjective_, _demonstrative pronoun_), but (_preposition_, _conjunction_).
3. Construct sentences containing _either_ and _or_, _neither_ and _nor_, _whether_ and _or_, _not only_ and _but also_, _both_ and _and_, _though_, _if_, _because_.
4. Construct six sentences containing coördinate conjunctions; six containing subordinate conjunctions; six containing relative adverbs.
EXERCISE 46
(§§ 372–375, pp. 155–156)
Point out all interjections, all other parts of speech used here in exclamation, and all exclamatory phrases.
1. Ring the alarum-bell! Murder and treason!--SHAKSPERE. 2. Kipling is by far the most promising young man who has appeared since--ahem--I appeared.--STEVENSON. 3. O, to be in England! 4. “Courage!” he said, and pointed toward the land.--TENNYSON. 5. Ah! my lord Arthur, whither shall I go? 6. Alas for my credulous fancy! 7. Tut, man! we must take things as they come. 8. O day, the last of all my bliss on earth!--MARLOWE. 9. Adieu, fair Cadiz! yea, a long adieu!--BYRON. 10. Peace, sister, peace! 11. Fie, fie, my brother! 12. How now, Thersites? what, lost in the labyrinth of thy fury? 13. Farewell for the present, my dear sir. 14. O Jupiter! how weary are my spirits!--SHAKSPERE. 15. Guilty, my lord, guilty! I confess, I confess! 16. Hence, you long-legg’d spinners, hence! 17. O monstrous! O strange! we are haunted! 18. Faith, he is gone unto the taming school. 19. But, soft! whom have we here?
20. A Tory! a Tory! a spy! a refugee! hustle him! away with him! 21. What! this gentleman will outtalk us all. 22. Up, up, Glentarkin! rouse thee, ho!--SCOTT. 23. And now good-bye, my dear fellow. 24. Ahem! you remember, friend? Grand triumphs those, eh?
EXERCISE 47
(§§ 376–392, pp. 157–162)
1. Construct ten sentences in which the simple subject (noun or pronoun) is modified by an adjective clause; ten in which the simple predicate is modified by an adverbial clause.
2. Tell the construction (as subject, predicate nominative, object, etc.) of each noun clause in § 392. Mention the simple subject and predicate of each clause.
EXERCISE 48
(§§ 395–402, pp. 163–165)
1. Tell whether each of the subordinate clauses expresses place, time, cause, or concession. Is the clause adjective or adverbial? What introduces it? What does it modify?
1. Though often misled by prejudice and passion, he was emphatically an honest man. 2. When a prisoner first leaves his cell, he cannot bear the light of day. 3. As I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was a den.--BUNYAN. 4. He postponed his final decision till after the Parliament should have reassembled. 5. They gave a dismal croak or two, and hopped aside into the darkest corner, since it was not yet their hour to flap duskily abroad. 6. Calmly and sadly she waited, until the procession approached her. 7. Half the task was not done when the sun went down. 8. However I might be disposed to trust his probity, I dare not trust his prejudices. 9. After a little more conversation we strolled to the stable, where my horse was standing. 10. As we approached the house, we heard the sound of music, and now and then a burst of laughter. 11. His face was not cruel, though it was desperate.
12. We again set out for the hut, at which we deposited our golden burdens. 13. It will be midnight before we arrive at our inn. 14. Though I was not particularly well supplied with money, I had enough for the expenses of my journey. 15. The day, though it began brightly, had long been overcast. 16. As there were no men in the company, the girls danced with each other. 17. Although without fear, I did not neglect to use all proper precautions. 18. When I return, I shall find things settled. 19. Clifford, as the company partook of their little banquet, grew to be the gayest of them all. 20. The mill where Will lived with his adopted parents stood in a falling valley between pinewoods and great mountains. 21. As Ichabod approached this fearful tree, he began to whistle. 22. Infected be the air whereon they ride!--SHAKSPERE. 23. So they were forced to go, because he was stronger than they.
24. Since you will not help me, I must trust to myself. 25. When they beheld his face, they recognized Basil the blacksmith. 26. This is the third day since we came to Rome. 27. Amsterdam was the place where the leading Scotch and English assembled. 28. These considerations might well have made William uneasy, even if all the military means of the United Provinces had been at his absolute disposal. 29. Although the breeze had now utterly ceased, we had made a great deal of way during the night.
2. Illustrate clauses of place, time, cause, and concession, by constructing twenty sentences, five for each.
3. Tell whether the clauses are adjective or adverbial. What does each modify?
4. See if you can replace your clauses of time by participles or adverbial phrases.
EXERCISE 49
(§§ 403–410, pp. 166–167)
1. Point out the clauses of purpose and those of result.
1. The weather was so bad I could not embark that night. 2. She opened the casement that the cool air might blow upon her throbbing temples. 3. So intent were the servants upon their sports, that we had to ring repeatedly before we could make ourselves heard. 4. The consequence was that, according to the rules of the House, the amendment was lost. 5. Therefore I am going this way, as I told you, that I may be rid of my burden. 6. Tess’s friends lived so far off that none could conveniently have been present at the ceremony. 7. Sometimes I was afraid lest I should be charged with ingratitude. 8. There is such an echo among the old ruins and vaults that, if you stamp but a little louder than ordinary, you hear the sound repeated.--ADDISON. 9. They durst not speak without premeditation, lest they should be convicted of discontent or sorrow. 10. My purpose was, to admit no testimony of living authors, that I might not be misled by partiality, and that none of my contemporaries might have reason to complain.--JOHNSON. 11. It is King Richard’s pleasure that you die undegraded.
2. Write five sentences containing each a clause of purpose; of result; an infinitive clause expressing purpose.
3. Write ten sentences in which the infinitive (without a subject) expresses purpose.
4. Review Exercise 40.
EXERCISE 50
(§§ 411–427, pp. 167–172)
1. Tell whether the conditional clauses in the following sentences are non-committal or contrary to fact, and whether they represent present, past, or future condition.
1. Should Hayley be with you, tell him I have given my friend Mr. Rose an introductory letter to him. 2. If the judgment against him was illegal, it ought to have been reversed. If it was legal, there was no ground for remitting any part of it. 3. If I ever saw horror in the human face, it was there. 4. His affliction would have been insupportable, had not he been comforted by the daily visits and conversations of his friend. 5. We perish if they hear a shot.--SCOTT. 6. Can Freedom breathe if Ignorance reign?--HOLMES. 7. If power be in the hands of men, it will sometimes be abused. 8. If hopes were dupes, fears may be liars.--CLOUGH. 9. If you write to Moore, will you tell him that I shall answer his letter the moment I can muster time and spirits? 10. If you have any good news to tell, it will not be unwelcome; if any bad, you need not be afraid. 11. I feel quite as much bored with this foolery as it deserves, and more than I should be, if I had not a headache. 12. Will you let me offer you this little book? If I had anything better, it should be yours.
13. I shall hope, if we can agree as to dates, to come to you sometime in May. 14. If I could only get to work, we could live here with comfort. 15. If he had been left to himself, he would have whistled life away in perfect contentment. 16. If this frolic should lay me up with a fit of rheumatism, I shall have a blessed time with Dame Van Winkle. 17. I know that two and two make four, and should be glad to prove it, if I could,--though, I must say, if by any sort of process I could convert two and two into five, it would give me much greater pleasure.--BYRON. 18. I would not say this if I could help it. 19. If you are disposed to write--write; and if not, I shall forgive your silence, and you will not quarrel with mine. 20. Had not exercise been absolutely necessary for our well-being, nature would not have made the body so proper for it.--ADDISON. 21. Nothing will ever be attempted, if all possible objections must first be overcome.--JOHNSON. 22. If fashion gives the word, every distinction of beauty, complexion, or stature ceases.--GOLDSMITH.
2. Write twenty sentences, each containing a conditional clause. Tell whether each condition refers to present, past, or future time. Which of them are contrary to fact?
EXERCISE 51
(§§ 428–429, p. 173)
1. Point out the clauses of comparison and explain such forms of verbs or pronouns as may require comment.
1. Dull as a flower without the sun, he sat down upon a stone. 2. He sighed as if he would break his heart. 3. The modern steamship advances upon a still and overshadowed sea with a pulsating tremor of her frame, an occasional clang in her depths, as if she had an iron heart in her iron body.--CONRAD. 4. It would have been as difficult, however, to follow up the stream of Donatello’s ancestry to its dim source, as travellers have found it to reach the mysterious fountains of the Nile. 5. I will become as liberal as you. 6. The triumph was as destructive to the victorious as to the vanquished. 7. The public conduct of Milton must be approved or condemned, according as the resistance of the people to Charles the First shall appear to be justifiable or criminal. 8. There was no one in all Clavering who read so many novels as Madame Fribsby. 9. No kind of power is more formidable than the power of making men ridiculous.--MACAULAY.
10. The leader of the orchestra was sawing away at his violin as savagely as if he were calling on his company to rush up and seize a battery of guns.--BLACK. 11. He shouts as if he were trying his voice against a northwest gale of wind. 12. The playground seemed smaller than when I used to sport about it. 13. The blood in me ran cold, and I drew in my breath as if I had been struck. 14. There are few things more formidable than the unwonted anger of a good-natured man.--MILLER. 15. Nor was Lochiel less distinguished by intellectual than by bodily vigor. 16. He showed less wisdom than virtue. 17. He was as courageous an animal as ever scoured the woods. 18. As fierce a beak and talon as ever struck--as strong a wing as ever beat, belonged to Swift.--THACKERAY.
19. Homer’s description of war had as much truth as poetry requires.--MACAULAY. 20. Of all the objects I have ever seen, there is none which affects my imagination so much as the sea.--ADDISON. 21. “Somebody must go,” murmured Mrs. Heathcliff, more kindly than I expected. 22. We do not so often disappoint others as ourselves.--JOHNSON. 23. The battle raged as fiercely on the lake as on the land. 24. The young man looked down on me from the corner of his eyes, for all the world as if there were some mortal feud unavenged between us.--E. BRONTË.
2. Write ten sentences containing _as if_ with a subjunctive.
3. Insert personal pronouns of the first or third person.
1. You are much stronger than ----.
2. Your anger hurts yourself more than it hurts ----.
3. You are not so studious as ----.
4. He was quite as much to blame as ----.
5. I blame myself rather than ----.
6. You should rather blame yourself than ----.
7. How much older are you than ----?
8. Is Jack more ambitious than ----?
9. Do you wish to please yourself more than ----?
10. Your conduct was less censurable than ----.
EXERCISE 52
(§§ 430–436, pp. 173–176)
1. Change the direct statements to indirect discourse, prefixing _He said_. Thus,--
Supper was announced shortly after my arrival.
He said that supper was announced shortly after his arrival.
Be careful to make the proper changes in person and tense.
1. Supper was announced shortly after my arrival. 2. Misery loves company. 3. Iron floats in mercury. 4. The grime and sordidness of the House of the Seven Gables seem to have vanished. 5. Nothing is to be seen. 6. Straws show which way the wind blows. 7. I remained undecided whether or not to follow my servant. 8. Rest of mind and body seems to have reëstablished my health. 9. The fortifications consist of a simple wall overgrown with grass and weeds. 10. Fire is a good servant but a bad master. 11. Not a cheer was heard; not a member ventured to second the motion. 12. The most rigid discipline is maintained. 13. Without our consent, such an expedition cannot legally be undertaken. 14. The newspapers will happily save me the trouble of relating minute particulars.
15. The ringing of bells is at an end; the rumbling of the carriages has ceased; the pattering of feet is heard no more. 16. My mind has been much disturbed, and too agitated for conversation. 17. While all this is taking place within the Towers, vast bodies of people are assembling without. 18. The spelling and handwriting are those of a man imperfectly educated. 19. I have an unconquerable repugnance to return to my chamber. 20. I like to see a man know his own mind.
2. Change into a direct statement each clause that is in the indirect discourse. Mention the construction of the clause (as subject, object, etc.).
1. The booming of a gun told them that the last yacht had rounded the lightship. 2. All of a sudden she thought she heard something move behind her. 3. Though they spoke French fluently, I perceived that it was not their native language. 4. I soon found that, in making the acquaintance of the young man, I had indeed made a valuable acquisition. 5. I thanked him, but said that Dr. Johnson had come with me from London, and I must return to the inn and drink tea with him; that my name was Boswell, and I had travelled with him in the Hebrides. 6. I discovered that he was wonderfully fond of interfering with other people’s business. 7. I had heard that he had been unhappy, that he had roamed about, a fevered, distempered man, taking pleasure in nothing. 8. I had observed that the old woman for some time past had shown much less anxiety about the book. 9. I learned that times had gone hard with her. 10. I perceived that the objects which had excited my curiosity were not trees, but immense upright stones.
11. That no man can legally promise what he cannot legally perform is a self-evident proposition.--MACKINTOSH. 12. That there are some duties superior to others will be denied by no one. 13. It can hardly be doubted that the highest obligation of a citizen is that of contributing to preserve the community. 14. Reports had been brought back that six Christians were lingering in captivity in the interior of the country. 15. If it be true that, by giving our confidence by halves, we can scarcely hope to make a friend, it is equally true that, by withdrawing it when given, we shall make an enemy.--PRESCOTT. 16. He concluded with the assurance that the whole fleet would sail on the following day. 17. Pen protested that he had not changed in the least.
3. Write five sentences in which indirect discourse is expressed by an infinitive clause (§ 435).
EXERCISE 53
(§ 436, p. 176)
1. Change each of the sentences quoted at the end of § 436 into one of the other two passive constructions described in that section.
2. Write ten sentences in each of which a clause in the indirect discourse is the subject of a passive verb.
EXERCISE 54
(§§ 438–439, pp. 177–178)
1. Explain the use of _shall_, _should_, _will_, or _would_ in each instance. Change the indirect discourse to the direct.
1. I believe I should like to live in a small house just outside a pleasant English town all the days of my life.--FITZ GERALD. 2. The sultan said he would oblige us with donkeys or anything else if we would only give him a few more pretty cloths.--SPEKE. 3. I think that I should like it to be always summer. 4. He often told his friends afterwards, that unless he had found out this piece of exercise, he verily believed he should have lost his senses.--ADDISON. 5. Do you remember once saying to me that you hoped you should never leave Brentham? 6. I knew that he would not have accepted office in 1841–1842 if he could have avoided it. 7. Promise you will give him this little book of drawings. 8. I have often thought that there has rarely passed a life of which a judicious and faithful narrative would not be useful.--JOHNSON. 9. She said, very quietly, that she wished to speak to him after breakfast, and that he would find her in her sitting room. 10. Lady Annabel had promised the children that they should some day ride together to Marringhurst.
11. One of them told us that he would make us a canoe. 12. Promise, Marion--pray promise you will not even mention my name to him when you write next. 13. He felt that no argument of his would be of any use. 14. I know very well that I shall sign my own death warrant on the day when I retire from business. 15. She knew very well now that Grandcourt would not go without her; but if he must tyrannize over her, he should not do it precisely in the way he would choose. She would oblige him to stay in the hotel. 16. They were afraid that they should not long be able to put him off with promises. 17. Bungay replied that he should be happy to have dealings with Mr. Pendennis.
2. Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary (_shall_ or _should_, or _will_ or _would_).
