Part 5

Command module Base diameter 3.90 m. (12.8 ft.) Length 3.66 m. (12 ft.) Weight 5896 kg. (13,000 lb.) Service module Diameter 3.9 m. (12.8 ft.) Length 6.71 m. (22 ft.) Weight at launch 24,947 kg. (55,000 lb.) Docking module Diameter 1.52 m. (5 ft.) Length 3.05 m. (10 ft.) Weight 1882 kg. (4155 lb.)

_Soyuz_

Orbital module Diameter 2.29 m. (7.5 ft.) Length 2.65 m. (8.7 ft.) Weight 1224 kg. (2700 lb.) Descent module Diameter 2.29 m. (7.5 ft.) Length 2.20 m. (7.2 ft.) Weight 2802 kg. (6200 lb.) Instrument module Diameter 2.77 m. (9.75 ft.) Length 2.29 m. (7.5 ft.) Weight 2654 kg. (5850 lb.)

M2-F3 Lifting Body

[Illustration: 81. Three chase planes salute the M2-F3 wingless lifting body following one of its rocket-powered flights. The blunt-nosed M2-F3 achieves its aerodynamic lift from the shape of its body.]

This wingless craft is called a lifting body, because it derives its lift from the fuselage rather than from wings. Removing the wings reduces the weight of the craft, but adds significant control problems. The lifting body concept was developed early in the last decade to explore the problems of aerodynamic heating and vehicle control during reentry from earth orbit. These are the problems that will be especially critical in the space shuttle of the 1980s.

The M2-F3 tested flight behavior of wingless craft over a wide range of speeds.

The M2-F3’s forerunner, the M2-F2, made 16 flights—all unpowered—between July 1966 and May 1967. On May 10, it crashed on landing, partly due to control instability. The craft was rebuilt, and the center fin was added. This modification effectively solved the control problem, and the new craft, designated M2-F3, logged 27 more flights by December 1972. Some of the M2-F3’s flights were powered by a 3630-kilogram (8000-pound) thrust rocket which boosted the craft to a higher altitude.

The M2-F3 was launched from a B-52 bomber at a height of about 13,300 meters (45,000 feet) and a usual speed of 730 kilometers (450 miles) per hour. The maximum altitude achieved was 21,800 meters (71,500 feet). The M2-F3’s record speed was 1718 kilometers (1066 miles) per hour. The M2-F3 was built by Northrop.

The craft on exhibit is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Length 6.8 m. (22 ft., 2 in.) Span 2.9 m. (9 ft., 7 in.) Height 2.5 m. (8 ft., 10 in.) Weight 2720 kg. (6000 lb.) empty; 4540 kg. (10,000 lb.) fueled Speed 1718 km. per hr. (1066 m. per hr.) max. achieved Altitude 21,800 m. (71,500 ft.) max. achieved Mach number 1.5 max. achieved

Freedom 7

[Illustration: 82. Marine helicopter hovers over _Freedom 7_ after the spacecraft carried the first American into space. Astronaut Shepard dangles in body harness as he is hoisted to helicopter.]

On May 5, 1961, Alan B. Shepard, Jr., became the first American in space. He flew this Mercury spacecraft, _Freedom 7_, through a 15-minute, 22-second sub-orbital, or ballistic, space flight.

A Redstone booster, burning liquid oxygen and hydrazine-base fuel, lifted _Freedom 7_ from the launch pad at Cape Canaveral. The vehicle’s single engine developed 35,380 kilograms (78,000 pounds) of thrust.

The structure of the Mercury is titanium, covered with steel and beryllium shingles. The heat shield at the base of the spacecraft is of beryllium.

The heat shield served as a “heat sink” by storing the heat created by the spacecraft’s reentry into the earth’s atmosphere. The spacecraft reached the ocean before the heat could penetrate the interior of the craft. (Later flights used ablative heat shields, which protected the spacecraft by vaporizing and burning away during reentry.)

