chapter x

. 2, 9. See also E. Huschke, _Das Buch mit 7 Siegeln_ (1860), to which Zahn refers (_lib. cit._ 597).

ix. 17. For ὑακινθίνους Primasius has _spineas_ (= ἀκανθίνους), a reading which neither Bousset nor Baljon, strange to say, think worth recording. Bousset rightly observes that in the following verse πῦρ corresponds to πύρινος, and θεῖον to θειώδης, so that καπνός lets us see what the writer understood as the colour of hyacinth—viz. the colour of smoke. But the ideas of “thorns” (_spineae_) and “smoke” are even more closely related.

xiii. 18. Irenæus found 616 given as the number of the beast in some manuscripts, which he could only explain as a transcriptional error: “hoc autem arbitror scriptorum peccatum fuisse ut solet fieri quoniam et per literas numeri ponuntur, facile literam Graecam quae sexaginta enuntiat numerum in _iota_ Graecorum literam expansam.” In reality, however, the change from ξ to ι would be a contraction rather than an expansion, and the alteration would seem to be intentional, seeing that 666 in Hebrew characters gives the Greek form Neron Kesar, and 616 the Latin Nero Kesar. Irenæus himself, however, appeals to the fact that the number 666 was found ἐν πᾶσι τοῖς σπουδαίοις καὶ ἀρχαίοις ἀντιγράφοις, μαρτυρούντων αὐτῶν ἐκείνων τῶν κατ’ ὄψιν τὸν Ἰωάννην ἑωρακότων (v. 30, 1-3). The opening words in the Latin translation run, “in omnibus antiquis et probatissimis et veteribus scripturis.” The subscription which he himself appended to his own principal work (see above, p. 149) shows how scrupulously exact he was with respect to ἀντίγραφα, so that we may give him credit for having consulted old and reliable manuscripts of the Apocalypse. The erroneous reading (616) is now found only in C and two minuscules (5 and 11).

xxii. 11. The only authorities cited by Tischendorf in support of the reading δικαιωθήτω (in place of δικαιοσύνην ποιησάτω) are the two minuscules 38 and 79 and the Clementine Vulgate. But we find the passage alluded to in the epistle which the Church of Lyons wrote giving an account of the Martyrdom of the year 177: ἵνα πληρωθῇ ἡ γραφή· ὁ ἄνομος ἀνομησάτω ἔτι, καὶ ὁ δίκαιος δικαιωθήτω ἔτι (apud Euseb., _Eccles. Hist._, v. 1, 58). This lends such support to the reading δικαιωθήτω in Apoc. xxii. 11, that Zahn not unnaturally speaks of it as “certainly the original text” (_GK._ i. 201). E. A. Abbott places the date of the Epistle of the Church of Lyons as early as 155 (see _Expositor_, 1896, i. 111-126). Another aspect would be given to the question if the Greek form of the Epistle were derived from a Latin, or if, as Resch supposed, the words were a quotation of a saying of Jesus (_Agrapha_, § 133, p. 263 ff.).

I take the opportunity of appending to Resch’s work the fine saying which Zahn cites from Augustine’s _Contra Adversarium Legis et Prophetarum_ (ed. Bassan. x. 659 ff.) as an otherwise unknown Apocryphum. The disciples asked Jesus “de Judaeorum prophetis, quid sentire deberet, qui de adventu eius aliquid cecinisse in praeteritum putantur.” And He, “commotus talia eos etiam nunc sentire, respondit: Dimisistis vivum qui ante vos est et de mortuis fabulamini.” A similar saying from the _Acta Petri Vercell._ 10 is cited by Harnack in connection with the third of the Oxyrhynchus Logia: “Qui mecum sunt, non me intellexerunt.”

Footnote 265:

See Mrs. Lewis, in the _Expository Times_, November 1900, p. 56 ff., _What have we gained in the Sinaitic Palimpsest? I. St. Matthew’s Gospel_, where a number of important variants are cited from that manuscript.

Footnote 266:

Corderius (_Caten. Psal._, ii. 631) substitutes “ancient” for “accurate.”

Footnote 267:

Or “exemplo graeco,” according as the plural points are inserted or not. The passage is printed in Syriac by Cureton, p. xxxvi, who says that it is also found in the margin of the London manuscript of the Peshitto, 14456. He also gives the verses in which Juvencus paraphrases this text.

Footnote 268:

The other variations of the Latin witnesses are extremely instructive—viz.:

locis eminentioribus superioribus g_{2} emm. honorificis m

clarior dignior d m g_{2} honoratior e emm.

deorsum inferius g_{2} emm. infra m

inferior humilior minor

superius sursum in superiori loco.

utilius utile gloriam.

This variety is an indication of the early age at which the text was translated into Latin.

Footnote 269:

The _Thesaurus Syriacus_ does not contain the word either in col. 1405 under חשמיתא, or in col. 2205 under מרא.

It may also be observed in passing, that the passage is one of those whose sense is entirely changed by the insertion or omission of the negative in this or that witness (see below on Gal. ii. 5). Instead of καὶ ἐκ μείζονος, Syr^{cu} reads καὶ μὴ ἐκ μείζονος. Moreover, it takes ζητεῖτε as imperative, a fact that Tischendorf has failed to notice.

Footnote 270:

I see that Chase, who discusses the passage in pp. 9-14 of his _Syro-Latin Text_, has the same impression: “the compound Greek word in D, ὁ δειπνοκλήτωρ, seems intended to represent the Syriac expression ‘the lord of the supper.’”

Footnote 271:

The case is quite different in 1 Macc. v. 2, where the first hand of א wrote ὠργίσθησαν for ἐβουλεύσαντο. Here ὠργίσθη occurs immediately before it.

Footnote 272:

So given in Merx’s edition, but not in Lewis.—_Tr._

Footnote 273:

See also von Dobschütz, _Das Kerygma Petri_, p. 82, where he cites the passage of Origen relating to the _Doctrina Petri_, which is also quoted by Tischendorf on Luke xxiv. 39, and insists rightly that in the LXX δαιμόνιον is never employed to represent דוּחַ. Conybeare’s articles on “The Demonology of the New Testament” in the _Jewish Quarterly Review_ (1896) I have unfortunately been unable to consult. Joh. Weiss never mentions φάντασμα in his article on _Dämonen und Dämonische_ in the PRE^3, iv.