1. Your father said that he ---- be glad to see me.
2. I told him that I ---- be obliged to dismiss him.
3. I wrote that we ---- gladly accept his invitation.
4. My friends believed that I ---- not be willing to go.
5. Robert thinks that he ---- have to work evenings.
6. Robert says that I ---- have to work evenings.
7. They say that Robert ---- work evenings, although he ought not.
8. I promised that Robert ---- not work evenings.
9. I told Mary that I was sure she ---- succeed.
10. Mary said she had no doubt that I ---- succeed.
11. Mary will say that she has no doubt I ---- succeed.
12. I repeat that I have no doubt you ---- succeed.
13. He declared that you ---- go, even against your will.
14. The report is that we ---- dissolve partnership.
3. Change the indirect statements in the sentences which you have just made to direct statements.
EXERCISE 55
(§§ 440–445, pp. 179–181)
1. Some, but not all, of the following sentences contain indirect questions. Point out these questions and tell what introduces them (interrogative pronoun, interrogative adverb, subordinate conjunction). Mention the construction of each interrogative clause (as subject, object, etc.).
2. Turn each indirect question into a direct question.
3. Point out such relative clauses as you find in the sentences. Are they adjective or adverbial modifiers?
1. Warrington did not know what his comrade’s means were. 2. He could scarcely tell whether she was imbued with sunshine, or whether it was a glow of happiness that shone out of her. 3. I started the question whether duelling was consistent with moral duty.--BOSWELL. 4. The pilgrims then began to inquire if there was no other way to the gate. 5. He knew not what to make of the letter. 6. I hardly heard what he said. 7. Every one knows practically what are the constituents of health or of virtue.--NEWMAN. 8. Think calmly over what I have written. 9. Then she asked him whence he was and whither he was going; and he told her. 10. What to expect, he knew not. 11. Theseus wondered what this immense giant could be. 12. Hack says it was Mrs. Bungay who caused all the mischief. 13. The question was how best to extricate the army from its perilous position. 14. Addison was a delightful companion when he was at his ease. 15. I doubt whether the wisest of us know what our own motives are.
16. I puzzled my head for some time to find out which of the two cases was the more applicable. 17. I returned to the studies which I had neglected. 18. I cannot tell how I dared to say what I did. 19. How long he slept he could not say. 20. Fanny, in dismay at such an unprecedented question, did not know which way to look, or how to be prepared for an answer.--MISS AUSTEN. 21. What my course of life will be when I return to England is very doubtful. 22. I cannot tell you how vaingloriously I walked the streets. 23. Then I told what a tall, upright, graceful person their great-grandmother Field once was. 24. When the bean-vines began to flower on the poles, there was one particular variety which bore a vivid scarlet blossom. 25. I know not which way I must look. 26. Why she submitted, Mrs. Turpin could not have told you. 27. I began to become conscious what a strange den that sanctum was. 28. How Ferguson escaped, was, and still is, a mystery. 29. How far he felt the force of this obligation will appear in the sequel.
4. Write sentences containing indirect questions introduced by _who_, _which_, _what_, _when_, _how_, _why_, _whether_, _if_.
5. Fill the blanks with _who_ or _whom_. Tell, in each sentence, whether _who_ or _whom_ is an interrogative or a relative pronoun.
1. I know ---- it was that broke the window.
2. I know ---- it was that you saw.
3. I know ---- you saw.
4. I know the person ---- you saw.
5. I asked if the man ---- we saw was Douglas.
6. I asked if the boy ---- broke the window was Archer.
7. I know ---- it was you overheard.
8. Tell me ---- it is that I resemble.
9. Tell me ---- I resemble.
10. Tell me ---- you think I resemble.
11. Tell me if I resemble anybody ---- you know.
6. Turn all the indirect questions which you have just written into direct questions.
7. Construct sentences in which each of the verbs (or verb-phrases) is followed by an indirect question:--
asked, tell, inquire, is learning, see, might discover, had heard, have found, doubt, have perceived, is thinking, wonders, knew, was told, understands, to comprehend, is, could ascertain, has reported, will announce.
EXERCISE 56
(§ 447, p. 182)
1. Turn each indirect question into the direct form. Explain the use of _shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_.
1. “I doubt,” said Donatello, “whether they will remember my voice now.” 2. I did not know whether to resent his language or pursue my explanations. 3. I clambered to its apex, and then felt much at a loss as to what should be next done. 4. How we shall live I cannot imagine. 5. When I shall get to town I cannot divine, but it will be between this and Christmas. 6. I scarcely know which of us three would be the sorriest. 7. I can feel for you, because I know what I should feel in the same situation. 8. Let us see if she will know you. 9. I wonder how you will answer me a year hence. 10. I asked if Georgiana would accompany her. 11. You must see the carriage, Jane, and tell me if you don’t think it will suit Mrs. Rochester exactly, and whether she won’t look like Queen Boadicea, leaning back against those purple cushions.--C. BRONTË. 12. Catherine had no idea why her father should be crosser or less patient in his ailing condition than he was in his prime. 13. Mr. Hindley will have to proceed to extremities,--see if he won’t!
2. Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary (_shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_). Then change each indirect question to the direct form.
1. Tom asked me if I ---- like to go with him.
2. They inquired whether I ---- prefer to go or to stay.
3. She asked me if I ---- help her.
4. Tell me whether he ---- consent or not.
5. He wishes to know if you ---- recommend him.
6. I was in doubt whether I ---- succeed or fail.
7. I do not know whether you ---- find her at home or at her uncle’s.
8. He is in doubt whether or not he ---- get the appointment.
9. We think we ---- like to sail on the twentieth.
10. He thinks he ---- like to be a farmer.
EXERCISE 57
(§§ 448–453, pp. 183–186)
1. Mention the substantives that make up the compound subjects and the verbs that make up the compound predicates in § 450; in Exercise 4.
2. See if you can make any of the sentences compound by inserting personal pronouns as subjects.
3. Divide each compound sentence in § 452 and in Exercise 6 into the independent coördinate clauses that compose it.
4. Make each sentence in § 450 complex by inserting or adding a subordinate clause. Is your clause adjective or adverbial? What does it modify?
5. Divide each complex sentence in Exercises 17, 25, 39 (2), 48–51, into the independent (main) clause and the subordinate clause.
EXERCISE 58
(§§ 458–461, pp. 188–190)
1. Analyze (according to the directions in §§ 458–461) the simple sentences in Exercise 1. In analyzing, describe each sentence as declarative, interrogative, etc. If the sentence is imperative, supply the subject.
2. Analyze the compound and the complex sentences in Exercises 6, 17, 25, 39 (2), 48–51.
3. Analyze the compound complex sentences in §§ 456–457, 515.
EXERCISE 59
(§§ 462–473, pp. 191–196)
1. Point out the adjectives used as modifiers of the subject. Substitute for each an adjective phrase; an adjective clause (§§ 467–468).
1. Standing in the door was a tearful child. 2. A tall Scot shut off my view. 3. An iron mask concealed the prisoner’s face. 4. Honorable men pay their debts. 5. A tumble-down shed stood in the hollow. 6. A three-cornered hat was cocked over one of his ears. 7. The American Indians are becoming extinct. 8. An experienced stenographer should spell correctly. 9. A deep fosse or ditch was drawn round the whole building. 10. The royal army was assembled at Salisbury. 11. The mid-day meal was excellent. 12. The morning mist lies heavy upon yonder chain of islands.
2. Construct sentences, using the following adjective phrases as modifiers of the subject:--
of great height; in a red hat; with black hair; from Cairo; to Indianapolis; from India; with high gables; of brilliant plumage; on the rear platform; in a state of intense agitation; between the two ships; over the mountain; on the summit of the tower.
3. Substitute (if possible) an adjective clause for each adjective phrase in the sentences you have just written.
4. Point out all participles used as modifiers of the simple subject in Exercise 42. Write ten sentences containing such modifiers (§ 469).
5. Construct ten sentences similar to those in § 470 (with infinitives modifying the simple subject).
6. Write ten sentences containing nouns or pronouns in the possessive case used as modifiers of the subject (§ 471).
7. Write ten sentences containing nouns in apposition with the subject (§§ 88, 5; 472); five in which a noun clause is thus used (§§ 386, 473).
EXERCISE 60
(§§ 474–481, pp. 196–199)
1. Point out all the adverbs used to modify the simple predicate. Substitute for each an adverbial phrase or clause.
1. The witness chose his words deliberately. 2. The old man moved slowly down the street. 3. I carefully avoided making that promise. 4. Do not speak so loud. 5. I am eagerly looking forward to your visit. 6. That golf ball must have hit him hard. 7. Allan has played in public twice. 8. I shall call you early. 9. We often see your eccentric friend. 10. The priest shook his head doubtfully. 11. Your father barely escaped drowning. 12. The next morning Chester awoke late. 13. The accident happened here. 14. The captain had gone below. 15. Marion refuses to go by coach unless she can sit outside. 16. Frank left home three years ago, and has not been heard from since. 17. Look yonder and tell us where the path lies.
18. We were then presented to Governor Gore. 19. I have not been there since April. 20. Bruce was afterward ashamed of his discouragement. 21. The sun will soon set. 22. You are expected to arrive in good season hereafter. 23. Alice cannot spell correctly. 24. The Indian suddenly disappeared. 25. The girl laughed carelessly. 26. The moose fell heavily to the earth. 27. He passionately longs to see Italy. 28. All foreigners seem to speak rapidly. 29. Edith listened attentively.
2. Write ten sentences in which the simple predicate is modified by an infinitive (§§ 323, 477); by an adverbial objective or by a phrase containing one (§§ 109, 478); by a nominative absolute (§§ 345, 479); by an indirect object (§§ 105, 480); by a cognate object (§§ 108, 481).
3. Point out the complementary infinitives and the infinitives of purpose in Exercise 40, and tell what verb each modifies.
EXERCISE 61
(§§ 482–493, pp. 200–204)
1. Point out the complements and describe each (as direct object, predicate nominative, etc.). Analyze the sentences.
1. The most amazing wonder of the deep is its unfathomable cruelty.--CONRAD. 2. Music is Love in search of a word.--LANIER. 3. The destination of the fleet was still a matter of conjecture. 4. The reports from the front made Washington anxious. 5. Plato says that the punishment which the wise suffer who refuse to take part in the government, is, to live under the government of worse men.--EMERSON. 6. I thought your book an imposture; I think it an imposture still.--JOHNSON. 7. Moses chose able men out of all Israel and made them heads over the people. 8. The old gray porter raised his torch. 9. This you will call impudence. 10. Firm and irrevocable is my doom. 11. In return for mere board and lodging, Topham became Mr. Starkey’s assistant. 12. It was they who attacked us.
13. Serene will be our days and bright. 14. Warwick thought the situation awkward, but he held his peace. 15. If there were not too great a risk of the dispersion of their fleet, I should think their putting to sea a mere manœuver to deceive.--IRVING. 16. I thought “Aladdin” capital fun.--STEVENSON. 17. The faces of the father and mother had a sober gladness; the children laughed; the eldest daughter was the image of Happiness at seventeen; and the aged grandmother, who sat knitting in the warmest place, was the image of Happiness grown old. 18. His stories were what frightened people worst of all. 19. The old man was nervous, fidgety, and very pale. 20. I am growing old, the grey hairs thicken upon me, my joints are less supple, and, in mind as well as body, I am less enterprising than in former years.--SOUTHEY. 21. I was uneasy about my letter. 22. Confidence is almost everything in war. 23. He thinks me a troublesome fellow.
24. At the end of this strange season, Burns gloomily sums up his gains and losses. 25. Little fire grows great with little wind.--SHAKSPERE. 26. As he rose to walk, he found himself stiff in the joints. 27. Noise had been my native element. 28. I caught tantalizing glimpses of green fields, shut from me by dull lines of high-spiked palings. 29. One house in a back street was bright with the cheerful glare of lights.
2. Write ten simple sentences, each containing the direct object of a verb; a predicate objective; a predicate nominative; a predicate adjective. Analyze your sentences.
EXERCISE 62
(§§ 494–497, pp. 205–206)
1. Point out any modifiers of complements in the sentences called for in Exercise 61, 2. Introduce other modifiers of complements if you can without injuring the sentences.
2. Write sentences similar to those in § 492, taking care to include in each a complement modified.
3. Write ten sentences, each containing a substantive complement modified by an adjective clause (§ 496); an adjective complement modified by an adverbial clause (§ 497). Analyze your sentences.
4. Point out all modifiers of complements in Exercises 12 and 22.
5. Analyze the sentences in § 495.
EXERCISE 63
(§§ 498–500, pp. 207–208)
1. Write ten sentences illustrating adjectives (or adjective phrases) modified either by adverbs or by groups of words used adverbially.
2. Write ten sentences, each containing a possessive noun modified; an appositive modified; an adverbial phrase modified.
3. Write ten sentences illustrating the use of adjective or adverbial clauses as modifiers of modifiers.
4. Analyze the sentences in § 498.
EXERCISE 64
(§§ 501–503, p. 209)
Point out the independent elements. Tell whether each is an interjection, a vocative (nominative by direct address), an exclamatory nominative, or a parenthetical expression. Analyze the sentences.
1. The king, Melfort said, was determined to be severe. 2. O Mary, go and call the cattle home. 3. Pardon me, my dear fellow. 4. Between ourselves, I shall not be sorry to have a quiet evening. 5. Knowledge, indeed, and science express purely intellectual ideas.--NEWMAN. 6. Oh! oh! pictures don’t pay. 7. To make a long story short, the company broke up. 8. True, our friend is already in his teens. 9. To use a ready-made similitude, we might liken universal history to a magic web.--CARLYLE. 10. Poor fellows! they only did as they were ordered, I suppose. 11. The world, as we said, has been unjust to him. 12. Therefore, good Brutus, be prepared to hear.
13. Peace! count the clock. 14. Excuse, no doubt, is in readiness for such omission. 15. The lord--for so I understood he was--looked at me with an air of surprise. 16. Lo, Cæsar is afraid. 17. Delay not, Cæsar; read it instantly. 18. My counsel, I need not say, made full use of this hint. 19. My small services, you remember, were of no use. 20. I knew--one knows everything in dreams--that they had been slain. 21. I knew it, I say, to be a fallacy. 22. Liberty! freedom! tyranny is dead! 23. Stay, ho! and let us hear Mark Antony.
EXERCISE 65
(§§ 504–523, pp. 210–219)
1. Analyze the simple sentences in § 509; the compound sentences in § 511; the complex sentences in § 512; the compound complex sentences in §§ 514–515.
2. Study the examples in §§ 517–523, and explain their structure orally. Tell whether the various subordinate clauses are simple, compound, or complex, and why. Give the construction of each. Analyze the sentences.
3. Construct five complex sentences on the principle of § 517; of § 520; of § 521; of § 522.
EXERCISE 66
(§§ 524–526, pp. 220–223)
1. Study the sentences in §§ 525–526 until you can explain their structure.
2. Find, in some good English or American author, ten sentences of considerable length and explain their structure.
EXERCISE 67
(§§ 527–533, pp. 224–226)
1. Analyze the sentences in § 528. Explain the ellipsis in each sentence.
2. Supply the word or words omitted in each of the elliptical sentences in § 533 (p. 226). Explain the ellipsis in each sentence.
3. Analyze the sentences in § 533.
4. Write five sentences illustrating each of the following kinds of ellipsis:--(1) the subject of an imperative; (2) a relative pronoun; (3) the conjunction _that_; (4) the copula and its subject with _while_, _when_, _though_, _if_; (5) ellipsis in a clause with _as_ or _than_.
EXERCISE 68
(§§ 448–526, pp. 183–223)
The following compound, complex, and compound complex sentences will give further practice in analysis and in study of the relations of clauses.
