Part 1

# Church History, Volume 3 (of 3) ### By Kurtz, J. H. (Johann Heinrich)

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┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ │ Transcriber’s Notes │ │ │ │ │ │ Punctuation has been standardized. │ │ │ │ The Table of Contents has been updated to agree with the │ │ headings and subheadings of the text. │ │ │ │ The † symbol next to a date was not defined in the text. It │ │ appears to mean approximate year of death. │ │ │ │ Characters in small caps have been replaced by all caps. │ │ │ │ Non-printable characteristics have been given the following │ │ transliteration: │ │ Italic text: --> _text_ │ │ bold text: --> =text=. │ │ │ │ Italics have been dropped on leading alpha characters (a. b. │ │ c.) to improved readability. │ │ │ │ This book was written in a period when many words had │ │ not become standardized in their spelling. Words may have │ │ multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in │ │ the text. These have been left unchanged unless indicated │ │ with a Transcriber’s Note. │ │ │ │ Many names appear with multiple spelling variations. The │ │ most common form used has been added in brackets following │ │ alternate forms to facilitate document searching. │ │ │ │ Latin words and quotations are regularly italicized in the │ │ text. Italics have been added to words missed by the printer. │ │ │ │ Footnotes are numbered consecutively through the 3 volumes │ │ and are identified in the text with a number in brackets [2] │ │ and have been accumulated in a single section at the end of │ │ the text. │ │ │ │ Transcriber’s Notes are used when making corrections to the │ │ text or to provide additional information for the modern │ │ reader. These notes are not identified in the text, but have │ │ been accumulated in a single section at the end of the book. │ │ │ └────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

CHURCH HISTORY.

BY PROFESSOR KURTZ.

_AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION FROM LATEST REVISED EDITION BY THE_ REV. JOHN MACPHERSON, M.A.

IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. III.

_SECOND EDITION._

London: HODDER AND STOUGHTON, 27, PATERNOSTER ROW.

MDCCCXCIII.

BUTLER & TANNER, THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS, FROME, AND LONDON.

CONTENTS.

THIRD DIVISION. (Continued.)

SECOND SECTION.

CHURCH HISTORY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

I. Relations between the Different Churches.

§ 152. EAST AND WEST. (1) Roman Catholic Hopes. (2) Calvinistic Hopes. (3) Orthodox Constancy.

§ 153. CATHOLICISM AND PROTESTANTISM. (1) Conversions of Protestant Princes. (2) The Restoration in Germany and the Neighbouring States. (3) Livonia and Hungary. (4) The Huguenots in France. (5) The Waldensians in Piedmont. (6) The Catholics in England and Ireland. (7) Union Efforts. (8) The Lehnin Prophecy.

§ 154. LUTHERANISM AND CALVINISM. (1) Calvinizing of Hesse-Cassel, A.D. 1605-1646. (2) Calvinizing of Lippe, A.D. 1602. (3) The Elector of Brandenburg becomes Calvinist, A.D. 1613. (4) Union Attempts.

§ 155. ANGLICANISM AND PURITANISM. (1) The First Two Stuarts. (2) The Commonwealth and the Protector. (3) The Restoration and the Act of Toleration.

II. The Roman Catholic Church.

§ 156. THE PAPACY, MONKERY, AND FOREIGN MISSIONS. (1) The Papacy. (2) The Jesuits and the Republic of Venice. (3) The Gallican Liberties. (4) Galileo and the Inquisition. (5) The Controversy on the Immaculate Conception. (6) The Devotion of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. (7) New Congregations and Orders. 1. Benedictine Congregation of St. Banne. 2. Benedictine Congregation of St. Maur. 3. The Fathers of the Oratory of Jesus. 4. The Piarists. 5. The Order of the Visitation of Mary. (8) 6. The Priests of the Missions and Sisters of Charity. 7. The Trappists. 8. The English Nuns. (9) The Propaganda. (10) Foreign Missions. (11) In the East Indies. (12) In China. (13) Trade and Industry of the Jesuits. (14) An Apostate to Judaism.