Footnote 274:

This description is elsewhere understood as applying to Theodore of Mopsuestia.

Footnote 275:

The same variation occurs in Luke vi. 7, where א* B S X read κατηγορεῖν (κατηγορῆσαι D), while א^c A E F have κατηγορίαν.

Footnote 276:

When examining Codex B I took occasion to look at certain other passages, and discovered some strange mistakes in Tischendorf’s statements with regard to that manuscript, as I did previously in the case of Codex D. In 3 John 13 B has ἀλλὰ for ἀλλ’, on which Tischendorf has no note. Westcott and Hort mention the passage in their _Notes on Orthography_, ii. p. 153, but say nothing about B. On Jude 5 we find Tischendorf saying in his Apparatus: ειδοτας sine υμας cum A B C^2 ... ϛ (Gb^{oo}) add. υμας cum א K L. But υμας stands quite plain in B. Had they known this, Tischendorf and Westcott and Hort would certainly have printed their text differently. How far back this false testimony with regard to B extends I am unable to certify. It is found in Tischendorf’s seventh edition of 1859, and in Huther’s Commentary of the same date. I repeat my Ceterum censeo, that two or three sharp eyes should really revise the statements current about B. This one is repeated from Tischendorf by Baljon, Weiss, and all our Commentators. At the same time, Weiss has quite properly inserted υμας in his text, on the ground that while there was no occasion for its interpolation, its omission is quite conceivable. He will, no doubt, be gratified to see his reasoning confirmed by this weighty testimony afforded by Codex B.

Footnote 277:

Further instances of changes requiring investigation are:—ερωταν and παρακαλειν; οραν and θεασθαι; αγειν and φερειν; ερχεσθαι and υπαγειν; υπαρχειν and ειμι; συν and μετα; εις and εν; εως, μεχρι and αχρι; ενωπιον and εμπροσθεν; ετερος and αλλος; οικος and οικια; παις and παιδιον; πολις and κωμη; λαος and οχλος; ναος and ιερον; φεγγος and φως; active and middle voice, αρχεσθαι, etc.

Footnote 278:

See, however, Romans i. 14, and compare Zahn, _Einl._, i. 263.—_Tr._

Footnote 279:

I have already (p. 37) referred to the frequency with which mistakes, often quite incredible mistakes, in translation occur. A few additional instances may be cited here.

There is, for example, that of Ephraem in John ii. 2, mentioned above, p. 287.

According to Aphraates 41, 16, Jesus promised to the mourners דלהין נתבשפון, _i.e._ that they should be _entreated_. The writer of the text, therefore, that Aphraates used, must have taken παρακαλεῖν here in the sense of “to entreat.” See Zahn, _Forschungen_, i. 78.

The same writer (383, 16) renders the words in Luke xvi. 25 νῦν δὲ ὅδε παρακαλεῖται in the form יומנא דין בעית מנה, _i.e._ “but to-day thou _entreatest_ of him”, where παρακαλεῖν is again taken in the sense of “to entreat”, though a different word is used for it. See Zahn, _ibid._

Again, Aphraates (390, 4) renders παράκλησιν (αὐτῶν) in Luke vi. 24 בעותהין, “their _prayer_, their _request_.” Zahn, _ibid._

The last clause of John v. 14 is rendered “that thou mayest have need of nothing else,” where χρεία must have been read instead of χεῖρον. Zahn, _Forschungen_, i. 161 f. Compare also the Syriac text of Apoc. ii. 13; viii. 13, etc.

Footnote 280:

On the custom of dictating letters, see Norden, _Die antike Kunstprosa_ (1898), p. 954 ff. On the autograph additions to the letters of the Emperor Julian, see Bidez and Cumont, _Recherches etc._, p. 19 (see above, p. 174).

Footnote 281:

What an amount of perplexity would have been avoided had Paul been in the way of dating his letters exactly, or had the copyists preserved the dates, supposing they were there originally! One, but only one, of the epistles of Ignatius bears a date—viz. that to the Romans: ἔγραψα ὑμῖν ταῦτα τῇ πρὸ ἐννέα καλανδῶν Σεπτεμβρίων (x. 3).

Footnote 282:

On these two verbs compare Exod. xxxi. 17, where the LXX has ἐπαύσατο and Aquila ἀνέψυξε; Isa. xxxiv. 14, LXX ἀναπαύσονται, Aquila ἀνέψυξε; Isa. xxviii. 12, Aquila ἀνάψυξις; compare also ἀνάπαυσις, Matt. xi. 29; καιροὶ ἀναψύξεως, Acts iii. 20. Weiss, in his Commentary, ignores the reading of B in Rom. xv. 32; in his discussion of the text he supposes that the text was mutilated by a translator, and that D E F G “sought to restore it in their own way.”

Footnote 283:

See 1 Cor. v. 8, where the Syriac has קדישותא—_i.e._ ἁγιότητος—for ἀληθείας.

Footnote 284:

To these examples, gathered quite incidentally, one might add as many from the Old Testament and other books if one paid any attention to them in reading. Take, for example, Herodotus i. 24. Was the votive offering that Arion set up at Taenarum μέγα or οὐ μέγα? In the _Germania_ xv. 1 did Tacitus say of the Germans “_non multum_ venationibus, plus per otium transigunt,” or “_multum_ venationibus, etc.”? In the new edition of Origen (i. 87, 16) Koetschau reads ἀχρήσιμα where the manuscript and the earlier editions have χρήσιμα, and he lets an οὐκ stand which others omit, etc.

Footnote 285:

In his _Lucian_ Lagarde gives examples of his being deceived by certain letters shining through from the opposite side—_e.g._ Esther v. 22 and 27. This latter is a most interesting case. The following verse begins with μη, and Lagarde thought that the first scribe had added another μη by mistake and afterwards erased it, whereas it turned out that what he took to be ΜΗ was nothing else than ΗΝ shining through from the other side.

Footnote 286:

_Cf._ Westcott, _Canon_, Part II. ch. ii. § 1, p. 354 ff.; _Bible in the Church_, p. 125 f.

Footnote 287:

_Cf._ Westcott, _Bible in the Church_, p. 153 ff.

Footnote 288:

See Article on _The Catholic Epistles_, by Salmond, in Hastings’ _Dictionary of the Bible_, i. p. 359 f.

