Part 2

[Illustration: 19. The starship _Enterprise_ used in the filming of the “Star Trek” television series.]

This studio model of an interstellar space ship was used in the filming of the science-fiction television series, “Star Trek.” Many of the series’ 78 episodes dealt speculatively with the problems and results of human contacts with extraterrestrial life forms and civilizations.

The model of U.S.S. _Enterprise_ was designed by Walter M. Jeffries and Gene Roddenberry.

The model is from Paramount Television, a division of Paramount Pictures.

Length 3.4 m. (11 ft., 3 in.) Diameter of disc 1.5 m. (5 ft.)

Goddard A-Series Rocket, 1935

[Illustration: 20. Dr. Goddard in his workshop at Roswell, New Mexico, October 1935.]

Robert Hutchings Goddard, the American rocket pioneer, was one of the first to suggest the use of the rocket to gather scientific information from high altitudes. As seamen use sounding lines to measure the depth of unknown waters, so scientists use sounding rockets to investigate the nature of our atmosphere. As early as 1917, the Smithsonian Institution agreed to fund Dr. Goddard’s studies. In 1926, he built and flew the world’s first successful liquid-propellant rocket which rose to an altitude of 12.5 meters (41 feet) over a field in Massachusetts.

After the scientist received substantial grants from the Daniel and Florence Guggenheim Foundation, he established a facility near Roswell, New Mexico, where he built and tested a series of rockets and engines between 1930 and 1942.

A-Series rockets—one on exhibit—were flown during the summer of 1935, as part of Dr. Goddard’s program to develop methods of stabilizing his rockets in vertical flight. The principles he pioneered in this area were among his greatest contributions to the field of rocketry.

The greatest height reached by an A-Series rocket was about 2130 meters (7000 feet) and the greatest speed in flight was more than 1130 kilometers per hour (700 miles per hour).

The rocket on exhibit is from Robert H. Goddard.

Length 4.7 m. (15 ft., 6 in.) Diameter 15.2 cm. (6 in.) Fuel Gasoline Oxidizer Liquid oxygen Thrust about 90 kg. (200 lb.) Velocity 1130 km. (700 mi.) per hr. (+ or -) Altitude 2.3 km. (7600 ft.) (+ or -)

WAC Corporal

[Illustration: 21. Frank Malina, project leader in the development of the WAC Corporal, stands beside the high-altitude sounding rocket.]

The WAC Corporal was the first successful American sounding rocket to reach significant altitude. The first WAC Corporal, launched in 1944 from White Sands Proving Ground in New Mexico, reached a height of 71,600 meters (235,000 feet). The fin-stabilized rocket was powered by a liquid-propellant engine that burned a self-igniting fuel and oxidizer combination. Use of these propellants eliminated the need for an ignition system. By March 1946, these rockets had attained altitudes of over 72.4 kilometers (45 miles) with a booster. The WAC Corporal was later used as a second stage on a German V-2 rocket. This U.S. program, code-named “Bumper,” tested techniques for ignition and separation of stages at high altitudes.

The WAC Corporal was designed in 1944 by the staff of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology.

The rocket on exhibit is from the California Institute of Technology.

Length 4.9 m. (16 ft., 2 in.) as exhibited Diameter 30.5 cm. (12 in.) Fuel Aniline-furfuryl alcohol Oxidizer Red-fuming nitric acid Thrust 680 kg. (1500 lb.) Velocity 4500 km. (2800 mi.) per hr. at burnout Altitude 72 km. (45 mi.) with a 11.3-kilogram (25-lb.) payload

Aerobee 150

[Illustration: 22. A booster lifts Aerobee 150 out of its launch rail.]

The half-ton Aerobee could carry a 45.4-kilogram (100-pound) payload to an altitude of 120.6 kilometers (75 miles). For many years, the Aerobee was the standard American sounding rocket due to its reliability and relatively low cost. Several versions of the original Aerobee were produced. The Aerobee relied on a short-duration, solid-fuel booster for launching, after which the main-stage, liquid-propellant engine ignited.