§ 157. QUIETISM AND JANSENISM. (1) Francis de Sales and Madame Chantal. (2) Michael Molinos. (3) Madame Guyon and Fénelon. (4) Mysticism Tinged with Theosophy and Pantheism. (5) Jansenism in its first Stage.

§ 158. SCIENCE AND ART IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. (1) Theological Science. (2) Church History. (3) Art and Poetry.

III. The Lutheran Church.

§ 159. ORTHODOXY AND ITS BATTLES. (1) Christological Controversies. 1. The Cryptist and Kenotist Controversy. 2. The Lütkemann Controversy. (2) The Syncretist Controversy. (3) The Pietist Controversy in its First Stage. (4) Theological Literature. (5) Dogmatics.

§ 160. THE RELIGIOUS LIFE. (1) Mysticism and Asceticism. (2) Mysticism and Theosophy. (3) Sacred Song. (4) ---- Its 17th Century Transition. (5) Sacred Music. (6) The Christian Life of the People. (7) Missions.

IV. The Reformed Church.

§ 161. THEOLOGY AND ITS BATTLES. (1) Preliminaries of the Arminian Controversy. (2) The Arminian Controversy. (3) Consequences of the Arminian Controversy. (4) The Cocceian and Cartesian Controversies. (5) ---- Continued. (6) Theological Literature. (7) Dogmatic Theology. (8) The Apocrypha Controversy.

§ 162. THE RELIGIOUS LIFE. (1) England and Scotland. (2) ---- Political and Social Revolutionists. (3) ---- Devotional Literature. (4) The Netherlands. (5) ---- Voetians and Cocceians. (6) France, Germany, and Switzerland. (7) Foreign Missions.

V. Anti- and Extra-Ecclesiastical Parties.

§ 163. SECTS AND FANATICS. (1) The Socinians. (2) The Baptists of the Continent. 1. The Dutch Baptists. 2. The Moravian Baptists. (3) The English Baptists. (4) The Quakers. (5) ---- Continued. (6) The Quaker Constitution. (7) Labadie and the Labadists. (8) ---- Continued. (9) Fanatical Sects. (10) Russian Sects.

§ 164. PHILOSOPHERS AND FREETHINKERS. (1) Philosophy. (2) ---- Continued. (3) Freethinkers--England. (4) ---- Germany and France.

THIRD SECTION.

CHURCH HISTORY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

I. The Catholic Church in East and West.

§ 165. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. (1) The Popes. (2) Old and New Orders. (3) Foreign Missions. (4) The Counter-Reformation. (5) In France. (6) Conversions. (7) The Second Stage of Jansenism. (8) The Old Catholic Church in the Netherlands. (9) Suppression of the Order of Jesuits, A.D. 1773. (10) Anti-hierarchical Movements in Germany and Italy. (11) Theological Literature. (12) In Italy. (13) The German-Catholic Contribution to the Illumination. (14) The French Contribution to the Illumination. (15) The French Revolution. (16) The Pseudo-Catholics--The Abrahamites or Bohemian Deists. (17) ---- The Frankists.

§ 166. THE ORIENTAL CHURCHES. (1) The Russian State Church. (2) Russian Sects. (3) The Abyssinian Church.

II. The Protestant Churches.

§ 167. THE LUTHERAN CHURCH BEFORE “THE ILLUMINATION.” (1) The Pietist Controversies after the Founding of the Halle University. (2) ---- Controversial Doctrines. (3) Theology. (4) Unionist Efforts. (5) Theories of Ecclesiastical Law. (6) Church Song. (7) Sacred Music. (8) The Christian Life and Devotional Literature. (9) Missions to the Heathen.

§ 168. THE CHURCH OF THE MORAVIAN BRETHREN. (1) The Founder of the Moravian Brotherhood. (2) The Founding of the Brotherhood. (3) The Development of the Brotherhood down to Zinzendorf’s Death, A.D. 1727-1760. (4) Zinzendorf’s Plan and Work. (5) Numerous Extravagances. (6) Zinzendorf’s Greatness. (7) The Brotherhood under Spangenberg’s Administration. (8) The Doctrinal Peculiarities of the Brotherhood. (9) The Peculiarities of Worship among the Brethren. (10) Christian Life of the Brotherhood. (11) Missions to the Heathen.