Footnote 289:

It is certainly difficult to construct an Apparatus which shall be concise and yet clear. In Jude 22 Baljon adopts ἐλεᾶτε in the text, and yet he leaves the apparatus arranged in such a way as to suggest that he intended to read ἐλέγχετε with Tischendorf.

Footnote 290:

The inscription on a column at Rome dedicated to a Sabine god which Justin read as “Simoni Sancto Deo,” and understood as referring to Simon Magus. See Kurtz, _Church History_ (Macpherson), i. p. 97; Neander, _Church History_ (Bohn), ii. p. 123, note.

Footnote 291:

Compare also the articles on 1 and 2 Peter by the same writer in vol. iii.

Footnote 292:

See Blass, _Grammar of N. T. Greek_, § 31, 6, Eng. Tr., p. 80 f. Compare the similar German idiom used in the titles of books, “von X. Y. ordentlicher Professor.” How naturally this comes to a Hebrew is shown by the fact that Sal. Bär, in his translation of the Massoretic note at the end of the books of Samuel (Leipzig, Tauchnitz, 1892, p. 158), among other lovely things has “ad mortem Davidis _rex_ Israelis.”

Footnote 293:

In this (independent) suggestion I am glad to find myself in agreement with Lachmann (_Studien und Kritiken_, 1830, p. 839), and Westcott and Hort (ii., App., 137). I see that Baljon and Zahn too follow it. But Bousset still writes ἡμέραις αἷς.

Footnote 294:

Including Gwynn’s Syriac manuscript; see above, p. 102.

APPENDIX I.

The following is a list of writers most frequently cited in critical editions of the New Testament. They are arranged chronologically, but it must be remembered that the dates are more or less uncertain, and that in the case of many writers the period of activity lies in two centuries:—

FIRST CENTURY.

Greek. Latin. Clement of Rome, fl. 95 Ignatius, d. 107? Barnabas, ?

SECOND CENTURY.

_Didache_, ?

Hermas, 140?

Marcion (in Epiphanius

and Tertullian), fl. 145

Aristides, 139

Polycarp, d. 155

Justin Martyr, d. 165

_Clementine Homilies and Recognitions_, ca. 190

Papias, fl. 140

_Gospel of Peter_, ca. 170

Tatian, fl. 170

Athenagoras, fl. 177

Theophilus of Antioch, d. 182

Celsus (in Origen), ca. 180

Hegesippus, fl. 180

Irenæus (see Latin), d. 202 Tertullian, fl. 200

Clement of Alexandria, fl. 194 Irenæi Interpres (according to

Tischendorf and Gregory, but

see below).

THIRD CENTURY.

Hippolytus, fl. 220

Julius Africanus, fl. 220

Gregory Thaumaturgus, d. 265

Origen, d. 248 Cyprian, d. 258

Dionysius of Alexandria, d. Novatian, fl. 251 265

Porphyry, d. 304 Lactantius, fl. 306

Pamphilus, d. 308 Arnobius, d. 306

Methodius, d. 310 Victorinus of Pettau, d. 303

_Didascalia_, ?

_Apostolic Constitutions_

(and fourth century,

etc.).

FOURTH CENTURY.

Arius, fl. 325

Jacobus Nisibenus (Syrian), d. Juvencus, fl. 330 338

Eusebius of Cæsarea, d. 340 Irenæi Interpres (according

Aphraates (Syrian), fl. 340 to Westcott and Hort).

Eustathius, Bishop of

Antioch, fl. 350 Hilary of Poictiers, d. 368

Zeno, fl. 350 Victorinus of Rome, fl. 360

Athanasius, d. 373 Damasus, Pope, fl. 366

Ephraem (Syrian), d. 373 Lucifer, d. 371

Basil the Great, d. 379 Pacianus, fl. 370

Evagrius of Pontus, d. 380 Optatus, fl. 371

Cyril of Jerusalem, d. 386 Philastrius, fl. 380

Amphilochius, fl. 370 Gaudentius, fl. 387

Macarius Magnes, fl. 373 Rufinus, fl. 397

Gregory Nazianzen, d. 390 Ambrose, d. 397

Gregory of Nyssa, d. 394 Ambrosiaster, fl. 390

Diodorus of Tarsus, d. 394 Chromatius, fl. 390

Didymus of Alexandria, d. 394 Tyconius, fl. 390

Theophilus of Alexandria, fl. Jerome, d. 420 388

Epiphanius, d. 403 Priscillian, ca. fin.

Chrysostom, fl. 407 Auctor libri _De Rebaptismate_.

Isidore of Pelusium, fl. 412

FIFTH CENTURY.

Nonnus, fl. 400 Faustus, fl. 400

Theodore of Mopsuestia, d. 429 Hilary of Arles, d. 429

Victor of Antioch, d. 430 Augustine, d. 430

Cyril of Alexandria, d. 444 Prosper of Aquitania, fl. 431

Theodotus of Ancyra, fl. 431 Sedulius, fl. 431

Basil of Seleucia, fl. 440 Leo the Great, fl. 440

Socrates, fl. 440 Petrus Chrysologus, d. 455

Theodoret, Bishop of Gennadius, fl. 459

Cyrus, d. 457 Vigilius, fl. 484

Euthalius, d. 458 Auctor libri _De Promissionibus_.

Sozomen, fl. 440

SIXTH CENTURY.

Candidus Isaurus, fl. 500 Fulgentius, Bishop of Ruspe, d. 533

Severus of Antioch, fl. 512 Justinian, fl. 530

Theodorus Lector, fl. 525 Cæsarius of Arles, d. 543

Andreas, Bishop of Primasius, fl. 550

Cæsarea, ca. fin.

Maxentius, ? Victor, Bishop of Tunis, d. 565

Cosmas Indicopleustes, fl. 535 Cassiodorus, d. 575

Eutychius, fl. 553 Gregory the Great, d. 604

_Chronicon Paschale._

SEVENTH CENTURY.

Antiochus the Monk, fl. 614 Peter the Deacon, ? Andreas of Crete, fl. 635? Maximus Confessor, d. 662 Modestus of Jerusalem, ?

EIGHTH CENTURY.

Damascenus, Johannes, fl. 730 Bede, d. 735 Nicephorus, fl. 787 Petrus Siculus, ?

NINTH CENTURY.

Photius of Constantinople, d. 891

TENTH CENTURY.

Arethas, ?

Symeon, ?

Œcumenius, ca. 950?

Suidas the Lexicographer, ca. 980

ELEVENTH CENTURY.

