Chapter 32

corresponds with the beginning of the lost _Decada_ XI.

[453] His biographer, Manuel Severim de Faria, says that he left (in manuscript) ‘a large volume of elegies, eclogues, songs, sonnets and glosses’ (Barbosa Machado calls them _Poesias Varias_), and that he wrote a commentary on the first five books of the _Lusiads_. _Carminibus quoque pangendis non infeliciter vacavit_, says N. Antonio.

[454] _Lendas_, iii. 7: _nom ouve alguem que tomasse por gloria escrever e cronizar o descobrimento da India_. In an earlier passage (i. 3) he refers to narratives of travellers such as that of Duarte Barbosa.

[455] He says (_Lendas_, ii. 5): _quando comecei esta ocupação de escrever as cousas da India erão ellas tão gostosas, per suas bondades, que dava muito contentamento ouvilas recontar_.

[456] _Lenda_, iii. 438.

[457] _Fui hum dos seus escrivães que com elle andei tres annos_ (ii. 46). Elsewhere (i. 2) he says that he went to India _moço de pouca idade_ sixteen years after the discovery of India. 1512 was fourteen years after the actual discovery (1498), but might be counted the sixteenth year from 1497.

[458] _Homens da criação d’El Rei_, says Corrêa with some pride, _de que confiasse seus segredos_ (ii. 46).

[459] Lima Felner, _Noticia preliminar_ (_Lendas_, i, p. xi).

[460] Ibid.; but Corrêa says (_Lendas_, ii. 891) that he held this post at Cochin (_almoxarife do almazem da Ribeira_) in 1525.

[461] _Por ter entendimento em debuxar._ The portraits, drawn by Corrêa and painted by ‘a native painter’ so cleverly that you could recognize the originals (iv. 597), as well as Corrêa’s very curious drawings of Aden and other cities, are reproduced in the 1858-66 edition of the _Lendas_.

[462] _Passa de cincoenta annos_ [i.e. 1512-63] _que ando no rodizio d’este serviço, aleijado de feridas com que irei á cova sem satisfação._

[463] Cf. ii. 608, 752; iii. 437; iv. 338, 537-8, 567-8, 665, 669, 730-1.

[464] He so styles his work in the preface of _Lenda_ iv.

[465] He is writing, he says, in 1561 (_Lendas_, i. 265); 1561 again (i. 995: _não cessando este trabalho até este anno_); 1563 (iii. 438); 1550 (iv. 25); 1551 (iv. 732).

[466] The value of that evidence varies. For instance, he assures us (iii. 689) that he saw with his own eyes a native 300 years old and his son of 200; yet there is something suspicious in the roundness of the figures.

[467] _Escrevia com elle as cartas pera El Rei_ (ii. 172).

[468] Albuquerque in one of his letters (No. 95) says that in Portugal a man is hanged for stealing Alentejan _mantas_. Corrêa repeats this phrase twice (_Lendas_, ii. 752; iv. 731).

[469] Cf. ii. 247: _Eu ouvi dizer a Afonso d’Albuquerque_.

[470] _Neste meu trabalho não tomei sentido senão escrever os feitos dos Portugueses e nada das terras_ (iii. 66). Cf. i. 651, 815; ii. 222.

[471] Latino Coelho, _Fernão de Magalhães_ in _Archivo Pittoresco_, vi. (1863), p. 170 et seq.

[472] Corrêa himself seems to have been rather unsuccessful than scrupulous in amassing money. He tells without a hint of embarrassment (ii. 432) how he took the white and gold scarf (_rumal_) of the murdered Resnordim (or Rais Ahmad) and sold it for 20 _xarafins_ (about £7), and (iii. 281) helped to dispose of stolen goods in 1528 at Cochin.

[473] _Protestando d’em meus dias esta lenda nom mostrar a nenhum_ (i. 3).

[474] _Que colligi dos proprios originaes._ The work is a history of events in India, not a biography of Albuquerque, the first forty years of whose life are represented only by half a dozen sentences (1774 ed., iv. 255).

[475] _Aquelle tão pouco venturoso como sciente & valeroso Antonio Galvão_ (João Pinto Ribeyro, _Preferencia das Letras ás Armas_, 1645). In his youth in India he won the regard of that keen judge of men, Afonso de Albuquerque, who could see in him nothing to find fault with except his excessive generosity.

[476] _Tratado. Prologo_ [3 ff.]. _Em este tractado con noue ou dez liuros das cousas de Maluco & da India que me o Cardeal mandou dar a Damiam de Goes._

[477] Vol. i, No. 4.

[478] Vol. v, No. 1 (1836).

[479] The name would seem to have been really Tillison, i.e. son of John Tilly, who married a granddaughter of Moraes, the author of _Palmeirim_.

[480] He speaks of their _lingua alquanto negletta e lo stile molto semplice, naturale e piano, la qual cosa deveva apparire un’ anomalia a confronto della lingua purgata con cui si scriveva allora in Portogallo_ (_Contenuto della storia del Patriarca Alfonso Mendez_, p. 115). This work was written in Latin in 1651 by AFONSO MENDEZ (1579-1656), born at Moura, who became Patriarch of Ethiopia in 1623. This splendid edition (_Rerum Aethiopicarum Scriptores_) also contains three volumes of _Relationes et Epistolae Variorum_ (Romae, 1910-12).

[481] Nicolás Antonio dwells more than once on the invisibility of Brito’s authorities (_Bib. Vet._ i. 65, 453; ii. 374): _Nos de invisis hactenus censere abstinemus_. Antonio Brandão, Brito’s successor, he says, _nullum horum vidit librorum quos Brittus olim historiae suae Atlantes iactaverat; nihil autem horum librorum (quod mirum si ibi asservabantur) vidit_. Soares (_Theatrum_) remarks epigrammatically: _fama est eloquentiam minus desiderari quam fidem_.

[482] From a comparison of inscriptions he notes the similarity between the Etruscan and ‘our ancient’ (Iberian?) letters. The Iberians may have originally gone East from Tuscany.

[483] His _Elogios dos Reis de Portugal_ appeared in 1603.

[484] ff. 248 v.-249 v. give a very curious description of Ireland: _tam remota de nossa conversação e metida debaixo do Polo Arctico_. Brito had not inherited Barros’ knowledge of geography and confuses Ireland with Iceland, but is far richer in fables, as these pages delightfully prove.

[485] To Spanish readers they were presented later by Faria e Sousa in his _Asia_.

[486] _Flores de España_ (1631), f. 248. Arias Montano refers to him as a close friend (_Doc. inéd._ t. xli. p. 386).

[487] See _Cronica_, p. 46.

[488] Ten chronicles from Afonso I to João III. He says (1824 ed., p. 12): _Estam em este presente vollume recopiladas, sumadas, abreviadas, todas as lembranças dos Reys de Portugal das caroniquas velhas e novas sent mudar sustancia da verdade._

[489] _Dise ̃q hee de jdade de setenta anos, hos faz ẽ este feuʳᵒ ̃q vẽ_ (Examination before the Inquisition, April 19, 1571). The name appears as Goes, Gooes, Goiz, Guoes, Guoez, Guoiz, Goyos. Goes is a small village some twenty miles north-east of Coimbra. The name also occurs in the Basses-Pyrénées. See P. A. de Azevedo, _Alguns nomes do departamento dos Baixos Pirineos que teem correspondencia em Portugal_ (_Boletim da Ac. das Sciencias de Lisboa_, viii (1915), pp. 280-1). It may be one more trace of the former occupation of the whole Peninsula by the Iberians (= high, on the height, as in Goyetche, &c.).

[490] See Marqués de Montebello, _Vida de Manoel Machado de Azevedo_ (1660), p. 3, ap. J. de Vasconcellos, _Os Musicos Portugueses_, i. 268.

[491] ff. 269 v.-71. The original manuscript disappeared, but a copy (that of the Marqueses de Castello Rodrigo) is in the Biblioteca Nacional at Lisbon.

[492] Antonio Galvam, _Tratado_, f. 59 v. He visited the Courts of Charles V, François I, Henry VIII, and Pope Paul III. Nicolás Antonio says of him (_Bib. Nova_): _morum quippe suavitate atque elegantia, ergaque doctos liberalitate insinuabat se in cuiusque animum qui Musarum commercio frueretur, facile atque alte_.

[493] He arrived on Palm Sunday, 1531, and learning that Luther was preaching at once left the inn to hear him, but could only understand the Latin quotations. Next day he had dinner (_jantar_) with Luther and Melanchthon and afterwards returned to Luther’s house, where the latter’s wife regaled them with a dessert of nuts and apples. Thence he went to Melanchthon’s house and found his wife spinning, shabbily dressed.

[494]

Venisti nimium usque et usque et usque Expectate tuis.

[495] Lib. III, pp. 264, 265: _Aliud Aeolij Modi exemplũ authore D. Damiano à Goes Lusitano_.

[496] He had gone with others to negotiate terms and, when barely half an hour was allowed to refer the terms to the Senate, remained in the enemy’s camp in order to create a delay by conversing with Longueval. Meanwhile relief had been received and the Senate refused the terms.

[497] In his trial he says that three of them became monks: _meteo tres filhos frades_.

[498] Cf. _Prologo_: _em que muitos, como em cousa desesperada, se nam atreveram poer a mão_. One of these ‘many’ was Goes’ rival, the eloquent Bishop Antonio Pinheiro.

[499] The fourth part was approved on January 2, 1566.

[500] For the grounds of this disapproval see _Crítica contemporanea á Chronica de D. Manuel_, 1914, ed. Edgar Prestage from a manuscript in the British Museum. Dr. Joaquim de Vasconcellos and Mr. G. J. C. Henriques have dealt very ably with many interesting points of Goes’ life and works.

[501] His friend Diogo Mendez de Vasconcellos (1523-99), Canon of Evora, says that he died in 1575 _aet._ 80 (so the _Theatrum_: _obiit octogenarius A.C._ 1575). Probably the 5 is an error or misprint for 3, and the 80 correct.

[502] Luis de Sousa (_Hist. S. Dom._, Pt. I, Bk. i, cap. 2) praises his _juizo e curiosidade de bom antiquario_, and there are many similar passages in other writers. Resende furnished Barros, as Severim de Faria later furnished Brito, with materials and advice.

[503] In a similar though more elaborate work (88 ff.) Frei Nicolau Diaz (†1596) told the life and death of Princess Joana (†May 1490): _Vida da Serenissima Princesa Dona Joana, Filha del Rey Dom Afonso o Quinto de Portugal_ (1585).

[504] _Casamento Perfeyto_, 2ᵃ ed. (1726), p. 61.

[505] _Monarchia Lusitana_, Pt. V, Bk. xvii, cap. 5. Bernardo de Brito also praises him, and Frei Antonio Brandão acknowledges his debt to him. Faria e Sousa says that he received from him _cantidad de papeles_.

[506] _Europa Portuguesa_, vol. iii, pt. 3. Portugal, he says, is a perpetual Spring, and he speaks of the women who earn their living by selling roses and other flowers in Lisbon, of the almonds of Algarve, the excellent honey, &c., &c. Vol. i covers the period from the Flood to the foundation of Portugal; vol. ii goes down to 1557; vol. iii to Philip II of Spain.

§ 6

_Quinhentista Prose_

Had latinization and the Renaissance come to Portugal in a quiet age it is not pleasant to think what havoc they might have wrought on Portuguese prose in the unreal atmosphere of the study. Fortunately they found Portugal in turmoil. Stirring incidents and adventures were continually occurring which needed no heightening of rhetoric or Latin pomp of polysyllables. A scientific spirit of accuracy was abroad, and the missionaries and adventurers, travellers, mariners, merchants, officials, and soldiers who recorded their experiences wrote as men of

## action, with life and directness.

Few stories are more intense and affecting than those told by the Portuguese survivors of shipwreck in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Twelve of these appeared in the original collection edited by BERNARDO GOMES DE BRITO (born in 1688): _Historia Tragico-Maritima_ (2 vols., 1735, 6).[507] The earliest and most celebrated is the _Relaçam da mui notavel perda do galeão grande S. João_ [June 24, 1552], an anonymous narrative based on the account of a survivor, Alvaro Fernandez, probably the ship’s mate, which tells of the death of D. Lianor de Sepulveda and her husband with a simple pathos and dramatic power unattained by the many poets who later treated the same theme. But the accounts of the wreck of the _S. Bento_ (1554), the _Conceição_ (1555), the _S. Paulo_ (1561), of D. Jorge de Albuquerque (1565), and others, are scarcely less moving. The ships, of 1,000 tons, as the _Aguia_, ‘the largest vessel that had hitherto sailed to India’ (1558), and under, often with rotten rudder, or the whole ship rotten, _sepulturas dos homens_, with few boats, careless and ignorant pilots, badly careened, overloaded, overcrowded, ill-supplied with worm-eaten biscuit, ‘poisonous’ wine, and insufficient water, seemed to invite destruction. Between 1582 and 1602 alone thirty-eight ships were lost. The sea was not the only enemy: corsairs off the coast of Portugal, French, Dutch, and English, Lutheran heretics who threw overboard beads and missals, or a Turkish fleet ‘in sight of Ericeira’, exacted their toll when all other dangers had been successfully overcome. The story is told immediately after the event, sometimes almost in the form of a diary or log, or years later, by survivors or based on the account of survivors, and it varies according as the narrator is the captain of the ship, a landsman with a dislike of sailors, a plain soldier, a Jesuit priest, a Franciscan monk, a distinguished Lisbon chemist (Henrique Diaz in i. 6), or a famous historian (ii. 3 by Diogo do Couto,[508] ii. 4 by João Baptista Lavanha[509]). All or most of their accounts are masterpieces of vivid phraseology. We follow as in a novel their adventures as the sea ‘breaks into flower--_quebrando em frol_’, as they are stranded on a desert island, boarded in sight of home, entrapped by savages, devoured by wild beasts, tottering, _arrimados em paos_, exhausted by thirst and hunger, or prostrated by heat, in comparison with which the _calmas_ of Alentejo ‘are but as Norwegian cold’: toils and perils borne with heroic courage, told with the simplicity of heroes, without _adorno de palavras nem linguagem floreada_.