§ 169. THE REFORMED CHURCH BEFORE THE “ILLUMINATION.” (1) The German Reformed Church. (2) The Reformed Church in Switzerland. (3) The Dutch Reformed Church. (4) Methodism. (5) ---- Continued. (6) Theological Literature.

§ 170. NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. (1) Fanatics and Separatists in Germany. (2) The Inspired Societies in Wetterau. (3) J. C. Dippel. (4) Separatists of Immoral Tendency. (5) Swedenborgianism. (6) New Baptist Sects. (7) New Quaker Sects. (8) Predestinarian-Mystical Sects.

§ 171. RELIGION, THEOLOGY, AND LITERATURE OF THE “ILLUMINATION.” (1) Deism, Arianism, and Unitarianism in the English Church. 1. The Deists. 2. The So-called Arians. 3. The Later Unitarians. (2) Freemasons. (3) The German “Illumination.” 1. Its Precursors. (4) 2. The Age of Frederick the Great. (5) 3. The Wöllner Reaction. (6) The Transition Theology. (7) The Rationalistic Theology. (8) Supernaturalism. (9) Mysticism and Theosophy. (10) The German Philosophy. (11) The German National Literature. (12) Pestalozzi.

§ 172. CHURCH LIFE IN THE PERIOD OF THE “ILLUMINATION.” (1) The Hymnbook and Church Music. (2) Religious Characters. (3) Religious Sects. (4) The Rationalistic “Illumination” outside of Germany. (5) Missionary Societies and Missionary Enterprise.

FOURTH SECTION.

CHURCH HISTORY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

I. General and Introductory.

§ 173. SURVEY OF RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.

§ 174. NINETEENTH CENTURY CULTURE IN RELATION TO CHRISTIANITY AND THE CHURCH. (1) The German Philosophy. (2) ---- Continued. (3) The Sciences; Medicine. (4) Jurists; Historians; Geography; Philology. (5) National Literature--Germany. (6) ---- Continued. (7) ---- Other Countries. (8) Popular Education. (9) Art. (10) Music and the Drama.

§ 175. INTERCOURSE AND NEGOTIATIONS BETWEEN THE CHURCHES. (1) Romanizing Tendencies among Protestants. (2) The Attitude of Catholicism toward Protestantism. (3) Romish Controversy. (4) Roman Catholic Union Schemes. (5) Greek Orthodox Union Schemes. (6) Old Catholic Union Schemes. (7) Conversions. (8) ---- The Mortara Affair. (9) ---- Other Conversions. (10) The Luther Centenary, A.D. 1883.

II. Protestantism in General.

§ 176. RATIONALISM AND PIETISM. (1) Rationalism. (2) Pietism. (3) The Königsberg Religious Movement, A.D. 1835-1842. (4) The Bender Controversy.

§ 177. EVANGELICAL UNION AND LUTHERAN SEPARATION. (1) The Evangelical Union. (2) The Lutheran Separation. (3) The Separation within the Separation.

§ 178. EVANGELICAL CONFEDERATION. (1) The Gustavus Adolphus Society. (2) The Eisenach Conference. (3) The Evangelical Alliance. (4) The Evangelical Church Alliance. (5) The Evangelical League.

§ 179. LUTHERANISM, MELANCHTHONIANISM, AND CALVINISM. (1) Lutheranism within the Union. (2) Lutheranism outside of the Union. (3) Melanchthonianism and Calvinism.

§ 180. THE “_PROTESTANTENVEREIN_.” (1) The Protestant Assembly. (2) The “_Protestantenverein_” Propaganda. (3) Sufferings Endured. (4) ---- In Berlin. (5) ---- In Schleswig Holstein.

§ 181. DISPUTES ABOUT FORMS OF WORSHIP. (1) The Hymnbook. (2) The Book of Chorales. (3) The Liturgy. (4) The Holy Scriptures.