Theophylact, Bishop of Bulgaria, fl. 1077

TWELFTH CENTURY.

Euthymius Zigabenus, fl. 1116 Nicetas of Byzantium, d. 1206

APPENDIX II. Ἀντίγραφα.

I had intended to give in full those passages of the Fathers known to me in which mention is made of manuscripts prepared by themselves or others. In this way I hoped to make a start towards supplying the desideratum spoken of on p. 154 above. But I feel that in order to be anything like complete, this would occupy too much space for the present work. Even the passages in which Origen speaks of ἀντίγραφα, though not “innumerable,” as Zahn says with a touch of exaggeration, are yet too numerous to be included here. A considerable number of such passages are already given in full in Tischendorf’s Editio Octava. I have contented myself with giving here, an alphabetic list of these, in order to facilitate a geographical and chronological survey of the relevant matter. Where only one passage is given, it will be found in full in Tischendorf. Passages in which the word ἀντίγραφον itself or its synonyms (codex, exemplar, etc.) does not occur, but where express mention is yet made of readings found in manuscripts, are given in brackets.

Some surprising facts are brought to light by such quotations. Witness the remark made by Basil the Great (ob. 379) on Luke xxii. 36, who tells us that in Cappadocia in his time many manuscripts, indeed, if the text is correct the majority of manuscripts (τὰ πολλὰ τῶν ἀντιγράφων), exhibited a reading now found in only one single manuscript, and that the main representative of the “Western” text; I refer to Codex Bezae. See above on Luke xxii. 36. I may mention here that a certain “Basilius diaconus” was the possessor of a magnificent Bible, the cover of the first part of which was used for Codex Syrohexaplaris Ambrosianus. The inscription ran: † ΒΙΒΛΟΣ Ᾱ ΤΩΝ ΘΕΙΩΝ | ΓΡΑΦΩΝ ΠΑΛΑΙΑΣ ΚΑΙ || ΝΕΑΣ ΔΙΑΘΗΚΗΣ ΔΙΑΦΕΡ|ΕΙ| ΔΕ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΙΩ ΔΙΑΚΟΝΩ †|. See the facsimile and description in Ceriani’s edition, _Monumenta Sacra et Profana_, vol. vii., folio.

Adamantius (_i.e._ Origen), see Hieronymus.

Ambrosiaster, Rom. v. 14; the quotation should be corrected in accordance with Haussleiter, _Forschungen_, iv. 32; (Rom. xii. 13); 1 Cor. v. 3; Gal. ii. 5.

Ambrose, Luke vii. 35; Gal. iv. 8.

Anastasius, Matt. xxvii. 18.

Andreas, Apoc. iii. 7.

Apollinarius, possibly mentioned in the scholia in Codex Marchalianus (see Swete’s _Septuagint_, iii. p. viii), John vii. 53.

——, see Macedonius.

Apollonides, Eusebius, _Eccles. Hist._, v. 28.

Arethas, Apoc. i. 2, iii. 7.

Asclepiades, Eusebius, _Eccles. Hist._, v. 28.

Athanasius (also Pseudo-Athanasius), Matt. v. 22; 2 Thess. ii. 9; for his mention of the πυκτία made for the Emperor Constans, see above, p. 181, note, and p. 184; Zahn’s _Forschungen_, iii. 100, _GK._ i. 73.

Augustine, Matt. xxvii. 9; Luke iii. 22; Rom. v. 14; (Rom. xiii. 14); 1 Cor. xv. 5; Phil. iii. 3.

Basil (the Great), Luke xxii. 36; Ephes. i. 1; Zahn, _Einleitung_, i. 345.

Bede, Acts, _passim_.

Chronicon Paschale, John xix. 14 (see above, p. 30).

Chrysostom, John i. 28.

Didymus, 2 Cor. i. 1.

Epiphanius, Matt. i. 8, ii. 11 (τὰς πήρας ἑαυτῶν, ἢ τοὺς θησαυρούς, ὡς ἔχει ἔνια τῶν ἀντιγράφων, i. 430, 1085). See Westcott and Hort, “Notes,” _in loco_; Matt. viii. 28; Luke viii. 26, xix. 41, (xxii. 43 f.); John i. 28; Ephes. i. 1.

Eusebius, Matt. xiii. 35, xxvii. 9; Mark i. 2, xvi. 3, 9 ff.; John xix. 14.

Euthalius, Jude 25.

Euthymius, (Mark xvi. 9); John vii. 53.

Gregory of Nyssa (Pseudo-), Mark xvi. 2, 9.

Hermophilus, Eusebius, _Eccles. Hist._, v. 28.

Hesychius, Mark xvi. 2, 9.

Hieronymus (Jerome), Matt. xiii. 35, xxi. 31, xxiv. 17; Mark iii. 17, xvi. 9; Luke ii. 33, (xviii. 30), xxii. 43 f.; John vii. 53; Acts xv. 29; 1 Cor. ix. 5; Gal. ii. 5, iii. 1; Ephes. iii. 14; 1 Tim. v. 19; Heb. ii. 10.

Irenæus, Apoc. xiii. 18 (see above, _in loco_).

Isidore, Heb. ix. 17.

Macedonius (see Draeseke, _ThStKr._, 1890, 12), Rom. viii. 11.

Marcion, see Epiphanius, Ephes. i. 1.

Maximinus, 1 Cor. xv. 47.

Œcumenius, Acts xiv. 26.

Origen, Matt. ii. 18, viii. 28, xvi. 20, xviii. 1, (xix. 19), (xxi. 15), (xxvii. 9), xxvii. 16 ff. (see above, _in loco_); Mark ii. 14; Luke i. 46; John i. 28; Rom. iv. 3, xvi. 23 (see Zahn, _Einleitung_, i. 276, 285); Col. ii. 15.

Pierius, see Hieronymus.

Severus, Mark xvi. 9.

Socrates, 1 John iv. 3.

Theodoret, Rom. xvi. 3.

Theodore of Mopsuestia, Heb. ii. 10.

Theodotus, Eusebius, _Eccles. Hist._, v. 28.

Theophylact, 2 Thess. iii. 14; Heb. ii. 10, x. 1.

Victor, Mark xvi. 9.