Many books of travel were the natural consequence of the discovery of India. The historian João de Barros’ passion for knowledge, especially geographical knowledge, was the first cause[510] of the learned and instructive _Chorographia_ (1561) of his nephew Gaspar Barreiros (†1574), a description of the places through which he passed on his way to Rome in 1545 to thank the Pope on behalf of the Infante Henrique, _Cardinalem amplissimum_, for his cardinal’s hat. But this work (edited by his brother, Lopo Barreiros) was an exception. Most of the travel books were concerned with the far East.

The _Livro em que da relação do que viu e ouviu no Oriente_ (1516) by DUARTE BARBOSA of Lisbon, brother-in-law of Fernam de Magalhães, exists in a Portuguese manuscript in the Public Library of Oporto, but was first published in Portuguese in 1821 as a translation from the Italian _Libro di Odoardo Barbosa Portoghese_, itself a translation from a copy at Seville. The author had spent the greater part of his youth in India, and his work contains vivid and accurate notes on Eastern lands and cities, especially Malabar.

One of the causes that most moved Portugal to curiosity and acted as an incentive to discovery were the vague rumours of the existence of a mighty Christian prince, the half-mythical Prester John, Negus of Abyssinia. The priest FRANCISCO ALVAREZ (_c._ 1470?-_c._ 1540) set out with Duarte Galvam, first Portuguese Ambassador to Abyssinia, in 1515, but Galvam’s death delayed the mission, and it was not till 1520 that Alvarez and the new ambassador, D. Rodrigo de Lima, reached the Court of Prester John. They remained for six years in the country, and during this time Alvarez recorded in straightforward notes every detail of the country and its inhabitants with minuteness and accuracy. He considered himself old[511] in 1520; he was certainly active: he shoots hares and pheasants, washes unsuccessfully for gold, looks after his slaves, his nine mules, his fourteen cows, and organizes a procession against locusts. On their return, in Alvarez’ friend Antonio Galvam’s ship, to Lisbon, bringing ‘the length of Prester John’s foot’, he was eagerly questioned by king, prelates, and courtiers--the whole Court trooped out along the road from Coimbra to meet them--and when he published his fascinating diary of travel, _Verdadeira Informaçam das terras do Preste Joam_ (1540), it was soon translated into almost every language of Europe.[512] FREI GASPAR DA CRUZ of Evora, missionary in China, returned to Portugal in 1569, and in the same year began his _Tractado em que se cõtam muito por estẽso as cousas da China_ (1570). He calls it a _singella narraçam_, but it contains valuable information about China, nor did the author neglect his style. The Dominican FREI JOÃO DOS SANTOS (_c._ 1550-_c._ 1625?)[513] was born at Evora about the middle of the sixteenth century, and went out to East Africa and India as a missionary in 1586. He returned to Lisbon in August 1600 and nine years later published his _Ethiopia Oriental_ (1609), an attractive, curious account, written in a clear and easy style, of the natives, their land and customs. It is to be feared that some of the settlers sadly abused his credulity, as in the case of the _mercador’s_ tale of the native sorcerer or the man 380 years old, but this does not by any means impair the interest of his book. More individual and vivid is the _Itinerario_ (1560) of ANTONIO TENREIRO, who in brief, staccato sentences describes minutely what he saw (the _rosaes_ of red, white, and yellow roses in May near Damascus, the red roses of Shiraz, the fair, white Gurgis, complexioned like Englishmen) during his travels from Ormuz to the Caspian Sea and in Palestine and Egypt, and his overland journey from Ormuz to Portugal (1529) in which, alone with an Arab guide, he spent twenty-two days in crossing the desert. A similar land journey, a generation later, is described with an equal wealth of curious detail in the _Itinerario_ (1565) of Mestre MARTIM AFONSO, surgeon to the Viceroy, Conde de Redondo,[514] while the Franciscan FREI PANTALEAM DE AVEIRO in his _Itinerario da Terra Santa_, &c. (1593) described his journey to the Holy Land. Not less adventurous were the travels of another Franciscan, FREI GASPAR DE S. BERNARDINO, who related them with greater parade of erudition in a clear, elegant style in his _Itinerario da India por terra_ (1611), the promised second part of which was unhappily not finished or at least not published. Half a century later the Jesuit MANUEL GODINHO (_c._ 1630-1712),[515] in the _Relaçam do novo caminho que fez por terra e mar_ (1665), gave a remarkable account, in a style not untouched by the _culteranismo_ of the time, of his return journey in 1663 from Baçaim. But various and arresting as are the books of Portuguese travellers, they are all eclipsed by the wonderful _Peregrinaçam_ (1614) of FERNAM MENDEZ PINTO (_c._ 1510-83). This prince of travellers and adventurers was born at Montemôr o Velho. His parents were of humble station, and at the time of King Manuel’s death (1521) he was brought by an uncle to Lisbon in order to earn his living. Although he remained in Portugal for sixteen years, in the service first of a lady of Lisbon and later of D. João de Lencastre,[516] lord of Montemôr o Velho, at Setubal, he was but just in his teens when, crossing in a boat from Alfama, he was captured off Cezimbra by a French corsair as a foretaste of pleasures to come. In March 1537 he set out for India and his odyssey began in earnest. He had no sooner reached Diu than he re-embarked on an expedition to the Straits of Mecca. His hope was to make a rich prize and become _muito rico em pouco tempo_. He went next with three others on a mission to Ethiopia, and on the return voyage he was captured by the Turks, placed in a subterranean dungeon, and then sold to a Greek renegade, whom he describes as ‘the most inhuman and cruel dog of an enemy ever seen’. Fortunately after three months the Greek sold him for 12,000 _réis_ to a Jew, who brought him to Ormuz. After spending little over a fortnight there he embarked with a cargo of horses for Goa, and later was wounded in a fight with the Turks. He next proceeded to Malacca, and was sent thence on a mission to the King of the Batas, by whom he was made welcome ‘as rain to our rice crops’. After accompanying the king on a campaign he returned to Malacca, losing his cargo of tin and benjamin on the way. His next mission was to the King of Aaru. He returned to Malacca a slave, as his ship was wrecked, and after fearful sufferings he, the only survivor, was bought cheap by a poor Moorish trader. A trading expedition to Pão and Lugor ended as disastrously: after a fight with Moors he succeeded in swimming wounded to land, but returned penniless to Patane. In despair he joined the freebooting Antonio de Faria, and they preyed on Chinese junks till their ship was weighed down with silver and silk, damask and porcelain. Faria and his men are represented fighting, torturing, murdering, plundering, playing at dice on deck for pieces of silk, praying a litany, and promising rich and good spoil to Our Lady of the Hill at Malacca. After being shipwrecked they joined a Chinese pirate and again built up their fortunes. They weathered a storm by throwing overboard twelve cases of silver, sacked a Chinese city, were received in honour at Liampo (Ningpo), but again inordinate greed for gold proved their ruin, and, after a daring attempt to plunder the rich tombs of the Emperors of China in the island of Calemplui, they were finally stranded in China and arrested as vagabonds. After six weeks in the crowded prison at Nanking the Portuguese were taken to Peking and thence deported to Quansi (Kansu), where they were freed by the timely attack of the King of Tartary. He sent them to Cochin-China, but on the way they entered the service of a Chinese pirate. When they reached Japan only three Portuguese survived, the first Europeans, Mendez Pinto claims, to set foot there. When he brought news of this land to Liampo a trading expedition was hastily equipped and set out in defiance of times and seasons. Few of those who embarked in the nine junks ever saw land again. Mendez Pinto eventually reached Malacca (1544). Pedro de Faria later sent him on a mission to the King of Martavão. Martavão was, however, sacked soon after his arrival, and he was carried a prisoner to Pegu. He escaped by night and after many adventures returned to Goa. He immediately set out again ‘to challenge fortune in China and Japan’. After accompanying the King of Sunda on a war expedition he was again wrecked and spent thirteen days on a raft. Of the eleven survivors three were eaten by crocodiles and the rest sold as slaves. Released by the King of Calapa, Mendez Pinto served under the King of Siam and returned to Pegu and thence to Malacca. Once more he set out for Japan, and this time his voyage prospered and he came back with a fair profit. At Malacca he was eagerly questioned by St. Francis Xavier (1506-52) as to the conditions in Japan. He seems to have been infected with the saint’s enthusiasm, as were most of those who met him, and after his death he perhaps gave up a considerable fortune in order to return as missionary and ambassador to Japan. Before leaving Goa (April 1554) with St. Francis Xavier’s successor, Padre Belchior, he had been received into the Company of Jesus. After many hardships they landed in China in July 1556. In the spring of 1558, a few weeks after returning to Goa, Mendez Pinto sailed for home and arrived at Lisbon on September 22. The Lisbon officials dallied with his pretensions to reward for his services. During his wanderings in India, Ethiopia, China, Japan, Tartary, and Arabia he had persevered through captivities, battles, and shipwrecks, but four or five years of official evasions broke his spirit, and he retired to live in poverty at Almada. Philip II, stirred to interest in this legendary figure, granted him two bushels of wheat in January 1583, and in July of the same year he died. He had long before left the Company of Jesus, either of his own free will or expelled, perhaps on suspicion of Jewish descent.[517] His name was erased from the Company’s records and letters. Of his twenty-one years of trader, envoy, pirate, and missionary in the far East he wrote for his children a narrative of breathless interest, and, speaking generally, it bears the stamp of truth. We gather that he was brave and adventurous, despite a natural timidity, of a consuming curiosity which often got the better of his fears, pious, temperate, apt to be carried away by fugitive enthusiasms, but persistent, gay, and optimistic in defeat and disappointment. He appears not to have been particularly vain. He does not disguise some of his less creditable actions, and he certainly does not exaggerate his services in Japan.[518] He may possibly have been one of the three Portuguese who discovered it in 1542: their names are given by Couto (V. viii. 12) as Mota, Zeimoto and Peixoto. Gifted with keen imagination, he could exaggerate[519] when expediency required, but he knew that in the account of his travels exaggeration was not expedient, and he was constantly on guard against the notorious scepticism of his fellow-countrymen.[520] He may have heightened the colour occasionally, but as a rule he writes with restraint, although with delight in a good story and skill in bringing out the dramatic side of events. It is one of the charms of his work that it is very definite in dates and figures, but this also, through inevitable errors and misprints, afforded a handle to the pedantry of critics. The fatal similarity of Mendez and mendacity gave rise to the play on his name: _Fernam, mentes? Minto_ (‘Fernam, do you lie?--I lie’), and Congreve, in _Love for Love_, by calling him ‘a liar of the first magnitude’ clinched the matter in England. But comparatively early a reaction set in,[521] and modern travellers have unequivocally confirmed the more favourable verdict and corroborated his detailed descriptions of Eastern countries. The mystery of the East, the heavy scent of its cities, its fervent rites and immemorial customs, as well as the magic of adventure, haunt his pages. A hundred pictures refuse to fade from the memory, whether they are of silk-laden Chinese junks or jars of gold dust, vivid descriptions of shipwreck (the hiss and swell of the waves are in his rich sea-Latin) or the awful pathos of the Queen of Martavão’s death, the sketch of a supercilious Chinese mandarin or of St. Francis Xavier tramping through Japan.

Five years after Mendez Pinto’s return to Portugal a book scarcely less strange than his _Peregrinaçam_, of atmosphere as oriental and of interest as absorbing although more scientific, was printed at Goa. Its author, GARCIA DA ORTA[522] (_c._ 1495-_c._ 1570), born at Elvas, the son, perhaps, of Jorge da Orta, owner of a shop (_temdeiro_) in that town, studied medicine for ten years (1515-25) at Salamanca and Alcalá, and in 1526 began to practise as a doctor at Castello de Vide. From 1532 to 1534 he was Professor at the University of Lisbon, and in March 1534 sailed with his friend and patron, the insatiable Governor Martim Afonso de Sousa,[523] to India as king’s physician. The East cast its spell over his curious and inquiring mind; he remained under twelve or more Governors and died at a good old age, probably at Goa. There, on the veranda of his beautiful garden, in this land of _bellissimi giardini_,[524] served affectionately by many slaves, and with the books of his well-stocked library ready to his hand,[525] he would regale his guests with strange fruits--all the _maneiras á gula_ of India--and with still stranger knowledge. His knowledge was based on personal observation, for although he respected Galen and Dioscorides as the princes of medicine and was possessed of great erudition, he was not disposed to bow blindly to the authority of any writer, Arab or Greek, least of all to Scholasticism, he went to Nature and in his _Coloquios dos Simples_ (1563) recorded what he had seen and heard, the truth without rhetoric, setting aside the _mil fabulas_ of Pliny and Herodotus. These fifty-nine dialogues, arranged in alphabetical order, pay more regard to facts than to style. They are full of varied information and give us a most pleasant insight into the writer’s character, strong, humorous, obstinate, and into his life at Goa. From a scientific point of view they are of great importance: not only did they provide the first description of cholera[526] and of many unknown plants, but after three and a half centuries they retain their scientific interest and value. Begun many years earlier in Latin,[527] they were published in the author’s old age, with an introductory ode by his friend, the poet Camões. Unhappily they became known to Europe chiefly in a garbled Latin version by Charles de l’Écluse (Clusius)--a fifth edition appeared in 1605--from which the Italian and French translations were made. It was not until the nineteenth century that the skilful and eager care of the Conde de Ficalho enabled a larger number of those who read Portuguese to appreciate Orta at his true worth.