1. Deerslayer hesitated a single instant ere he plunged into the bushes. 2. The mind of man is like a clock that is always running down and requires to be as constantly wound up.--HAZLITT. 3. He became sensible that his life was still in imminent peril. 4. A young author is apt to run into a confusion of mixed metaphors, which leave the sense disjointed, and distract the imagination.--GOLDSMITH. 5. Everybody kept his head as best he might and scrambled for whatever he could get. 6. The dialogue had been held in so very low a whisper that not a word of it had reached the young lady’s ears. 7. The captain screwed his lips up, and drummed on the table, but he did not speak. 8. Poor Andrew Fern had heard that his townsman’s sloop had been captured by a privateer. 9. Through the grounds we went, and very pretty I thought them. 10. He sometimes made doleful complaint that there were no stagecoaches, nowadays.
11. Lights gleamed in the distance, and people were already astir. 12. That few men celebrated for theoretic wisdom live with conformity to their precepts, must be readily confessed.--JOHNSON. 13. Down went Pew with a cry that rang high into the night. 14. Pluck the dog off, lest he throttle him. 15. I knew that the worst of men have their good points. 16. A rumor spread that the enemy was approaching in great force. 17. Mr. Henry went and walked at the low end of the hall without reply; for he had an excellent gift of silence. 18. It is a bright brisk morning, and the loaded wagons are rolling cheerfully past my window. 19. The musician was an old gray-headed negro, who had been the itinerant orchestra of the neighborhood for more than half a century. 20. After he had waited three hours, the general’s patience was exhausted, and, as he learned that the Mexicans were busy in preparations for defence, he made immediate dispositions for the assault.--PRESCOTT.
21. As I rode along near the coast, I kept a very sharp lookout in the lanes and woods. 22. Every man desires to live long, but no man would be old.--SWIFT. 23. If my face had been pale the moment before, it now glowed almost to burning. 24. The sentinels who paced the ramparts announced that the vanguard of the hostile army was in sight. 25. Her heart was happy and her courage rose. 26. There is a report that Clifford is to be secretary. 27. The season of winter, when, from the shortness of the daylight, labor becomes impossible, is in Zetland the time of revel, feasting, and merriment. 28. Every log which is carried past us by the current has come from an undiscovered country. 29. The fair heavens shone over the windy blue seas, and the green island of Ulva lay basking in the sunlight. 30. The greatest event was, that the Miss Jenkynses had purchased a new carpet for the drawing room. 31. My grandfather made a bow to the motley assemblage as he entered. 32. Talk to a man about himself, and he is generally captivated.
33. Pen was as elated as if somebody had left him a fortune. 34. When the morning dawned, the king gazed with admiration at the city, which he hoped soon to add to his dominions.--IRVING. 35. No one doubts that the sloth and the ant-eater, the kangaroo and the opossum, the tiger and the badger, the tapir and the rhinoceros, are respectively members of the same orders.--HUXLEY. 36. The traveller, a man of middle age, wrapped in a gray frieze cloak, quickened his pace when he had reached the outskirts of the town, for a gloomy extent of nearly four miles lay between him and his home. 37. It was a scene on which I had often looked down, but where I had never before beheld a human figure. 38. He found that he had undertaken a task which was beyond his power. 39. In the Dutch garden is a fine bronze bust of Napoleon, which Lord Holland put up in 1817, while Napoleon was a prisoner at Saint Helena.
40. The girl’s was not one of those natures which are most attracted by what is strange and exceptional in human character. 41. Mrs. Pendennis was sure that he would lead her dear boy into mischief, if Pen went to the same college with him. 42. I had been some time at sea before I became aware of the fact that hearing plays a perceptible part in gauging the force of the wind. 43. The Macedonian conqueror, when he was once invited to hear a man that sang like a nightingale, replied with contempt, that he had heard the nightingale herself; and the same treatment must every man expect, whose praise is that he imitates another.--JOHNSON. 44. Tie a couple of strings across a board and set it in your window, and you have an instrument which no artist’s harp can rival.--EMERSON. 45. I was on the point of asking what part of the country he had chosen for his retreat. 46. That no man can lawfully promise what he cannot lawfully do is a self-evident proposition.--MACKINTOSH.
47. How far the governor contributed towards the expenses of the outfit is not very clear. 48. The next epoch in the history of Russia was that of Peter the Great, whose genius overcame the obstacles consequent on the remoteness of its situation, and opened to its people the career of European industry, arts, and arms.--ALISON. 49. As the chase lengthens, the sportsmen drop off, till at last the foremost huntsman is left alone, and his horse, overcome with fatigue, stumbles and dies in a rocky valley.--JEFFREY. 50. The Lowland knight, though startled, repeats his defiance; and Sir Roderick, respecting his valor, by a signal dismisses his men to their concealment, and assures him anew of his safety. 51. I stood awe-struck--I cannot tell how long--watching how the live flame-snakes crept and hissed, and leapt and roared, and rushed in long horizontal jets from stack to stack before the howling wind, and fastened their fiery talons on the barn-eaves, and swept over the peaked roofs, and hurled themselves in fiery flakes into the yard beyond.--KINGSLEY. 52. When I was at Grand Cairo, I picked up several Oriental manuscripts, which I have still by me.--ADDISON. 53. Often have I wondered at the temerity of my father, who, in spite of an habitual general respect which we all in common manifested towards him, would venture now and then to stand up against him in some argument touching their youthful days.--LAMB. 54. By all means begin your folio; even if the doctor does not give you a year, even if he hesitates about a month, make one brave push and see what can be accomplished in a week.--STEVENSON.
APPENDIX
LISTS OF VERBS
In the first list, only such verb forms are given as are indisputably correct in accordance with the best prose usage of the present day. The pupil may feel perfectly safe, therefore, in using the forms registered in this list.[52]
A few verbs (marked *) which are seldom or never used in ordinary language are included in this list. These have various irregularities. A few verbs are partly strong and partly weak.
Weak verbs are printed in italics.
For the modal auxiliaries, see page 299.
I
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
abide abode abode am (_subjunc._, be) was been arise arose arisen awake awoke, _awaked_ _awaked_ bear bore borne, born[53] beat beat beaten beget begot begotten begin began begun behold beheld beheld _bend_ _bent_ _bent_ _bereave_ _bereft_, _bereft_, _bereaved_ _bereaved_[54] _beseech_ _besought_ _besought_ _bet_ _bet_ _bet_ bid (command) bade bidden bid (money) bid bid bind bound bound bite bit bitten _bleed_ _bled_ _bled_ _bless_ (see p. 298) blow blew blown break broke broken _breed_ _bred_ _bred_ _bring_ _brought_ _brought_ _build_ _built_ _built_ _burn_ (see p. 298) burst burst burst _buy_ _bought_ _bought_ _cast_ _cast_ _cast_ _catch_ _caught_ _caught_ chide chid chidden choose chose chosen *cleave (split)[55] _cleft_, clove _cleft_, _cleaved_ (cloven, _adj._) cling clung clung come came come _cost_ _cost_ _cost_ _creep_ _crept_ _crept_ _crow_ (see p. 299) _curse_ (see p. 298) _cut_ _cut_ _cut_ _dare_ (see p. 299) _deal_ _dealt_ _dealt_ dig dug dug do did done draw drew drawn _dream_ (see p. 298) _dress_ (see p. 298) drink drank drunk (drunken, _adj._) drive drove driven _dwell_ _dwelt_ _dwelt_ eat ate eaten _engrave_ (see p. 299) fall fell fallen _feed_ _fed_ _fed_ _feel_ _felt_ _felt_ fight fought fought find found found _flee_ _fled_ _fled_ fling flung flung fly flew flown forbear forbore forborne forget forgot forgotten forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen _freight_ (see p. 299) get got got[56] _gird_ (see p. 298) give gave given go _went_ gone _grave_ (see p. 299) grind ground ground grow grew grown hang hung, _hanged_[57] hung, _hanged_[57] _have_ _had_ _had_ _hear_ _heard_ _heard_ heave hove, _heaved_[58] hove, _heaved_[58] _hew_ _hewed_ hewn hide hid hidden _hit_ _hit_ _hit_ hold held held _hurt_ _hurt_ _hurt_ _keep_ _kept_ _kept_ _kneel_ (see p. 298) _knit_ (see p. 298) know knew known _lade_[59] _laded_ _laded_, laden _lay_ _laid_ _laid_ _lead_ _led_ _led_ _learn_ (see p. 298) _leave_ _left_ _left_ _lend_ _lent_ _lent_ let let let lie (recline)[60] lay lain _light_ _lighted_ _lighted_ or _lit_[61] or _lit_[61] _lose_ _lost_ _lost_ _make_ _made_ _made_ _mean_ _meant_ _meant_ _meet_ _met_ _met_ _mow_ (see p. 299) _pay_ _paid_ _paid_ _pen_(shut up) (see p. 298) _put_ _put_ _put_ _quit_ (see p. 298) _read_ _rĕad_ _rĕad_ *_reave_ _reft_, _reaved_ _reft_, _reaved_ reeve rove rove _rend_ _rent_ _rent_ _rid_ _rid_ _rid_ ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen *_rive_ _rived_ riven, _rived_ run ran run _say_ _said_ _said_ see saw seen _seek_ _sought_ _sought_ *seethe (_transitive_)[62] sod, _seethed_ _seethed_ (sodden, _adj._) _sell_ _sold_ _sold_ _send_ _sent_ _sent_ _set_ _set_ _set_ _sew_ (see p. 299) shake shook shaken _shape_ (see p. 299) _shave_ _shaved_ _shaved_ (shaven, _adj._) _shear_ (see p. 299) _shed_ _shed_ _shed_ shine shone shone _shoe_ _shod_ _shod_ shoot shot shot _show_ _showed_ shown _shred_ (see p. 298) shrink shrank shrunk (shrunken, _adj._) *shrive shrove, _shrived_ shriven, _shrived_ _shut_ _shut_ _shut_ sing sang sung sink sank sunk sit sat sat slay slew slain _sleep_ _slept_ _slept_ slide slid slid, slidden sling slung slung slink slunk slunk _slit_ _slit_ _slit_ _smell_ (see p. 298) smite smote smitten _sow_ _sowed_ _sowed_, sown speak spoke spoken _speed_ (see p. 298) _spell_ (see p. 299) _spend_ _spent_ _spent_ _spill_ (see p. 299) spin spun spun spit spit spit _split_ _split_ _split_ _spoil_ (see p. 299) _spread_ _spread_ _spread_ spring sprang sprung stand stood stood stave stove, _staved_ stove, _staved_ _stay_ (see p. 299) steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stunk stunk _strew_ _strewed_ strewn stride strode stridden strike struck struck (stricken, _adj._)[63] string strung strung strive strove striven swear swore sworn _sweat_ (see p. 299) _sweep_ _swept_ _swept_ _swell_ _swelled_ _swelled_, swollen swim swam swum swing swung swung take took taken _teach_ _taught_ _taught_ tear tore torn _tell_ _told_ _told_ _think_ _thought_ _thought_ thrive throve, _thrived_ thriven, _thrived_ throw threw thrown _thrust_ _thrust_ _thrust_ tread trod trodden wake woke, _waked_ woke, _waked_ _wax_ (grow) (see p. 299) wear wore worn weave wove woven _wed_ (see p. 299) _weep_ _wept_ _wept_ _wet_ _wet_ _wet_ win won won wind wound wound wring wrung wrung write wrote written
_Bear_, _break_, _drive_, _get_ (_beget_, _forget_), _speak_, _spin_, _stink_, _swear_, _tear_, have an archaic past tense in _a_: _bare_, _brake_, _drave_, _gat_, _spake_, etc.
_Beat_, _beget_ (_forget_), _bite_, _break_, _forsake_, _hide_, _ride_, _shake_, _speak_, _weave_, _write_, and some other verbs have archaic forms of the past participle like those of the past tense. The participles in _en_, however, are now the accepted forms. _Chid_ and _trod_ are common participial forms.
_Begin_, _drink_, _ring_, _shrink_, _sing_, _sink_, _spring_, _swim_, often have in poetry a _u_-form (_begun_, _sung_, etc.) in the past tense as well as in the past participle. This form (though good _old_ English)[64] should be avoided in modern speech.
_Bend_, _beseech_, _bet_, _build_, _burst_, _catch_, _dwell_, _rend_, _split_, _wet_, have archaic or less usual forms in _ed_: _bended_, _beseeched_, _betted_, etc. _Builded_ is common in the proverbial “He _builded_ better than he knew.” _Bursted_ is common as an adjective: “a _bursted_ bubble.”
_Bid_, “to command,” has sometimes _bid_ in both the past tense and the past participle; _bid_, “to offer money,” has these forms regularly.
_Blend_, _leap_, _lean_, have usually _blended_, _leaped_, _leaned_; but _blent_, _leapt_, _leant_ are not uncommon.
_Clothe_ has commonly _clothed_; but _clad_ is common in literary use, and is regular in the adjectives _well-clad_, _ill-clad_ (for which ordinary speech has substituted _well-dressed_, _badly_ or _poorly dressed_).
_Dive_ has _dived_; but _dove_ (an old form) is common in America.
_Plead_ has past tense and past participle _pleaded_. _Plead_ (pronounced _plĕd_) is avoided by careful writers and speakers.
_Prove_ has past tense and past participle _proved_. The past
## participle _proven_ should be avoided.
_Work_ has past tense and past participle _worked_. _Wrought_ in the past tense and the past participle is archaic, but is also modern as an adjective (as in _wrought iron_).
Some verbs have rare or archaic weak forms alongside of the strong forms; thus _digged,_ _shined_, past tense and past participle of _dig_, _shine_; _showed_, past participle of _show_.
_Ate_ and _eaten_ are preferred to _eat_ (pronounced _ĕt_).
_Quoth_, “said,” is an old strong past tense. The compound _bequeath_ has _bequeathed_ only.
Miscellaneous archaisms are the past tenses _sate_ for _sat_, _trode_ for _trod_, _spat_ for _spit_; also _writ_ for _wrote_ and _written_, _rid_ for _rode_ and _ridden_, _strewed_ and _strown_ for _strewn_.
II
The following verbs vary between _ed_ and _t_ (_d_) in the past tense and the past participle. In some of them, this variation is a mere difference of spelling. In writing, the _ed_ forms are preferred in most cases; in speaking, the _t_ forms are very common.
bless blessed, blest[65] burn burned, burnt[66] curse cursed, curst[65] dare dared (_less commonly_, durst) dream dreamed, dreamt dress dressed, drest gird girded, girt[66] kneel kneeled, knelt[66] knit knit, knitted[66] learn learned, learnt[67] pen (shut up) penned, pent[66] quit quitted, quit[66] shred shredded, shred[66] smell smelled, smelt[66] speed sped, speeded[66] spell spelled, spelt spill spilled, spilt[66] spoil spoiled, spoilt[66] stay stayed, staid sweat sweated, sweat[66] wed wedded (_p.p. also_ wed)[66]
III
The following verbs have regular _ed_ forms in modern prose, but in poetry and the high style sometimes show archaic forms.
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE
crow crowed, crew crowed, crown freight freighted freighted, fraught (_figurative_) grave graved graved, graven engrave engraved engraved, engraven mow mowed mowed, mown sew sewed sewed, sewn shape shaped shaped, shapen shear sheared, shore sheared, shorn wax (grow) waxed waxed, waxen
IV
The present tense of _may_, _can_, _shall_, is an old strong past. Hence the first and third persons singular are alike:--_I may_, _he may_. The actual past tenses of these verbs are weak forms:--_might_, _could_, _should_. _Must_ is the weak past tense of an obsolete _mōt_, and is almost always used as a present tense (§ 292).