Mention is made of ἀντίγραφα in anonymous scholia on Matt. ii. 18, xx. 28, (xxii. 12); Mark xi. 13; Luke xvi. 19 (giving the name of the Rich Man as Ninive, _i.e._, Phinees; see Rendel Harris in the _Expositor_, March 1900); Luke xxii. 43 f., xxiv. 13; John i. 29, vii. 53, xxi. 25; Rom. viii. 24.

INDEX I. Subjects

Abbot, E., 9, 58.

Abbreviation, 48, 315, 317, 330.

Accentuation, 47, 61.

Achmim, dialect of, 133, 135.

Acts, text of, 224, 294.

Adamantius, 187.

Additions, 238.

Adler, 19, 103.

African Latin, 110, 119.

Aggaeus, 96.

Alcuin, 125, 176.

Aldus, 2.

Ambrose, 109, 205.

Ambrosiaster, 148, 205.

Amélineau, 70, 135, 137.

Amelli, 113.

Ammonian sections, 56.

Andreas, 191, 329.

Anselm, 7.

Antilegomena, 12, 95, 321.

Anthony, 135.

Antwerp Polyglot, 10.

Aphraates, 98, 216, 254, 293, 321.

Apocrypha, 26, 137.

Apollonides, 200 f.

Apollos, 242.

Apostolicum of Marcion, 207.

Arabic version, 142.

Aramaic, 93.

Arethas, 191, 329.

Arians, 205.

Arias Montanus, 10.

Aristion, 142, 295.

Armenian version, 141.

Artemonites, 200.

Article, importance of the, 258, 287, 288, 295, 328.

Asclepiades, 200 f.

Asterisks, 101, 186.

Athanasius, 62, 181, 183. Dialogue of A. and Zacchaeus, 99 n.

Athos manuscripts, 90, 152, 190.

Augustine, 108, 120, 147.

Autographs, 29 f., 97.

Balg, 139.

Baljon, 24, 168.

Barabbas, prenomen of, 103, 244, 259.

Barnabas, 30, 54 f.

Barnard, 154 n.

Basil the Great, 277, 340.

Basilides, 203.

Bashmuric dialect, 133.

Bäthgen, 105.

Batiffol, 73, 75, 139.

Bebb, 95.

Bede, 75, 221.

Bellarmin, 127.

Belsheim, 112 ff.

Benedict, Rule of, 173.

Bengel, 3, 16, 30, 123, 221, 256.

Bensly, 79, 97, 102, 105.

Bentley, 16, 77, 83.

Berger, J. G., 30.

Berger, S., 111, 116 f., 123, 130.

Bernhardt, 139.

Bernoulli, 174.

Bernstein, 100.

Bertheau, 18.

Bessarion, 87.

Beurlier, 117.

Beza, 9, 64, 221.

Bibliotheca, 39, 53.

Bidez, 174.

Birch, 19.

Bianchini, 111 f., 131.

Blass, 32, 65, 163, 224, 260.

Bohairic version, 133.

Boniface, 46, 122.

Bonnet, 26.

Bonus, 105.

Boetticher, see Lagarde.

Bouriant, 135.

Bousset, 91, 158, 329.

Brandscheid, 26.

Breathings, 47.

Brightman, 66.

British and Foreign Bible Society, 4, 13.

Brugsch, 137.

Burgon, 83, 146, 159.

Burkitt, 97, 104 f., 109, 131, 139, 143, 229.

Byzantine Recension, 21, 180 ff.

Canons of Criticism, 16, 234, 239. Eusebian, 56, 263.

Capitals, 34, 59, 261.

Cary, 160.

Caryophilus, 14.

Cassels, 106.

Cassiodorus, 50, 128, 175.

Castle, 12.

Catalogus Claromontanus, 76, 162.

Catenae, 147.

Celsus, 144, 204, 296.

Ceolfrid, 122.

Cephaleus, 7.

Ceriani, 116.

Ceugney, 135.

## Chapter division, 8.

Charlemagne, 125.

Charles the Bald, 125.

Charles, R. H., 140.

Chase, 65, 216, 274.

Cheikho, 104.

Chronicon Paschale, 30.

Chrysostom, 92, 181.

Ciasca, 135.

Clay as writing material, 45.

Clement of Rome, 59, 110, 153. of Alexandria, 147, 153, 204.

Clementine Vulgate, 127.

Codex, 41.

Cola and Commata, 49.

Colinæus, 7.

Columns, 37.

Comma Johanneum, 4, 26, 30, 86, 327.

Complutensian Polyglot, 1.

Conflate readings, 245.

Confusion of vowels and consonants, 168 ff., 236, 262.

Conjectural emendation, 167.

Constans, 181, 183.

Constantine, 54, 205.

Contents of manuscripts, 38, 52.

Conybeare, 79, 99, 142.

Copinger, 6.

Coptic dialect, 132.

Copying, mistakes in, 37, 170, 234 ff., 313, 330.

Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, 146.

Corrections, intentional, 192, 209, 239.

Corrector (διορθωτής), 57.

Correctoria Bibliorum, 126.

Corruption of the text, Greek and Latin terms for, 198.

Corssen, 116, 123.

Cotton paper, 36, 44.

Courcelles, 14.

Cozza, 60, 62.

Credner, 65.

Criticism, object of textual, 28, 156. subjective, 157.

Cromwell, 12.

Cronin, 68.

Crowfoot, 105.

Crum, 135 f.

Curetonian Syriac, 97, 104, 248.

Cursive script, 35, 81 f.

Cursive manuscripts, see Minuscules.

Cyprian, 117, 119, 147.

Cyril Lucar, 13, 58.

Damasus, 107.

Dated manuscripts, 69, 72, 300 n.

Deane, 101, 103.

De Dieu, 101.

Δειπνοκλήτωρ, 217, 256.

Delisle, 123.

Delitzsch, 2, 4, 5.

Dialects of Egypt, 132. of Palestine, 93, 103.

Diatessaron, see Tatian.

Dictation, 234, 298.

Didascalia, 155.

Dillmann, 140.

Dionysius of Corinth, 199.

Διορθωτής, see Corrector.

Διφθέρα, 41, 43.

Dobschütz, von, 70, 72, 79, 123.

Dogmatic alterations, 166, 197 f., 200 ff., 209, 239.

Dutch school of conjectural criticism, 168.

Dziatzko, 33.

Eckstein, 139.

Eclectic method of criticism, 170.

Editio Regia, 7.

Editions, number of, 5. collections of, 5. size of, 7. Catholic, 25.