Born at Alcacer do Sal, the celebrated scientist PEDRO NUNEZ (1492?-1577?), whose name lives in the instrument of his invention, the _nonius_,[528] was Cosmographer to Kings João III and Sebastian and Professor of Mathematics at the University of Coimbra (1544-62). Prince Luis and D. João de Castro were his pupils. He wrote indifferently in Latin, Spanish, or Portuguese, declared that as science treats of concrete things it can be expressed in any language however barbarous,[529] and, in order to secure for it a wider public, translated into Portuguese the Latin treatise (_libellus_) _De Sphaera_ by John of Halifax (Joannes de Sacro Bosco): _Tratado da Sphera_ (1537),[530] and into Spanish his own _Libro de Algebra en arithmetica & geometria_ (1567), originally written in Portuguese and addressed to his pupil and friend the Cardinal-King Henrique. His other works, including the _De Crepusculis_ (1542), were written in Latin.

The Homeric hero DUARTE PACHECO PEREIRA (1465?-1533?), about whose life, apart from the hundred days at Cochin (1504) and a fight off Finisterre (1509) with the French pirate Mondragon, singularly little is known,[531] on his return from India in 1505 wrote a work entitled _Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis_ [1505-6?]. This curious and important survey of the coast of Africa, the work of one more accustomed to wield sword than pen, but sometimes as picturesque and interesting as Duarte Barbosa, was to have consisted of five books, but only three and a part of the fourth were written. It remained in manuscript for nearly four centuries.

The three _Roteiros_ (logs)[532] written by the famous Viceroy D. JOÃO DE CASTRO (1500-48) on his voyages (1) from Lisbon to Goa in 1538, (2) from Goa to Diu, 1538-9, (3) from Goa to the Red Sea in 1541, are decked out with no literary graces. He wrote, he said, for seamen, not for ladies and gallants. Yet the scientific curiosity and enthusiasm of this keen-eyed, broad-minded observer give his descriptions force and truth, the same practical lucidity that marks his letters, which according to his friend Prince Luis contained _todas as cousas necessarias e nenhũas superfluas_, and they were early prized in Spain as _harto notables, muy curiosos_.[533] The third _Roteiro_ would seem to have been originally written in Latin, and perhaps translated by Castro at his beloved Sintra home. The manuscript was bought by Sir Walter Raleigh, and it appeared in English in 1625, 208 years before it was published in Portuguese.

Greater historical interest attaches to the letters of an earlier Governor, AFONSO DE ALBUQUERQUE (1461-1515). That grim conqueror of the East might have smiled somewhat sardonically to be numbered among Portugal’s writers. He merely said what he had to say, and there was an end of it, would be his comment. But it is precisely this directness--the powerful grasp of reality and the horror of useless rhetoric--which gives excellence to the prose of his _Cartas_. These incomparable reports, written to King Manuel in moments snatched from his many occupations as Governor of India (1509-15), sometimes rise to a biblical grandeur and eloquence, as in the splendid passage beginning _Goa é vossa; Onor, o rei dele paga-vos pareas_. Perhaps, after all, he was not wholly unconscious of his art, and certainly the source of it is clear: as Osorio[534] notices, he was a devoted student of the Bible. In more familiar mood he can give a vivid sketch in a few emphatic words, as when he describes the judge, ‘a little man dressed in a cloak of coarse cloth with a crooked stick under his arm’, or the impostors who will practise ‘a thousand wiles and deceits for one ruby’.

To turn to lesser men, FERNAM RODRIGUEZ LOBO SOROPITA (born _c._ 1560), a distinguished Lisbon advocate and the first editor of the _Rythmas_ (1595) of Camões, was a poet celebrated for his wit in his day. That of his letters is perhaps a little forced, and the obscurity of the allusions now interferes with our enjoyment. The interest of the extracts from a manuscript in the British Museum written by FRANCISCO RODRIGUEZ SILVEIRA (1558-_c._ 1635) in 1608, published under the title _Memorias de um Soldado da India_ (1877), consists both in the record of his thirteen years’ service in India (1585-98) and in the account during the succeeding ten years of Portugal and especially Beira, the condition of the roads, the land, the peasants, and the sway of the local _caciques_--thief, Turk, Pasha, tyrant, he calls them--and his indignation gives a pleasant vigour to his prose. The _Arte da Caça da Altanaria_ (1616) of DIOGO FERNANDEZ FERREIRA (born _c._ 1550), page of the Pretender D. Antonio, is a work of great interest. The writer evidently delights in his theme and has a real love of birds, the migratory habits of which he describes in Part 6; and he treats ‘of swallows and of the swallow-grass which restores sight’, of the food made of sugar, saffron, and almonds for nightingales, and other alluring topics. Among the rare and curious books of the time we may notice that on the prerogatives of women, _Dos priuilegios & prœrogatiuas q ho genero femenino tẽ por dereito comũ & ordenações do Reyno mais que ho genero masculino_ (1557), by RUY GONÇALVEZ, Professor of Law at Coimbra in 1539 and subsequently Court Advocate at Lisbon.

Two writers especially attract attention even in the feast of interest which Portuguese prose in this century offers so abundantly. The son of a distinguished Dutch illuminator and painter settled in Portugal, Antonio de Hollanda, who painted Charles V at Toledo and may have illuminated the Book of Hours of Queen Lianor, FRANCISCO DE HOLLANDA (1518-84), born in Lisbon, painter, illuminator, and architect, in his short treatises _Da fabrica que fallece á cidade de Lisboa_ and _Da sciencia do desenho_, showed an enthusiasm for his subject almost out of place in the Portugal of the second half of the sixteenth century. Indeed, he nearly ran into trouble with the Inquisition by seeming to make painting ‘divine’, but prudently altered the passage. His curious and celebrated treatise _Da Pintvra Antigva_ (1548) is written in a style which may be rather rejoiced in than imitated, for, as he tells us, he was more at home with the brush than with the pen, but it is full of ingenious and original remarks. The first

## part deals in forty-four brief chapters with painting generally, and

opens with a fine passage describing the work of God as the greatest of all painters. The second part contains the _Quatro dialogos_, in the first three of which he records the conversations of Vittoria Colonna, Michelangelo, Lattanzio Tolomei, and himself in the church of St. Sylvester or in a garden overlooking Rome; conversations which, despite their Portuguese dress, bear the stamp of truth and will retain their fascination so long as interest in art endures. Francisco worked first in the household of the Infante Fernando and then in that of the Archbishop of Evora. In 1537 he set out on a journey to Rome by land (Valladolid, Barcelona, Provence), and in Italy remained from 1538 to 1547. His friendship with Michelangelo continued after his return to Portugal, as a letter from Hollanda to Michelangelo in 1553 proves. The last part of his life he spent in the country between Lisbon and Sintra among the Portuguese whom he had called _desmusicos_, and despite his comfortable circumstances--he received a pension of 100,000 _réis_ from Philip II--he must often have looked back with regret to the fullness of those nine years in Italy. But his countrymen, thanks largely to the scholarly researches and studies of Dr. Joaquim de Vasconcellos, are now fully alive to his merits. And, indeed, even in the sixteenth century a passage in Frei Heitor Pinto’s _Imagem da Vida Christam_ sets him side by side with the great Italian.[535] PHILIPE NUNEZ, who professed as a Dominican in 1591, wrote on painting in the next century: _Arte poetica e da pintura e symmetria_ (1615). A work on music by ANTONIO FERNANDEZ of about the same date, _Arte de Mvsica de

## canto dorgam e canto cham_ (1626), consists of three treatises which

do not profess to be original. MANUEL NUNEZ DA SILVA wrote on the same subject in his _Arte Minima_ (1685).

In the preface (1570) to his _Regra Geral_, written in 1565, GONÇALO FERNANDEZ TRANCOSO[536] (_c._ 1515-_c._ 1590) professed not to have sufficient literary skill even for this simple calendar of movable feasts. Yet in the previous year (1569), in which at Lisbon he lost both wife and children in the great plague (a beloved daughter of twenty-four, a student son, and a choir-boy grandson), in order to distract his mind from these sorrows,[537] he wrote a remarkable work, unique of its kind in Portuguese literature; or at least he wrote then the first two books, which appeared under the title _Contos e historias de proveito e exemplo_ (1575).[538] A third part was published posthumously in 1596. The number and kind of the editions in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries testify to its popularity, but since the eighteenth century no new edition has been printed and the book has fallen into a strange neglect.[539] Trancoso did not claim originality: he merely collected stories from what he had heard or read.[540] The stories, only thirty-eight in number, are very various. The subjects of many of them resemble those of Franco Sacchetti’s _Novelle_ or Giovanni Francesco Straparola’s _Le xiii Piacevoli Notti_, and some are directly imitated from Boccaccio’s _Il Decamerone_ or Giovanni Battista Giraldi’s _Gli Ecatommiti_ or from Matteo Bandello (†1565).[541] But often they are traditions so widespread that they occur in many authors and languages, as that (ii. 7) which corresponds to Straparola’s third _Notte_ and of which Dr. F. A. Coelho recorded twenty-one other foreign versions, besides four popular variants in Portuguese; or i. 17, in which the cunning answers to difficult questions are similar to those in Sacchetti, No. 4 (_Mestre Bernabò signor di Milano_), and Dr. Braga’s _Contos tradicionaes do povo portuguez_, No. 71 (_Frei Joam Sem Cuidados_). Others are apparently of oriental origin, as the judge’s verdict, worthy of Sancho Panza (i. 15), or the king and the barber (iii. 3). But the subject and place (Lisbon, Oporto, Evora, Coimbra, &c.) of most, although not of the longest, of these tales are Portuguese.[542] Some are trifling anecdotes which acquire a charm and vividness through their popular character and the author’s simple details of description, as the picture of the peasant family near Oporto sitting round the fire after their supper of maize-bread and chestnuts (i. 10). The author is not content that we should draw our own moral, but this scarcely spoils the reader’s pleasure in these malicious and ingenious tales.

Despite inroads of the exotic and all the chances and changes of life and literature in this century, the Portuguese maintained their interest in the romances of chivalry, in which indeed they saw a reflection of their own prowess in the East. Dull as _Clarimundo_ may now seem, it made a great impression in its day, and was eagerly read, from Lisbon to the Moluccas.[543] Even as late as 1589 Bishop Arraez considers it necessary to say that a prince should have better ways of spending his time than _ler por Clarimundo_,[544] while Rodriguez Lobo, thirty years later, brackets it with _Amadis_ and _Palmeirim_.[545] Many a young page and _escudeiro_ must have aspired not only to pore over the _cronicas_ but to write one of his own.[546] The facility of a Barros is, however, given to few, and both Jorge Ferreira’s _Memorial_ and Moraes’ _Palmeirim de Inglaterra_ were written later in life. FRANCISCO DE MORAES (_c._ 1500-72),[547] a well-known courtier in the reign of King João III, whose Treasurer he was, and a _Comendador_ of the Order of Christ, in 1540 accompanied the Portuguese Ambassador, D. Francisco de Noronha, to Paris as Secretary, and at the French Court he fell passionately in love with one of the ladies-in-waiting of Queen Leonor (sister of the Emperor Charles V and widow of King Manuel of Portugal) named Claude Blosset de Torcy. His love was not returned: there was a great discrepancy of age between them, his knowledge of French was very slight, and his passion robbed him of wit and reason. If the Duc de Châtillon was favoured, or if the English Ambassador gave Mademoiselle de Torcy his arm, Moraes would flare up in jealousy, and when in the presence of the queen the elderly lover went down on his knees _la belle Torcy_ (to whom Clément Marot had addressed one of his _Étrennes_ and who eventually married the Baron de Fontaines) prayed him not to continue to make her as well as himself ridiculous. Moraes, after leaving France in 1543, or early in 1544, recovered from his passion and married in Portugal. Of his subsequent life little is known; he appears to have returned to France, and in 1572 he was murdered at the entrance of the Rocio, the central square of Evora. His _Cronica de Palmeirim de Inglaterra_, written in France or Portugal or both, was probably published in 1544, but the earliest existing Portuguese edition is that of Evora, 1567, which contains the dedication to the Infanta Maria, written over twenty years earlier (1544). Chiefly remarkable for the excellence of its style, _Palmeirim_ will always retain its place in Portuguese literature as a masterpiece of prose, musically soft, yet clear and vigorous. Cervantes considered it worthy to be preserved in a golden casket like the works of Homer,[548] but few of its readers will now differ from the more modern and moderate opinion of Menéndez y Pelayo that ‘it requires a real effort’ to read the whole of it. The effort required to read the miserable Spanish translation of 1547-8 is infinitely greater. The fact that this translation is of earlier date than any surviving Portuguese edition gave rise to the theory that Moraes had translated his work from the Spanish. No competent critic now believes this; any doubts that may have lingered were dispelled wittily and for ever in Mr. Purser’s able essay (1904). The Spanish version, with its painful efforts to avoid _lusitanismos_ and its palpable mistranslations (such as _suavidad_ or _alegria_ for _saudade_), shows less knowledge of the sea, of Ireland,[549] and of Portugal. Moreover, the preference of the author of _Palmeirim_ for Portugal is obvious, and the passage in which ladies of the French Court are introduced corresponds to Moraes’ _Descvlpa de hvns amores_,[550] first published with the _Dialogos_ in 1624. Moraes himself would probably not have been greatly troubled by the impudent claim set up for Luis Hurtado and Miguel Ferrer. To have made a masterpiece out of their book would have been an achievement as great as to have made it out of old French and English legends in Paris. _Palmeirim’s_ predecessors, _Palmerin de Oliva_ (1511), _Primaleon_ (1512), and _Platir_ (1533), were probably all genuinely Spanish, although some doubts have been raised as to the first of the line, _Palmerin de Oliva_ attributed to a cryptic lady, a _femina docta_ called Agustobrica.[551] Its successors were as genuinely Portuguese: to Moraes’ parts 1 and 2 DIOGO FERNANDEZ added parts 3 and 4 (1587), concerned with the deeds of Palmeirim’s son, _Dom Duardos_,[552] and BALTHASAR GONÇALVEZ LOBATO parts 5 and 6 (1602), in which are told those of his grandson, _Dom Clarisol de Bretanha_. Three brief but very lively and natural _Dialogos_ (1624) show that Moraes was not only an excellent stylist but a keen observer. The _fidalgo_ and _escudeiro_, the lawyer and the love-lorn _moço_, are all clearly and wittily presented.