On display at the NASM is an Aerobee 150, a more sophisticated version of the rocket. An Aerobee 150 can lift a 68.1-kilogram (150-pound) payload to an altitude of 274 kilometers (170 miles). Payloads consisted of a variety of scientific experiments.

The Aerobee concept originated early in 1946 when Dr. James Van Allen, then of the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University, suggested that the Office of Naval Research contract for a rocket with these particular capabilities. The Aerojet General Corporation (then Aerojet, Inc.) was awarded the contract, with the Douglas Aircraft Corporation subcontracting for aerodynamic studies on the nose, fins, and tail cone, and for the final assembly of the rocket.

The Aerobee 150 is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center.

Farside

[Illustration: 23. Artist’s rendering of four-stage Farside sounding rocket, in launcher below balloon.]

[Illustration: 24. Rocket was fired directly through the apex of the balloon. Drawing shows the first stage falling away as second-stage rocket takes over.]

Farside was a four-stage rocket launched from a balloon as an extremely high-altitude research vehicle. Achieving heights estimated at 6400 kilometers (4000 miles). Farside’s instrument payload was intended to study cosmic rays, earth’s magnetic field, certain forms of electromagnetic radiation in space, the presence of interplanetary gases, and the nature of meteoric dust.

The 908-kilogram (2000-pound) Farside was lifted to an altitude of 30.5 kilometers (19 miles) by a polyethylene balloon. An aluminum structure suspended from the balloon carried the 7.3-meter (24-foot) rocket to launch altitude. Positioned vertically in its casing, Farside was fired directly through the balloon.

Six Farsides were launched by the United States in 1957 from Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific.

Farside’s first stage consisted of four solid-fuel Recruit rockets, manufactured by Thiokol Chemical Company. A single Recruit served as the second stage. Four Arrow II solid-fuel rockets by the Grand Central Rocket Company constituted the third stage. The final stage, a single Arrow II, carried the instrument payload provided by S. F. Singer of the University of Maryland.

Farside was developed by Aeronutronics Systems, Inc., for the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research and Development.

The rocket on exhibit is from the Aeronutronics Division, Ford Motor Company.

Length 7.3 m. (24 ft.) Propellants Solid Thrust First stage 68,220 kg. (150,400 lb.) Second stage 17,055 kg. (37,600 lb.) Third state 4120 kg. (9080 lb.) Fourth stage 1030 kg. (2270 lb.) Velocity 29,000 km./hr. (18,000 mi./hr.) Altitude 3220-6440 km. (2000-4000 mi.)

Nike-Cajun

[Illustration: 25. Nike-Cajun ready for launch.]

[Illustration: 26. Nike-Cajun launch.]

The Nike-Cajun was used extensively during International Geophysical Year (1957-58) to perform a variety of research tasks. These included weather photography, studies of water-vapor distribution in the upper atmosphere, and magnetic soundings in the ionosphere.

For photographic studies, the instrument package separated from the nose cone at about 80 kilometers (50 miles) and then coasted to a peak altitude of about 120 kilometers (75 miles), during which time data was collected. Then parachutes opened, lowering the cameras for recovery. Other data was radioed to Earth.

The Cajun rocket was developed by the Pilotless Aircraft Division of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and the University of Michigan. The solid-fuel engine was designed and manufactured by Thiokol Chemical Company. The Nike booster was also solid fuel.

The rocket on exhibit is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Length 7.9 m. (26 ft.); Cajun, 4.1 m. (13.5 ft.) Diameter 41.9 cm. (16.5 in.) max; Cajun, 17.1 cm. (6.75 in.) Propellant Solid Thrust Sustainer, 4364 kg. (9620 lb.) Velocity 6760 km./ hr. (4200 mi./hr.) Altitude 161 km. (100 mi.) with a 23 kg. (50 lb.) instrument package; higher with a lighter payload

ARCAS

[Illustration: 27. Loading ARCAS into launcher.]