§ 182. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. (1) Schleiermacher, A.D. 1768-1834. (2) The Older Rationalistic Theology. (3) Historico-Critical Rationalism. (4) Supernaturalism. (5) Rational Supernaturalism. (6) Speculative Theology. (7) The Tübingen School. (8) Strauss. (9) The Mediating Theology. (10) Lutheran Theologians. (11) Old Testament Exegetes. (12) University Teachers. (13) The Lutheran Confessional Theology. (14) ---- Continued. (15) ---- Continued. (16) Reformed Confessionalism. (17) The Free Protestant Theology. (18) In the Old Testament Department. (19) Dogmatists. (20) Ritschl and his School. (21) ---- Opponents. (22) Writers on Constitutional Law and History.

§ 183. HOME MISSIONS. (1) Institutions. (2) The Order of St. John. (3) The Itinerant Preacher Gustav Werner in Württemberg. (4) Bible Societies.

§ 184. FOREIGN MISSIONS. (1) Missionary Societies. (2) Europe and America. (3) Africa. (4) ---- Livingstone and Stanley. (5) Asia. (6) China. (7) Polynesia and Australia. (8) Missions to the Jews. (9) Missions among the Eastern Churches.

III. Catholicism in General.

§ 185. THE PAPACY AND THE STATES OF THE CHURCH. (1) The First Four Popes of the Century. (2) Pius IX., A.D. 1846-1878. (3) The Overthrow of the Papal States. (4) The Prisoner of the Vatican, A.D. 1870-1878. (5) Leo XIII.

§ 186. VARIOUS ORDERS AND ASSOCIATIONS. (1) The Society of Jesus and Related Orders. (2) Other Orders and Congregations. (3) The Pius Verein. (4) The Various German Unions. (5) Omnipotence of Capital. (6) The Catholic Missions. (7) ---- Mission Societies.

§ 187. LIBERAL CATHOLIC MOVEMENTS. (1) Mystical-Irenical Tendencies. (2) Evangelical-Revival Tendencies. (3) Liberal-Scientific Tendencies. (4) Radical-Liberalistic Tendencies. (5) Attempts at Reform in Church Government. (6) Attempts to Found National Catholic Churches. (7) National Italian Church. (8) The Frenchman, Charles Loyson.

§ 188. CATHOLIC ULTRAMONTANISM. (1) The Ultramontane Propaganda. (2) Miracles. (3) Stigmatizations. (4) ---- Louise Lateau. (5) Pseudo-Stigmatizations. (6) Manifestations of the Mother of God in France. (7) Manifestations of the Mother of God in Germany. (8) Canonizations. (9) Discoveries of Relics. (10) The blood of St. Januarius. (11) The Leaping Procession at Echternach. (12) The Devotion of the Sacred Heart. (13) Ultramontane Amulets. (14) Ultramontane Pulpit Eloquence.

§ 189. THE VATICAN COUNCIL. (1) Preliminary History of the Council. (2) The Organization of the Council. (3) The Proceedings of the Council. (4) Acceptance of the Decrees of the Council.

§ 190. THE OLD CATHOLICS. (1) Formation and Development of the Old Catholic Church in the German Empire. (2) ---- Continued. (3) The Old Catholics in other Lands.

§ 191. CATHOLIC THEOLOGY, ESPECIALLY IN GERMANY. (1) Hermes and his School. (2) Baader and his School. (3) Günther and his School. (4) John Adam Möhler. (5) John Jos. Ignat. von Döllinger. (6) The Chief Representatives of Systematic Theology. (7) The Chief Representatives of Historical Theology. (8) The Chief Representatives of Exegetical Theology. (9) The Chief Representatives of the New Scholasticism. (10) The Munich Congress of Catholic Scholars, 1863. (11) Theological Journals. (12) The Popes and Theological Science.