FOOTNOTES:

[507] For a full list see Innocencio da Silva, _Dicc. Bibliog._ i. 377, and _Grundriss_, p. 339. Five volumes were announced by Barbosa Machado as ready for press. The modern editors, besides eleven wrecks of the sixteenth, eight of the seventeenth, and two of the eighteenth, have included three of the nineteenth century. Some of the original chap-books survive, with a fine woodcut of a tossing galleon on the title-page: _Historia da mui notavel perda do galeam grande S. Joam_ (1554?); _Relaçam do lastimozo navfragio da nao Conceiçam chamada Algaravia a Nova_ (1555); _Naufragio da nao Santo Alberto_ (1597); _Memoravel relaçam da perda da nao Conceiçam_ (1627). The _Relaçam da viagem do galeão São Lovrenço e sua perdição_ (1651) is by the Jesuit Antonio Francisco Cardim (1596-1659); the _Relaçam sumaria da viagem que fez Fernão d’Alvarez Cabral_, by Manuel Mesquita Perestrello, is an account of the wreck of the fine ship _S. Bento_, which had taken Camões to India.

[508] In this _Relaçam do naufragio da nao S. Thomé_, written in 1611, twenty-two years after the event, he refers several times to his _Decadas_.

[509] _Naufragio da nao S. Alberto_ (1593). It is a summary of a _largo cartapacio_ of the pilot.

[510] _pedirme meu tio Ioam de Barros que lhe screuesse muito

## particularmente todos os lugares deste meu caminho._

[511] _Verd. Inf._, p. 110: _nam era pera velhos_.

[512] This seems to have aroused the resentment of Barros (_Asia_, III. iv. 3). The author, he says, had no learning. In II. iii. 4 he again refers to him slightingly as ‘a certain Francisco Alvarez’. Barros as grammarian similarly ignored Oliveira.

[513] Barbosa Machado says, _ultimamente em o Convento de Goa, para onde tinha passado no anno de 1622 falleceu com saudade_, &c. Innocencio da Silva read this with a comma after _passado_.

[514] Afonso de Albuquerque mentions another surgeon Mestre Afonso in India in his time, i.e. half a century earlier. The value of the _Itinerario_ consists in its having been written as a diary on the journey, and its author, perhaps thinking of Mendez Pinto, says _hee hũu grande descuido de homens que fazem semelhantes viagens e as nom escreuem ... porque a memoria nom pode ser capaz de tamanha cousa e tantas particularidades_ (p. 82).

[515] According to Barbosa Machado he entered the Jesuit College as a novice in 1645 and died in 1712 _aet._ 78. Godinho also wrote a life of Frei Antonio das Chagas.

[516] He was the son of D. Jorge, illegitimate son of João II., and was created Duke of Aveiro.

[517] See the important works by Colonel Cristovam Ayres, _Fernão Mendes Pinto_, 1904; _Fernão Mendes Pinto e o Japão_, 1906.

[518] His work did not appear till 1614 and it is uncertain to what extent it was edited by the historian Francisco de Andrade. It is thought that the account of his services as missionary in Japan may have been excised owing to the hostility of the Jesuits.

[519] Cap. 223: _eu respondi acrecentando em muitas cousas que me perguntava por me parecer que era assim necessario á reputação da nação portuguesa_.

[520] Cf. caps. 14, 70, 88, 114, 126, 198, 204. The complaint is echoed by almost every Portuguese traveller of the day. Bishop Osorio refers to the _fidei faciendae difficultas_; even the truthful and exact Francisco Alvarez fears his readers’ disbelief.

[521] Cf. Faria e Sousa (_laudari a laudato!_): _Yo le tengo por muy verdadero_; A. de Sousa Macedo, _Eva e Ave_, ii. 55, 1676 ed., p. 495: _El Rey Catholico D. Philippe II, quando veio a Portugal, gostava de ouvir a Fernão Mendes, em cujas peregrinaçoens & sucessos que dellas escreveo mostrou o tempo com a experiencia a verdade que se lhe disputava antes que ouvesse tantas noticias d’aquellas partes_; Soares, _Theatrum_: _diu apud Lusitanos fidem non meruit donec rerum qui secuti sunt eventus et aliorum scripta nihil Ferdinandum a vero discrepasse confirmarunt_; Manuel Bernardes, _Nova Floresta_, i (1706), p. 124: _as Relações do nosso Fernão Mendez Pinto que não merecem tão pouco credito como alguns lhe dão_. ‘Either never man had better memory or he was the most solemn liar that ever put pen to paper’ is the verdict of José Agostinho de Macedo (_Motim Literario_, 1841 ed., ii. 17).

[522] In France he was known as du Jardin. Familiarly this great botanist seems to have been called Herbs. A copy of the first edition of the _Coloquios_ has GRACIA DORTA O ERVAS on the back of the binding. This might be an ignorant mistake for D’ELVAS.

[523] The Governor’s brother, Pero Lopez de Sousa, wrote a _Diario da Navegação_ (1530-2) first published at Lisbon in 1839. The soldier in Couto’s _Dialogo_ says, _não vai tão mal negociado hir por Fysico môr pois todos os que este cargo serviram tiraram nos seus tres annos sete ou oito mil cruzados_.

[524] _Libro di Odoardo Barbosa Portoghese._

[525] He must have spent many a half-hour in the corner bookshop in Goa mentioned by Couto (_Dec._ VI. v. 8, 1781 ed., p. 400): _o canto onde pousa um livreiro_--unless this is a misprint for _luveiro_, as the neighbouring _sirgueiro_ seems to indicate. The growth of Portuguese literature in the East would furnish matter for a curious essay. Great folios like the _Cancioneiro de Resende_ (see Lopez de Castanheda, v. 12, and Barros, _Asia_, III. iii. 4, for the strange use made of it in India) and the _Flos Sanctorum_ were taken out, and it is improbable that they were brought back when every square inch was required for pepper. Thousands of precious volumes must have gone down in shipwrecks, others--profane books and _autos_--were thrown overboard at the bidding of the priests. For the fate of a case of Hebrew Bibles (_briuias_) see Corrêa, _Lendas da India_, i. 656-7. _Amadis de Gaula_ was apparently in India in 1519 (Lopez de Castanheda, v. 16). A most interesting list of books ready to be sent to the Negus of Abyssinia in 1515 is given in Sousa Viterbo’s _A Livraria Real_ (1901), p. 8.

[526] Unless Corrêa’s description (_Lendas_, iv. 288-9) is earlier. Other events recorded by Corrêa which must have closely affected Orta are the fate of a bachelor of medicine strangled and burnt by the Inquisition at Goa in 1543 (iv. 292) and the outbreak of small-pox, from which 8,000 children died there in three months in 1545 (iv. 447). The _Dialogo da perfeyçam & partes que sam necessarias ao bom medico_ (1562), with the exception of the dedicatory letter to King Sebastian and the title, is written in Spanish (25 ff.). Apparently AFONSO DE MIRANDA found it in Latin among the books of his son Jeronimo (who had studied at Coimbra and Salamanca) and translated it.

[527] _Composto_, he says (_Coloquios_, i. 5). Dimas Bosque (ib. i. 11) says _começado_.

[528] Thus he contributed to the fact, which he notices in the _Tratado da carta de marear_, that the Portuguese sea enterprises were based on careful preparation. The _nonius_ was perfected in the following century by Vernier.

[529] _Tratado da Sphera_, Preface.

[530] This volume contains also two brief treatises by Nunez in Portuguese: _Tratado ... sobre certas duuidas da nauegação_, answering certain questions put to him by Martim Afonso de Sousa, and _Tratado ... em defensam da carta de marear_, addressed to the Infante Luis. The _De Sphaera_ of Joannes de Sacro Bosco was printed with a preface by Philip Melanchthon in 1538. Arraez, in his _Dialogos_, 1604 ed., f. 56, says: _sei algo da Sphera porque quando Pero Nunez a lia a certos homens principais eu me achava presente_.

[531] He himself says that he was born in the excellent city of Lisbon (_Esmeraldo_, iv. 6), and he was one of the captains sent out by João II to continue the discovery of the West Coast of Africa. In 1520-2 he was Governor of the fortress of S. Jorge da Mina, but his last years were spent in poverty.

[532] Other works of a similar nature, _livros das rotas_ or _derrotas_, are printed in _Libro de Marinharia_. _Tratado da Aguia de Marear_ [1514] _de João de Lisboa_ [†1526]. _Copiado e coordenado por J. I. Brito Rebello_, 1903. Cf. also G. Pereira, _Roteiros Portuguezes da viagem de Lisboa á India nos seculos xvi e xvii_, 1898; H. Lopes de Mendonça, _Estudos sobre navios portuguezes nos seculos xv e xvi_, 1892, and _O Padre Fernando Oliveira e a sua obra nautica_, 1898 (pp. 147-221 contain _O Liuro da fabrica das naos_, of which, says the preface, _ninguem escreveo ateegora_); and Sousa Viterbo, _Trabalhos nauticos dos portuguezes nos seculos xvi e xvii_ (_Historia e Memorias da Ac. das Sciencias_, tom. vii (1898), _mem._ 3; tom. viii (1900), _mem._ 1). Diogo de Sá’s _De Navigatione_ was published in Paris in 1549; the _Arte Practica de Navegar_ (1699) by the _Cosmographo Môr_ Manuel Pimentel (1650-1719) appeared a century and a half later and had several editions in the eighteenth century.

[533] Fr. Antonio de San Roman, _Historia General de la India Oriental_, Valladolid, 1603.

[534] _De Rebvs Emmanvelis_ (1571), p. 380: _Non erat alienus a literis, & cum otium erat lectione sacrarum praecipue literarum oblectabatur._

[535] Pt. 1, 1572 ed., f. 224: _não feyto por mão do nosso Olãda nẽ do vosso Michaël Angelo mas por meu bayxo ingenho_.

[536] Or Gonçalo Fernandez of Trancoso (Beira). His name has no connexion with the phrase _contar historias a trancos_ (_de coq à l’âne_).

[537] Preface addressed to the Queen in Pt. 1. His object was _prender a imaginação em ferros_.

[538] Timoneda’s _El Patrañuelo_ appeared in the following year.

[539] See, however, Dr. Agostinho de Campos’ selections (1921).

[540] _O que aprendi, ouui ou li_ (1624 ed.); _o que aprendi, vi ou li_ (1734 ed.).

[541] See Menéndez y Pelayo, _Orígenes de la Novela_, tom. ii (1907), p. lxxxvii et seq.

[542] The alternation of the indigenous and the exotic may be seen in the spelling of the same name as Piro (= Pero, Pedro, Peter) and Pyrrho (Pyrrhus) in iii. 8.

[543] _Ropica Pnefma_, 1869 ed., p. 2.

[544] _Dialogos_, 1604 ed., f. 157. A third edition of _Clarimundo_ (1601) had appeared before the second edition of the _Dialogos_.

[545] _Corte na Aldea_ (1619), _Dialogo_ 1 (1722 ed., p. 5).

[546] Moraes, _Dialogo_ 1 (1852 ed., p. 11).

[547] Barbosa Machado seems to have considered him much under seventy at the time of his death in 1572.

[548] The tradition, mentioned by Cervantes, that it was written by a learned and witty king of Portugal is clearly traceable to that other tradition that King João III as Infante had been joint-author of _Clarimundo_.

[549] Mount Brandon, Smerwick (and The Three Sisters) of the ‘pleasant’ but ‘densely wooded’ coast of Kerry, are Greek to the Spanish translator and become San Cebrian (Cyprian) and San Maurique.

[550] The title continues: _que tinha com hũa dama francesa da raynha dona Leanor per nome Torsi, sendo Portugues, pela quai fez a historia das damas francesas no seu Palmeirim_.

[551] It is scarcely possible that the author (Francisco Vazquez?) considered that Burgos, as his birthplace--his mother--had a part in the work.

[552] From being merely the legend above, the mounted knight on the title-page _Dom Duardos de Bretanha_ became the title of the book.

§ 7.