_Dare_ and _owe_ originally belonged to this class. _Owe_ has become a regular weak verb, except for the peculiar past tense _ought_, which is used in a present sense (see § 293); _dare_ has in the third person _dare_ or _dares_, and in the past _dared_, more rarely _durst_. The archaic _wot_ “know,” past _wist_, also belongs to this class. _Will_ is inflected like _shall_, having _will_ in the first and third singular, _wilt_ in the second singular, and _would_ in the past.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _TO BE_
INDICATIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I am. We are. 2. Thou art. You are. 3. He is. They are.
PAST TENSE
1. I was. We were. 2. Thou wast (wert). You were. 3. He was. They were.
FUTURE TENSE
1. I shall be. We shall be. 2. Thou wilt be. You will be. 3. He will be. They will be.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. I have been. We have been. 2. Thou hast been. You have been. 3. He has been. They have been.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. I had been. We had been. 2. Thou hadst been. You had been. 3. He had been. They had been.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
1. I shall have been. We shall have been. 2. Thou wilt have been. You will have been. 3. He will have been. They will have been.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
1. If I be. If we be. 2. If thou be. If you be. 3. If he be. If they be.
PAST TENSE
1. If I were. If we were. 2. If thou wert. If you were. 3. If he were. If they were.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. If I have been. If we have been. 2. If thou have been. If you have been. 3. If he have been. If they have been.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. If I had been. If we had been. 2. If thou hadst been. If you had been. 3. If he had been. If they had been.
IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present. Sing. and Pl._ Be [thou _or_ you]. INFINITIVE. _Present_, to be; _Perfect_, to have been.
## PARTICIPLES. _Present_, being; _Past_, been; _Perfect_, having been.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _TO STRIKE_
_ACTIVE VOICE_
INDICATIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
1. I strike. We strike. 2. Thou strikest. You strike. 3. He strikes. They strike.
PAST TENSE
1. I struck. We struck. 2. Thou struckest. You struck. 3. He struck. They struck.
FUTURE TENSE
1. I shall strike. We shall strike. 2. Thou wilt strike. You will strike. 3. He will strike. They will strike.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. I have struck. We have struck. 2. Thou hast struck. You have struck. 3. He has struck. They have struck.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. I had struck. We had struck. 2. Thou hadst struck. You had struck. 3. He had struck. They had struck.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
1. I shall have struck. We shall have struck. 2. Thou wilt have struck. You will have struck. 3. He will have struck. They will have struck.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
1. If I strike. If we strike. 2. If thou strike. If you strike. 3. If he strike. If they strike.
PAST TENSE
1. If I struck. If we struck. 2. If thou struck. If you struck. 3. If he struck. If they struck.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. If I have struck. If we have struck. 2. If thou have struck. If you have struck. 3. If he have struck. If they have struck.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. If I had struck. If we had struck. 2. If thou hadst struck. If you had struck. 3. If he had struck. If they had struck.
IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present._ _Sing. and Pl._ Strike [thou _or_ you]. INFINITIVE. _Present_, to strike; _Perfect_, to have struck.
## PARTICIPLE. _Present_, striking; _Past_, struck;
_Perfect_, having struck.
_PASSIVE VOICE_
INDICATIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
1. I am struck. We are struck. 2. Thou art struck. You are struck. 3. He is struck. They are struck.
PAST TENSE
1. I was struck. We were struck. 2. Thou wast (_or_ wert) struck. You were struck. 3. He was struck. They were struck.
FUTURE TENSE
1. I shall be struck. We shall be struck. 2. Thou wilt be struck. You will be struck. 3. He will be struck. They will be struck.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. I have been struck. We have been struck. 2. Thou hast been struck. You have been struck. 3. He has been struck. They have been struck.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. I had been struck. We had been struck. 2. Thou hadst been struck. You had been struck. 3. He had been struck. They had been struck.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
1. I shall have been struck. We shall have been struck. 2. Thou wilt have been struck. You will have been struck. 3. He will have been struck. They will have been struck.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE
1. If I be struck. If we be struck. 2. If thou be struck. If you be struck. 3. If he be struck. If they be struck.
PAST TENSE
1. If I were struck. If we were struck. 2. If thou wert struck. If you were struck. 3. If he were struck. If they were struck.
PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE
1. If I have been struck. If we have been struck. 2. If thou have been struck. If you have been struck. 3. If he have been struck. If they have been struck.
PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE
1. If I had been struck. If we had been struck. 2. If thou hadst been struck. If you had been struck. 3. If he had been struck. If they had been struck.
IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present._ _Sing. and Pl._ Be [thou _or_ you] struck. INFINITIVE. _Present_, to be struck; _Perfect_, to have been struck.
## PARTICIPLES. _Present_, being struck; _Past_, struck;
_Perfect_, having been struck.
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
1. Every sentence begins with a capital letter.
2. Every line of poetry begins with a capital letter.
3. The first word of every direct quotation begins with a capital letter.
NOTE. This rule does not apply to quoted fragments of sentences.
4. Every proper noun or abbreviation of a proper noun begins with a capital letter.
5. Most adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital letters; as,--_American_, _Indian_, _Swedish_, _Spenserian_.
NOTE. Some adjectives derived from proper nouns have ceased to be closely associated in thought with the nouns from which they come, and therefore begin with small letters. Thus,--voltaic, galvanic, mesmeric, maudlin, stentorian.
6. Every title attached to the name of a person begins with a capital letter.
_Mr._ Thomas Smith John Wilson, _Esq._ _Miss_ Allerton _Dr._ F. E. Wilson C. J. Adams, _M.D._ _President_ Grant _Professor_ Whitney _Sir_ Walter Raleigh
7. In titles of books, etc., the first word, as well as every important word that follows, begins with a capital letter.
8. The interjection _O_ and the pronoun _I_ are always written in capital letters.
9. Personal pronouns referring to the Deity are often capitalized.
NOTE. Usage varies: the personal pronouns are commonly capitalized when they refer to the Deity, the relatives less frequently. The rule is often disregarded altogether when its observance would result in a multitude of capitals, as in the Bible and in many hymn books and works of theology.
10. Common nouns and adjectives often begin with capital letters when they designate the topics or main points of definitions or similar statements. Such capitals are called _emphatic_ (or _topical_) _capitals_.
NOTE. Emphatic (or topical) capitals are analogous to capitals in the titles of books (see Rule 7), but their use is not obligatory. They are especially common in text-books and other elementary manuals.
RULES OF PUNCTUATION[68]
The common marks of punctuation are the period, the interrogation point, the exclamation point, the comma, the semicolon, the colon, the dash, marks of parenthesis, and quotation marks. The hyphen and the apostrophe may be conveniently treated along with marks of punctuation.
I
1. The period, the interrogation point, and the exclamation point are used at the end of sentences. Every complete sentence must be followed by one of these three marks.
The end of a declarative or an imperative sentence is marked by a period. But a declarative or an imperative sentence that is likewise exclamatory may be followed by an exclamation point instead of a period.
The end of a direct question is marked by an interrogation point.
An exclamatory sentence in the form of an indirect question is followed by an exclamation point; as,--“How absolute the knave is!”
2. A period is used after an abbreviation.
3. An exclamation point is used after an exclamatory word or phrase.
NOTE. This rule is not absolute. Most interjections take the exclamation point. With other words and with phrases, usage differs; if strong feeling is expressed, the exclamation point is commonly used, but too many such marks deface the page.
II
The comma is used--
1. After a noun (or a phrase) of direct address (a _vocative nominative_). Thus,--
John, tell me the truth.
Little boy, what is your name?
NOTE. If the noun is exclamatory, an exclamation point may be used instead of a comma.
2. Before a direct quotation in a sentence. Thus,--
The cry ran through the ranks, “Are we never to move forward?”
NOTE. When the quotation is long or formal, a colon, or a colon and a dash, may be used instead of a comma, especially with the words _as follows_.
3. After a direct quotation when this is the subject or the object of a following verb. Thus,--
“They are coming; the attack will be made on the center,” said Lord Fitzroy Somerset.
“I see it,” was the cool reply of the duke.
NOTE. If the quotation ends with an interrogation point or an exclamation point, no comma is used.
4. To separate words, or groups of words, arranged in a coördinate series, when these are not connected by _and_, _or_, or _nor_.
If the conjunction is used to connect the last two members of the series but omitted with the others, the comma may be used before the conjunction.
I found two saws, an axe, and a hammer.
They were so shy, so subtle, and so swift of foot, that it was difficult to come at them.
It would make the reader pity me to tell what odd, misshapen, ugly things I made.
They groaned, they stirred, they all uprose.
NOTE 1. Commas may be used even when conjunctions are expressed, if the members of the series consist of several words, or if the writer wishes to emphasize their distinctness.
NOTE 2. Clauses in a series are commonly separated by semicolons unless they are short and simple (see pp. 309–310).
5. To set off words and phrases out of their regular order. Thus,--
Seated on her accustomed chair, with her usual air of apathy and want of interest in what surrounded her, she seemed now and then mechanically to resume the motion of twirling her spindle.--SCOTT.
6. To separate a long subject from the verb of the predicate. Thus,--
To have passed them over in an historical sketch of my literary life and opinions, would have seemed to me like the denial of a debt.--COLERIDGE.
7. To set off an appositive noun or an appositive adjective, with its modifiers. Thus,--
I have had the most amusing letter from Hogg, the Ettrick minstrel.
There was an impression upon the public mind, natural enough from the continually augmenting velocity of the mail, but quite erroneous, that an outside seat on this class of carriages was a post of danger.--DE QUINCEY.
NOTE 1. Many participial and other adjective phrases come under this head. Thus,--
The genius, seeing me indulge myself on this melancholy prospect, told me I had dwelt long enough upon it.--ADDISON.
NOTE 2. If a noun and its appositive are so closely connected as to form one idea, no comma is used. Thus,--
My friend Jackson lives in San Francisco.
NOTE 3. An intensive pronoun (_myself_, etc.) is not separated by a comma from the substantive which it emphasizes.
NOTE 4. A series of words or phrases in apposition with a single substantive is sometimes set off, as a whole, by a comma and a dash.
8. To set off a subordinate clause, especially one introduced by a descriptive relative. Thus,--
I am going to take a last dinner with a most agreeable family, who have been my only neighbors ever since I have lived at Weston.--COWPER.
NOTE. No comma is used before a restrictive relative. Thus,--
I want to know many things which only you can tell me.
Perhaps I am the only man in England who can boast of such good fortune.
9. To set off a phrase containing a nominative absolute. Thus,--
They had some difficulty in passing the ferry at the riverside, the ferryman being afraid of them.--DEFOE.
10. To set off _however_, _nevertheless_, _moreover_, etc., and introductory phrases like _in the first place_, _on the one hand_, etc.
11. To set off a parenthetical expression. For this purpose commas, dashes, or marks of parenthesis may be used.
When the parenthetical matter is brief or closely related to the rest of the sentence, it is generally set off by commas. Thus,--
I exercised a piece of hypocrisy for which, I hope, you will hold me excused.--THACKERAY.
When it is longer and more independent, it is generally marked off by dashes, or enclosed in marks of parenthesis. The latter are less frequently used at present than formerly.
The connection of the mail with the state and the executive government--a connection obvious, but yet not strictly defined--gave to the whole mail establishment an official grandeur.--DE QUINCEY.
NOTE. Brackets are used to indicate insertions that are not part of the text.
III
The clauses of a compound sentence may be separated by colons, semicolons, or commas.
1. The colon is used--
_a._ To show that the second of two clauses repeats the substance of the first in another form, or defines the first as an appositive defines a noun. Thus,--
This was the practice of the Grecian stage. But Terence made an innovation in the Roman: all his plays have double actions.--DRYDEN.
_b._ To separate two groups of clauses one or both of which contain a semicolon. Thus,--
At that time, news such as we had heard might have been long in penetrating so far into the recesses of the mountains; but now, as you know, the approach is easy, and the communication, in summer time, almost hourly: nor is this strange, for travellers after pleasure are become not less active, and more numerous, than those who formerly left their homes for purposes of gain.--WORDSWORTH.
NOTE. The colon is less used now than formerly. The tendency is to use a semicolon or to begin a new sentence.
2. The semicolon is used when the clauses are of the same general nature and contribute to the same general effect, especially if one or more of them contain commas. Thus,--
The sky was cloudless; the sun shone out bright and warm; the songs of birds, and hum of myriads of summer insects filled the air; and the cottage garden, crowded with every rich and beautiful tint, sparkled in the heavy dew like beds of glittering jewels.--DICKENS.
3. The comma may be used when the clauses are short and simple (see p. 307).
NOTE. The choice between colon, semicolon, and comma is determined in many cases by the writer’s feeling of the closer or the looser connection of the ideas expressed by the several clauses, and is to some extent a matter of taste.
IV
1. In a complex sentence, the dependent clause is generally separated from the main clause by a comma. But when the dependent clause is short and the connection close, the comma may be omitted.
NOTE. A descriptive relative clause is preceded by a comma, a restrictive relative clause is not (see p. 70).
2. The clauses of a series, when in the same dependent construction, are often separated by semicolons to give more emphasis to each. Thus,--
[Mrs. Battle] was none of your lukewarm gamesters, your half-and-half players, who have no objection to take a hand if you want one to make up a rubber; who affirm that they have no pleasure in winning; that they like to win one game and lose another; that they can while away an hour very agreeably at a card table, but are indifferent whether they play or no; and will desire an adversary who has slipped a wrong card, to take it up and play another.--LAMB.
V
1. A direct quotation is enclosed in quotation marks.
NOTE. If the quotation stands by itself and is printed in different type, the marks may be omitted.
2. A quotation within a quotation is usually enclosed in single quotation marks.
3. In a quotation consisting of several paragraphs, quotation marks are put at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last.
NOTE. For the punctuation before a quotation, see p. 307.
4. When a book, poem, or the like, is referred to, the title may be enclosed in quotation marks or italicized.
VI
1. Sudden changes in thought and feeling or breaks in speech are indicated by dashes. Thus,--
Eh!--what--why--upon my life, and so it is--Charley, my boy, so it’s you, is it?--LEVER.
2. Parenthetical expressions may be set off by dashes (see p. 308).
3. A colon, or colon and dash, may precede an enumeration, a direct quotation, or a statement formally introduced,--especially with _as follows_, _namely_, and the like. Before an enumeration a comma and a dash may be used. Thus,--
There are eight parts of speech:--nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. OR--
There are eight parts of speech,--nouns, pronouns, etc.
4. The dash is sometimes used to strengthen a comma (as in the last paragraph but one).
VII
1. The apostrophe is used--
_a._ To mark the omission of a letter or letters in contractions.
_b._ As a sign of the possessive or genitive.
_c._ To indicate the plural of letters, signs, etc.
2. The hyphen is used--
_a._ When the parts of a word are separated in writing.
_b._ Between the parts of some compound words. (See the dictionary in each case.)
RULES OF SYNTAX
1. The +subject+ of a verb is in the +nominative case+ (p. 41).
2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a +predicate nominative+ (p. 41).
3. A substantive used for the purpose of +addressing+ a person directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a +vocative+.
A vocative is in the +nominative case+, and is often called a +nominative by direct address+ or a +vocative nominative+ (p. 42).
4. A substantive used as an +exclamation+ is called an +exclamatory nominative+ or a +nominative of exclamation+ (p. 42).
5. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, or circumstances of an action.
This is called the +absolute construction+.
The substantive is in the +nominative case+ and is called a +nominative absolute+ (p. 144).
6. The +possessive case+ denotes ownership or possession (p. 43).
7. The +object+ of a verb or preposition is in the +objective case+ (p. 47).
8. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its +direct object+, and is said to be in the +objective case+ (p. 48).