_Freedom 7_ traveled at a maximum speed of 8335 kilometers (5180 miles) per hour, going 485 kilometers (302 miles) downrange. The maximum altitude was 187 kilometers (116 miles).

Prime contractor for Mercury was the McDonnell Aircraft Company.

The _Freedom 7_ is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Diameter 2 m. (6 ft., 6 in.) max. Length 2.8 m. (9 ft., 2 in.) at launch Weight 1660 kg. (3650 lb.) at launch; 1100 kg. (2422 lb.) as exhibited

Gemini 7

[Illustration: 83. This photo of _Gemini 7_ was taken through the hatch window of the _Gemini 6_ spacecraft during rendezvous maneuvers 260 kilometers (160 miles) above Earth.]

_Gemini 7_ was launched on December 4, 1965, carrying astronauts Frank Borman and James Lovell, Jr., into a two-week flight. _Gemini 6_ and _7_ accomplished the first manned rendezvous in space. It was an historic flight for the United States’ manned space program and an important step in the preparation for the Apollo lunar flights.

The story of the _Gemini 7/6_ mission had begun two months earlier. The October launch of _Gemini 6_ had to be delayed when _Gemini 6_’s Agena target vehicle failed to reach orbit. It was then decided that _Gemini 6_ would attempt to rendezvous with _Gemini 7_. Eight days after the launch of _Gemini 7_, _Gemini 6_ was ready. But once again, the launch had to be delayed—this time an electrical plug became detached from the Titan booster prematurely, shutting down the engines. Finally, on December 15, _Gemini 6_’s Titan II launch vehicle lifted off. _Gemini 6_ began a 6-hour chase to catch _Gemini 7_, which was in a near-circular orbit 300 kilometers (186 miles) high.

_Gemini 6_’s launch put it 1175 kilometers (730 miles) behind _Gemini 7_ in an orbit which varied from 161 to 272 kilometers (100 to 169 miles) in height. By flying in a lower altitude orbit, _Gemini 6_ astronauts Wally Schirra and Thomas Stafford circled the Earth at a higher velocity, slowing down as they moved to match speed with _Gemini 7_ at the higher orbit. Finally, Schirra jockeyed the _Gemini 6_ spacecraft to within 30 centimeters (1 foot) from _Gemini 7_.

They stayed in formation for four revolutions while all four pilots practiced maneuvering. Then _Gemini 6_ broke off and reentered, splashing down on December 16, 1965.

_Gemini 7_ went on to complete its 14-day mission which set a record for the longest U.S.-manned space flight which stood until the first Skylab mission. _Gemini 7_ splashed down on December 18.

Prime contractor for Gemini was the McDonnell Aircraft Company.

_Gemini 7_ is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

[Illustration: 84. The Gemini spacecraft.]

Rendezvous and Recovery Section Ejection Seat Adapter Equipment Section Reaction Control System Section Cabin Retrograde Section

F-1 Engine

[Illustration: 85. Thrust chambers of the F-1 rocket engine on the manufacturing line.]

Five F-1 engines powered the first stage of the Saturn 5 launch vehicle that launched the manned Apollo spacecraft to the Moon. These engines developed a total thrust of 3.5 million kilograms (7.6 million pounds). They burn liquid oxygen and a form of kerosene at a rate of 13,475 liters (3560 gallons) per second.

The propellants are supplied to the thrust chambers by turbopumps driven by gas generators that use a fuel-rich mixture ratio of the same propellants used in the engine.

The F-l was developed and produced by Rocketdyne, a division of Rockwell International, under the technical direction of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville. Alabama.

The engine on exhibit is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Function Cluster of five providing 3.4 million kg. (7.5 million lb.) of thrust for Saturn 5 first stage Thrust 690,000 kg. (1,522,000 lb.) Propellants Kerosene (fuel) and liquid oxygen (oxidizer) Length 5.8 m. (19 ft.) with nozzle extension Diameter 3.8 m. (12 ft., 4. in.) with nozzle extension

[Illustration: 86. The first Apollo/Saturn 5 space vehicle on its way to the launch pad.]