_Religious and Mystic Writers_

Amador Arraez in one of his dialogues defines mysticism thus: ‘There is a theology called mystic, as being hidden and unintelligible to those who have no part in it. It is attained by much love and few books and with much meditation and purity of heart, which alone suffices for its exercise, and consists mainly in the noblest part of our will inflamed in the love of God, its full and perfect good.’[553] ‘Our will inflamed’: perhaps these words explain the excellence of the style, the intensity and directness, of the writers in this mystic theology. Style, so shy and elusive to Flaubert and his disciples, came unsought to the religious writers of the sixteenth century, because they wrote not with an eye on verbal artifices but out of the fullness of the heart, ‘self-gathered for an outbreak’; and their works can still be read with pleasure by priest and pagan. Mysticism, inherent in the character of the Portuguese, runs through a great part of their literature; we find it, for instance, in the merry poetry of Gil Vicente or in the precious accents of Soror Violante do Ceo. Strength of character, aloofness, rapt enthusiasm, singleness of purpose: these are the qualities of mysticism at its best, and if it also manifests itself in vagueness and confusion, this was not so with the great mystic and religious writers of the golden age of Portuguese literature. To them mysticism was not a cloudy goodness or an abstract perception-dulling humanity, not a mist but a pillar of fire, in the light of which the facts and details of reality stood out the more clearly. But if the intensity of many of the mystics has its natural complement in the fervour and directness of their prose, this was not always the case, and it was not only in profane works that the Portuguese language fell into the pitfalls of _culteranismo_. All the more remarkable is the purity, the exquisite taste, the simplicity and charm of some of the later, seventeenth century, prose. The secret of this prose lay in fact in _culteranismo_ itself, the points and conceits of which were based on a recognition of the value of words. All the _seiscentistas_ set to playing with words as with unset stones of price. The more critical or inspired writers joined in the game but selected the genuine stones, leaving the rest to those who did not care to distinguish between gems and coloured glass.

A faint vein of mysticism is to be found in the work of FREI HEITOR PINTO (_c._ 1528-1584?), who was born at the high-lying little town of Covilhan and professed in the famous Convento dos Jeronimos at Belem in 1543. After taking the degree of Doctor of Theology at Siguenza he in 1567 competed for a Chair at Salamanca University, but came into collision with Fray Luis de Leon, and in a bitter contest between the Hieronymite and Augustinian Orders Pinto was defeated. He returned to Portugal, became Professor of the new Chair of Scripture at Coimbra University in 1576, Rector of the University and Provincial of his Order.[554] After the death of the Cardinal-King he appears vehemently to have espoused the cause of the Prior of Crato. King Philip accordingly invited Pinto to accompany him to Spain--he was one of the fifty excluded from the amnesty of 1581--and scandal added that the king had him poisoned there in 1584. Pinto was an eminent divine, a man of wide learning, a master of Portuguese prose, and he appears to have inspired his pupils with affection; but King Philip could scarcely have considered him worth poisoning, especially when removed from his sphere of influence. No doubt he went to Spain with extreme reluctance--on other occasions of his busy life when the affairs of his Order drove him to France and Italy he had sighed in tears (in spite of his interest in travel, his love of Nature, and especially his antiquarian curiosity[555]) for his quiet cell at Belem, ‘where he had lived many years in great content’. Perhaps too he had not forgotten his defeat at Salamanca. ‘King Philip’, he now said sturdily, ‘may put me into Castille but never Castille into me.’ Pinto wrote commentaries on various books of the Old Testament, which were published in Latin, but his principal work consists in the dialogues, _a maneira dos de Platão_, of his _Imagem da Vida Christam_ (1563), followed by the _Segunda Parte dos Dialogos_ (1572). The first part has six dialogues, the subjects being true philosophy, religion, justice, tribulation, the solitary life,[556] and remembrance of death. The five of the second part treat of tranquillity of life, discreet ignorance, true friendship, causes,[557] and true and spurious possessions. It is impossible to read a page of these dialogues and not be struck by the extraordinary fascination of their style. It is concise and direct without ever losing its harmony. Perhaps its best testimonial is that its magic survives the innumerable quotations, although one may regret that the work was not written, like the _Trabalhos de Jesus_, in a dungeon instead of in a well-stocked library.[558] Apart from the proof it affords of the exceptional capacity of the Portuguese language for combining softness and vigour, the work contains much ingenious thought, charming descriptions, and elaborate similes. Some twenty editions in various languages before the end of the century show how keenly it was appreciated. It was certainly not without influence on the _Dialogos_ (1589) of the energetic and austere Bishop of Portalegre, AMADOR ARRAEZ (_c._ 1530-1600), who spent his boyhood at Beja and professed as a Carmelite at Lisbon a year after Frei Thomé de Jesus and two years after Frei Heitor Pinto had professed in the same city. Like the former he studied theology at Coimbra.[559] Cardinal Henrique, when Archbishop of Evora, chose Arraez to be his suffragan, and in 1578 appointed him to the see of Tripoli. Three years later he was made Bishop of Portalegre by Philip II. He resigned in 1596, and spent the last four years of his life in retirement, in the college of his Order at Coimbra. A few weeks before his death he wrote the prefatory letter for the revised edition of his great work.[560] It consists of ten long dialogues between the sick and dying Antiocho and doctor, priest, lawyer, or friends. The longest, over a quarter of the whole, is a mystic life of the Virgin, and of the others some are purely religious, as _Da Paciencia e Fortaleza Christam_, some historical or political (_Da Gloria e Triunfo dos Lusitanos_; _Das Condições e Partes do Bom Principe_). That on the Jews (_Da Gente Judaica_) is marred by a spirit of bitter intolerance; on the other hand there is an outspoken protest against slavery. The whole of this interesting miscellany, which incidentally discusses a very large number of subjects,[561] is tinged with mystic philosophy, and at the same time shows a keen sense of reality. In style as in degree of mysticism it stands midway between Pinto’s _Imagem_ and the _Trabalhos de Jesus_. It is evident that its composition, although less artificial than that of the _Imagem_, has been the subject of much care, and the author declares in his preface that while adopting a ‘common, ordinary style’, to the exclusion of forced tricks and elegances, he has striven after clearness and harmony (the two postulates of his contemporary, Fray Luis de Leon). The result is a treasury of excellent prose, in which the harmonious flow of the sentences in nowise interferes with precision and restraint, that grave brevity which Arraez notes as one of the principal qualities of Portuguese. It can rise to great eloquence (as in the lament of Olympio) without ever becoming rhetorical or turgid.

The prose of Pinto and Arraez was a very conscious art, that of the still greater FREI THOMÉ DE JESUS (1529?-82) was the man, and the man merged in mysticism, without thought of style. He was the son of Fernam Alvarez de Andrade, Treasurer to King João III, and of Isabel de Paiva. One of his brothers was the celebrated preacher Diogo de Paiva de Andrade (1528-75), another the historian Francisco de Andrade; a third, Frei Cosme da Presentação, distinguished himself in philosophy and theology, but died at the age of thirty-six at Bologna, while the work of a nephew (son of Francisco de Andrade), Diogo de Paiva de Andrade (1576-1660), _Casamento perfeito_ (1636), is counted a classic of Portuguese prose. His sister D. Violante married the second Conde de Linhares. As a boy at the Augustinian Collegio de Nossa Senhora da Graça at Coimbra he is said to have been all but drowned while swimming in the Mondego. He professed at the Lisbon convent of the same Order in 1544, went to Coimbra to study theology, and then became master of novices at the Lisbon convent.[562] Here in 1574 he planned a reform of the Order, but when all was ready for the secession of the new _Recoletos_ an intrigue put an end to the scheme, which a kindred spirit, Fray Luis de Leon, later carried into effect. Frei Thomé was permitted to retire to the convent of Penafirme by the sea, near Torres Vedras, where he might hope to indulge his love of quiet and solitude. He was, however, appointed prior of the convent and Visitor of his Order, and in 1578 was chosen by King Sebastian to accompany him to Africa. At the battle of Alcacer Kebir, as he held aloft a crucifix or tended the wounded, he was speared by a Moor and taken prisoner to Mequinez. Here he was loaded with chains and placed in a dungeon, and as the slave of a marabout received ‘less bread than blows’. The Portuguese Ambassador, D. Francisco da Costa, intervened, and he was removed to Morocco. Frei Thomé had borne all his sufferings with the most heroic fortitude, and now, broken in health but not in spirit, he refused to lodge at the ambassador’s and asked to be placed in the common prison. During a captivity of nearly four years, regardless of his own fate,[563] with unflagging devotion he ministered to the numerous Christian prisoners, and was occupied to the last with their needs. Costa, who shared the general respect and affection for this saint and hero, visited him as he lay dying (April 17, 1582). _Vattene in pace, alma beata e bella!_ It was during his captivity that he composed the work that has given him the lasting fame earned by his life and character, writing furtively in the scant light that filtered through the cracks of the prison door.[564] These fifty _Trabalhos de Jesus_ (2 pts., 1602, 9) embrace the whole life of Christ, and deserve, more than Renan’s _Vie de Christ_, to be called a gracious fifth Gospel. Each _trabalho_ is, moreover, followed by a spiritual exercise, and these constitute a Portuguese _De Imitatione Christi_. Rarely, if ever, has such glow and fervour been set in print: none but the very dull could be left cold by these transports of passionate devotion. The prose wrestles and throbs in an agony of grief or rapture, of mysticism carried to the extreme limit where all power of articulate expression ends.[565] Frei Thomé de Jesus is a master of Portuguese prose not by any arts or graces but through the white heat of his intensity. No book shows more clearly that style must always be a secondary consideration, that if there be a burning conviction excellence of style follows. It could evidently only have been written by one who had greatly suffered, indeed by one who still suffered, one who expressed in these fervid accents of heavenly communion an oblivion of self and an energy habitually employed in eager earthly service of his fellow men. In a prefatory letter (November 8, 1581) addressed to the Portuguese people he declared his intention of publishing as it stood this masterpiece of mystic ecstasy, which he believed to have been written by divine inspiration.[566]

Another celebrated treatise of a mystic character is the _Voz do_ _Amado_ (1579) by the learned Canon D. HILARIAM BRANDÃO (†1585). The religious works of this century are very numerous. We may mention the anonymous _Regras e Cautelas de proueito espiritual_ (1542), which is written in biblical prose and deals with the fifteen perfections or excellences of charity and kindred subjects; the dialogues _Desengano de Perdidos em dialogo entre dous peregrinos, hũ christão e hũ turco_ (Goa, 1573) by the first Archbishop of Goa, D. GASPAR DE LEÃO (†1576), and the _Dialogo espiritual: Colloquio de um religioso com um peregrino_ (1578) by FREI ALVARO DE TORRES [Vedras] (fl. 1550), who was drowned in the Tagus when on the way to his convent at Belem.

D. JOANA DA GAMA (†1568), a nun of noble birth who directed a small community founded by herself at Evora, a few miles from her native Viana, published a short collection of moral sentences in alphabetical order, followed by a few poems (_trovas_): _Ditos da Freyra_ (1555). She insists, perhaps a little too emphatically for conviction, on her lack of intelligence and ability, and says that these sayings were written down for herself alone and that she purposely avoids subtleties (_ditos sotijs_), but her aphorisms contain some shrewd personal observation. Fact and legend have combined to weave an atmosphere of romance about the life of Manuel de Sousa Coutinho, better known as FREI LUIS DE SOUSA (1555?-1632). A descendant of the second Conde de Marialva, he early entered or was about to enter the Order of Knights Hospitallers at Malta, but was captured by the Moors in much the same way and at about the same time (1575) as was Cervantes. He was taken to Algiers, and may have known Cervantes there, or the statement that he became Cervantes’ friend may have been an inference from the latter’s mention of him in _Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda_; they may have met in Lisbon in 1590, or at Madrid. Sousa Coutinho returned to Portugal in 1578, and some years later married D. Magdalena de Vilhena, widow of D. João de Portugal, one of all the peerage that fell with King Sebastian at Alcacer Kebir. Sousa Coutinho, at the invitation of his brother in Panama, is said to have gone thither in the hope of making a fortune, but the date is not clear. His unbending patriotism was immortalized when as Governor of Almada in 1599 he burnt down his house rather than receive as guests the Spanish Governors of Portugal. The prospect of riches at Panama may have seemed especially alluring after this rash act. He appears to have lived quietly in Portugal for some years before 1613, when both he and his wife entered a convent. Their act has been variously explained as due to melancholy disposition or to the early death of their daughter, D. Anna de Noronha. Probably after her death the example of their friend the Conde de Vimioso and the conviction that the only abiding pleasure is the renunciation of all the rest were prevalent factors in their decision. The legend, however, related by Frei Antonio da Encarnação and dramatized two centuries later by Garrett, records that D. João de Portugal, D. Magdalena de Vilhena’s first husband, had been not killed but taken prisoner in Africa, and after many years’ captivity he reappears as an aged pilgrim and bitterly reveals his identity. In the convent of Bemfica, where he had professed in September 1614, Frei Luis de Sousa was consulted on various matters by the Duke of Braganza and others who valued his fine character and clear judgement, but he did not live to see the Restoration. He was entrusted by his Order with the revision of works left by another Dominican, FREI LUIS DE CACEGAS (_c._ 1540-1610). These he re-wrote, giving them a lasting value by virtue of his style. The first part of the _Historia de S. Domingos_, ‘a new kind of chronicle’ as he calls it in his preface addressed to the king, appeared in 1623, but the second (1662) and third (1678) parts were not published in his lifetime. A fourth part (1733) was added by FREI LUCAS DE SANTA CATHARINA (1660-1740), who among other works wrote a curious miscellany of verse and prose, romance and literary criticism, entitled _Seram politico_ (1704). In the biography of the saintly and strong-willed Archbishop of Braga, _Vida de D. Fr. Bertolomeu dos Martyres_ (1619), the excellence of Sousa’s style is even more apparent, for it has here no trace of rhetoric and the pictures stand out with the more effect for the economy with which they are drawn--the dearth of adjectives is noticeable. The archbishop’s visits to his diocese give occasion for charming, homely glimpses of Minho. Neither of these books is the work of a critical historian (in the _Vida_, for instance, winds and waves obey the archbishop), but the latter, especially, is in matter and manner one of the masterpieces of Portuguese literature, a _livro divino_, as a modern Portuguese writer called it.[567] The _Annaes de El Rei Dom João Terceiro_, written at the bidding of Philip IV, was published in 1844 by Herculano, who described the work as little more than a series of notes, except in the Indian sections, which summarize Barros. It is as a stylist, not as a historian, that Frei Luis de Sousa will always be read, and read with delight.[568] The subject of his biography, FREI BARTHOLOMEU DOS MARTYRES (1514-90), wrote in Portuguese a simple _Catecismo da Dovtrina Christam_ (Braga, 1564), resembling the Portuguese work of his friend Fray Luis de Granada (1504-88): _Compendio de Doctrina Christãa_ (Lixboa, 1559).