9. A verb of _asking_ sometimes takes +two direct objects+, one denoting the +person+ and the other the +thing+ (p. 50).
10. Verbs of _choosing_, _calling_, _naming_, _making_, and _thinking_ may take +two objects+ referring to the same person or thing.
The first of these is the +direct object+, and the second, which completes the sense of the predicate, is called a +predicate objective+ (pp. 50, 111).
11. Some verbs of _giving_, _telling_, _refusing_, and the like, may take +two objects+, a +direct object+ and an +indirect object+.
The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate (p. 50).
12. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own.
A noun in this construction is called the +cognate object+ of the verb and is in the +objective case+ (p. 52).
13. A noun, or a group of words consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an +adverbial objective+ (p. 53).
14. An +appositive+ is in the same case as the substantive which it limits (p. 42).
15. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in +gender+, +number+, and +person+ (p. 55).
16. +Relative pronouns+ connect dependent clauses with main clauses by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause.
This substantive is the +antecedent+ of the relative (p. 66).
A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in +gender+, +number+, and +person+.
The +case+ of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent, but depends on the construction of its own clause (p. 68).
17. A relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted (p. 69).
18. The relative pronoun _what_ is equivalent to _that which_, and has a +double construction+:--(1) the construction of the +omitted+ or +implied antecedent+ _that_; (2) the construction of the +relative+ _which_ (p. 71).
19. The +compound relative pronouns+ may include or imply their own antecedents and hence may have a +double construction+ (p. 72).
The compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent expressed or implied (p. 72).
20. An adjective is said to +belong+ to the substantive which it describes or limits (pp. 5, 75).
21. Adjectives may be classified, according to their position in the sentence, as +attributive+, +appositive+, and +predicate adjectives+ (p. 76).
1. An +attributive adjective+ is closely attached to its noun and regularly precedes it.
2. An +appositive adjective+ is added to its noun to explain it, like a noun in apposition.
3. A +predicate adjective+ completes the meaning of the predicate verb, but describes or limits the subject.
For the use of an adjective as +predicate objective+, see § 488.
22. The +comparative degree+, not the superlative, is used in comparing two persons or things.
The +superlative+ is used in comparing one person or thing with two or more (p. 88).
23. +Relative adverbs+ introduce subordinate clauses and are similar in their use to relative pronouns (p. 86).
24. A +verb+ must agree with its subject in +number+ and +person+ (p. 97).
25. A +compound subject+ with _and_ usually takes a verb in the plural number (p. 100).
26. A +compound subject+ with _or_ or _nor_ takes a verb in the singular number if the substantives are singular (p. 100).
27. Nouns that are +plural in form but singular in sense+ commonly take a verb in the singular number (p. 101).
28. +Collective nouns+ take sometimes a singular and sometimes a plural verb.
When the persons or things denoted are thought of as +individuals+, the plural should be used. When the collection is regarded as a +unit+, the singular should be used (p. 101).
29. A verb is in the +active voice+ when it represents the subject as the +doer+ of an act (p. 107).
30. A verb is in the +passive voice+ when it represents the subject as the +receiver+ or the +product+ of an action (p. 107).
The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial phrase modifying the predicate verb (p. 110).
31. When a verb takes both a +direct+ and an +indirect object+, one of the two is often retained after the passive, the other becoming the subject (p. 112).
32. The +indicative+ is the mood of +simple assertion+ or +interrogation+, but it is used in other constructions also (p. 115).
33. The +imperative+ is the mood of +command+ or +request+ (p. 115).
34. The +subject+ of an +imperative+ is seldom expressed unless it is emphatic.
The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative: as,--_You go_, _You read_ (p. 117).
35. The +subjunctive mood+ is used in certain special constructions of +wish+, +condition+, and the like (pp. 115, 118).
For particulars and examples, see pp. 119–123.
For modal auxiliaries, see pp. 124–132.
36. An +infinitive+, with or without a complement or modifiers, may be used as the +subject+ of a sentence, as a +predicate nominative+, or as an +appositive+ (pp. 134, 135).
37. An +infinitive+ may be used as the +object+ of the prepositions _but_, _except_, _about_, (p. 135).
38. The +infinitive+ may be used as a +nominative of exclamation+ (p. 136).
39. An +infinitive+ may modify a verb by +completing+ its meaning, or by expressing the +purpose+ of the action (p. 137).
40. An +infinitive+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+ of a +noun+ or as an +adverbial modifier+ of an +adjective+.
In this use the infinitive is said to +depend+ on the word which it modifies (p. 136).
41. A kind of +clause+, consisting of a substantive in the objective case followed by an +infinitive+, may be used as the object of certain verbs.
Such clauses are called +infinitive clauses+, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.
The +subject+ of an +infinitive+ is in the objective case.
+Infinitive clauses+ are used (1) after verbs of _wishing_, _commanding_, _advising_, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of _believing_, _declaring_, and _perceiving_ (p. 138).
An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition _for_.
An infinitive clause with _for_ may be used as a subject, as a predicate nominative, or as the object of a preposition (pp. 138–139).
42. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive (pp. 12, 140).
43. A +participle+ is said to +belong+ to the substantive which it describes or limits (pp. 12, 142).
44. A participle should not be used without some substantive to which it may belong (p. 142).
45. An +infinitive+ or a +participle+, like any other verb-form, may take an +object+ if its meaning allows (pp. 134, 143).
46. +Infinitives+ and +participles+, like other verb-forms, may be +modified+ by adverbs, adverbial phrases, or adverbial clauses (pp. 134, 142).
47. +Verbal+ (or +participial+) +nouns+ in _-ing_ have the form of present participles, but the construction of nouns (p. 145).
48. +Verbal nouns+ in _-ing_ have certain properties of the verb (p. 146).
1. Verbal nouns in _-ing_ may take a +direct+ or an +indirect object+ if their meaning allows.
2. A verbal noun in _-ing_ may take an +adverbial modifier+.
But verbal nouns in _-ing_, like other nouns, may be +modified+ by +adjectives+.
49. A noun in _-ing_ may be used as an +adjective+, or as the adjective element in a +compound noun+ (p. 146).
50. The substantive which follows a +preposition+ is called its +object+ and is in the +objective case+ (p. 148).
51. A +coördinate conjunction+ connects words or groups of words that are independent of each other (p. 151).
52. A +subordinate conjunction+ connects a subordinate clause with the clause on which it depends (p. 151).
53. +Interjections+ usually have no grammatical connection with the phrases or sentences in which they stand.
Sometimes, however, a substantive is connected with an interjection by means of a preposition (p. 155).
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
English is a member of the great Indo-European Family of languages, which is so called because it includes well-nigh all the languages of Europe and the most important of those found in India. Within this family, English belongs to the Teutonic (or Germanic) Group, which contains also German, Dutch, the Scandinavian tongues (Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish), and some others.
English of the oldest period is called either Anglo-Saxon or Old English. This was the speech of certain piratical tribes whose home was in northern Germany, on the eastern and southern shores of the North Sea, but who invaded Britain about A.D. 450, and subdued the Celtic inhabitants of the island in a series of fierce wars. The most considerable of the invading tribes were the Angles and the Saxons. Their dominion was well assured by the beginning of the seventh century, and their language, which they usually called “English” (that is, “the tongue of the Angles”), gradually spread through England and most of Scotland. In Wales, however, the native Britons have maintained their own Celtic speech to the present day; and in the Scottish Highlands, Gaelic--which is akin to Welsh and practically identical with the native language of Ireland--is still extensively used.
At the time of the invasion, the Angles and Saxons were heathen, and the Britons, who had been for four centuries under the sway of the Roman Empire, were Christians, and much more highly civilized than their conquerors. Indeed, they had adopted many features of Roman culture, and Latin was spoken to some extent, at least in the larger towns. By the end of the seventh century, however, the Anglo-Saxons also had embraced Christianity and had made remarkable advances in literature and learning. The language of the Britons exerted but slight influence upon that of the Anglo-Saxons. The Celtic words in English are few in number, and most of them were borrowed in comparatively recent times.
The Norman Conquest (1066) marks a highly significant date in the history of our language. The Normans were a Scandinavian tribe who had been in possession of Normandy (in northern France) for about a hundred and fifty years. They had abandoned their native tongue, and spoke a dialect of French. From 1066 to about the year 1400, two languages were therefore common in England,--English, which was employed by the vast majority of the people, and French, which was the language of the court and the higher orders. French, however, was never a serious rival of English for supremacy in the island. It was the speech of a class, not of the nation, and its use gradually died out, except as an accomplishment. By the time of Chaucer (who was born about 1340 and died in 1400), it was clear that the English tongue was henceforth to be regarded as the only natural language for Englishmen, whether they were of Anglo-Saxon or of Norman origin.
Still, the Norman conquest had a profound influence upon English. It is not true--though often asserted--that the multitude of French words which our language contains were derived from the Norman dialect. Comparatively few of them came into English until after 1300, when Normandy had been lost to the English crown for a hundred years. Since 1300 we have borrowed freely--not from Norman, however, but from Central (or Parisian) French, which had become the standard to which the English descendants of the Normans endeavored to conform. The effect of the Conquest, then, was not to fill English with Norman terms. It was rather to bring England into close social and literary relations with France, and thus to facilitate the adoption of words and constructions from Central French.
Further, since literature was in the middle ages dependent in the main upon private patronage, the existence of a ruling class whose interest was in French, discouraged the maintenance of any national or general standard of English composition. Every English writer had recourse to his local dialect, and one dialect was felt to be as good as another.
By 1350, however, the dialect of London and the vicinity had come, apparently, to be regarded as somewhat more elegant and polished than the others. All that was needed was the appearance of some writer of supreme genius to whom this dialect should be native. Chaucer was such a writer, for he was born in London. To be sure, Chaucer did not “make modern English.” None the less, he was a powerful agent in settling the language. Since his time, at all events, the fact of a “standard of literary usage” has been undisputed. Dialects still exist, but they are not regarded as authoritative. Educated speakers and writers of English, the world over, use the language with substantial uniformity.[69]
Meantime, however, the English of the Anglo-Saxons had undergone many changes before Chaucer was born. Most of its inflections had been lost, and still others have been discarded since. Further, there had been extensive borrowing from French and Latin, and this continued throughout the fourteenth century. The habit, once formed, has proved lasting. Our vocabulary has received contributions from many languages, and is still receiving them. Greek may be mentioned in particular as the source of many words, especially in the various departments of science. But French and Latin remain the chief foreign elements in English.
In the following extract from Scott, most of the words printed in Roman type are of Anglo-Saxon origin, whereas the italicized words are derived from Latin or French.
It was not until evening was nearly _closed_ that Ivanhoe was _restored_ to _consciousness_ of his _situation_. He awoke from a broken slumber, under the _confused impressions_ which are _naturally attendant_ on the _recovery_ from a _state_ of _insensibility_. He was un_able_ for some time to recall _exactly_ to _memory_ the _circumstances_ which had _preceded_ his fall in the _lists_, or to make out any _connected chain_ of the _events_ in which he had been _engaged_ upon the yesterday. A _sense_ of wounds and _injury_, _joined_ to great weakness and _exhaustion_, was mingled with the _recollection_ of blows dealt and _received_, of steeds rushing upon each other, overthrowing and overthrown, of shouts and clashing of _arms_, and all the heady _tumult_ of a _confused_ fight. An _effort_ to draw aside the _curtain_ of his _couch_ was in some _degree success_ful, although _rendered difficult_ by the _pain_ of his wound.
English has also adopted a good many Scandinavian words, though they form no such proportion of its vocabulary as French or Latin. Danish and Norwegian pirates began to harry the coast in the eighth century. Permanent settlements followed, as well as wars of conquest, and for about thirty years (1013–1042) a Danish family occupied the English throne. These events explain the Scandinavian element in our language.
Despite the freedom with which English has adopted words from abroad, it is still essentially a Germanic speech. Its structure is still the native structure. The borrowings have enriched its vocabulary, but have had comparatively little effect upon its syntax. The foreign words have been naturalized, and their presence in no wise interferes with the unity and general consistency of the English language. It is a strange error to regard English as a combination of Anglo-Saxon and Norman French. As for the loss or decay of inflections, that is not due to a mixture of dialects. It is a natural tendency, which may be seen, for example, in Dutch and Danish, though there was no Norman Conquest in Holland or Denmark. The loss, indeed, is really a gain, for it is progress in the direction of simplicity.
The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period comes down to about a century, or a century and a half, after the Norman Conquest. Its extreme limit may be set at 1200. The period from 1200 to 1500 is usually known as the Middle English Period. From 1500 to the present time may be regarded as the Modern Period, though within these boundaries English has changed enormously in pronunciation and in vocabulary, very largely in syntax, and to some extent in inflection. The almost complete abandonment of the subjunctive in common speech is one of the latest of these changes. This, too, is in the direction of simplicity.
The people of Great Britain have long been famous as travellers, explorers, and colonizers. Their language, once the dialect (or dialects) of a handful of Germanic adventurers, has spread to all parts of the world, so that now it is not merely the language of England, but, to a considerable extent, that of Scotland, Ireland, North America, India, Australasia, and South Africa. In this vast area, numerous varieties of pronunciation and of idiom of course occur, but, on the whole, the uniformity of the language is surprisingly well preserved.
FOOTNOTES
[1] For a brief history of the English language, see p. 316.
[2] Compare pp. 316–317.
[3] In this book, well-established colloquial idioms or constructions are mentioned from time to time, but always with a note as to their actual status in the language.
[4] In this book, several old forms and constructions which the student is constantly encountering in the English classics are treated in their proper places,--always with an indication of their difference from the modern standard.
[5] In the technical language of grammar an adjective is said to _describe_ a substantive when it describes the object which the substantive denotes.
[6] Definitive adjectives are often called +limiting adjectives+. All adjectives, however, _limit_, even those that also _describe_.
[7] The usual brief definition of a verb is, “A verb is a word which asserts.” But this definition in strictness applies only to verbs in declarative sentences.
[8] For full inflection see pp. 300–301.
[9] +Compound complex+ sentences are also called +complex compound+ sentences. For further treatment of such sentences, see pp. 187, 190, 215–216.
[10] _Vixen_ is really formed from _fox_ (compare the German _Füchsin_ from _Fuchs_).
[11] _Halo_, _memento_, _zero_ also form a plural in _es_ (_haloes_, etc.).
[12] This list is intended for reference.
[13] The English word _animalcule_ (plural _animalcules_) is preferable. The plural _animalculæ_ is erroneous.
[14] _Messrs._ is an abbreviation of the French _messieurs_.
[15] When such nouns as _chemistry_ refer to textbooks, they may be used in the plural: as,--“Bring your _chemistries_ to-morrow.”
[16] This section is intended chiefly for reference.
[17] Note the ambiguity to the ear though not to the eye.
[18] The only exception is in reflexive action, where the object is a compound personal pronoun (“Charles deceived _himself_”). See § 126.
[19] The pupil should not “supply nouns” in such sentences as these. For example, it is unscientific to expand the first sentence into “This [morning] is a fine morning,” and then to parse _this_ as an adjective. It is even more objectionable to expand the fifth sentence by inserting _thing_ or the like after _this_. The plan of “supplying” unexpressed words (as being “understood”) tends to confuse real distinctions of language, and should never be resorted to when it can be avoided.
[20] The negative _not_ (§ 190, 4) is merely a shortened form of _naught_.
[21] Because of their use as connectives, relative pronouns are sometimes called +conjunctive pronouns+.