Lunar Roving Vehicle

[Illustration: 87. The _Apollo 15_ Lunar Roving Vehicle was the first motor vehicle on the Moon.]

The Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) is a spacecraft designed to carry two astronauts, their life-support systems, scientific equipment, and lunar samples on the airless, low-gravity surface of the Moon.

Lunar Roving Vehicles were used on Apollo missions _15_, _16_, and _17_ and were driven a total of 90 kilometers (56 miles) on the Moon.

The crew of _Apollo 15_, the first to use an LRV, drove their vehicle 27.9 kilometers (17.3 miles) at speeds up to 19-21 kilometers (12-13 miles) per hour. In comparison the _Apollo 14_ astronauts traveled only 4.2 kilometers (2.6 miles) on foot.

LRVs enabled the astronauts to carry heavy, bulky equipment and to place scientific instruments at considerable distances from the lunar module.

An LRV could carry two astronauts as far as 91.5 kilometers (57 miles) across the lunar surface or operate for up to 78 hours.

Each LRV was transported to the Moon in a compartment of the descent stage of a lunar module.

Four LRVs were built by the Boeing Company. Three were used on the Moon; the LRV on display was used in tests.

The LRV on exhibit is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Weight On Earth 210 kg. (462 lb.) On Moon 34 kg. (76 lb.) Payload On Earth 490 kg. (1080 lb.) On Moon 80 kg. (178 lb.) Length 3.1 m. (10 ft., 2 in.) Width 1.8 m. (6 ft.) Wheel base 2.3 m. (7 ft., 6 in.) Turning radius 3 m. (10 ft.) Drive One ¼ h.p. motor in each wheel; total 1 h.p. Power source Two 36-v. silver-zinc batteries

Apollo Lunar Tools and Equipment

[Illustration: 88. The Apollo Lunar Hand Tool Carrier holds 32 kilograms (70 pounds) of equipment, including a trenching tool, two geology scoops, four rock bags, a portable magnetometer, and five cameras.]

Penetrometer Tongs Extension handle Core tube caps assy. Color chart & traverse map Core tubes 16mm camera Camera staff 35-bag dispenser Core tubes Scoop Hammer Lens/brush Gnomon

Most tools and other pieces of equipment used by Apollo astronauts on the Moon were left behind as the astronauts departed to return to the Earth. This was done to conserve weight in the lunar module ascent stage so that the maximum quantity of samples of lunar soil and rocks could be brought back to the Earth.

Some tools and pieces of equipment, however, were returned to the Earth. These include such items as a lunar hammer, a 16-mm camera, film cassettes, lunar sample return containers, parts of a lunar roving vehicle fender, and parts of the unmanned spacecraft _Surveyor 3_ visited by _Apollo 12_ astronauts.

In addition, astronauts carried small mementos with them when they landed on the Moon.

Other lunar tools and instruments on exhibit were backup, prototype, or used by the astronauts in pre-flight training.

The lunar hammer is on loan from Alan L. Bean; other tools and instruments are from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

[Illustration: 89. An Apollo lunar sample return container. In this view, the rock box contains sample material and core tubes.]

Apollo Command Module: Skylab 4

[Illustration: 90. _Skylab 4_ Command Module is hoisted aboard the U.S.S. _New Orleans_ after completing 1214 orbits.]

The _Skylab 4_ command module ferried the crew of the last Skylab mission—astronauts Gerald P. Carr, Edward G. Gibson, and William R. Pogue. The _Skylab 4_ crew lived in the Skylab for 84 days, from November 16, 1973, to February 8, 1974.

In flight, the Apollo command module operated with a service module—an equipment section, 7.4 meters (24 feet) long and 4 meters (13 feet) in diameter—attached to the command module. The service module provided electrical power, oxygen, and water for the command module for most of a typical flight.