The _Historia da Vida do Padre Francisco Xavier_ (1600), by the Jesuit JOÃO DE LUCENA (1550-1600), born at Trancoso, who made his mark as an eloquent preacher and Professor of Philosophy in the University of Evora, is also one of the classics of the Portuguese language. It receives a glowing fervour from the author’s evident delight in his subject--the life of the famous Basque missionary in whose arms D. João de Castro died. His command of clear, fluent, vigorous prose, his skilful use of words and abundant power of description, enable him to convey this enthusiasm to his readers. Part of the matter of his book was derived from Fernam Mendez Pinto, but the style is his own.

Like Frei Luis de Sousa, FREI MANUEL DA ESPERANÇA (1586-1670) became the historian of his Order in the _Historia Seraphica da Ordem dos Frades Menores_ (2 pts., 1656, 66). We know from remarks in the second part that he paid the greatest attention to its composition, for which he had prepared himself by reading _hũa multidão notavel_ of books on that and kindred subjects. Similar excellence of style marks the later work of the Jesuit FRANCISCO DE SOUSA (1628?-1713), _O Oriente conquistado_ (2 vols., 1710), in which he chronicles the history of the Company in the East.

The most celebrated Portuguese preacher of his time,[569] Frei Thomé de Jesus’ brother, DIOGO DE PAIVA DE ANDRADE (1528-75), represented Portugal at the Council of Trent in 1561. His eloquent _Sermões_ (1603, 4, 15) were published posthumously in three parts. His mantle fell upon FRANCISCO FERNANDEZ GALVÃO (1554-1610), the prose of whose _Sermões_ (3 vols., 1611, 13, 16) is admirably restrained and pure. Less sonorous than the periods of Paiva de Andrade, the _Trattados_ [_sic_] _Quadragesimais e da Paschoa_ (1609) and _Tratados das Festas e Vidas dos Santos_ (2 pts., 1612, 15) of the Dominican FREI ANTONIO FEO (1573-1627) perhaps gain rather than lose by being read, not heard. In the clearness and precision of their prose they are scarcely inferior to the remarkable _Sermões_ (3 pts., 1617, 18, 25) of the Augustinian FREI PHILIPE DA LUZ (1574-1633), confessor to the Duke of Braganza (afterwards King João IV), in whose palace at Villa Viçosa he died. He, too, writes _sem grandes eloquencias_; he is as precise as Feo in his use of words, and his vocabulary is as extensive. Purity, concision, clearness, and harmony give him, together with Feo, Ceita, and Veiga, a high place in Portuguese prose.

The sermons for which the Dominican FREI PEDRO CALVO (born _c._ 1550) was celebrated were published in _Homilias de Quaresma_ (2 pts., 1627, 9), and at the repeated request of a friend he wrote his _Defensam das Lagrimas dos ivstos persegvidos_ (1618) to prove that ‘tears shed in time of trouble do not lessen merit’. The _Sermões_ (1618) and _Considerações_ (1619, 20, 33) of FREI THOMAS DA VEIGA (1578-1638), like his father a Professor of Coimbra University, are written in a style of great excellence, as, although a trifle more redundant[570] and latinized, is that of his contemporary, like him a Franciscan, FREI JOÃO DA CEITA (1578-1633), whose prose has a natural grace and harmony, if it is less pure and indigenous than that of Luz. His best known works are the _Quadragena de Sermoens_ (1619) and _Quadragena Segunda_ (1625). Two more volumes of _Sermões_ (1634, 5) appeared after his death. Two slightly later writers were FREI CRISTOVAM DE LISBOA (†1652), brother of Manuel Severim de Faria, and FREI CRISTOVAM DE ALMEIDA (1620-79), Bishop of Martyria. The former, author of _Jardim da Sagrada Escriptura_ (1653) and _Consolaçam de Afflictos e Allivio de Lastimados_ (1742), in the preface to his _Santoral de Varios Sermões_ (1638) deplores the new fashion of certain preachers who hide their meaning under their eloquence. He is himself sometimes inclined to be florid. Bishop Almeida attained a reputation for great eloquence even in the days of Antonio Vieira.[571] His _Sermões_ (1673, 80, 86) are simpler than those of Vieira, but for the reader their prose lacks the quiet precision of Ceita, Veiga, or Luz, whose sermons may be considered one of the sources from which a greater master of Portuguese, Manuel Bernardes, derived his magic. The Jesuit LUIS ALVAREZ (1615?-1709?), who was born a few years after Vieira, and lived on into the eighteenth century, also had a great reputation as a preacher. The fire is absent from the printed page, but his works, _Sermões da Quaresma_ (3 pts., 1688, 94, 99), _Amor Sagrado_ (1673), and _Ceo de graça, inferno custoso_ 1692), are notable for the purity of their prose.

The religious works of the seventeenth, as of the sixteenth century are very various in subject and treatment. FREI JOÃO CARDOSO (†1655), author of _Ruth Peregrina_ (2 pts., 1628, 54), also wrote a lengthy commentary on the 113th Psalm in twenty-one discourses: _Jornada Dalma Libertada_ (1626). Ten years earlier a Jew, JOÃO BAPTISTA D’ESTE, had published in excellent Portuguese a translation of the Psalms: _Consolaçam Christam e Lvz para o Povo Hebreo_ (1616). His title was suggested by that of a far more remarkable book by another Jew, SAMUEL USQUE (fl. 1540), _Consolaçam ás Tribulaçoens de Israel_, written probably between 1540 and 1550[572] and first printed at Ferrara by Abraham ben Usque in 1553. The author was the son of Spanish Jews who had taken refuge in Portugal, where he was born, probably at the end of the fifteenth century.[573] His famous work is an account of the sufferings of the Jewish race. In three dialogues Jacob (_Ycabo_), Nahum (_Numeo_), and Zachariah (_Zicareo_) converse as shepherds. Israel, in person, relates his sorrows down to the fall of Jerusalem, an event which is described in detail, and so on to the persecutions in European countries (_novas gentes_), and at the end of each dialogue the prophets administer their comfort. The book closes with a chorus of rapturous psalms in biblical prose, rejoicing at the coming end of Israel’s tribulations and calling for vengeance on their enemies, and thus finishes on a note of joyful faith and courageous hope, without an inkling of charity. The first dialogue, which condenses Old Testament history, has a rhythmical, luxuriant style, rich in Oriental imagery, but later, where Roman history is the authority, or in the tragic account of the persecution of Jews in Portugal[574] under João II and the two succeeding kings, the style is shorn of rhetoric. Nor is there a trace of false ornament in a long passage of wonderful eloquence, Israel’s final complaint and invocation to sky and earth, waters and mortal creatures. The agony and awful glow of indignation at these recent events had a restraining influence on the style, which loses nothing by this simplicity. Quieter descriptions are those of the shepherd’s life and of the chase in the first, and of spring and evening in the third part.

The Jesuit DIOGO MONTEIRO (1561-1634), when towards the end of his life he published his _Arte de Orar_ (1631), promised, should his ‘great occupations’ allow, to print very soon the second volume dealing with the divine attributes. This did not appear in that generation: _Meditações dos attribvtos divinos_ (Roma, 1671). The _Arte de Orar_ contains twenty-nine treatises (604 ff.). Its subjects are various (of the virtue of magnificence; of the esteem in which singing is held by God, &c.), and they are presented with fervour and clear concision, and especially with a complete absence of oratorical effect. Quintilian takes part in one of the six dialogues which compose the _Peregrinaçam Christam_ (1620) by TRISTÃO BARBOSA DE CARVALHO (†1632); he is on a pilgrimage from Lisbon to the tomb of Saint Isabel at Coimbra, but he expresses himself in excellent Portuguese, modelled perhaps on that of Arraez. The prose of the _Retrato de Prvdentes, Espelho de Ignorantes_ (1664) by the Jesuit FRANCISCO AIRES (1597-1664) often rises to eloquence, notably in the fervent prayers. His _Theatro dos Trivmphos Divinos contra os Desprimores Hvmanos_ (1658) is of a more practical character. The Franciscan FREI MANUEL DOS ANJOS (1595-1653) laid no claim to originality in his _Politica predicavel e doutrina moral do bom governo do mundo_ (1693), written in a clear and correct but slightly redundant[575] style.

FREI LUIS DOS ANJOS (_c._ 1570-1625) in his _Iardim de Portugal_ (1626) gathered edifying anecdotes of saintly women from various writers, and set them down in good Portuguese prose. The Franciscan FREI PEDRO DE SANTO ANTONIO (_c._ 1570-1641) in his _Iardim Spiritual, tirado dos Sanctos e Varoens spiritvaes_ (1632) contented himself with translation of his authorities, adding, he modestly says, ‘some things of my own of not much importance’. He carefully avoided interlarding his Portuguese with Latin, his object being _fazer prato a todos_. Even more humble is the work of the Cistercian FREI FRADIQUE ESPINOLA (_c._ 1630-1708), who compiled in his _Escola Decurial_ (12 pts., 1696-1721) an encyclopaedia of themes so various as the fate of King Sebastian, the duties of women, and the habits of storks. Although it lacks the literary pretensions of the _Divertimento erudito_ by the Augustinian FREI JOÃO PACHECO (1677-?1747), it contains some curious matter. A similar miscellany of anecdotes and precepts was written by João Baptista de Castro in the eighteenth century: _Hora de Recreio nas ferias de maiores estudos_ (2 pts., 1742, 3).

The life of the ardent FREI ANTONIO DAS CHAGAS (1631-82) abounded in contrasts. Born at Vidigueira, of an old Alentejan family, Antonio da Fonseca Soares began his career as a soldier in 1650; a duel (arising out of one of his many love affairs), in which he killed his man, drove him to Brazil, and it was only after several years of distinguished service[576] that he returned to Portugal, perhaps in 1657. In 1661 he attained the rank of captain, but in the following year abandoned his military career, and in 1663 professed in the Franciscan convent at Evora, exchanging the composition of gongoric verse for a voluminous correspondence in prose, and his unregenerate days of dissipation for a glowing and saintly asceticism. (_Trocando as galas em burel e os caprichos em cilicios_ are the words with which he veils the real sincerity of his conversion.) Preferring the humbler but strenuous duties of missionary in Portugal and Spain to the bishopric of Lamego, he founded the missionary convent of Varatojo, and died there twenty years after his novitiate. During those years he built up and exercised a powerful spiritual influence throughout Portugal, and it continued after his death. Few of his poems survive, since he committed the greater part of his profane verse to the flames, but some of his _romances_ may still be read. It is, however, as a prose-writer, especially in his _Cartas Espirituaes_ (2 pts., 1684, 7), that he holds a foremost place in Portuguese literature. There is less affectation in these more familiar letters than in his _Sermões genuinos_ (1690) or his _Obras Espirituaes_ (1684). The very titles of some of his shorter treatises, _Vozes do Ceo e Tremores da Terra, Espelho do Espelho_, show that he had not even now altogether escaped the false taste of the time, and artificial flowers of speech, plays on words, laboured metaphors and antitheses appear in his prose. But if it has not the simple severity of a Bernardes, it possesses so persuasive, so passionate an energy, and is of so clear a fervour and harmony that its eloquence is felt to be genuine.