Egyptian versions, 132 ff.

Ehrhard, 79.

Ellis, 16.

Elzevir, 13.

Engelbreth, 135.

Ephraem, 98, 106, 216, 254.

Erasmus, 3, 146.

Erizzo, 102.

Errors, sources of, 234 ff.

Ess, van, 25.

Ethiopic version, 140.

Etschmiadzin manuscript, 142, 295.

Eugipus, 122.

Eumenes, King of Pergamum, 40.

Eusebius of Cæsarea, 54, 56, 179, 185.

Eusebian Canons, 56, 263.

Euthalius, 78 f., 188.

Evagrius, 78 n.

Evangeliaria, 39 f., 91 f., 106.

Fabiani, 60, 62.

Families of manuscripts, 17, 119, 176 ff.

Fathers, list of. See Appendix I.

Fayumic dialect, 133, 135.

Falsification of text by heretics, 197 ff.

Fell, 15, 133.

Ferrar Group, 84 f., 99, 177.

Field, 181, 264.

Ford, 134.

Froben, 3, 126.

Gabelentz, 139.

Gebhardt, O. von, 7, 22, 73, 174.

Gehringer, 25.

Gelasian Decree, 183.

Genealogical method, 164, 171 ff.

Gennadius, 173.

Georgian version, 142.

Gibson, 97, 105, 106, 144.

Gildemeister, 140.

Gnostics, 203 f.

Goltz, von der, 90, 190.

Goodspeed, 91.

Gospels, collection and order of, 161 f. division of, 56, 61. title of, 165, 247.

Gospel-book of Marcion, 207.

Gothic version, 137 ff.

Goussen, 135, 137.

Graefe, 66, 231.

Grandval Bible, 125.

Gratz, 25.

Graux, 48.

Gregory, Pope, 125.

Gregory of Nyssa, 87.

Gregory, C. René, 6, 7, 20, 83, 91, 111.

Grenfell, 74.

Griesbach, 18.

Guidi, 140.

Gwilliam, 96, 103, 104.

Gwynn, 102, 106.

Haase, 114.

Häberlin, 43.

Hahn, 206 n.

Hall, Isaac H., 6, 8, 100.

Hammond, 159.

Harding, 125.

Harklean Syriac, 79, 100, 106, 189, 255.

Harmony of the Gospels, 16, 98.

Harnack, 155, 202, 232.

Harris, J. R., 30, 44, 65, 74, 86, 91, 97, 102, 105 f., 115, 153, 214.

Haseloff, 73.

Hauler, 155.

Haussleiter, 311.

Hebrew Bible printed, 1.

Hebrews, Gospel of the, 72, 96.

Hegesippus, 96.

Heidenreich, 119 n.

Henten, 127, 128.

Heracleon, 203.

Heretics, their falsifications, 197 ff.

Hermas, 47, 54.

Hermophilus, 200 f.

Hesychius, 61, 62, 183 ff.

Hetzenauer, 25, 132.

Heyne, 139.

Hieronymus, see Jerome.

Hilgenfeld, 26, 116. Addenda.

Hill, 105.

Hitzig, 169, 309.

Hogg, 106, 214.

Holtzmann, 6, 116.

Holzhey, 105.

Homer, manuscripts of, 33.

Homoioteleuton, 235 f.

Höppe, 139.

Horner, 134, 136.

Hort, 21, 170 f.

Hoskier, 5, 62, 83.

Hug, 61, 182.

Hunt, 74.

Hyvernat, 135, 136.

Iberian version, see Georgian.

Ignatius, 146, 300 n.

Illustrated manuscripts, 51.

Indiction, 69.

Indiculus Cheltonianus, 161.

Ink, 42.

Interpolation, 238, 241 n.

Irenæus, 147, 176, 202 ff.

Irico, 111.

Irish hands in manuscripts, 77, 113, 129.

Iscariot, the variants, 242.

Ishodad, 282.

Islinger, 79.

Itacism, 236, 287.

Itala, 109.

Ἰωάννης, spelling of the name, 162 f.

Jacob, 63.

Jannon, 7.

Jaumann, 25.

Jebb, 16.

Jerome, 107, 124, 173.

Jerusalem Syriac, 102, 106.

Jostes, 139.

Jovinian, 155.

Julian the Apostate, 144, 174.

Jülicher, 116, 198.

Junius, 10.

Karkaphensian version, 103.

Karlsson, 116.

Kauffmann, 139, 181. Addenda.

Kaulen, 123, 130, 131.

Kenyon, 33, 58, 81.

Kipling, 65.

Knapp, 19.

Koetschau, 149 ff.

Krall, 135.

Kroll, 155.

Küster, 15.

La Croze, 66, 134, 141.

Lachmann, 19, 83, 123.

Lagarde, Paul de, 30, 60, 95, 102, 106, 137, 140, 143, 223. A. de, 106.

Lake, 66, 73, 91.

Land, 103 n.

Langton, 8.

Laodicæa, Epistle to, 77, 114, 129, 207, 299, 313.

Latin versions, 107 ff.

Laud, Archbishop, 75.

Lead as writing material, 44.

Lectionaries, 39, 91.

Le Jay, 11.

Le Long, 95.

Leo X., Pope, 2, 3.

Leusden, 104.

Lewis, 97, 102, 105, 106.

Lewis Syriac, see Sinai Syriac.

Linen as writing material, 45.

Lines in manuscripts, 37.

Linke, 112.

Linwood, 168 n.

Lippelt, 162 f.

Liturgical alterations, 91, 239, 267.

Loebe, 139.

London Polyglot, 12.

Louvain Vulgate, see Henten.

Löhlein, 104.

Löwe, 140.

Lucas Brugensis, 127, 146.

Lucian, 85, 138, 180 ff.

Luft, 139, 140.

Luther, 5, 149 n., 286, 309.

Mace, 16.

Maestricht, Gerhard von, 16, 239.

Mai, Cardinal, 60, 113, 139.

Manuscripts, age and locality, 35. contents, 38, 52 f. de luxe, 49. material, 36, 40 ff. number, 33, 81, 89, 90, 92. size, 38.

Marcion, 87, 205, 206 ff.

Marcosians, 202.

Margoliouth, 106.

Marshall, 133.

Martin, Abbé, 160.

Martyrs, era of, 136.

Masch, 95.

Maspero, 135.

Masudi, 162.

Materials for writing, 40 ff.