IV. Relation of Church to the Empire and to the States.

§ 192. THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION. (1) The Imperial Commission’s Decree, 1803. (2) The Prince-Primate of the Confederation of the Rhine. (3) The Vienna Congress and the Concordat. (4) The Frankfort Parliament and the Würzburg Bishops’ Congress of 1848.

§ 193. PRUSSIA. (1) The Catholic Church to the Close of the Cologne Conflict. (2) The Golden Age of Prussian Ultramontanism, 1841-1871. (3) The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia down to 1848. (4) The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia, 1848-1872. (5) The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia, 1872-1880. (6) ---- Continued. (7) The Evangelical Church in the Annexed Provinces. (8) ---- In Hanover. (9) ---- In Hesse.

§ 194. THE NORTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES. (1) The Kingdom of Saxony. (2) The Saxon Duchies. (3) The Kingdom of Hanover. (4) Hesse. (5) Brunswick, Oldenburg, Anhalt, and Lippe-Detmold. (6) Mecklenburg.

§ 195. BAVARIA. (1) The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Maximilian I., 1799-1825. (2) The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Louis I., 1825-1848. (3) The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Maximilian II., 1848-1864, and Louis II. (4) Attempts at Reorganization of the Lutheran Church. (5) The Church of the Union in the Palatine of the Rhine.

§ 196. THE SOUTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES AND RHENISH ALSACE AND LORRAINE. (1) The Upper Rhenish Church Province. (2) The Catholic Troubles in Baden down to 1873. (3) The Protestant Troubles in Baden. (4) Hesse-Darmstadt and Nassau. (5) In Protestant Württemberg. (6) The Catholic Church in Württemberg. (7) The Imperial Territory of Alsace and Lorraine since 1871.

§ 197. THE SO-CALLED KULTURKAMPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. (1) The Aggression of Ultramontanism. (2) Conflicts Occasioned by Protection of the Old Catholics, 1871-1872. (3) Struggles over Educational Questions, 1872-1873. (4) The Kanzelparagraph and the Jesuit law, 1871-1872. (5) The Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1873-1875. (6) Opposition in the States to the Prussian May Laws. (7) Share in the Conflict taken by the Pope. (8) The Conflict about the Encyclical _Quod nunquam_ of 1875. (9) Papal Overtures for Peace. (10) Proof of the Prussian Government’s willingness to be Reconciled, 1880-1881. (11) Conciliatory Negotiations, 1882-1884. (12) Resumption on both sides of Conciliatory Measures, 1885-1886. (13) Definitive Conclusion of Peace, 1887. (14) Independent Procedure of the other German Governments. 1. Bavaria. 2. Württemberg. 3. Baden. (15) 4. Hesse-Darmstadt. 5. Saxony.

§ 198. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. (1) The Zillerthal Emigration. (2) The Concordat. (3) The Protestant Church in Cisleithan Austria. (4) The Clerical Landtag Opposition in the Tyrol. (5) The Austrian Universities. (6) The Austrian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1874-1876. (7) The Protestant Church in the Transleithan Provinces.

§ 199. SWITZERLAND. (1) The Catholic Church in Switzerland till 1870. (2) The Geneva Conflict, 1870-1883. (3) Conflict in the Diocese of Basel-Soleure, 1870-1880. (4) The Protestant Church in German Switzerland. (5) The Protestant Church in French Switzerland.

§ 200. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. (1) The United Netherlands. (2) The Kingdom of Holland. (3) ---- Continued. (4) ---- Continued. (5) The Kingdom of Belgium. (6) ---- Continued. (7) ---- Continued. (8) The Protestant Church.

§ 201. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. (1) Denmark. (2) Sweden. (3) Norway.

§ 202. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. (1) The Episcopal State Church. (2) The Tractarians and Ritualists. (3) ---- Continued. (4) Liberalism in the Episcopal Church. (5) Protestant Dissenters in England. (6) Scotch Marriages in England. (7) The Scottish State Church. (8) Scottish Heresy Cases. (9) The Catholic Church in Ireland. (10) The Fenian Movement. (11) The Catholic Church in England and Scotland. (12) German Lutheran Congregations in Australia.