In addition, the service module contained the 9300-kilogram (20,500-pound) thrust Service Propulsion System, an engine capable of being throttled and restarted. During Apollo lunar flights, the engine provided thrust for mid-course trajectory changes and boosted the command/service module combination out of lunar orbit and back to Earth. The service module was jettisoned just before reentry into the earth’s atmosphere.

During reentry, the command module’s exterior was subjected to temperatures of around 2800°C (5000°F). The command module is covered with an ablative heat shield composed of a phenolic epoxy resin in a fiberglass honeycomb structure. As friction with the earth’s atmosphere caused the heat shield to char and vaporize, the heat was carried away from the spacecraft. The heat shield varies in thickness from 7 centimeters (2.75 inches) at the base to .6 centimeter (.25 inch) at the forward section. Total weight of the heat shield is about 1400 kilograms (3000 pounds).

The prime contractor for the Apollo Command Module was North American Rockwell Corporation.

The command module is from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Diameter 3.9 m. (12 ft., 10 in.) max. Length 3.2 m. (10 ft., 7 in.)

Moon Rocks

[Illustration: 91. A sample of vesicular basalt, produced by lunar volcanism 3.7 billion years ago, in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory. Devices record size and orientation of the rock. The cavities in this sample were formed by gases escaping from the still-molten rock. This sample is 13.5 centimeters (5.5 inches) long. A fragment of this lunar rock is on display in the “Apollo to the Moon” gallery.]

During the six Apollo program moon landings, astronauts collected and returned to Earth samples of the lunar surface. The samples were collected both from the flat maria regions—great basins created by ancient meteoric impacts and later filled with lava from the moon’s interior—and from the highland regions.

Subsequent analysis of the samples has indicated that the moon’s surface is largely composed of three kinds of rock.

Basalt, the rock of the maria regions, was formed as lavas from the interior of the Moon welled to the surface, filled the great meteoric impact basins, and then cooled.

Anorthosite, the highland rock, is believed by many scientists to have formed when the original crust of the Moon cooled and solidified. According to this theory, a light mineral, plagioclase, floated to the surface of the Moon and formed the anorthosite.

Breccia, the shocked rock, is composed of large and small fragments of rocks which were shattered and redistributed on the lunar surface by meteoric impacts. Subsequently, the fragments were recombined into new rocks by heat and pressure.

Lunar soils are largely composed of fragments of the three types of rocks and their minerals, and glass produced by meteoric impacts and volcanic eruptions.

Lunar rock samples are on loan from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

[Illustration: 92. Astronaut Schmitt collects samples with the lunar rake, a hand tool used to collect rocks and rock chips ranging in size from 1.3 centimeter (½ inch) to 2.5 centimeters (1 inch).]

Suggested Reading

Historical and General Background Clarke, Arthur C. _The Promise of Space._ New York: Harper & Row, 1968. Dornberger, Walter. _V-2._ New York: Viking Press, 1954. Durant III, Frederick C.; and George S. James, eds. _First Steps Towards Space_ (Smithsonian Annals of Flight, No. 10). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1974. Available through the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (stock no. 4705-00011). Emme, Eugene, ed. _The History of Rocket Technology._ Detroit: Wayne State Press, 1964. Ley, Willy. _Rockets, Missiles, and Men in Space._ New York: Viking Press, 1968. Stoiko, Michael. _Soviet Rocketry: Past, Present and Future._ New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston, 1970. Von Braun, W.; and F. I. Ordway. _History of Rocket and Space Travel._ New York: T. Y. Crowell, 1975. Biographical Lehman, Milton. _This High Man._ New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1963. Thomas, Shirley, ed. _Men of Space._ 8 vols. Philadelphia: Chilton