Matthaei, 19.

Ματθαῖος, spelling of the name, 247.

Mazarin Bible, 126.

Melanchthon, 86, 140, 159.

Μεμβράναι, 36, 41.

Memphitic dialect, 133.

Mercator, 138.

Merx, 105, 106.

Mesrob, 141.

Michaelis, 104.

Middle Egyptian versions, 133, 135.

Mill, 15.

Miller, 6, 152, 159.

Mingarelli, 135.

Minuscules, 34, 82, 83 ff.

Moldenhauer, 19.

Montfortianus, 4, 86.

Morillon, 138.

Morin, 11.

Morrish, 170.

Müller, 139.

Münter, 135.

ν abbreviated at the end of a word, 315, 330.

Name of Dives, 342.

Names, importance of proper, 241. of the two thieves, 266. of prophets confused, 251, 258.

Negative liable to be omitted, see οὐ.

Nestle, 3, 17, 23, 26, 48, 65, 132.

Noetus, 203.

Northumbrian manuscripts, 125, 176.

Novatian, 155.

Number of words in the N.T., 48. of manuscripts. See Manuscripts. of Greek editions printed, 5. of letters in the N.T., 48.

Obelus, 101, 186.

Oikonomos, 49 n., 189.

Old Latin version and manuscripts, 110 ff.

Order of the Gospels, 161 f. of the Catholic Epistles, 321. of the Pauline Epistles, 300 f.

Order of words, variation in the, 237.

Origen, 147, 149 ff., 185 ff.

Orthodox correctors, 192.

Osgan, 141.

οὐ, omission and insertion of, 310 ff.

Oxyrhynchus papyri, 74, 80.

Palæography, 32 f., 81 f., 181, 184.

Palestinian Syriac, 102.

Palimpsest, 37, 51, 63.

Pamphilus, 57, 78, 185 ff.

πανδέκτης, 39, 53.

Paper, 36, 44.

Papyrus, 36, 42.

Parchment, 36, 40.

Paris Polyglot, 11. Correctoria, 126.

Patricius, 25.

Paul’s “Books,” 45.

Paul of Tella, 102.

Pens, 45.

Pericopæ, 39, 91, 239, 267, 277.

Pericope adulteræ, 68, 84, 112, 142, 177, 282 ff.

Peshitto version, 95, 103 f.

Philoxenian Syriac, 100.

Pickering, 7.

Pierius, 187.

Pius V., Pope, 127.

Plantin, 10 f.

Pococke, 100.

Polycarp the Chorepiscopus, 100.

Polyglots, 1, 10 ff.

Pott, his view of Acts, 294.

Praetorius, 140.

Praxapostolos, 40, 92.

Preuschen, 161, n. 1.

Printing of the N.T., earliest, 1, 3.

Primasius, 119, 148.

Priscillian, 119.

προ and προς, 237 n.

Prologues in Latin Gospels, 115 f.

Proper names, see Names.

Provençal New Testament, 117.

Psalters, 3, 68.

Pseudepigrapha, 26.

Punctuation in manuscripts, 38, 52. importance of, 52, 201, 204, 261, 276, 297.

Quaternio, 41.

Quotations, 32, 144 ff.

Quotation, marks of, 38.

Rabbulas of Edessa, 98, 104.

Rahlfs, 35 n., 62, 183 ff.

Ranke, 113, 129.

Ravianus, 86.

Reading and writing, Greek terms for, 46.

Reed pen, 45.

Rehdiger, 114.

Reithmayer, 25.

Resch, 26, 280.

Resultant Greek Testament, 22.

Reuss, 6, 11, 159.

Richelieu, 11.

Ridley, 100.

Riegler, 130.

Rieu, 141.

Riggenbach, 190.

Robinson, 79, 106.

Rocchi, 60.

Roll, 36, 41, 43.

Rönsch, 118, 123, 131, 146.

Rooses, 11.

Rossini, 140.

Rüegg, 231. Addenda.

Rules of textual criticism, 234 ff.

Saalfeld, 131.

Sabatier, 111, 131.

Sachau, 282.

Sahak, 141,

Sahidic version, 134.

Salmon, 160, 170, 227.

Saubert, 14.

Schaaf, 104.

Schaff, 6.

Schjøtt, 24, 165.

Schmidt, 137.

Schmiedel, 56 n., 117.

Scholz, 19.

Schultze, 41 n., 51.

Schulz, 65.

Schwartze, 134.

Scriptio continua, 37, 47, 315, 330.

Script, various kinds of, 34 f., 81 ff.

Scrivener, 6, 8, 33, 58, 65, 77, 83.

Sections, 56, 61 n.

Seidel, 66.

Semler, 18.

Sergio, 60.

Simon of Cyrene, 203.

Simon Magus, 205, 324 n.

Simon, Richard, 15, 95.

Sinai Syriac, 97, 105.

Sionita, 11.

Sitterly, 33.

Sixtus V., Pope, 127.

Skeat, 140.

Speculum Augustini, 114.

Steindorff, 134.

Stephen, Henry, 7. Robert, 7, 126.

Stichometry, 37, 48, 49.

Stilus, 45.

Strein, 138.

Stunica, 1.

Stuttgart New Testament, 23.

Subjective criticism, 157.

Subscriptions, 57, 69, 72, 78, 122, 188, 189, 260, etc.

Sulke, see Euthalius.

Swete, 26.

Syllables, division of, 48.

Synodos, 140.

Synonyms, interchange of, 236.

Syriac versions, 95 ff.

Syro-Latin, 216, 218, 223.

σωμάτιον, 41, 54 f.

Tatian, 97, 105, 212 ff. his Diatessaron, 98, 105, 212 ff.

Tattam, 134.

ταχυγράφοι, 50.

Taylor, Isaac, 172 n.

Tertullian, 29, 119, 146, 147, 276.

τεῦχος, 53.

Textual criticism, literature of, 6, 159.

Textus brevior, 245.

Textus receptus, 13.

Thaddaeus, 96.

Thebaic dialect, 133.

Theile, 19.

Theodore of Tarsus, 75.

Theodoret, 98, 213.

Theodotus, 200 f.

Theodulf, 125.

Thomas of Heraclea, 100.

Thompson, E. M., 33, 59.

Timothy and Aquila, Dialogue of, 99 n.

Tischendorf, 19, 26, 53, 58, 63.

Title of the Gospels, 164, 247.