[22] For indirect questions, see § 441.
[23] In some of these cases the comparative and superlative are really different words from the positive.
[24] The four classes are not absolute, for the same adverb may be used in different senses and thus belong to different classes. Sometimes, too, there is room for difference of opinion. Thus in the fourth and fifth examples under 1, _terribly_ and _surprisingly_ are equivalent to “in a terrible (or surprising) manner,” and therefore are classified as adverbs of manner; but they may also be regarded as adverbs of degree.
[25] Many comparatives and superlatives in _er_ and _est_ that are no longer allowable in prose are still used in poetry.
[26] Many grammarians regard _is_ and the noun or adjective that follows it (_is money_, etc.) as the simple predicate; but the nomenclature here adopted is equally scientific and more convenient.
[27] The word _tense_ is simply an English form of the French word for _time_.
[28] The +past tense+ is often called the +preterite+ (from a Latin word meaning “gone by”). _Preterite_ is in some ways a better name for the tense than _past_, since both the perfect and the pluperfect tenses also refer to past time.
[29] Silent final _e_ is not counted as an ending.
[30] Notice also the change from _v_ to _f_ before _t_.
[31] The ending _ed_ indicates tense, not person or number.
[32] The second person singular is often given as “_Thou walkest_ or _You walk_,” but it is simpler to regard _You walk_ in this use as a plural in a singular sense (§ 224).
[33] This rule is not absolute. Sometimes the distinction is unimportant, and the feeling of the moment often determines the number of the verb.
[34] So _I can strike_, etc.
[35] So _I could strike_, etc.
[36] So _I can have struck_, etc.
[37] So _I could have struck_, etc.
[38] For the so-called +infinitive clause+, in which the infinitive has a subject of a peculiar kind, see §§ 324–328.
[39] After verbs of _wishing_, etc., they express purpose (§ 403); after verbs of _believing_, etc., they are in indirect discourse (§ 431).
[40] The only exceptions are trifling differences in spelling.
[41] Coördinate conjunctions are also called +coördinating+, and subordinate conjunctions are also called +subordinating+.
[42] Compare the exclamatory sentence (§ 3) and the exclamatory nominative (§ 88, 4).
[43] Including clauses of +manner+ and +degree+ (§§ 428–429).
[44] By “_if_-clause” is meant the protasis, whatever the conjunction.
[45] Clauses introduced by _as_ are often called +clauses of manner+.
[46] Such sentences are elliptical in origin. Thus, “The man acts as if he were crazy” is equivalent to “The man acts as [he would act] if he were crazy.” But it is not necessary to supply the ellipsis in analyzing.
[47] In analyzing, the direct quotation may be regarded as the object of the verb of saying, etc. (or the subject, if that verb is passive); and if it forms a complete sentence, this may be analyzed as if it stood by itself. It is not proper to regard the direct quotation as a subordinate clause.
[48] See pp. 102–105, 127–132.
[49] Instead of +compound complex+, the term +complex compound+ is often used. The terms are synonymous, both meaning “compound in general structure, but complex in one or more members.”
[50] Or parse the nominatives according to the models in § 112.
[51] For exercises in the use of the comparative and the superlative, see pp. 249–250, 252.
[52] The omission of a form from the list, then, does not necessarily indicate that it is wrong or even objectionable. There is considerable diversity of usage with regard to the strong verbs, and to state the facts at length would take much space. An attempt to include archaic, poetical, and rare forms in the same list with the usual modern forms is sure to mislead the pupil. Hence the list here presented is confined to forms about whose correctness there can be no difference of opinion. Archaic and poetical tense-forms are treated later (pp. 297–299).
[53] _Born_ is used only in the passive sense of “born into the world.”
[54] The adjective form is _bereaved_: as, “The bereaved father.”
[55] _Cleave_, “to adhere,” has _cleaved_ in both the past tense and the past participle, and also an archaic past form _clave_.
[56] The archaic participle _gotten_ is used in the compounds _begotten_ and _forgotten_, and as an adjective (“_ill-gotten_ gains”). Many good speakers also use it instead of the past participle got, but _got_ is the accepted modern form.
[57] _Hanged_ is used only of execution by hanging.
[58] Usage varies with the context. We say, “The crew _hove_ the cargo overboard,” but NOT “She _hove_ a sigh.”
[59] _Load_ has _loaded_ in both the past tense and the past
## participle. _Laden_ is sometimes used as the past participle of _load_.
[60] _Lie_, “to tell a falsehood,” has _lied_ in both the past tense and the past participle.
[61] So both _light_, “to kindle,” and _light_, “to alight.” The verb _alight_ has usually _alighted_ in both the past tense and the past
## participle.
[62] _Seethe_, intransitive, has usually _seethed_ in both the past tense and the past participle. It is in rather common literary use.
[63] _Stricken_ is also used as a participle in a figurative sense. Thus we say, “The community was _stricken_ with pestilence,”--but “The dog was _struck_ with a stick.”
[64] It is a remnant of the old past plural. In Anglo-Saxon the principal parts of _begin_ were: present, _beginne_; past, _began_; past plural, _begunnon_; past participle, _begunnen_.
[65] The adjectives are usually pronounced _blessèd_, _cursèd_. Compare also the adjective _accursèd_.
[66] Both forms are in good use.
[67] Both forms are in good use. The adjective is pronounced _learnèd_.
[68] The main rules of punctuation are well fixed and depend on important distinctions in sentence structure and consequently in thought. In detail, however, there is much variety of usage, and care should be taken not to insist on such uniformity in the pupils’ practice as is not found in the printed books which they use. If young writers can be induced to indicate the ends of their sentences properly, much has been accomplished.
[69] It is not meant, of course, that an American or Australian of the present day should exert himself to imitate the speech of a modern Londoner. The point is, that what we now call “English” is, in most respects, the direct descendant of the London dialect of the fourteenth century.
INDEX
[_References are to pages_; f. _signifies “and following page”_; ff. _signifies “and following pages.”_]
_A_ for _on_ (_a-fishing_), 147, 149. _A_ or _an_, 77 ff.; distributive, 79. _About_, with infinitive, 105, 135. Absolute construction, 144. See Nominative. Absolute use of transitive verbs, 92. Abstract nouns, 29 f. Accusative, 52.
## Action, nouns in _-ing_, 145 ff.
## Active voice, 107 ff. See Passive.
Adjective, 5, 75 ff.; descriptive and definitive, 5, 75 f.; proper, 75; compound, 75; pronominal, 76 (cf. 62 ff.); attributive, appositive, predicate, 76 f.; articles, 77 ff; comparison, 79 ff., 88 f.; numerals, 89 f.; noun as adjective, adjective as noun, 9, 78;
## participle as, 143;
adjective in exclamations, 155 f.; as modifier of subject, 192 f. See Adjective pronoun, Predicate adjective. Adjective clauses, 20, 66, 86, 157 f.; place or time, 163 f.; as modifiers of subject, 192 f.; of complement, 206. Adjective phrases, 16, 157; comparison of, 89; as modifiers of subject, 192 f.; as complements, 204; as modifiers of modifiers, 207. Adjective pronouns, 62 ff.; demonstrative, 62 ff.; indefinite, 64 f. Adverb, defined, 7; classification, forms, and use, 83 ff.; relative or conjunctive, 86; interrogative, 86; comparison, 87 ff.; numeral, 89 f.; in exclamations, 155 f.; as modifier, 196 f., 206, 208. Adverbial clauses, 20 f., 86, 158 f.; place or time, 163 f.; causal, 164; concessive, 164 f.; purpose or result, 166 f.; conditional, 167 ff.; comparison, degree, manner, 173; indirect question, 180; as modifiers of predicate, 196 f.; of complement, 206; of modifiers, 207 f. Adverbial objective, 53; clause as, 158 f.; as modifier, 198. Adverbial phrases, 16, 53, 142, 158; numeral, 90; as modifiers of predicate, 196 f., 198 ff.; of complement, 206; of modifiers, 207 f. _Advising_, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138. Affirmative, 85. _A-fishing_, etc., 147, 149. _After_, preposition, 148; relative adverb, 86, 157, 164. Agreement, of predicate nominative with subject, 41, 57 f.; of appositive, 42, 47, 53, 57; of pronoun with antecedent, 55, 65; of relative with antecedent, 68, 102; of verb with subject, 97, 100 ff. _All_, 65. Alternative conditions, 168; questions, 179. _Although._ See _Though_. Analysis, 183 ff.; structure of sentences, 183 ff.; analysis, with models, 188 ff.; simple sentences, 188; compound, 188 f.; complex, 189 f.; compound complex, 190; modifiers, 191 ff.; complements, 200 ff.; modifiers of complements and of modifiers, 205 ff.; independent elements, 209; combinations of clauses, 210 ff.; elliptical sentences, 224 ff. See further under these several heads. Anglo-Saxon, xv, 316 f. Animals, names of, gender, 32; pronouns, 69. _Another_, 64 f. Antecedent of pronoun, 4; agreement, 55, 65, 68, 102; unexpressed, 71 ff.; _what_, 71; compound relatives, 72 f. _Any_, _anything_, 64 f. Apodosis, 168. Apostrophe, 43 ff., 56, 311. _Appear_, with predicate nominative or adjective, 6 f., 76, 93. Apposition, 42. See Appositive. Appositive, case of, 42, 47, 53, 57; with possessive, 47; infinitive as, 134 f.; clause as, 159 ff., 167, 174, 180, 196; appositive as modifier, 195 f., 207. Appositive adjective, 76. Appositive phrase, 195. Archaisms, xvii. See Old. Articles, 77 ff.; generic, 77; repeated, 78; with verbal noun, 147. _As_, relative pronoun, 67; relative adverb, 86, 153; conjunction, 153; in concession, 165; in clauses of degree, 173. _As if_, _as though_, 122, 153, 173; _as to_, with infinitive, 167. _Asking_, verb of, two objects, 50; retained object, 112; with indirect question, 179 ff. (cf. 160). Assertion, 2, 5, 13. Attribute. See Predicate adjective, Predicate objective. Attributive adjective, 76. _Aught_, _naught_, 65. Authorship, 43. Auxiliary verbs, 6, 91; in future, 102 ff.; in compound tenses, 106; in passive, 108 ff.; in progressive form, 113 f.; in emphatic form, 114; replacing subjunctive, 123; in potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.
_Be_, 6 f., 93; conjugation, 99, 118 f., 300 f.; auxiliary of passive, 108 ff.; of progressive form, 113; ellipsis of, 114, 144, 164 f., 169, 224 f.; predicate pronoun after, 139. See Predicate nominative. _Become_, with predicate nominative or adjective, 6 f., 76, 93. _Before_, preposition, 148; relative adverb, 86, 157, 163 f.; with subjunctive, 122; with _should_, 130. _Believing_, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138. Biblical style. See Solemn. _Bid_, with infinitive, 138. _Both_, pronoun, 64. _Both ... and_, 15, 153. _But_, adverb, 135. _But_, coördinate conjunction, 152; subordinate, 153 f.; elliptical constructions, 154. _But_, preposition, 148; with infinitive, 135.
_Calling_, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111. _Can_, _could_, 124 ff., 299. Capital letters, 27 ff., 75; rules, 305. Cardinal numerals, 89 f. Case, 40 ff.; nominative, 40 ff.; possessive, 43 ff.; objective, 47 ff.; of appositives, 42, 47, 53, 57. See Pronouns. Cause, clauses of, 164; nominative absolute, 144. Chaucer, xv, 43, 49, 85, 317 f. _Choosing_, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111. Clauses, independent and subordinate, 16 ff.; as parts of speech, 19 ff., 157 ff.; infinitive, 137 ff.; simple, compound, complex, 210 ff.; combination of, 210 ff. See Adjective, Adverbial, Noun, Infinitive clause. Clauses, subordinate, classified according to meaning, 163 ff.; place and time, 163 f.; cause, 164; concession, 164 f.; purpose and result, 166 f.; conditional, 167 ff.; comparison and manner, 173; indirect discourse, 173 ff.; indirect questions, 179 ff. Cognate object, 52; _it_ as, 58; as modifier, 199. Collective nouns, 29 f.; verbs with, 101 f. Colloquial forms and constructions, xvi, 38, 57 ff., 61, 69, 100, 112, 120, 149, 155. Colon, 309 f. Color, adjectives of, 84. Combinations of clauses, 210 ff. _Come_, _have_ (or _am_) _come_, 107. Comma, 70, 306 ff. Command, with _shall_ or _will_, 105, 118; as condition, 169; verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138; with noun clause, 160, 167. See Imperative. Common gender, 31. Common nouns, 27 ff.; personification, 28 f. Comparative and superlative, of adjectives, 79 ff., 88 f.; of adverbs, 87 ff.; use, 88 f.; comparative with _the_, 86. Comparison, clauses of, 173. Comparison of adjectives, 79 ff., 88 f.; of adverbs, 87 ff.; use of, 88 f. Complementary infinitive, 137. Complementary object, 50. See Predicate objective. Complements. See Object, Predicate objective, Predicate nominative, Predicate adjective. Complements, classified, 200 ff.; direct object, 201; predicate objective, 202; predicate nominative, 202 f.; predicate adjective, 203 f. Complements, modifiers of, 205 f. Complete predicate. See Predicate. Complete predication, 200. Complete subject. See Subject. Complete tenses, 106 f. Complete verbs, 200. Complex clauses, 18, 187, 211 f., 215 f., 219 ff. Complex compound. See Compound complex. Complex sentences, 17 ff., 186; analyzed, 189 f.; varieties of, 216 ff. Compound adjectives, 75. Compound clauses, 151, 186, 210 ff. Compound complex sentences, 18, 187, 215 f.; analyzed, 190, 222 f. Compound conjunctions, 153. Compound nouns, 30, 146 f.; plural, 36; possessive, 46 f. Compound personal pronouns, 60 ff.; intensive and reflexive, 61 f.; relatives, 72 f. Compound predicate, 15, 184 f., 212 f. Compound sentences, 17 ff., 185; analyzed, 188 f.; elaboration of, 213 f. Compound subject, 15, 184 f., 212 f.; agreement, 100 f. Compound tenses, 106 f. _Concerning_, 142, 149. Concession, moods in, 120 ff.; _should_ and _would_ in, 123, 131; clauses of, 164 ff. Conclusion, 168. Conditional clauses and sentences, moods in, 120 ff., 170 ff.; forms and meaning, 167 ff.; classification, 169 ff.; past and present, 170 f.; non-committal and contrary to fact, 170 f.; future, 171 f.; _shall_, _will_, _should_, _would_, 130 f. Conjugation, 25, 94 ff.; indicative present and past, 98 f.; future, 102;
## active and passive, 108 ff.;
progressive, 113 f.; potential verb-phrases, 124 f.; tables of, 300 ff. Conjunction, defined, 8; classification and use, 151 ff.; coördinate or coördinating, 151 f.; subordinate or subordinating, 151, 153 f.; correlative, 153 f.; adverb, preposition, and, 152 f.; and adverb, 150. Conjunctive adverbs and pronouns. See Relative. _Considering_, 142, 149. Construction, xiv, 25 ff. Contractions: _it’s_, 56; _I’ll_, _we’ll_, 104; _let’s_, 120; _may n’t_, _ought n’t_, 126; _I’d_, _we’d_, 130. Contrary to fact, conditions, 170 f. Coördinate (coördinating) conjunctions, 151 f. Coördinate clauses, 17 ff., 185 ff., 210 ff. Coördination in sentences, 210 ff. See Coördinate. Copula. See _Be_. Copulative verbs, 6 f., 76, 93. See _Be_. Correlative conjunctions, 153 f. _Could._ See _Can_.
