Part 3
Ching, Duke of the Ch‘i State, questioned Confucius on the art of government. Confucius replied: Let the sovereign do his duty as a sovereign, the subject his duty as a subject, the father his duty as a father, and the son his duty as a son.--A good answer! said the Duke; for unless sovereign and subject, father and son do their respective duties, however much grain there may be in the land, I could obtain none to eat.
Tzu Chang put a question about the art of governing. The Master said: Devote yourself patiently to the theory, and conscientiously to the practice, of government.
Chi K‘ang Tzŭ asked Confucius for advice on the subject of government. Confucius replied: To govern is to keep straight.[3] If you, Sir, lead the people straight, which of your subjects will venture to fall out of line?
Chi K‘ang Tzŭ, being vexed by robbers, asked Confucius for his advice. Confucius replied, saying: If you, sir, can check your own cupidity, there will be no stealing, even though rewards should be offered for theft.
Chi K‘ang Tzŭ questioned Confucius on a point of government, saying: Ought not I to cut off the lawless in order to establish law and order? What do you think?--Confucius replied: Sir, what need is there of the death penalty in your system of government? If you showed a sincere desire to be good, your people would likewise be good. The virtue of the prince is like unto wind; that of the people, like unto grass. For it is the nature of grass to bend when the wind blows upon it.
Tzŭ Lu asked for a hint on the art of governing. The Master replied: Take the lead and set the example of diligent toil.--Asked for a further hint, he said: Be patient and untiring.
Chung Kung, being Prime Minister to the head of the Chi clan, asked for advice on governing. The Master said: Make a point of employing your subordinates, overlook trifling mistakes, raise to office worthy and able men.--But, said Chung Kung, how am I to discover these worthy men and single them out for promotion?--Promote those that you know, was the reply. As for those that you do not know, will not their claims be brought before you by others?
Tzŭ Lu said: The Prince of Wei is waiting, Sir, for you to take up the reins of government. Pray what is the first reform you would introduce?--The Master replied: I would begin by defining terms and making them exact.[4]--Oh, indeed! exclaimed Tzu Lu. But how can you possibly put tilings straight by such a circuitous route?--The Master said: How unmannerly you are, Yu! In matters which he does not understand, the wise man will always reserve his judgment. If terms are not correctly defined, words will not harmonise with things. If words do not harmonise with things, public business will remain undone. If public business remains undone, order and harmony will not flourish. If order and harmony do not flourish, law and justice will not attain their ends. If law and justice do not attain their ends, the people will be unable to move hand or foot. The wise man, therefore, frames his definitions to regulate his speech, and his speech to regulate his
## actions. He is never reckless in his choice of words.
Fan Ch‘ih asked to be taught the art of husbandry. The Master said: Any farmer can teach you that better than I can. He then asked to be taught gardening. The Master said: Any gardener will teach you that better than I can. Fan Ch‘ih having gone out, the Master said: What a small-minded man is Fan Hsü! If the ruler is addicted to modesty and self-control, his people will not permit themselves to be irreverent. If the ruler loves justice and duty, his people will not venture to be unruly. If the ruler loves sincerity and good faith, the people will not be slow to respond. Such being his qualities, the people will flock to him from all quarters, with their babes strapped to their backs. What need for him to know the art of husbandry?[5]
The Master said: If the ruler is personally upright, his subjects will do their duty unbidden; if he is not personally upright, they will not obey, whatever his bidding.
When the Master went to Wei, Jan Yu drove his carriage. The Master said: What an abundant population!--Jan Yu said: Now that the people are so abundant, what is the next thing to be done?--Enrich them, said Confucius.--And having enriched them, what then?--Teach them, was the reply.
The Master said: If a country had none but good rulers for a hundred years, crime might be stamped out and the death-penalty abolished. How true this saying is!
If a kingly sovereign were to appear, by the end of one generation natural goodness would prevail.
If a man can reform his own heart, what should hinder him from taking
## part in government? But if he cannot reform his own heart, what has he
to do with reforming others?
Duke Ting[6] asked if there was a single sentence by which a country might be made to flourish. Confucius answered: No single sentence can be expected to have such a virtue as this. But there is the common saying: "To be a good king is difficult; to be a good minister is not easy." He who realises the difficulty of being a good king--has he not almost succeeded in making his country prosper by a single sentence? --Is there a single sentence, continued the Duke, by which a country can be ruined?--Confucius answered: No such power can reside in any single sentence. But there is a saying: "I have no joy in kingly rule, I rejoice only because none can oppose my will." Now if the king's will is good, and none opposes it, all may be well; but if it is not good, and yet none opposes it, has he not almost succeeded in ruining his country be a single sentence?
The Duke of Shê[7] asked about the conditions of good government. The Master said: Government is good when it makes happy those who live under it and attracts those who live far away.