§ 203. FRANCE. (1) The French Church under Napoleon I. (2) The Restoration and the Citizen Kingdom. (3) The Catholic Church under Napoleon III. (4) The Protestant Churches under Napoleon III. (5) The Catholic Church in the Third French Republic. (6) The French “Kulturkampf,” 1880. (7) ---- Continued. (8) The Protestant Churches under the Third Republic.

§ 204. ITALY. (1) The Kingdom of Sardinia. (2) The Kingdom of Italy. (3) The Evangelization of Italy. (4) ---- Continued.

§ 205. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. (1) Spain under Ferdinand VII. and Maria Christina. (2) Spain under Isabella II., 1843-1865. (3) Spain under Alphonso XII., 1875-1885. (4) The Evangelization of Spain. (5) The Church in Portugal.

§ 206. RUSSIA. (1) The Orthodox National Church. (2) The Catholic Church. (3) The Evangelical Church.

§ 207. GREECE AND TURKEY. (1) The Orthodox Church of Greece. (2) Massacre of Syrian Christians, 1860. (3) The Bulgarian Ecclesiastical Struggle. (4) The Armenian Church. (5) The Berlin Treaty, 1878.

§ 208. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. (1) English Protestant Denominations. (2) The German Lutheran Denominations. (3) ---- Continued. (4) German-Reformed and other German-Protestant Denominations. (5) The Catholic Church.

§ 209. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC STATES OF SOUTH AMERICA. (1) Mexico. (2) In the Republics of Central and Southern America. (3) Brazil.

V. Opponents of Church and of Christianity.

§ 210. SECTARIANS AND ENTHUSIASTS IN THE ROMAN CATHOLIC AND ORTHODOX RUSSIAN DOMAINS. (1) Sects and Fanatics in the Roman Catholic Domain. 1. The Order of New Templars. 2. St. Simonians. 3. Aug. Comte. (2) 4. Thomas Pöschl. 5. Antonians. 6. Adamites. 7. David Lazzaretti. (3) Russian Sects and Fanatics. (4) ---- Continued.

§ 211. SECTARIES AND ENTHUSIASTS IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. (1) The Methodist Propaganda. (2) The Salvation Army. (3) Baptists and Quakers. (4) Swedenborgians and Unitarians. (5) Extravagantly Fanatical Manifestations. (6) Christian Communistic Sects. 1. Harmonites. 2. Bible Communists. (7) Millenarian Exodus Communities. 1. Georgian Separatists. 2. Bavarian Chiliasts. (8) 3. Amen Community. 4. German Temple Communities. (9) The Community of “the New Israel.” (10) The Catholic Apostolic Church of the Irvingites. (11) The Darbyites and Adventists. (12) The Mormons or Latter Day Saints. (13) ---- Continued. (14) ---- Continued. (15) The Taepings in China. (16) ---- Continued. (17) The Spiritualists. (18) Theosophism or Occultism.

§ 212. ANTICHRISTIAN SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM. (1) The Beginnings of Modern Communism. (2) St. Simonism. (3) Owenists and Icarians. (4) The International Working-Men’s Association. (5) German Social Democracy. (6) Russian Nihilism.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.

INDEX.

THIRD DIVISION. (Continued.)

SECOND SECTION.

CHURCH HISTORY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

I. Relations between the Different Churches.

§ 152. EAST AND WEST.

The papacy formed new plans for conquest in the domain of the Eastern church, but with at most only transient success. Still more illusory were the hopes entertained for a while in Geneva and London in regard to the Calvinizing of the Greek church.