Tittmann, 19.

Toinard, 15.

Trabaud, 65.

Transcriptional errors, 234 ff.

Transposition of letters and words, 236 f.

Traube, 173.

Tregelles, 6, 20, 83, 141, 159.

Tremellius, 10.

Trent, Council of, 127.

Tuki, 135, 137.

Ubaldi, 60.

Ulfilas, 137.

Uncial script, 34, 81 f.

Uncial manuscripts, 53 ff. number of, 81.

Valder, 7.

Valentinians, 198, 203.

Valla, Laurentius, 126.

Vercellone, 60 ff., 123.

Verse division, 8.

Versions: Syriac, 95. Latin, 107. Egyptian, 132. Gothic, 137. Ethiopic, 140. Armenian, 141. Georgian, 142. Arabic, 142. other, 143.

Victor of Capua, 122, 308.

Vincent, 160.

Vogt, 139.

Vollert, 34 n., 35.

Voss, 138.

Vulgate, 25, 109, 122 ff., 127, 132.

Walton, 12.

Warfield, 159.

Weiss, 22, 229.

Wells, 16.

Westcott and Hort, their N.T., 21. their types of text, 21. their method, 171.

Western text, 211, 214, 221.

Wettstein, 18.

Weymouth, 22.

White, H. J., 131.

White, Joseph, 100.

Widmanstadt, 95.

Wilcken, 33, 43.

Wilkins, 133.

William of Hirsau, 126.

Wobbermin, 90.

Woide, 134.

Wolf, J. Chr., 66 f.

Wölfflin, 118, 173.

Wordsworth and White, 123, 131, 174, 176.

Wright, Arthur, 26.

Writing, styles of, 34 f., 81 ff. Greek terms for, 46.

Xenaia, see Philoxenian-Syriac.

Ximenes, 1.

Years, reckoning of, 69 n., 100 n., 141 n.

Zahn, 160, 196 n. 2, 208 ff., 218, 224.

Ziegler, 118, 123, 130.

Zimmer, 77, 118.

Zoega, 135.

Zohrab, 141.

Zwingli, 86.

Zycha, 130.

INDEX II. Passages of the New Testament referred to.

NOTE.—_Passages treated in the Critical Notes are not entered here._

Matthew.

i. 2,......165

i. 3,......165

i. 11,......166

i. 16,......99

i. 25,......166

iii. 15,......166

v. 3, 4,......166

v. 10,......204

v. 22,......167

vi. 8,......192

viii. 9,......52

ix. 18,......37

x. 33,......150

xiii. 17,......203

xvi. 23,......37

xviii. 20,......143

xix. 17,......239

xx. 28 f.,......216

Mark.

i. 11,......52

viii. 38,......150

ix. 7,......52

x. 40,......37

xiii. 22,......239

xvi. 8,......67, 142

Luke.

i. 35,......201

i. 46-55,......3

i. 68-79,......3

ii. 7,......166

iii. 27,......242

vi. 4 f.,......64

ix. 26,......150

xi. 2,......64, 87

xiii. 7, 8,......193

xvi. 12,......211

xvi. 19,......342

xvii. 10,......237

xx. 30,......241

xxi. 30,......211

xxii. 52,......226

xxiii. 53,......64, 136

xxiv. 4, 5, 11, 13,......120

xxiv. 26,......211

xxiv. 51-53,......230, 245

John.

i. 14,......201

i. 28,......203

ii. 20,......203

iii. 6,......205

v. 8,......198

vi. 47,......245

vi. 71,......242

vii. 39,......245

vii. 53,......142, 177

xvi. 13,......124

xix. 14,......30

xix. 34,......227

Acts.

i. 5,......136

iii. 14,......170

iv. 6,......243

iv. 12,......237

vi. 8,......245

xii. 10,......64

xv. 15,......170

xv. 20, 29,......136, 206, 232

xvi. 10,......136

xviii. 24,......242

xix. 1,......242

xxi. 25,......232

xxiii. 25 f.,......9

xxiv. 19 f.,......9

Romans.

v. 14,......205

xv. 31-33,......179

1 Corinthians.

ii. 9,......148

x. 9,......152

xii. 28,......37

xv. 29,......204

2 Corinthians.

x. 15,......168 n.

Galatians.

ii. 11,......37

iii. 1,......186

iv. 3,......77

Colossians.

i. 16,......204

ii. 16,......169

ii. 18,......168

1 Thessalonians.

ii. 15,......211

1 Timothy.

ii. 5,......52

iii. 16,......37

2 Timothy.

ii. 17,......77

iv. 13,......36

Hebrews.

i. 9,......52

James.

iii. 1,......168

v. 7,......245

2 Peter.

i. 4,......240

ii. 15,......243

1 John.

iv. 3,......152

v. 7,......4, 86

2 John.

12,......36

3 John.

13,......36

Apocalypse.

v. 1,......43 n.

viii. 13,......101

xvii. 4,......4 n.

xvii. 8,......4 n.

xviii. 17,......168

xxii. 21,......157

ΘΕΩ ΔΟΞΑ.

PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., EDINBURGH.

Plates

Plate I.

[Illustration: PLATE I.: (1) א Codex Sinaiticus. (2) A. Codex Alexandrinus.]

Plate II.

[Illustration: PLATE II: (1) D. Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis. (2) D. Codex Claromontanus.]

Plate III.

[Illustration: PLATE III: d. Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis. (2) d. Codex Claromontanus.]

Plate IV.

[Illustration: PLATE IV: B. Codex Vaticanus.]

Plate V.

[Illustration: PLATE V: Siniatic Syriac Palimpsest.]

Plate VI.

[Illustration: PLATE VI: am. Codex Amiantinus, circa 700 A.D.]

Plate VII.

[Illustration: PLATE VII: “Bible of Grandval”, of the ninth century.]

Plate VIII.

[Illustration: PLATE VIII: Sahidic Manuscript, probably of the fifth century, in the British Museum.]

Plate IX.

[Illustration: PLATE IX: Armenian Manuscript of Etschmiadzin, A.D. 986.]

Plate X.

[Illustration: PLATE X: Minuscule Evv. 274 (Par. Nat. Suppl. Gr. 79) of the tenth century.]

● Transcriber’s Notes: ○ Text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_). ○ Text in bold print is enclosed by equal signs (=bold=). ○ Footnotes have been moved to follow the chapters in which they are referenced.