Tzü Hsia, when governor of Chü-fu,[8] asked for advice on government. The Master said: Do not try to do things in a hurry. Do not be intent on small gains. What is done quickly is not done thoroughly; and if small gains are considered, great things remain unaccomplished.
Tzŭ Lu asked about the service due to a prince. The Master said: Use no deceit, but if you oppose him, oppose him openly.
The Master said: If the ruler cherishes the principle of self-control, the people will be docile to his commands.[9]
Shun[10] was one who did nothing, yet governed well. For what, in effect, did he do? Religiously self-observant, he sat gravely on his throne, and that is all.[11]
In serving your prince, make the actual service your first care, and only put the emolument second.
The head of the Chi clan was on the point of attacking the small principality of Chuan-yü. Jan Yu and Chi Lu came to see Confucius, and said: Our lord is going to have trouble with Chuan-yü.--Confucius said: Is it not you, Ch‘iu, who are to blame in this? The ancient kings long ago made Chuan-yü the centre of the worship of the Eastern Mêng mountain, and moreover it is situated within the territory of Lu. Its ruler has independent priestly functions.[12] What right have you to attack it?--Jan Yu replied: It is the will of our master; we, his ministers, have neither of us any wish to act thus.--Ch‘iu, said Confucius, Chou Jên[13] had a saying: "If you are capable of displaying energy, hold office; if not, resign." Of what use is that minister likely to be, who does not sustain his master in the presence of danger, or support him when about to fall? Besides, what you say is wrong. If a tiger or a wild buffalo escapes from its cage, if a tortoise-shell or jade ornament is smashed in its casket, whose fault is it, pray?--Jan Yu replied: But Chuan-yü is strongly fortified, and close to our own town of Pi. If we do not take it now, it will cause trouble to our descendants in a later generation.--Confucius rejoined: Ch‘iu, an honest man hates your hypocrite who will not openly avow his greed, but tries instead to excuse it. I have heard that the ruler of a state or of a clan is troubled not by the smallness of its numbers but by the absence of even-handed justice; not by poverty but by the presence of discontent; for where there is justice there will be no poverty; where there is harmony there will be no lack in numbers; where there is content there will be no revolution. This being the case then, if outlying communities resist your authority, cultivate the arts of refinement and goodness in order to attract them; and when you have attracted them, make them happy and contented. Now you two, Yu and Ch‘iu, are aiding and abetting your master; here is an outlying community which resists your authority, and you are unable to attract it. Partition and collapse are imminent in your own State, and you are unable to preserve it intact. And yet you are planning military aggression within the borders of your country! Verily I fear that Chi-sun's [14]troubles will come, not from Chuan-yü, but from the interior of his own palace.
When the Master came to Wu-ch‘êng, he heard the sound of singing and stringed instruments. He was pleased, but said with a smile: Is it necessary to take a pole-axe to kill a fowl?--Tzŭ Yu replied: Some time ago, Sir, I heard you say that the study of true principles made the ruler beneficent and men of the lower class easy to govern.--My children, said the Master, Yen is right. What I said was only in jest.[15]
Tzŭ Chang asked Confucius, saying: What are the essentials of good government?--The Master said: Esteem the five excellent, and banish the four evil things; then you will become fit to govern.--Tzŭ Chang asked: What are the five excellent things?--The Master replied: The wise and good ruler is benevolent without expending treasure; he lays burdens on the people without causing them to grumble; he has desires without being covetous; he is serene without being proud; he is awe-inspiring without being ferocious.--He is benevolent without expending treasure: what does that mean?--The Master replied: He simply follows the course which naturally brings benefit to the people.[16] Is he not thus benevolent without expending treasure? In imposing burdens, he chooses the right time and the right means, and nobody can grumble. His desire is for goodness, and he achieves it; how should he be covetous? The wise and good ruler never allows himself to be negligent, whether he is dealing with many men or with few, with small matters or with great. Is this not serenity without pride? He has his cap and robe properly adjusted, and throws a noble dignity into his looks, so that his gravity inspires onlookers with respect. Is he not thus awe-inspiring without being ferocious?--Tzŭ Chang then asked: What are the four evil things?--The Master said: Cruelty:--leaving the people in their native ignorance, yet punishing their wrong-doing with death. Oppression:-- requiring the immediate completion of tasks imposed without previous warning. Ruthlessness:--giving vague orders, and then insisting on punctual fulfilment. Peddling husbandry:--stinginess in conferring the proper rewards on deserving men.[17]
[1] _Ai_ was the honorary epithet of the Duke of Lu who was reigning during the last years of Confucius' life.
[2] Chi K‘ang Tzu succeeded to the headship of the great Chi family in 491, when Chi Huan died, by whom he was advised to recall Confucius from his long wanderings. The sage, however, did not return until eight years later.