The Jesuit FREI JOÃO DA FONSECA (1632-1701), in the preface to one of his works, _Sylva Moral e Historica_ (1696), which may have given Bernardes the idea of his _Nova Floresta_, rejects affected periods and new phrases, and there is no false rhetoric in his _Espelho de Penitentes_ (1687), _Satisfaçam de Aggravos_ (1700), which takes the form of dialogues between a hermit and a soldier, and other devotional works. Another Jesuit, ALEXANDRE DE GUSMÃO (1629-1724), although born at Lisbon, spent most (eighty-five years) of his long life in Brazil. He wrote, among other works, _Rosa de Nazareth nas Montanhas de Hebron_ (1715), compiled from various histories of the Company of Jesus, and _Historia do Predestinado Peregrino e seu Irmão Precito_ (1682). The latter is an allegory in six books which lacks the human interest of Bunyan’s _Pilgrim’s Progress_, which it preceded. It describes the journey of two brothers, _Predestinado_ and _Precito_, out of Egypt to Jerusalem (Heaven) and Babylon (Hell). The style is simpler and more direct than might be inferred from the inflated title, and often has an effective if studied eloquence.[577]

Vieira dying is reported to have said that the Portuguese language was safe in the keeping of Padre Manuel Bernardes. The aged Jesuit, who maintained his interest in literature to the end, may have received Bernardes’ _Luz e Calor_[578] (1696) in the last year of his life, and the _Exercicios Espirituaes_ (2 vols., 1686) had appeared ten years earlier. Other works, _Sermões e Praticas_ (1711),[579] _Nova Floresta_ (5 vols., 1706-28), _Os Ultimos Fins do Homem_ (1727), _Varios Tratados_ (2 vols., 1737), were soon forthcoming to justify the prophecy. MANUEL BERNARDES (1644-1710), the son of João Antunes and Maria Bernardes, was born at Lisbon, studied law and philosophy at Coimbra University, and at the age of thirty entered the Lisbon Oratory, where he spent thirty-six years. That was all his life, yet through his books this modest, humorous, austere priest has exercised a profound influence not only, as Barbosa Machado declares, in guiding souls to Heaven, but in moulding and protecting the Portuguese language. His style is marked in an equal degree by grace and concision, intensity and restraint, smoothness and vigour.[580] With him the florid cloak, in which many recent writers had wrapped Portuguese, falls away, leaving the pith and kernel of the language; the conceits of the _culteranos_ disappear, and the most striking effects are attained without apparent artifice. In his hands the pinchbeck and tinsel are transmuted into delicate pieces of ivory. The charm of his style is difficult to analyse, but it may be remarked that his vocabulary is inexhaustible, his precision unfailing, that he is not afraid to employ the commonest words, and that the construction of his sentences is of a transparent simplicity, as bare of rhetoric as is the poetry of João de Deus. His reputation as a lord of language has survived every test. His works are not merely the _deliciae_ of a few distant scholars but an acknowledged glory of the nation, praised by that literary iconoclast Macedo, and quoted as an authority in the Republican Parliament of 1915. The most popular of his works are _Luz e Calor_, and especially the _Nova Floresta_, in which moral and familiar anecdote go quaintly hand in hand, but if one must choose between excellence and excellence his masterpiece is the _Exercicios Espirituaes_, in which thought and expression often rise to sublime heights. One may perhaps compare him with Fray Juan de los Ángeles (†1609). His simple doctrines spring from the heart and, winged by shrewd knowledge of men, touch the heart of his readers. One of his more immediate followers was Padre MANUEL CONSCIENCIA (_c._ 1669-1739), author of a large number of works on moral and religious subjects, the best known of which is _A Mocidade enganada e desenganada_ (6 vols., 1729-38).

FOOTNOTES:

[553] _Dial._ x. 4.

[554] The dates given by Barbosa Machado are Rector 1565, Provincial 1571.

[555] He introduces himself as a theologian in his dialogues, and one may infer several facts concerning his life, e. g. that he had been in Rome (_Imagem_, Pt. 2, 1593 ed., f. 351 v.), Montserrat (f. 88), Marseilles (f. 88), Savoy (f. 295), Madrid (f. 190), that he kept a diary (f. 190), that he was _curioso de antigualhas_ (f. 352).

[556] Macedo, quoted by Innocencio da Silva (iii. 176), alleged this to be a ‘faithful translation’ from Petrarca. Why Petrarca (1304-74) should praise Belem Convent and Coimbra University, refer to the recent death (1557) of King João III, or speak of ‘our’ Francisco de Hollanda we are not told. Pinto in a later dialogue, _Da Tranquillidade da Vida_, refers to Petrarca’s _Vita Solitaria_ (Pt. 2, 1593 ed., f. 47 v.).

[557] Since 1590 is implied as the date of this dialogue on f. 290 of the 1593 edition it must be emphasized that the _Segunda Parte_ appeared originally in 1572.

[558] Pt. 2, 1593 ed., f. 366 v.: _eu revolvo os livros ... com grandes trabalhos & vigilias_.

[559] Cf. _Dialogos_, 1604 ed., f. 346: _Coimbra, onde gastei a flor de minha adolescencia._ (This edition really has but 344 ff. since f. 29 follows f. 22.)

[560] _Dialogos de Dom Frey Amador Arraiz_, Coimbra, 1604. The idea of the work belonged to his brother, Jeronimo Arraez, who did not live to complete what he had begun.

[561] The same variety occurs in _Poderes de Amor em geral e horas de conversaçam particular_ (1657), by Frei Cristovam Godinho (_c._ 1600-71) of Evora.

[562] He wrote the life of the prior, Frei Luis de Montoia, whose _Vida de Christo_ he completed.

[563] _Tendo elle sua mãi e irmãos muito ricos e a Condessa de Linhares sua irmãa, todos offerecidos a pagar o grosso resgate que os Mouros pediam, por saberem a qualidade de sua pessoa_ (_Cronica do Cardeal Rei D. Henrique_, p. 38).

[564] See his prefatory letter in the _Trabalhos_. Cf. Antonio, _Bib. Nova_, ii. 307. Barbosa Machado speaks of _hũa horrivel masmorra_.

[565] Cf. p. 39 (1666 ed.): _Ó, ó, ó amor; ó, ó, ó amor, cale a lingua e o entendimento, dilatai-vos vos por toda esta alma_, &c.; or p. 54: _Ah, ah, ah bondade; ah, ah amor sem lei, sem regra, sem medida, adoro-te, louvo-te, desejo-te, por ti suspiro._

[566] He also wrote _Oratorio sacra de soliloquios do amor divino_ (1628) and various works in Latin. Manuel Godinho refers to his _Estimulo das Missões_ (_Relação_, 1842 ed., p. 47).

[567] C. Castello Branco, _Estrellas propicias_, 2ᵃ ed., p. 204. Its only fault, artistically, is the detailed description of the commemoration festivities, which come as an anticlimax.

[568] Other works of the period are similarly read rather for their style than as history, as the _Historia Ecclesiastica da Igreja de Lisboa_ (1642) and the _Historia Ecclesiastica dos Arcebispos de Braga_ (2 pts., 1634, 1635) by D. RODRIGO DA CUNHA (1577-1643), the Archbishop of Lisbon who had an active share in the liberation of Portugal from the yoke of Spain in 1640.

[569] Another renowned Court preacher was D. ANTONIO PINHEIRO (†1582?), Bishop of Miranda, whose works were collected by Sousa Farinha: _Collecção das obras portuguesas do sabio Bispo de Miranda e de Leiria_, 2 vols., 1785, 6.

[570] e. g. _officio e dignidade, gritos e brados, boca e lingoa, cuidão e imaginão_. Macedo (_O Couto_, p. 82) rightly calls Ceita _um dos principaes textos em lingua portugueza_.

[571] Other noted preachers were the Jesuits FRANCISCO DO AMARAL (1593-1647), who published the first (and only) volume of his _Sermões_ (1641) in the year in which Vieira came to Portugal, and FRANCISCO DE MENDONÇA (1573-1626), a master of clear and vigorous prose in his two volumes of _Sermões_ (1636, 9); and the Trinitarian BALTASAR PAEZ (1570-1638), whose _Sermões de Quaresma_ (2 pts., 1631, 3), _Sermões da Semana Santa_ (1630), _Marial de Sermões_ (1649), may still be read with profit.

[572] _Ha poucos annos que he arribado_ (the Inquisition in Portugal), Pt. 3, 1908 ed., f. xxxii.

[573] See p. 5 of _Prologo_: Portuguese is _a lingoa que mamei_, but his _passados_ are from Castile.

[574] The inhabitants of the Peninsula are _astutos e maliciosos_, Spain is ‘a hypocritical and cruel wolf’, the Portuguese are _fortes e quasi barbaros_, the English _maliciosos_, the Italians, since the book was to appear in their country, merely ‘warlike and ungrateful’.

[575] If, for instance, the bracketed words in the following sentence (p. 3, § 5) be omitted it gains in vigour and loses little in the sense: _Este poder se não deo aos Reys para extorsoens_ [_& violencias_] _mas para amparar_ [_& defender_] _os vassallos porque até o propria Deos parece que tem as mãos atadas a rigores_ [_& castigos_] _& livres a clemencias_ [_& misericordias_].

[576] He had been fortunate, for, says Antonio Vieira in 1640, _não ha guerra no mundo onde se morra tão frequentemente como na do Brazil_.

[577] e. g. in the following passage (p. 47), in which Calderon and João de Deus join hands: ‘The world and its glory is a passing comedy, a farce that ends in laughter, a shadow that disappears, a thinning mist, a fading flower, a blinding smoke, a dream that is not true.’

[578] _Estimulos de amor divino_ (1758) is an extract from this, as the _Tratado breve da oraçam mental_ (5th ed., 1757) is extracted from the _Exercicios Espirituaes_.

[579] Pt. 2 appeared in 1733.

[580] He often deliberately links a soft and a hard word, as _caça e cão_, _candores da celestial graça_, _licita a guerra_. Thus his style becomes _crespo sem aspereza_.

IV

1580-1706

_The Seiscentistas_

Philip II entered his new capital under triumphal arches on June 29, 1581, and the subjection of Portugal to Spain during the next sixty years in part accounts for the fact that nowhere was the decadence of literature in the seventeenth century more marked than at Lisbon. For Spain in her sturdy independence and reaction from rigid classicism had led the way in those precious affectations which invaded the literatures of Europe, and the universal malady, gongorism with its Lylyan conceits and cultured style, now found a ready welcome in Portugal. The literary style which corresponded to the Churriguerresque in architecture naturally proved congenial to the land of the _estilo manuelino_. King Philip was glad to conciliate and provide for Portuguese men of letters,[581] but if in the preceding centuries many of them wrote in Spanish, that tendency was now necessarily strengthened. Another cause of decadence was no doubt the Inquisition, although its influence in this respect has been greatly exaggerated. It required no immense tact on the part of an author to prevent his works from being placed on the Index. An examination, for instance, of the differences between the 1616 edition of _Eufrosina_ and the condemned 1561 edition shows that the parts excised were chiefly coarse passages or unsuitable references to the Bible (this was also the charge against the letters of Clenardus). That remarkable mathematician, Pedro Nunez, pays a tribute to the enlightened patronage of letters by Cardinal Henrique, the most ardent promoter of the Inquisition in Portugal: _qui cum nullum_ _tempus intermittat quin semper aut animarum saluti prospiciat aut optimos quosque auctores evolvat aut literatorum hominum colloquia audiat_.[582]

No literary figure in Portugal of the seventeenth century, few in the Peninsula,[583] can rank with D. FRANCISCO MANUEL DE MELLO (1608-66). Born at Lisbon,[584] he belonged to the highest Portuguese nobility and began both his military and literary career in his seventeenth year. He wrote in Spanish, although, in verse at least, he felt it to be a hindrance,[585] and it was not till he was over forty that he published a work in Portuguese: _Carta de Guia de Casados_ (1651).[586] Few men have accomplished more, and towards the end of his life he could say with pride that it would be difficult to find an idle hour in it. He was shipwrecked near St. Jean de Luz in 1627 and fought in the battle of the Downs in 1639. He was sent with the Conde de Linhares to quell the Evora insurrection in 1637, and took part in the campaign against revolted Catalonia (1640), which he described in his _Guerra de Cataluña_[587] (1645), written _em varias fortunas_ and recognized as a classic of Spanish literature. A man frankly outspoken like Mello must have made many enemies, enemies dangerous in a time of natural distrust. During the Catalan campaign he was sent under arrest to Madrid, apparently on suspicion of favouring the cause of an independent Portugal,[588] and a little later, when he was in the service of the King of Portugal, the suspicion as to his loyalty recurred. On November 19, 1644, he was arrested at Lisbon on a different charge. It appears that a servant dismissed by Mello revenged himself by implicating his former master in a murder that he had committed (of a man as obscure as himself). Whether he did this of his own initiative or at the bidding of Mello’s enemies is uncertain, but they saw to it that Mello once in prison should not be soon released. They might, probably did, assure the king that this was the best place for one ‘devoted to the cause of Castile’. There are other theories to account for Mello’s long imprisonment, the most romantic of which--that he and the king were rivals in the affections of the Condessa de Villa Nova, and, meeting disguised and by accident at the entrance of her house, drew their swords, the king recognizing Mello by his voice--is now generally abandoned. Although no evidence of Mello’s participation in the murder was forthcoming, he was condemned to be deported for life to Africa, for which Brazil was later substituted. It was only in 1655, after eleven years of more or less[589] strict confinement, that he sailed for Brazil. João IV died in 1656 and two years later Mello returned to Portugal: he was formally pardoned[590] and spent the last years of his life in important diplomatic missions to London, Rome, and Paris. The unfaltering courage and gaiety with which he faced his adventures and misfortunes win our admiration, but his life can strike no one as literary. Yet it is probable that but for his long imprisonment he would never have found leisure to write many of his best works, and prosperity might have dimmed his insight and dulled his style--that style (influenced no doubt by Quevedo and Gracián) which is hard and clear as the glitter of steel or the silver chiming of a clock, with _concinnitas quaedam venusta et felix verborum_.[591] Even when full of points and conceits it retains its clearness and trenchancy, and in his more familiar works he is unrivalled, as the _Carta de Guia de Casados_, in which, _innuptus ipse_, he brings freshness and originality to the theme already treated in Fray Luis de Leon’s _La Perfecta Casada_ (1583), Diogo Paiva de Andrade’s sensible but less caustic _Casamento Perfeito_ (1631), and Dr. João de Barros’ _Espelho de Casados_ (1540),[592] or the pithy and delightful _Cartas Familiares_, of which five centuries--a mere fragment--were published at Rome in 1664, with a rapier-thrust of his wit and a maxim of good sense on every page, preserving for us some vestige of what Frei Manuel Godinho described as his ‘admirable conversation’ when he met him at Marseilles in 1633.[593] The _Epanaphoras de varia Historia Portugueza_ (1660) are unequal and often excessively detailed.[594] Three of the five are, however, the accounts of an eyewitness and as such are full of interest: the _Alteraçoens de Evora_ (i), the _Naufragio da Armada Portuguesa em França_ (ii), and the _Conflito do Canal de Inglaterra_ (iv).[595]