All-purpose Rocket for Collecting Atmospheric Sounding (ARCAS) gathers local meteorological data helpful to weather forecasters. Its 5.4-kilogram (12-pound) payload may include instruments which measure temperature, pressure, humidity, wind velocity and direction, and magnetic conditions. The single-stage ARCAS vehicle reaches an altitude of 64 kilometers (40 miles), propelled by a slow-burning solid-fuel engine which produces 141.4 kilograms (312 pounds) of thrust.

When the ARCAS is boosted by a Sparrow or Sidewinder missile engine, it can reach altitudes of 182,880 meters (600,000 feet).

The 32-kilogram (71-pound) ARCAS is far less expensive than the larger two-stage weather rockets it has replaced. It was developed and produced by the Atlantic Research Corporation.

The ARCAS is from the Atlantic Research Corporation.

Length 2.1 m. (7 ft.) Diameter 11.3 cm. (4.45 in.) Propellant Solid Thrust 159 kg. (350 lb.) Velocity 3590 km./hr. (2230 mi./hr.) Altitude 64 km. (40 mi.) with standard 5.4-kg. (12-lb.) payload; 91.7 km. (57 mi.) with a 2.3-kg. (5-lb.) instrument package

Cricket

[Illustration: 28. Preparing Cricket for launch.]

The reusable Cricket, often called the “meteorologist’s handyman,” weighs only 2.5 kilograms (5½ pounds), 1.4 kilograms (3 pounds) of which is propellant. Recovered by parachute after each flight, Cricket costs less than $10 to refuel.

The Cricket’s .34-kilogram (three-fourth pound) instrument package zooms to 975 meters (3200 feet) in only 12 seconds, gathering data on air temperature, pressure and wind direction.

One of the rocket’s most noteworthy features is that it uses “cold” propellants. Compressed carbon dioxide to which acetone is added is pumped into a storage tank in the rocket at a pressure of 56.3 kilograms per square centimeter (800 pounds per square inch). Release of the pressurized mixture gives Cricket its thrust. Cricket is fired from its launcher by a separate charge of carbon dioxide in order to preserve the rocket’s fuel for flight.

This rocket was developed by Texaco Experiment, Inc., for the U.S. Air Force’s Cambridge Research Laboratory.

The Cricket is from Texaco, Inc.

Length 1.2 m. (3 ft., 10 in.) Diameter 11 cm. (4 in.) Propellant Pressurized carbon dioxide and acetone Thrust 23 kg. max. (50 lb.) Velocity 168 m./sec. max. (550 ft./sec.) Altitude 975 m. (3200 ft.)

Viking 12

[Illustration: 29. Viking 12 lift-off.]

The Viking rocket family, numbering 14, grew out of the Navy’s efforts to develop an upper atmosphere research program. With enough time between launches to incorporate modifications suggested by experience with earlier Vikings, no two rockets of the series were exactly alike; however, there were two basic types of Vikings. The first seven rockets were taller, thinner, and had larger fins than those numbered 8-14; rockets in the second set were heavier, with fuel capacity greatly increased, and were designed either to go higher than the early Vikings or to carry heavier payloads to the same altitude.

Viking’s highest altitude was 254 kilometers (158 miles) following a launch from White Sands on May 24, 1954. Experiments flown on these rockets measured air temperature, density, pressure, and composition, as well as providing cosmic and solar radiation data.

One of the few failures in this program was Viking 8, the first rocket of the second set, which unexpectedly tore loose from the launch stand while being test-fired.

Viking was conceived at the Naval Research Laboratory, designed and produced by the Glenn L. Martin Company of Baltimore, Maryland, and powered by a liquid-propellant engine by Reaction Motors, Inc.

The rocket on exhibit is from the Hayden Planetarium and Martin Marietta Aerospace.

Length 13.7 m. (45 ft.) Diameter 1.1 m. (3 ft., 9 in.) Propellant Alcohol Oxidizer Liquid oxygen Thrust 9300 kg. (20,500 lb.) Velocity 6480 km. (4025 mi.) per hr. Altitude 193 km. (120 mi.) with a 402-kg. (887-lb.) payload

MOUSE

[Illustration: 30. MOUSE model displays some of the earliest solar cells made (under square cover on front).]