[3] The point of the original lies partly in the fact that the Chinese words for "govern" and "straight" are similar in form and identical in sound.
[4] The hidden meaning of this saying is made clear by the context to be found in Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien's biography of Confucius. The Prince of Wei at this time was the young man mentioned on p. 128 as holding the throne against his own father. By so doing he had in some sort inverted the relationship which should have subsisted between them, and each was in a false position, the father being deprived of his proper parental dignity, and the son no longer "doing his duty as a son" (see p. 41). Confucius then is administering a veiled rebuke to the young ruler, for in saying that the first reform necessary is the correct definition of names, he implies in effect that the terms "father" and "son," among others, should be made to resume their proper significance. An alternative rendering of _chêng ming_ as "rectification of the written character," though backed by the great authority of M. Chavannes, can only be described as feeble and far-fetched, and has been ably confuted by Herr Franke in the _T'oung Pao_ for July, 1906.
[5] Confucius is of course merely insisting on the principle of division of labour, and not by any means depreciating the value of husbandry or other useful arts. It is not the ruler's business to make himself proficient in these, because the task of governing and setting an example to the governed will claim all his attention. Compare Plato's disapproval of πολυπραγμοσύνη, and Confucius' remarks on his own skill in various arts (p. 88).
[6] The weak ruler of the Lu State (510-494 B.C.), who lost the services of Confucius by his infatuation in accepting the insidious gift of eighty beautiful singing-girls from the Ch‘i State. See Introduction, p. 16.
[7] Shê was a district of the Ch‘u State, which Confucius visited in 488 B.C. The following anecdote, told by T‘an Kung, is a striking illustration of the above saying. Travelling with his disciples, the Master came across a woman weeping and wailing beside a grave, and inquired the cause of her grief. "Alas!" she replied. "My father-in-law was killed here by a tiger; after that, my husband; and now my son has perished by the same death."--"But why, then, do you not go elsewhere?"--"The government here is not harsh," answered the woman.--"There!" cried the Master, turning to his disciples, "remember that. Bad government is worse than a tiger."
[8] A small city in Lu.
[9] Legge translates: "When rulers love to observe the rules of propriety (!), the people respond readily to the calls on them for service." All the other translators seem likewise to have missed the point, which is elsewhere insisted on by Confucius--that no man is fit to govern others who cannot govern himself. On the meaning of _li_, see Introduction, pp. 30 _seqq._, and note on p. 60.
[10] A legendary Emperor.
[11] This saying might have come straight from the mouth of a Taoist philosopher. Nor is it the only place where Confucius seems to advocate quietism. Cf. p. 108.
[12] Literally, "a minister of the altars to the spirits of the land and grain"; i.e. a direct vassal of the Emperor, and responsible only to him.
[13] An ancient historiographer, of whom very little is known.
[14] The head of the Chi clan mentioned above.
[15] Wu‘Chêng means "Martial city," so called from its impregnable position. Tzŭ Yu, when appointed governor, had succeeded in weaning the people from their warlike propensities, and in introducing the milder arts of peace. This is what made the Master glad, though he could not help being amused at the application of the loftiest principles to such a tiny community. About ancient Chinese music we know unfortunately next to nothing, but it seems to have played as important a part under the Chou dynasty as in Plato's ideal State.
[16] That is to say, the ruler will always keep the welfare of his people in view, but without indulging in indiscriminate largess. The ever-increasing doles of money and corn with which the Roman Emperors were obliged to buy the favour of the populace would thus have fallen under the condemnation of Confucius.
[17] The "four evil things" really turn out to be reducible to two, namely (1) Cruelty--covering the first three; and (2) Meanness.
INDIVIDUAL VIRTUE
The Master said: Is he not a princely man[1]--he who is never vexed that others know him not?
True virtue[2] rarely goes with artful speech and insinuating looks.
At home, a young man should show the qualities of a son; abroad, those of a younger brother. He should be circumspect but truthful. He should have charity in his heart for all men, but associate only with the virtuous. After thus regulating his conduct, his surplus energy should be devoted to literary culture.
In the matter of food and lodging, the nobler type of man does not seek mere repletion and comfort. He is earnest in his affairs and cautious in his speech, and frequents virtuous company for his own improvement. He may be called one truly bent on the study of virtue.[3]
Mêng I Tzŭ[4] asked for a definition of filial piety. The Master said: It consists in there being no falling off.[5]--Fan Ch‘ih was driving the Master's carriage some time after, when the latter told him, saying: Mêng I Tzŭ asked me about filial piety, and I answered that it consisted in there being no falling off.--Fan Ch'ih said: What did you mean?--The Master replied: That parents should be served in the proper spirit while living, buried with the proper rites after death, and worshipped thereafter with the proper sacrifices.