§ 152.1. =Roman Catholic Hopes.=--The Jesuit missions among the Turks and schismatic Greeks failed, but among the Abyssinians some progress was made. By promising Spanish aid, the Jesuit Paez succeeded, in A.D. 1621, in inducing the Sultan Segued to abjure the Jacobite heresy. Mendez was made Abyssinian patriarch by Urban VIII. in A.D. 1626, but the clergy and people repeatedly rebelled against sultan and patriarch. In A.D. 1642 the next sultan drove the Jesuits out of his kingdom, and in it henceforth no traces of Catholicism were to be found.--In Russia the false Demetrius, in A.D. 1605, working in Polish Catholic interests, sought to catholicize the empire; but this only convinced the Russians that he was no true czar’s son. When his Catholic Polish bride entered Moscow with 200 Poles, a riot ensued, in which Demetrius lost his life.[445]

§ 152.2. =Calvinistic Hopes.=--=Cyril Lucar=, a native of Crete, then under Venetian rule, by long residence in Geneva had come to entertain a strong liking to the Reformed church. Expelled from his situation as rector of a Greek seminary at Ostrog by Jesuit machinations, he was made Patriarch of Alexandria in A.D. 1602 and of Constantinople in A.D. 1621. He maintained a regular correspondence with Reformed divines in Holland, Switzerland, and England. In A.D. 1628 he sent the famous Codex Alexandrinus as a present to James I. He wrought expressly for a union of the Greek and Reformed churches, and for this end sent, in A.D. 1629, to Geneva an almost purely Calvinistic confession. But the other Greek bishops opposed his union schemes, and influential Jesuits in Constantinople accused him of political faults. Four times the sultan deposed and banished him, and at last, in A.D. 1638, he was strangled as a traitor and cast into the sea.--One of his Alexandrian clergy, Metrophanes Critopulus, whom in A.D. 1616 he had sent for his education to England, studied several years at Oxford, then at German Protestant universities, ending with Helmstadt, where, in A.D. 1625, he composed in Greek a confession of the faith of the Greek Orthodox Church. It was pointedly antagonistic to the Romish doctrine, conciliatory toward Protestantism, while abandoning nothing essential in the Greek Orthodox creed, and showing signs of the possession of independent speculative power. Afterwards Metrophanes became Patriarch of Alexandria, and in the synod, presided over by Lucar’s successor, Cyril of Berrhoë, at Constantinople in A.D. 1638, gave his vote for the formal condemnation of the man who had been already executed.[446]

§ 152.3. =Orthodox Constancy.=--The Russian Orthodox church, after its emancipation from Constantinople and the erection of an independent patriarchate at Moscow in A.D. 1589 (§ 73, 4), had decidedly the pre-eminence over the Greek Orthodox church, and the Russian czar took the place formerly occupied by the East Roman emperor as protector of the whole Orthodox church. The dangers to the Orthodox faith threatened by schemes of union with Catholics and Protestants induced the learned metropolitan, Peter Mogilas of Kiev, to compose a new confession in catechetical form, which, in A.D. 1643, was formally authorized by the Orthodox patriarchs as Ὀρθόδοξος ὁμολογία τῆς καθολικῆς καὶ ἀποστολικῆς ἐκκλησίας τῆς ἀνατολικῆς.--Thirty years later a controversy on the eucharist broke out between the Jansenists Nicole and Arnauld, on the one side, and the Calvinists Claude and Jurieu, on the other (§ 157, 1), in which both claimed to be in agreement with the Greek church. A synod was convened under =Dositheus of Jerusalem= in A.D. 1672, at the instigation of French diplomatists, where the questions raised by Cyril were again taken into consideration. Maintaining a friendly attitude toward the Romish church, it directed a violent polemic against Calvinism. In order to save the character of the Constantinopolitan chair for constant Orthodoxy, Cyril’s confession of A.D. 1629 was pronounced a spurious, heretical invention, and a confession composed by Dositheus, in which Cyril’s Calvinistic heresies were repudiated, was incorporated with the synod’s acts.

§ 153. CATHOLICISM AND PROTESTANTISM.

The Jesuit counter-reformation (§ 151) was eminently successful during the first decades of the century in Bohemia. The Westphalian Peace restrained its violence, but did not prevent secret machinations and the open exercise of all conceivable arts of seduction. Next to the conversion of Bohemia, the greatest triumph of the restoration was won in France in the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Besides such victories the Catholics were able to glory in the conversion of several Protestant princes. New endeavours at union were repeatedly made, but these in every case proved as fruitless as former attempts had done.