The concept of artificial earth satellites was a logical extension of existing sounding-rocket programs. The MOUSE, or Minimum Orbital Unmanned Satellite of Earth, was conceived in 1951 as the smallest possible orbital vehicle capable of performing scientific tasks. While the MOUSE was never built or flown, it demonstrated what could be accomplished by an orbiting vehicle of modest size and weight.

The MOUSE would have weighed 45.4 kilograms (100 pounds). It was designed to study cosmic rays, interplanetary dust, and solar ultraviolet and X rays, with the instruments attached to rods projecting from either end. The satellite was to be powered by solar cells.

MOUSE was conceived by Kenneth W. Gatland, Anthony Kunesch, and Alan Dixon of England. Dr. S. F. Singer of the University of Maryland designed the MOUSE and constructed the model on exhibit. The model displays some of the earliest solar cells produced by the Bell Telephone Laboratories.

The MOUSE is from S. F. Singer.

Agena-B

[Illustration: 31. Thor-Agena launch vehicle and its satellite payload before launch.]

The Agena launch vehicle has been an integral part of both unmanned and manned space programs. Flown as an upper stage on Thor and Atlas boosters, Agena orbited an impressive roster of spacecraft including the Echo communications satellites, the Ranger and Lunar Orbiter Moon probes, and the Mariner vehicles that traveled to Venus and Mars.

As the target for docking experiments during Project Gemini, Agena made substantial contributions to the eventual success of the Apollo program. The vehicle earned the distinction of being the first to place a payload in polar orbit, and was also the first to achieve circular orbit. The Agena engine was the first which could be stopped and restarted in space.

The Agena launch vehicle was developed and manufactured by the Lockheed Missiles and Space Company for the United States Air Force.

Length 7.1 m. (23.25 ft.) Diameter 1.5 m. (5 ft.) Weight Empty 674 kg. (1484 lb.) Fuel Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine Oxidizer Inhibited red-fuming nitric acid Thrust 7260 kg. (16,000 lb.)

The Agena-B is from the United States Air Force and the Lockheed Missile and Space Company.

[Illustration: 32. The Agena Target Docking Vehicle seen from the _Gemini 8_ spacecraft during rendezvous approach.]

Science Satellites

[Illustration: 33. _Vanguard 1_, second American satellite launched. Information from _Vanguard_ showed that the Earth is not quite round.]

The first artificial earth satellites were sometimes called “long-playing rockets” because they carried the same instruments and investigated the same problems as had the sounding rockets. The great advantage of the satellite was its ability to provide a continuous flow of information for long periods of time. The first science satellites were the forerunners of later vehicles that would demonstrate the direct benefits that satellites could offer to such varied fields as weather observation and communication.

The advent of the earth satellite provided scientists with a new and valuable research tool. Science satellites have been used for such tasks as solar and astronomical observations, biology experiments, or atmospheric investigation. Explorer 1 (launched January 31, 1958) and Vanguard 1 (launched March 17, 1958), the first American earth satellites, carried scientific payloads into space.

Project Vanguard’s important contributions to America’s space program were the creation of the minitrack tracking system, the first use of silicon solar cells for electric power in a satellite, as well as the discovery that Earth is not quite round. The Vanguard program drew to a close with the 1959 launch of Vanguard 3. This satellite studied variations in solar and x-ray radiation and the earth’s magnetosphere. It also determined air density in the upper atmosphere.

The mysteries of the near-earth space environment drew _Explorer 6_, launched August 7, 1959. _Explorer 6_ instruments measured radiation levels in the Van Allen radiation belts, mapped the earth’s magnetic field, counted micrometeorites, and studied the behavior of radio waves in space. In addition, _Explorer 6_ carried a scanning device which returned the first complete television cloud-cover picture of the earth’s surface.

[Illustration: 34. Artist’s concept of IMP-E. This satellite’s primary mission is to study solar wind and the interplanetary magnetic field at lunar distance and their interaction with the Moon.]