Mêng Wu Po[6] asked for a definition of filial piety. The Master said: There is filial piety when parents are spared all anxiety about their children except when they happen to fall sick.[7]
Tzŭ Yu put a question on the subject of filial piety. The Master said: The filial piety of to-day reduces itself to the mere question of maintenance. Yet this is something in which even our dogs and horses have a share.[8] Without the feeling of reverence, what is there to distinguish the two cases?
Tzŭ Hsia also asked about filial piety. The Master said: It can hardly be gauged from mere outward acts.[9] When there is work to be done, to relieve one's elders of the toil; or when there is wine and food, to cause them to partake thereof--is _this_ to be reckoned filial piety?[10]
Tzŭ Kung inquired about the higher type of man. The Master replied: The higher type of man is one who acts before he speaks, and professes only what he practises.
The Master said: The higher type of man is catholic in his sympathy and free from party bias; the lower type of man is biassed and un-sympathetic.
A man without charity in his heart--what has he to do with ceremonies? A man without charity in his heart--what has he to do with music?[11]
Lin Fang inquired as to the prime essential in ceremonial observances. The Master said: Ah, that is a great question indeed! In all rites, simplicity is better than extravagance; in mourning for the dead, heartfelt sorrow is better than punctiliousness.
The Master said: The true gentleman is never contentious. If a spirit of rivalry is anywhere unavoidable, it is at a shooting-match. Yet even here he courteously salutes his opponents before taking up his position, and again when, having lost, he retires to drink the forfeit-cup. So that even when competing he remains a true gentleman.
It is the spirit of charity which makes a locality good to dwell in. He who selects a neighbourhood without regard to this quality cannot be considered wise.
Only he who has the spirit of goodness within him is really able either to love or to hate.
The princely man never for a single instant quits the path of virtue; in times of storm and stress he remains in it as fast as ever.
The nobler sort of man in his progress through the world has neither narrow predilections nor obstinate antipathies. What he follows is the line of duty.
The nobler sort of man is proficient in the knowledge of his duty; the inferior man is proficient only in money-making.
In serving his father and mother, a son may use gentle remonstrance; if he sees that they pay no heed, he should not desist, but merely increase in deference; if his pains are thrown away, he must show no resentment.
While one's parents are alive, one should not travel to a distance; if one must travel, it should be in a fixed direction.[12]
The age of one's parents should always be kept in mind--on the one hand, as a subject for rejoicing; on the other, as a cause for alarm.
The wise man will be slow to speak but quick to act.
Tzŭ Chang asked, saying: The Prime Minister Tzŭ Wên[13] held office three times, but showed no joy; he lost it three times, but testified no concern. When he ceased to be Prime Minister, he was careful to explain the political situation to his successor. What is your opinion of him?--
The Master said: He was loyal and conscientious.[14]--Had he not the highest degree of moral virtue?--That I do not know; how can one judge of his moral virtue?--Tzŭ Chang continued: When Ts‘ui Tzŭ[15] slew the Prince of Ch‘i, Ch‘ên Wên Tzŭ, though the possessor of ten teams of war-horses, forsook his wealth and turned his back on the country. Having come to another state, he said: "Here they are as bad as our own minister Ts‘ui Tzŭ," and departed. And he repeated this proceeding each time that he came to a new state.[16] What is your opinion of him?--The Master said: He was pure and incorruptible.--Had he not the highest degree of virtue?--I cannot say; how is one to judge?
The Master said: When the solid outweighs the ornamental, we have boorishness; when the ornamental outweighs the solid, we have superficial smartness. Only from a proper blending of the two will the higher type of man emerge. All men are born good. He who loses his goodness and yet lives is lucky to escape.
Better than one who knows what is right is one who is fond of what is right; and better than one who is fond of what is right is one who delights in what is right.
Fan Ch‘ih asked in what wisdom consisted. The Master said: Make righteousness in human affairs your aim, treat all supernatural beings with respect, but keep aloof from them--then you may be called wise. Asked about moral virtue, he replied: The virtuous man thinks of the difficult thing[17] first, and makes material advantage only a secondary consideration. This may be said to constitute moral virtue.
The Master said: The man of knowledge finds pleasure in the sea, the man of virtue finds pleasure in the mountains.[18] For the man of knowledge is restless and the man of virtue is calm. The man of knowledge is happy, and the man of virtue is long-lived.
The higher type of man, having gathered wide objective knowledge from the branches of polite learning, will regulate the whole by the inner rule of conduct,[19] and will thus avoid overstepping the limit.
That virtue is perfect which adheres to a constant mean. It has long been rare amongst men.
Tzŭ Kung asked: What would you say of the man who conferred benefits far and wide on the people and was able to be the salvation of all? Would you pronounce him a man of moral virtue?--Of moral virtue? said the Master. Nay, rather, of divine virtue.[20] Even Yao and Shun were still striving to attain this height.