_Dare_, 137, 299. Dash, 310. Dative, 52, 60. Declarative sentences, 2. _Declaring_, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138. Declension of nouns, 40; of personal pronouns, 55 f.; of _self_-pronouns, 60; of demonstratives, 63; of relatives, 67; of compound relatives, 72; of interrogatives, 73. Defective verbs, 299. Definite article, 77 ff. Definitive adjectives, 5, 75 f. Degree, adverbs of, 84; clauses of, 173. See Comparison. Deity, words for the, 305. Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives, 62 ff. Dependent. See Subordinate. Descriptive adjectives, 4, 75; relatives, 70 f. _Desiring_, verbs of, with infinitive, 137; with noun clause, 160, 167. _Did._ See _Do_. Direct address, nominative in, 42; independent element, 209. Direct discourse, 174 ff. Direct object. See Object. Direct quotations, 173 f.; questions, 179. _Do_, _did_, in questions, 114; in emphatic verb-phrases, 114; in imperative, 117; as substitute for some other verb, 114. Double comparison, 88; conditions, 168. _Doubting_, verb of, with indirect question, 179 (cf. 160).
_Each_, _each other_, 64 f. Editorial _we_, 57. _Either_, 64; _either ... or_, 15, 153. _Elder_, _eldest_, 81. Elements. See Subject, Predicate, Modifiers, Complements, Independent. Ellipsis, understood words, etc., 3, 47, 58, 63, 69, 71, 114, 117, 19 f., 121 f., 133, 144, 149, 153 f., 155, 160, 164 f., 169, 173, 175, 224 ff. Elliptical sentences, 224 ff. _’em_, 57. Emphasis, superlative of, 88. Emphatic verb-phrases, 114; imperative, 117. _-en_, plural ending of nouns, 35; old plural ending of verbs, 99. Endings, in inflection, 25; gender, 33; number, 34 ff.; case, 40; possessive, 43 f.; comparison, 80 ff., 87; adverbs, 83 ff.; tense, 95 f.; personal endings, 97 f. English language, xi ff.; history of, 316 ff. Errors of speech, 37, 45, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64 f., 74, 77, 88, 102 ff., 126, 128 ff., 133 ff., 139, 147. _Even if_, 153, 164 f. _Every_, _everybody_, _everything_, 64 f. _Except_, with infinitive, 135. Exclamation, nominative in, 42, 57, 156; objective _me_, 60; infinitive, 136; various parts of speech, 155 f.; phrases, 155 f.; clauses, 169; as independent element, 209. See Interjection. Exclamation point, 155, 306. Exclamatory sentences, 2 f., 74; phrases, 155 f.; expressions, 155 f., 209. See Exclamation, Interjection. Exercises, 227–290. See Table of Contents, v. Exhortations, 120. Expectation, subjunctive, 122 f.; _should_, 130. Expletive. See _It_, _There_. Extent, possessive of, 46. _Eyne_, 35.
_Feel_, with predicate adjective, 77; with infinitive, 136. Feminine. See Gender. _Few_, 65. Figures, plural of, 36. _For_, conjunction, 152. _For_, preposition, 148, 152; with infinitive, 135; with infinitive clause, 139. Foreign plurals, 37. Fractional parts, 90. Future conditions, 171 f. Future perfect tense, 106. Future tense, 94, 102 ff. See _Shall_, _will_.
Gender, 31 ff.; of nouns and pronouns, 31; special rules for nouns, 32 ff.; of pronouns, 56; of relatives, 67 ff. See Personification. _Generally speaking_, 142. Generic article, 77. Genitive. See Possessive. Gerund, 146. _Giving_, verbs of, direct and indirect object, 50; retained object, 112. _Go._ See Motion. _Going to_, 105. Grammar, nature and principles of, xi ff. _Granted that_, 168.
Habitual action, 127. _Had rather_, etc., 123; _had to_, 126. _Half_, 102. _Have_, _had_, 6, 95; auxiliary in compound tenses, 106 ff., 141. _He_, 56; for _he or she_, 65. _Hear_, with infinitive, 136. _Hem_, old pronoun, 57. _His_, as neuter, 56. _Hosen_, 35. _How_, 86. _However_, 152; in concessions, 165. Hyphen, 30, 311.
_I’d_, _we’d_, 130. Idioms, nature of, xv. _If_, 153; in conditions, 168 ff.; in wishes, 169; in indirect questions, 179. _Ill_, 81, 87. _I’ll_, _we’ll_, 104. Imperative mood, 116 ff.; in exclamations, 156; as a condition, 169. Imperative sentences, 2 f., 116 ff.; subject of, 2, 117. Impersonal _it_, 58. See _It_. _In case that_, 153; _in order that_, 153, 166; _in order to_, 167. Incomplete predication, 200; verbs, 200. Indefinite article, 77 ff.; pronouns and adjectives, 64 f.; nouns, 65; relatives (_whoever_, etc.), 72 f. Independent clauses, 17 f. See Clauses. Independent elements, 209. Independent participles, 142. Indicative mood, 115 f.; variety of use, 116; in statements and questions of fact, 116; in commands, 105, 118; in concessions, 121; in conditions, 170, 172. Indirect discourse, 173 ff.; tenses in, 175; passive, 175 f.; _shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_, 177 f. Indirect object, 50 f.; retained with passive, 112; of participial nouns, 146; as modifier, 199. Indirect questions, 179 ff.; infinitive in, 181; subjunctive in, 181; _shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_, 182. Indirect quotations, 173 ff. Infinitive, 11 ff., 132 ff.; forms, 107, 133; object and modifiers, 134; uses, 134 ff.; as noun, 11 ff., 134; as object, 135; as nominative of exclamation, 136; as modifier, 136 f., 194, 197 f.; with _see_, _hear_, _feel_, 136; complementary, 137; of purpose, 137, 167; in verb-phrases, 12; in future, 102; in emphatic forms, 114, 117; in potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.; with _ought_, tenses, 126; in indirect questions, 181; in verb-phrases, see Future, Future perfect, Emphatic, Potential. Infinitive clause, 137 ff.; as object, 138 f.; as subject, 139; predicate pronoun in, 139; expressing purpose, 167; indirect discourse, 175. Infinitive phrase, 194. Inflection, nature and function of, xiii f., 25; summary of, 26; of nouns, 30 ff.; of pronouns, 55 ff.; of adjectives, 79 ff.; of verbs, 94 ff.; lists of verb-forms, 291 ff. _-ing_, verbal nouns in, 145 ff. See Participial nouns. Intensive pronouns, 61 f. Interjections, defined, 8; use, 155 f.; as independent elements, 209. Interrogation point, 306. Interrogative adverbs, 86; with clauses, 157; in indirect questions, 179; with infinitive, 181. Interrogative pronouns, 73 f.; as adjectives, 74; with prepositions, 150; with clauses, 157; in indirect questions, 179 ff.; with infinitive, 181. Interrogative sentences, 2 f.; order in, 3; _do_, _did_ in, 114; direct and indirect questions, 179 ff. Intransitive verbs, 48 f., 92 f.; voice, 111; in passive with preposition, 111. Inverted order, 3, 85, 121 f., 161. Irregular verbs, 95, 99;
## participles, 141;
lists, 291 ff. _Is._ See _Be_. _It_, 56; impersonal, 58; expletive, 58, 135, 161, 175 f.; cognate object, 58.
_Kind_, _sort_, 64. _Kine_, 35. _Knowing_, verbs of, indirect discourse, 174; indirect question, 179.
Language, nature of, xi ff.; English, 316 ff. _Less_, _least_, 81, 87. _Lest_, with subjunctive, 122; purpose, 122, 166. _Let_, with infinitive, 138; _let us_, 120. Letters, plural of, 36. _Like_, _should like_, 129. _Like_, with objective, 52. Limiting adjectives, 5. See Definitive. _Look_, with predicate adjective, 77.
Main clause, 17 f.; analysis, 184 ff., 213 ff.; compound, 216 f. Majesty, plural of, 57. _Make_, with infinitive, 138. _Making_, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111. _-man_, words ending in, plural of, 35. Manner, adverbs of, 83; clauses of, 173. _Many_, 65. Masculine. See Gender. _May_, _might_, auxiliary, 120 ff.; replacing subjunctive, 123; form, 299. Measure or extent, possessive of, 46. _Meseems_, _methinks_, 60. _Might_, auxiliary, 123 ff.; replacing subjunctive, 123; _might better_, 123. See _May_. Modal auxiliaries, use and meaning, 124 ff. Mode. See Mood. Models for parsing, analysis, 54, 74, 82, 188 ff., 243, 250 f., 262, 270. See Exercises. Modifiers, 7; classified, 191 ff.; of subject, 192 ff.; adjectives, adjective phrases, adjective clauses, 192 f.;
## participles, 193 f.;
infinitives, 194; possessives, 195; appositives, 195 f.; of predicate, 196 ff.; adverbs, adverbial phrases, adverbial clauses, 196 f.; infinitives, 197 f.; adverbial objectives, 198; nominative absolute, 198 f.; indirect object, 199; cognate object, 199. Modifiers of complements, 205 f. Modifiers of modifiers, 207 f. Mood, 115 ff.; indicative, 115 f.; imperative, 116 ff.; subjunctive, 118 ff.; potential, 124. See Indicative, Subjunctive, etc. _More_, _most_, in comparison, 81, 87 ff. _-most_, superlative suffix, 82. Motion, verbs of, with _have_ or _be_, 107; ellipsis, 225. _Must_, auxiliary, 124 ff., 299. _My_, _mine_, 59.
_Naming_, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111. _Naught_, _not_, 65. _Near_, with objective, 52. Negative, _neither_, 64, 152; _none_, 64; _not_, 65; _no_, 85; statements and questions, 114; commands, 117; purpose or result, 166 f.; condition, 168. _Neither_, pronoun, 64; conjunction, with _nor_, 15, 152 ff.; number with, 100. Neuter. See Gender. _Next_, 52, 82, 87. _Nigh_, _next_, 82. _No_, _yes_, 85. Nominative case, 41 f.; subject, 41; predicate, 41; direct address (vocative), 42; in exclamation, 42; absolute, 144, 198 f. Non-committal conditions, 170 f. _None_, 64. _Nor_, _neither ... nor_, number with, 100. _Not_, 65. _Notwithstanding_, preposition or conjunction, 152, 154. Noun, defined, 4; classification, 27 ff.; common and proper, 27 ff.; abstract and collective, 29 f.; compound, 30, 36, 47, 146 f.; inflection, 30 ff.; gender, 31 ff.; number, 34 ff.; person, 39; case, 40 ff.; numeral, 89 f.; verbal (participial), 145 ff. See Infinitive. Noun clauses, 20, 159 ff.; construction, as subject, object, etc., 159 ff.; purpose and result, 166 f.; indirect discourse, 174 ff.; indirect questions, 180 ff.; analysis, 190; as complement, 201 ff.; direct object, 201; predicate objective, 202; predicate nominative, 203. Noun-phrases, 16, 28; possessive of, 47; verbal noun-phrases, 146. _Number_, _a_ (or _the_), 101. Number of nouns, 34 ff.; of pronouns, 56 f., 60, 63 ff., 67 f., 72; of verbs, 97 ff., 100 ff.; agreement in, 55, 65, 68, 97, 100 ff. Numerals, 89 f.
_O_ or _oh_, 8, 155; in wishes, 155. Object, of preposition, 8, 47, 148; of verb, direct, 48 ff.; predicate objective, 50; indirect, 50 f.; for whom, 51; cognate, 52; retained, 112; of infinitive, 134; of verbal (participial) noun, 146 f.; infinitive as, 135; infinitive clause as, 138 f.; noun-clause as, 159 ff., 167, 174 ff., 180 f. See Complements, Modifiers. Object clauses. See Noun clauses. Objective attribute, 50. Objective case, 47 ff.; of service, 51 f.; adverbial, 53; in apposition, 53; of pronouns, 55 f., 60, 63, 67, 69, 72, 73 f.; in exclamation, 60; subject of infinitive, 138 f. See Object. Objective complement, 50. See Predicate objective. Obsolete words, etc., xvi f. See Old. _Of mine_, 47, 59. _Of_-phrase, 45. Old or poetical forms and constructions, 28 f., 32, 35, 39, 43, 45, 52, 56 ff., 59 ff., 62 f., 67, 69, 73, 78, 82, 84 f., 88, 90, 95 ff., 99, 100, 105, 114, 116 f., 118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 135, 149, 154, 225, 293, 297 ff. _On condition that_, 168. _One_, _one’s_, _one’s self_, 60, 65; _one another_, 64 f. _Or_, _either ... or_, 15, 153 f.; number with _or_, _nor_, 100. Order. See Inverted. Orders, _will_ in, 105. See Command. Ordinal numerals, 89 f. _Other_, _another_, 64 f. _Ought_, 126 f. _Ourself_, 60. _Owe_, _ought_, 126, 299. _Own_, 61.
_Pains_, 101. Parsing, models for, 54, 74, 82, 243, 250 f., 262, 270. _Part_, _portion_, 102.
## Participial nouns, 145 ff.;
object of, 146 f.; modifiers of, 146; as adjective, 146 f.; with article, 147.
## Participial phrase, 194.
## Participles, 11 f., 140 ff.;
present, past, perfect, 12, 106 f., 140 f.; constructions, 142 ff.; object and modifiers of, 142 f.; as prepositions, 142, 149; as adjectives, 143; with nominative absolute, 145; as modifiers, 193 f., 205. Parts of speech, defined, 3 ff.; same word as different, 9 ff.; substitutes for, 15 ff. (see Phrases, Clauses); inflection and syntax, 25 ff. See Noun, Pronoun, etc. Passive voice, 107 ff.; form of, 108 ff.; use of, 110 ff.; predicate nominative with, 111; retained object with, 112; in progressive form, 114; in imperative, 117; in subjunctive, 119; intransitive verbs with preposition, 111; passive distinguished from _be_ with participle used as adjective, 143; clause as retained object, 160; indirect discourse, 175 f. Past conditions, 169 ff.; non-committal, 170 f.; contrary to fact, 171. Past participle, 106, 140 f.; as predicate adjective, 143. Past perfect tense, 106, 109; subjunctive, 121 f., 171; progressive, 125; in conditions, 121, 170 f.; in indirect discourse, 175. Past tense, 94 ff.; personal endings, 97 ff.; passive, 108; progressive, 113 f.; emphatic, 114; subjunctive, 118, 121 ff., 171 f.; indicative and subjunctive in conditions, 170 ff.; in indirect discourse, 175. _Pending_, 142, 149. _Per_, _per cent_, etc., 79, 149. _Perceiving_, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138; indirect discourse, 174; indirect question, 179. Perfect infinitive, 107, 133; with _ought_, 126;
## participle, 107, 140 f.
Perfect (or present perfect) tense, 106. Period, 306. Permission, 125 f., 129. Person of substantives, 39; of pronouns, 55 ff.; of relatives, 68; of verbs, 97 ff., 100 ff. Personal construction, 176. Personal endings, 97 f. Personal pronouns, 55 ff.; inflection, 55 ff.; gender and number, 56 f.; case, 57 ff.; _self_-pronouns, 60 ff.; as predicate nominative, 41. Personification, 28 f., 32. Phrases, 16; kinds of, 16 (see Noun-phrases, Adjective phrases, Adverbial phrases, Verb-phrases); as prepositions, 149; as conjunctions, 153; exclamatory, 155; in analysis, 191 ff.; as modifiers of subject, 192 f.; of predicate, 196 f.; as complements, 204; as modifiers of complements, 205 f.; of other modifiers, 207 f. See Progressive, Emphatic, Potential, Appositive, Infinitive,