_Explorer 10_, launched on board a Thor-Delta rocket on March 25, 1961, confirmed the existence of the solar wind—the stream of particles that carries the Sun’s magnetic field beyond the orbit of Earth. During the satellite’s planned 52 hours in orbit, it relayed information on the relationship between terrestrial and interplanetary magnetic fields and the solar wind.

To continue the study of solar wind and interplanetary magnetic fields, _Explorer 12_ was orbited by a Delta launch vehicle on August 16, 1961. It was the first in a series of satellites to study energetic particles in space. These electrons and protons constitute the earth’s radiation belts and they affect weather and other phenomena on Earth.

_Atmosphere Explorer-A_ was the first of NASA’s aeronomy satellites. It was designed to remain in operation three months, studying the composition, density, pressure, and temperature of the upper atmosphere. This satellite discovered a belt of neutral helium atoms around the Earth.

Deriving its name from a spirit in Shakespeare’s play, _The Tempest_, _Ariel 1_ explored the ionosphere, a region of electrically charged air which begins about 40 kilometers (25 miles) above the surface of the Earth. Launched April 26, 1962, _Ariel_ was a cooperative venture between Great Britain and the United States. It was both the first British satellite and NASA’s first international satellite. The Royal Society’s British National Committee on Space Research coordinated the experimental program; NASA scientists and technicians built the craft.

Two small scientific laboratories, called Interplanetary Monitoring Platforms, were launched in 1967 to study the solar wind and other phenomena. IMP-E investigated interplanetary magnetic fields in the vicinity of the Moon. IMP-F investigated the interplanetary magnetic field also, in addition to the earth’s magnetosphere and radiation levels in space.

Interplanetary space between the Earth and Venus was the subject area for _Pioneer 5_, launched March 11, 1960. The satellite tested long-range communications systems, developed methods for measuring astronomical distances, studied the effects of solar flares, and performed other tasks before it went into orbit around the Sun.

With increasing interest in the earth’s space environment, a satellite was launched on September 7, 1967, to investigate the impact of space on biological processes. _Biosatellite 2_ was the second satellite in the program of three such vehicles. Frog eggs, plants, micro-organisms and insects were placed in orbit to enable scientists to study the combined effects of weightlessness, artificially produced radiation, and the absence of the normal day-night cycle on these organisms. Following two days in space, the capsule containing the experimental package reentered the atmosphere and was caught in mid-air by an Air Force recovery aircraft.

_Vanguard 1_ is from John P. Hagan. _Vanguard 3_, _Explorer 10_, _Explorer 12_, _AE-A_, _Ariel 1_, IMP-E & F, and _Biosatellite 2_ are from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The models of _Explorer 6_ and _Pioneer 5_ are from Space Technology Laboratories.

Meteorological Satellites

[Illustration: 35. TOS satellite is covered with solar cells.]

Weather forecasts are important to everyone—in planning whether or not to carry an umbrella, when to plant crops, when to evacuate riverbank areas. Nineteenth-century American meteorologists relied on local weather observations telegraphed to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and then plotted on a large map of the nation from which forecasts were prepared.

When _Tiros-1_ returned the first global cloud-cover picture in 1960, meteorologists were on their way to more accurate forecasts. Since the satellite pictures offered more comprehensive weather data over a larger geographic area, the identification of weather patterns became more reliable.

While our knowledge of atmospheric conditions is still imperfect, we have learned to make reasonably accurate regional weather forecasts and to identify and track violent storms and hurricanes based on satellite information.

The TIROS series (Television Infrared Observations Satellites) were designed to test the feasibility of weather observation from orbit. The TIROS satellite on exhibit was the prototype for the entire series of vehicles. The prototype made eight trips to the launch stand at Cape Kennedy, where it was used to check communications and handling procedures prior to the launch of the scheduled TIROS. All 10 TIROS satellites were successful. Launched between April 1, 1960, and July 1, 1965, they carried a variety of camera systems for experimental purposes.