## Book Co., 1963.

Popular Cortright, Edgar M. _Exploring Space with a Camera._ Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968. Davis, Merton; and Bruce C. Murray. _View From Space: Photographic Exploration of the Planets._ New York: Columbia University Press, 1971. Gatland, Kenneth. _Spacecraft and Boosters._ Fallbrook, California: Aero Publications, 1964. ——. _The Robot Explorers._ New York: Macmillan, 1972. Moore, Patrick. _Space._ London: Burke Publishing Co., 1968. Sharpe, Mitchell R. _Living in Space._ New York: Doubleday, 1969. Technical Corliss, William R. _Space Probes and Planetary Exploration._ Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1965. Glasstone, Samuel. _Sourcebook on the Space Sciences._ New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1965. Purser, Paul E.; Maxime A. Faget; and Norman F. Smith, eds. _Manned Spacecraft._ New York: Fairchild Publications, Inc., 1964. Ruppe, Harry O. _Introduction to Astronautics._ 2 vols. Campbell, California: Academy Press, 1966-1967. Apollo Moon Landings Collins, Michael. _Carrying the Fire._ New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1974. Cortright, Edgar M., ed. _Apollo Expeditions to the Moon._ Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975 (stock no. 033-000-00630-6). Lewis, Richard S. _Appointment on the Moon._ New York: Viking Press, 1969. ——. _Voyages of Apollo._ Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1974. Wilford, John N. _We Reach the Moon._ Rev. ed. Chicago: W. W. Norton & Co., 1971. Speculative Sagan, Carl. _The Cosmic Connection._ New York: Doubleday, 1973. Shkolvskii, I. S.; and Carl Sagan. _Intelligent Life in the Universe._ New York: Holden-Day, 1966. Strong. J. G. _Flight to the Stars: An Inquiry into the Feasibility of Interstellar Flight._ New York: Hart Publishing Co., 1965. Sullivan, Walter. _We Are Not Alone: The Search for Intelligent Life on Other Worlds._ New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.

[Illustration: _FIRST FLOOR PLAN_]

103 Vertical Flight 102 Air Transportation 101 Museum Shop 100 Milestones of Flight 115 Theater Entrance 114 Space Hall 113 Rocketry & Space Flight 105 General Aviation 106 Exhibition Flight 107 Life in the Universe 108 South Lobby 109 Flight Testing 110 Satellites 111 Benefits From Flight

[Illustration: _SECOND FLOOR PLAN_]

203 Sea-Air Operations 201 Spacearium 215 Theater 213 Flight Technology 205 World War II Aviation 206 Balloons and Airships 207 Air Traffic Control 208 Special Exhibits 209 World War I Aviation 210 Apollo to the Moon 211 Flight and the Arts

Front Cover:

[Illustration: Lift-off of an Atlas Centaur carrying INTELSAT payload, August 23, 1973.]

[Illustration: Earth from space photographed by the _Apollo 16_ crew.]

[Illustration: Astronaut White performs first spacewalk from _Gemini 4_.]

[Illustration: _Apollo 12_ astronaut with United States flag on lunar surface.]

Back Cover:

[Illustration: Main parachutes lower the _Skylab 3_ command module to the Pacific Ocean.]

[Illustration: Solid rocket motors being jettisoned during launch of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite-1.]

[Illustration: View from right-hand seat of _Gemini 8_ spacecraft when docked with Agena target vehicle.]

[Illustration: Artist’s conception of Viking Mars lander as it heads for touch down.]

[Illustration: Agena target vehicle seen from _Gemini 11_ after tether drop.]

[Illustration: View of Skylab Orbital Workshop photographed by _Skylab 2_ crew.]

[Illustration: _Viking 2_—bound for Mars—is launched aboard Titan Centaur on September 9, 1975.]

[Illustration: Paul Calle’s interpretation of Saturn 5 launch.]

[Illustration: New York to Norfolk composite photo from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite-1.]

[Illustration: Photomicrograph of thin section of lunar rock.]

[Illustration: Color enhancement of far ultraviolet photo of the Earth taken from space.]

[Illustration: NASA’s Wallops Island Test Station in Virginia.]

(All photographs from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.)

[Illustration: Back Cover]

Transcriber’s Notes

—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.

—Silently corrected a few palpable typos.

—Moved captions nearer the relevant images; tweaked image references within captions accordingly.

—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.