## Participial, Prepositional, Verbal noun-phrases.
Place and time, adverbs of, 83 ff.; clauses of, 163 f. Pluperfect tense, 106, 109; subjunctive, 121 f., 171; progressive, 125; in conditions, 121, 170 f.; in indirect discourse, 175. Plural of nouns, 34 ff.; irregular, 35 ff.; of compounds, 36; of foreign nouns, 37; of proper names and titles, 35, 38; of possessive, 43 f.; of pronouns, 56 f., 60, 62 ff.; of relatives, 67 f.; of verbs, 97 ff.; plural of majesty, 57. Poetical forms and constructions, xvii. See Old. _Portion_, _part_, 102. Positive degree, 79, 87. Possessive case of nouns, 43 ff.; use, 45 ff.; of measure, 46; of compound nouns and of phrases, 46 f.; apposition with, 47; of personal pronouns, 55 f., 59; of definite pronouns, 65; of relatives, 67, 69, 72; of interrogatives, 73; possessive nouns modified, 207. Possessive modifiers, 195, 205, 207. Possessive pronouns, 55 f., 59; _my_, _mine_, etc., use of, 59; _one’s_, 65; _whose_, 67, 69, 72, 73. Potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.; mood, 124 ff. _Pray_, 58. Prayers, subjunctive, 119 f. Predicate, 2; inverted order, 3, 85, 121 f., 161; simple and complete, 14 f., 183 f.; compound, 15, 184 f., 212 f.; possessive in, 59; analysis, 183 ff.; modifiers of, 196 ff.; complements, 200 ff. See Complements, Modifiers. Predicate adjective, 76 f., 93;
## participle as, 143;
analysis, 203 f.; as complement, 203 f.; phrase as, 204; modifiers of, 206. Predicate nominative, 41, 49, 93; of pronouns, 58; after passive, 111; infinitive as, 134 f.; infinitive clause as, 139; noun clause as, 159 f., 174, 180; in analysis, 202 f.; as complement, 202 f.; modifiers of, 205 f. Predicate objective, 50, 111; adjective as, 50; in analysis, 202; as complement, 202; modified, 205. Predicate pronoun after _to be_, 139. Predication, complete and incomplete, 200. Preposition, defined, 8; list and uses, 148 ff.; object of, 8, 47, 150 ff.; with intransitive verb, 111; with passive, 111; phrase used as, 149; at end of clause, 149; following the object, 149; omitted, 149;
## participle as, 149;
infinitive as object of, 135; clause as object of, 161, 180. Prepositional phrases, 16, 148. Present conditions, 170 ff.; non-committal, 170 f.; contrary to fact, 171. Present infinitive, 133; with _ought_, 126. Present participle, 12, 140 f.; in verb-phrases, 13, 113 f., 130 f.; with nominative absolute, 144. Present perfect tense, 106. Present tense form, 94; personal endings, 97 f.; conjugation, 98 f.; in future sense, 105; in future conditions, 172; passive, 108; progressive, 113 f.; emphatic, 114; imperative, 116 f.; subjunctive, 118 f., 120 ff.; indicative and subjunctive in conditions, 170 f.;
## participle, 12, 144 ff.;
infinitive, 133. Preterite, 94. See Past. Preterite-present verbs, 299. Principal clause. See Main clause. Principal parts, 107; list, 291 ff. _Prithee_, 58. Progressive verb-phrases, 113 f.; in subjunctive, 119. Prohibition, 117. Pronominal adjectives. See Adjective pronouns; Demonstrative, Indefinite, Relative, Interrogative. Pronoun defined, 4; antecedent of, 4; classification, forms, and uses, 55 ff.; predicate nominative, 41, 58. See Personal, Adjective, Demonstrative, Indefinite, Relative, Interrogative, Intensive, Reflexive, Reciprocal, Gender. Pronoun, predicate, after to be, 139. Proper nouns, 27 ff.; plural, 35, 38; possessive, 44; adjectives, 75. Prophecy, _shall_, 105. Protasis, 168. _Provided_ (_that_), 153, 168. Punctuation, rules of, 306 ff. Purpose, subjunctive and indicative, 122 f.; infinitive of, 137, 167; clauses of, 166 f.; infinitive clause, 167.
Questions, 3 f.; _shall_ and _will_ in, 102 ff.; _should_ and _would_ in, 127 ff.; _do_, _did_, 114; _may_, 126; as condition, 169; direct and indirect, 179 ff. See Interrogative. Quotation marks, 310. Quotations, direct and indirect, 173 ff.
_Rather_, 87; _had rather_, 123. Reciprocal pronouns, 64 f. Reflexive pronouns, 61; simple personal pronouns as, 61. _Refusing_, verbs of, direct and indirect object, 50; retained object, 112. Regular verbs, 95 ff.;
## participles, 141.
Relative adjectives, 73. Relative adverbs, 86; with subjunctive, 122; introducing clauses, 157 f.; place and time, 164; concession, 165; conditions, 169. Relative pronouns, 66 ff.; forms, 67; gender, 67 ff.; agreement, 68, 102; case, 68 f., 139; omitted, 69; descriptive and restrictive, 70 f.; _what_, 71; compound relatives, 72 f.; relatives introducing clauses, 66, 157 f.; place and time, 163 f.; concession, 131, 165; condition, 131, 169. Restrictive relatives, 70 f. Result, clause of, 166 f.; infinitive, 167; negative, 167. Retained object, 112; clause as, 160. Royal _we_, 57, 60.
_Same_ (_the_) _as_, 67. _Saying._ See _Telling_. _See_, with infinitive, 136. _Seem_, with predicate nominative or adjective, 6 f., 76, 93; _it seems that_, 176. _Self_-pronouns, 60 ff. Semicolon, 309 f. Sentences, 1 ff.; kinds of, 2 f.; parts of speech in, 3 ff., 13 ff.; essential elements in, 2, 14; simple and complete subject and predicate, 14 f.; clauses in, 16 ff.; simple, compound, complex, 17 ff.; compound complex, 18. Sentences, analysis, 183 ff.; structure and elements, 183; of simple sentences, 184 f.; of compound, 185; of complex, 186; of compound and complex clauses, 186 f.; of compound complex sentences, 187; models for analysis of simple, compound, complex, compound complex sentences, 188 ff.; modifiers, 191 ff.; complements, 200 ff.; modifiers of complements and of modifiers, 205 ff.; independent elements, 209; combinations of clauses making sentences of various forms, 210 ff.; special complications, 220 ff.; elliptical sentences, 224 ff. See Subject, Compound, Complex, Modifiers, etc. Sequence of tenses, 175, 179. Service, objective of, 51 f. _Several_, 65. Shakspere, forms and constructions in, 35, 39, 47, 56, 57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 67, 69, 88, 90, 126, 149, 154, 166, 169, 171, 225. _Shall_ and _will_, 102 ff.; in assertions and questions, 102 ff.; in subordinate clauses, 130 ff.; indirect discourse, 177 f.; indirect questions, 182; forms, 299. See _Should_. Ship, gender, 32. _Shoon_, 35. _Should_ and _would_, in simple sentences and independent clauses, 127 ff.; in subordinate clauses, 130 ff.; in indirect discourse, 177 f.; in indirect questions, 182. See _Shall_. _Should_ and _would_, special senses, 126 f.; replacing subjunctive, 123; in clauses of purpose, 130; concessions, 131; in conditional sentences, 131, 171 f. Signs, plural of, 36. Simple clauses. See Clauses. Simple sentences, 17 ff., 184 f.; analyzed, 188 f.; elaboration of, 212 f. See Sentences. _Since_, adverb, preposition, conjunction, 86, 153. Singular. See Number. _Smell_, with predicate adjective, 77. _So as to_, 167; _so that_, 153, 166. Solemn (or Biblical) style, xvii, 56 f., 60, 69, 90, 95, 98 f., 105, 117, 120, 122, 172. _Some_, 64; _somewhat_, 65. _Sort_, _kind_, 64. _Sound_, with predicate adjective, 77. Split infinitive, 134. _Still_, _yet_, adverbs or conjunctions, 152. Strong verbs, 95, 99;
## participles, 141;
list, 291 ff. Style and grammar, xvi f. Subject, 2; inverted order, 3; omitted, 3, 58, 114, 117, 121, 164 f., 169, 224 ff.; simple and complete, 14 f.; compound, 15, 184 f.; infinitive as, 11, 134 f.; clause as, 20, 139, 159 f., 174 f., 180, 190; case, 41; agreement with verb, 97, 100 ff.; modifiers of, 192 ff.; subject of infinitive, 138. See Predicate nominative. Subject and predicate, 2, 13 ff., 183 ff., 191 ff. Subject complement, 41. See Predicate nominative. Subjunctive mood, 115 f., 118 ff.; forms, 118 f.; uses, 119 ff.; in wishes, etc., 119 f.; concessions, 120 f.; conditions, 120 ff., 170 ff.; clauses of purpose or expectation, 122, 166; with _as if_, 122, 173; in indirect questions, 181; auxiliaries replacing subjunctive, 123. Subordinate clauses, 17 ff.; as parts of speech, 19 ff., 157 ff.; analysis, 186 ff., 189 ff.; combinations of, 210; variety of use, 216 ff.; special complications, 220 ff. See Noun, Adjective, Adverbial, Indicative, Subjunctive. Subordinate clauses, meanings of, 163 ff.; place and time, 163 f.; cause, 164; concession, 164 f.; purpose and result, 166 f.; conditional, 167 ff.; comparison and manner, 173; indirect discourse, 173 ff.; indirect questions, 179 ff. Subordinate (or subordinating) conjunctions, 151, 153 f., 157. Substantive, 4. See Noun, Pronoun. Substantive clauses. See Noun clauses. _Such_, 64; _such ... as_, 67. Superlative of emphasis, 88. See Comparison. _Suppose_, _supposing_, 168. Syntax, xiv, 25 ff.; summary of rules, 311 ff.
_Taste_, with predicate adjective, 77. _Telling_, verbs of, direct and indirect object, 50; retained object, 112; object clause, 160; indirect discourse, 174. Tense, 94 ff. See Present, Past, Future, Compound tenses. Tenses, use in conditions, 121, 170 ff.; with _ought_, 126; in indirect discourse, 175, 177 ff.; in indirect questions, 179, 182. Termination. See Endings. _Than_, 87; case after, 173; clauses, 173. _That_, conjunction with subordinate clause, 20 f., 132, 137, 153, 157 ff., 160 ff.; in clauses of purpose, 122 f., 130, 166 f.; result, 166 f.; indirect discourse, 174 ff.; omitted, 153, 160, 175, 225. _That_, demonstrative, 62 ff.; relative, 67 ff.; omitted, 69. _The_, article, 77 ff.; abbreviated to _ye_, 57; _the which_, 67; adverb with comparative, 86. _Then_, adverb or conjunction, 152. _There_, expletive, 85. _Thereof_, _therewith_, etc., 60. _They_, indefinite use, 57. _Thinking_, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111; object clause, 160; indirect discourse, 174; indirect question, 179. _This_, _these_, 62 ff. _Thou_, _ye_, _you_, 56 f. _Though_, _although_, 21; mood after, 120 f. See Concession. _Till_, _until_, relative adverb, 86; with subjunctive, 122 f.; with _should_, 123, 130; preposition, 149. Time, adverbs of, 83; clauses of, 163 f.; nominative absolute, 144. Titles, plural, 38. _To_, with infinitive, 11, 132 ff.; standing for infinitive, 133; expressing purpose, 167; _to let_, 136; _to the end that_, 166. _Too_ ... _to_, 167. Transition, 152. Transitive verbs, 48 ff., 92; used absolutely, 92; passive use of, 110 ff. See Object.
_Unless_, 121 ff., 168. _Unlike_, objective with, 52. _Until._ See _Till_. Usage and grammar, xv ff.
Verb, 5 ff.; inflection and syntax, 91 ff.; classification, 91 ff.; inflection, 94 ff., 102 ff.; person and number, 97 ff.; agreement with subject, 97, 100 ff.; voice, 107 ff.; progressive form, 113 f.; emphatic form, 114; mood, 115 ff.; potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.; infinitive, 11 f., 132 ff.;
## participles, 11 f., 140 ff.;
lists of verbs, 291 ff. See Predicate, Transitive, Tense, etc. Verbal noun in _-ing_, 145 ff. See Participial nouns. Verbal noun-phrases, 146. Verb-phrases, 5, 16, 91; to supply inflection, see Future, Complete tenses, Passive, Progressive, Potential, Subjunctive. Vocal organs, xi. Vocabulary of English, 318 f. Vocative (direct address), nominative, 42; as independent element, 209. Voice, 107 ff. See Passive.
_We_, indefinite use, 57; royal and editorial _we_, 57. Weak verbs, 95 ff., 98 f.;
## participles, 141;
lists, 291 ff. _We’d_, 130. _Well_, 81, 87. _We’ll_, 104. _Were to_, 172. _What_, relative, 71; double construction, 71, 73; as adjective, 73; interrogative, 73 f.; as adjective, 74; in exclamatory sentences, 74; interjection, 74. _Whatever_, _whatsoever_, 72 f.; in concession, 165; in conditions, 169. _Whatso_, 73. _When_, _whenever_, 86; in conditions, 169. _Whence_, 86. _Where_, _wherever_, 86. _Whereof_, _wherefrom_, etc., 69. _Whether_, _whether ... or_, 153, 168, 179. _Which_, relative, 67 ff.; gender, 67 ff.; for _who_, _whom_, 69; as adjective, 73; _the which_, 67; interrogative, 73; as adjective, 74. _Whichever_, 72 f. _While_, noun, adverb, conjunction, 86, 153. _Whither_, 86. _Who_, _whose_, _whom_, relative, 66 ff.; gender, 67 ff.; interrogative, 73 f., 150. _Whoever_, _whosoever_, _whoso_, 72 f.; in concession, 165; in condition, 169. _Why_, 86, 179. _Will_, in orders, 105; in future, see _Shall_. Wish, subjunctive in, 119 f., 123; _may_, 125 f.; verbs of, with infinitive or infinitive clause, 137 f.; with object clause, 160, 167; _O_ in a wish, 155; _if_, 169. Words, nature and use of, xi ff. _Wot_, _wist_, 299. _Would_, in wishes, 120; habitual action, 127; _would better_ (_rather_), 123. See _Should_. Written and spoken language, xi ff.
_Ye_, old uses, 57; abbreviation, 57. _Yes_, _no_, 85. _Yet_, _still_, adverbs or conjunctions, 152. _Yon_, _yond_, _yonder_, 63. _You_ and _thou_, 56 f.; indefinite _you_, 57.
Transcriber’s Notes
Variant spelling and hyphenation have been preserved as printed; simple typographical errors have been corrected. Punctuation has been standardised, and unbalanced quotation marks and parentheses have been repaired.
The following changes have also been made:
Page vi, Contents: Person 39 238 changed to Person 39 236
Page 26: Number (_Verb agrees with Subject_) [was printed with a brace spanning _Number_ and _Person_]
Page 98, Personal Endings: [repeated no-ending in each cell instead of replicating the book’s row-spanning braces]
Page 258 [changed word order]: If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make such other changes as may be necessary. If the verb is active, change it to the passive.
If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make such other changes as may be necessary. If the verb is passive, change it to the active.
Footnote 66: [The table spanned pages 298 to 299, and the footnote was repeated across the page break; the transcriber omitted duplicate note.]