Nine TIROS Operational Satellites (TOS) followed _TIROS 1-10_. Except for the first TOS, these satellites flew in pairs with one craft storing pictures on board for later transmission to major receiving centers, while the other broadcast its photographs continuously to any ground station within range. The satellite on display is of the latter type. These vehicles were launched between 1966 and 1969. They were placed in near-polar orbits by reliable Thor-Delta launch vehicles.

[Illustration: 36. _TIROS I_ photo showing a section of the East coast of the United States, including the Boston and New England area.]

After launch, TOS vehicles were referred to as ESSA satellites. ESSA was an acronym both for Environmental Survey Satellite and for the Environmental Science Service Administration, the federal agency that operated the spacecraft. This organization became a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration which currently has responsibility for operational meteorological satellite programs.

From about 1392 kilometers (865 miles) above Earth, two wide-angle television cameras mounted on either side of the spacecraft took in 10.4-million square kilometers (4-million square miles) per photo.

The Improved TIROS Operational Satellite (ITOS) opened the world of radiometric measurement to meteorologists—information about surface temperatures on the ground, at sea level, or at the cloud tops obtained by scanning devices sensitive to energy that is invisible to the naked eye. ITOS spacecraft could return accurate day or night surface and cloud-cover images. Seven of these satellites were launched between 1970 and 1973.

_TIROS_ was presented to the National Air and Space Museum by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; _TOS_ is from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; _ITOS_ is from the Astro-Electronics Division of RCA, Inc.

[Illustration: 37. Artist’s concept of ITOS weather satellite illustrating how the weather eye takes night-time (infrared) cloud-cover pictures.]

Communications Satellites

[Illustration: 38. Ground inflation test on _Echo 1_, the world’s first passive communications satellite.]

Communications satellites can be grouped into two broad categories. Passive vehicles reflect signals from one ground station to another.

## Active satellites accept ground signals and either amplify and

rebroadcast them immediately or record messages for later transmission.

The Echo satellite balloons typified the passive category of communications spacecraft. These satellites “bounced” radio signals from one ground station to another. Uninflated Echo payloads were carried into orbit packed in special storage containers. When released in space, the balloon was inflated by chemicals packed inside which subliminated to produce inflating gas. The mylar plastic skin of the satellite was sandwiched between two layers of aluminum foil. _Echo 2_—on display—included a system for releasing gas over a long period of time to maintain the satellite’s spherical shape. Launched January 25, 1964, _Echo 2_ was the first satellite used for communication experiments between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Project West Ford, launched May 9, 1963, was a unique experiment in passive satellite communications. It was not a solid vehicle, but a series of 400-million tiny individual copper filaments called dipoles. The dipoles formed a reflective layer some 64,300 kilometers (40,000 miles) long, 32 kilometers (20 miles) thick, and 32 kilometers (20 miles) wide. The distance between the individual dipoles averaged 536 meters (one-third mile). The West Ford experiment proved disappointing, and advances in the design of active communications satellites made further experiments of this nature unnecessary.

_Oscar 1_ (Orbital Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio) was conceived, designed, and constructed by American amateur radio “hams.” Launched as a “piggyback” satellite on December 12, 1963, Oscar transmitted a series of Morse code dots spelling “hi.” The message was picked up by 5000 operators in 28 nations during the 18 days of transmission. Oscar investigated radio propagation phenomena in space on that portion of the radio frequency spectrum allocated to amateur radio (144-146 megaherz).

Testing the use of a “delayed-repeater” satellite in global military communications, _Courier 1-B_ was placed in a high-altitude orbit on October 4, 1960. The craft accepted and stored messages as it passed over one ground station, then replayed them on command.

_Relay_, another active repeater satellite, was placed in orbit on December 13, 1962. _Relay_ carried communications experiments to test a variety of relay equipment—including that for photofacsimile, teleprinter, and data transmission. During its 25-month lifespan, _Relay 1_ introduced the nations of the world to satellite communication. A second, improved _Relay_ was launched in 1964.