Mello’s knowledge of men was as wide as his knowledge of books, and both appear to great advantage in his _Apologos Dialogaes_ (1721). An individualist in religion[596] and politics,[597] an acute thinker and a keen student of men and manners, he found no dullness in life even at its worst and no solitude, for, if alone, his fancy instilled wit and wisdom into clocks[598] and coins[599] and fountains.[600] The first three _Apologos_ contain incisive portraits in which types and persons are sharply etched in a few lines: the poor _escudeiro_, the _beata_, the Lisbon market-woman, the litigious _ratinho_, the _fidalgo_ from the provinces,[601] the ambitious priest, the shabby grammarian,, the worldly monk, political place-hunter, _miles gloriosus_, or melancholy author, a tinselled nobody boiling down the good sayings of past writers. The fourth _Apologo_ entitled _Hospital das Lettras_ (1657) is devoted more especially to literary criticism; Mello with Quevedo, Justus Lipsius, and Traiano Boccalini (who died when Mello was five) makes a notable scrutiny of Spanish and Portuguese literature. As a literary critic Mello is excellent within limits. Himself an artificial writer, although as it were naturally artificial, bred at Court, versed in social and political affairs, he considered that the proper study of mankind was man, and, like Henry Fielding a century later, admired ‘the wondrous power of art in improving Nature’.[602] For him the country and Nature, the bucolic poetry and prose of Fernam Alvarez do Oriente, the ingenuous narratives of the early chroniclers, had no charm; he preferred Rodrigo Mendez Silva’s _Vida y hechos del gran Condestable_ (Madrid, 1640) to the _Cronica do Condestabre_.[603] But all that was vernacular and indigenous attracted him, as is proved in his letters, in his lively farce _Auto do Fidalgo Aprendiz_ (1676), and in the _Feira dos Anexins_, which is a long string of popular maxims and of those plays upon words in which Mello delighted. His poetry--_Las Tres Musas del Melodino_ (1649), _Obras Metricas_ (1665)--is marred by the conceits which in his prose often serve effectively to point a moral or drive home an argument. It is far too clever. When in a poem ‘On the death of a great lady’ we find the line _contigo o sepultara a sepultura_ we do not know whether to laugh or weep, but we suspect the sincerity of the author’s grief, and although he wrote some excellent _quintilhas_, most of his poems, which are, as might be expected, always vigorous, are too sharp and thin, stalks without flowers, the very skeletons of poetry. It is to his prose in its wit and grace, its shrewd thought, its revelation of a sincere and lofty but unassuming character, its directness,[604] its _bom portugues velho e relho_, that he owes his place among the greatest writers of the Peninsula.

The taste in poetry in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is seen in two collections, partly Spanish, partly Portuguese: _Fenix Renascida_ (5 vols., 1716-28) and _Eccos que o Clarim da Fama dá_ (2 vols., 1761, 2). The latter is sufficiently characterized by its title, too long to quote in full. As to the former the Phoenix seems to have given real pleasure to contemporary readers, but for us the bird and song are flown and only the ashes remain, from which a sixteenth-century poem such as the sonnet _Horas breves_ stands out conspicuously. The subjects are often as trivial as those of the _Cancioneiro_ published two centuries earlier and more domestic: to a cousin sewing, to an overdressed man, to a large mouth, a sonnet to two market-women fighting, another to the prancing horse of the Conde de Sabugal, on a present of roses, two long _romances_ on a goldfinch killed by a cat, verses sent with a gift of handkerchiefs or eggs or melons, or to thank for sugar-plums--the _Fenix_ rarely soars above such themes. The magistrate ANTONIO BARBOSA BACELLAR (1610-63) figures largely, with glosses on poems by Camões, a _romance_ _A umas saudades_, a satirical poem _A umas beatas_. His _romances varios_ are mostly in Spanish, but a few of his sonnets in Portuguese have some merit. The fifth volume opens (pp. 1-37) with a far more elaborate satire by DIOGO CAMACHO (or Diogo de Sousa): _Jornada que Diogo Camacho fez ás Cortes do Parnaso_, the best burlesque poem of the century, in which the author did not spare contemporary Lisbon poets.[605] The poems of JERONIMO BAHIA likewise cover many pages. He it is who bewails at length the sad fate of a goldfinch. In _oitavas_ he wrote a _Fabula de Polyfemo a Galatea_,[606] and in octosyllabic _redondilhas_ jocular accounts of journeys from Lisbon to Coimbra and from Lisbon into Alentejo (on a very lean mule) which are sometimes amusing. His sonnet _Fallando com Deos_ shows a deeper nature, and the collection contains other religious verse, notably that of Violante Montesino, better known as SOROR VIOLANTE DO CEO (1601-93). Here,[607] as in her _Rythmas varias_ (Rouen, 1646) and _Parnaso Lusitano de divinos e humanos versos_ (2 vols., 1733), this nun, who spent over sixty years in the Dominican Convento da Rosa at Lisbon, and who from an early age was known for her skill upon the harp and in poetry--admiring contemporaries called her the tenth Muse--showed that she could write with simple fervour, as in the Portuguese _deprecações devotas_ of the _Meditações da Missa_ (1689) or her Spanish _villancicos_. But she could also be the most gongorical of writers, her very real native talent being too often spoilt by the taste of the time.[608] BERNARDA FERREIRA DE LACERDA (1595-1644), another _femina incomparabilis_, like Soror Violante and Dercylis considered the tenth Muse and fourth Grace, wrote almost exclusively in Spanish, nor can her _Soledades de Buçaco_ (1634) or her epic _Hespaña Libertada_ (2 pts., 1618, 73) be considered a heavy loss to Portuguese literature. SOROR MARIA MAGDALENA EUPHEMIA DA GLORIA (1672-? _c._ 1760), in the world Leonarda Gil da Gama, in _Brados do Desengano_ (1739), _Orbe Celeste_ (1742), and _Reino de Babylonia_ (1749), rarely descends from the high-flown style indicated in these titles. On the other hand, the Franciscan nun of Lisbon, SOROR MARIA DO CEO (1658-1753), or Maria de Eça, in _A Preciosa_ (2 pts., 1731, 3) and _Enganos do Bosque, Desenganos do Rio_ (1741), among much verse of the same kind has some poems of real charm and an almost rustic simplicity.

By reason of a certain intensity and a vigorous style D. FRANCISCO CHILD ROLIM DE MOURA (1572-1640), Lord of the towns of Azambuja and Montargil, although more versed in arms than in letters, wrote in _Os Novissimos do Homem_ (1623) a poem quite as readable as the longer epics of his contemporaries, despite its duller subject (man’s first disobedience and all our woe). The four cantos in _oitavas_ are headed Death, Judgement, Hell, Paradise.[609] Of the life of MANUEL DA VEIGA TAGARRO we know little or nothing, but his volume of eclogues and odes, _Lavra de Anfriso_ (1627), stands conspicuous in the seventeenth century for its simplicity and true lyrical vein. There is nothing original in these four eclogues, but the verse is of a harmonious softness. In the odes he succeeds in combining fervent thought with a classical restraint of expression. He aimed high; Horace, Lope de Vega, and Luis de Leon seem to have been his models. Some measure of the latter’s deliberate tranquillity he occasionally attained. The works of the ‘discreet and accomplished’, keen-eyed and graceful D. FRANCISCO DE PORTUGAL (1585-1632) appeared posthumously[610]: _Divinos e humanos versos_ (1652) and (without separate title-page) _Prisões e solturas de hũa alma_, consisting of mystic poems mostly in Spanish in a setting of Portuguese prose, and, in Spanish, _Arte de Galanteria_ (1670), of which a second edition was published in 1682. Lope de Vega praised the ‘elegant verses’ of the _Gigantomachia_ (1628) written by MANUEL DE GALHEGOS (1597-1665). That he could write good Portuguese poetry the author showed in the 732 verses of his _Templo da Memoria_ (1635), in the preface of which he declares that it had become a rash act to publish poems written in Portuguese but quotes the example of Pereira de Castro and of Góngora as having used the language of everyday life and plebeian words without indignity.

The later epics testified to the perseverance of their authors rather than to their poetical talent. They are perhaps less guilty than the critics, who should have discouraged the kind and recognized that the _Lusiads_ were only an accident in Portuguese literature, the accident of the genius of Camões. As a rule the epic spirit of the Portuguese expressed itself better in prose. GABRIEL PEREIRA DE CASTRO (1571?-1632) forestalled Sousa de Macedo in his choice of a subject. His _Vlyssea, ov Lysboa Edificada, Poema heroyco_ (1636) was published posthumously by his brother Luis, and perhaps the most remarkable thing about it is that it should have run through six editions. The structure of the poem, in ten cantos of _oitavas_, is closely modelled on that of the _Lusiads_, and the gods of Olympus duly take a part in the story. He sings, he says boldly, to his country, to the world and to eternity, but his sails flap sadly for lack of inspiration and enthusiasm, and his daring _enjambements_[611] do not compensate for the dullness of theme and treatment. If, for instance, we compare his storm[612] with that of the _Lusiads_ (vi. 70-91) it must be confessed that the former has much the air of a commotion in a duckpond. Ulysses on his way to Lisbon visits (canto 4) the infernal regions, is astonished to meet kings there, and (canto 6) relates the siege and fall of Troy.

The life of BRAS GARCIA DE MASCARENHAS (1596-1656) was more interesting than his verses. He was born at Avó, near the Serra da Estrella, and his adventures began early, for he was arrested on account of a love affair (1616) and made a daring escape from Coimbra prison after wounding his jailer. His careful biographer, Dr. Antonio de Vasconcellos, has shown that there is no record of his having studied at Coimbra University. Subsequently he travelled and fought in Brazil (1623-32), Italy, France, Flanders, and Spain, and in 1641, as captain, raised and commanded a body of horse known as the Company of Lions. As Governor of Alfaiates, the ‘key of Beira’, he was wrongfully accused of having a treasonable understanding with Spain and imprisoned at Sabugal, some ten miles from Alfaiates (1642). He obtained a book (the _Flos Sanctorum_), flour, and scissors and cut out a letter in verse to King João IV, who restored him to his governorship and gave him the habit of Avis. His long epic _Viriato Tragico_ (1699) contains some forcible descriptions and has a pleasantly patriotic and indigenous atmosphere--one feels that he is singing _os patrios montes_ as much as the hero--but in style it differs little from prose. Tedious geographical descriptions, dry catalogues of names, a whole stanza (vii. 39) composed exclusively of nouns, another (iv. 63) of proper names, incline the reader less to praise than sleep, from which he is only gently stirred when the sun is called _a solar embaixadora_. In the prevailing fashion of the time the author works in lines of Camões, Sá de Miranda, Garci Lasso, Ariosto, and other poets. While the work was still in manuscript another poet, and perhaps a relation, Andre da Silva Mascarenhas, helped himself liberally to its stanzas (they number 2,287) for his epic _A Destruição de Hespanha_ (1671). He could have given no better proof of the poverty of his genius. FRANCISCO DE SÁ DE MENESES (_c._ 1600-1664?), although less true a poet than his cousin and namesake the Conde de Mattosinhos, won a far wider fame by his epic poem _Malaca Conqvistada_ (1634), in which he recounts _a heroica historia dos feitos de Albuquerque_. The reader who accompanies his frail bark[613] through twelve cantos of _oitavas_ feels that he has well earned the fall of Malacca at the end. For although the author is not incapable of vigorous and succinct description he too often decks out the pure gold of Camões’ style[614] with periphrases and Manueline ornaments which delay the action. The sun is ‘the lover of Clytie’ or ‘the rubicund son of Latona’. He stops to tell us that a diamond won by Albuquerque had been ‘cut by skilled hand in Milan’, and some of his more elaborate similes are not without charm. Canto 7 tells of the future deeds of the Portuguese in India. The gods interfere less than in the _Lusiads_ (Asmodeus plays a part in canto 6), but the general effect is that of a great theme badly handled. After the death of his wife, the author spent the last twenty years of his life (from 1641) in the Dominican convent of Bemfica as Frei Francisco de Jesus.

ANTONIO DE SOUSA DE MACEDO (1606-82), _moço fidalgo_ of Philip IV and later Secretary of Embassy and Minister (_Residente_) in London (1642-6) and Secretary of State to the weak and unlettered Afonso VI, wrote at the age of twenty-two _Flores de España, Excelencias de Portugal_ (1631). This historical work of considerable interest and importance was written in Spanish por ser mais universal, but he returned to Portuguese presently in a curious prose miscellany, _Eva e Ave_ (1676), and in the epic poem _Vlyssippo_ (1640) in fourteen cantos of _oitavas_. He seems to have felt that interest could not easily be sustained by the subject, the foundation of Lisbon by Ulysses. Accordingly, following the example of Camões, he inset various episodes. Canto 6 summarizes the events of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_, canto 10 describes a tapestry adorned with future Portuguese victories, in canto 11 the Delphic Sibyl foretells the deeds of Portugal’s kings, down to Sebastian, in canto 12 the wise Chiron prophesies of her _famosos varões_. The style is correct, but the poem as a whole is commonplace. VASCO MOUSINHO DE QUEVEDO, of Setubal, although no records of his life remain, won high fame by his epic poem in _oitavas_ (twelve cantos) _Afonso Africano_ (1611), in which ‘the marvellous prowess of King Afonso V in Africa’ is described. The poem, admired by Almeida Garrett, is particularly wearisome because it is largely allegorical. The king conquering Arzila represents the strong man subduing the city of his own soul, the Moors are the spirits of the damned, and seven of their knights representing the seven deadly sins are defeated by seven Christian knights who stand for the virtues.

The poverty of profane prose, compared with its flourishing condition in the preceding century, is also remarkable. A few historians of the seventeenth century have already been mentioned. The literary academies, of which the most famous were the _Academia dos Generosos_ (1649-68) and the _Academia dos Singulares_ (1663-5),[615] existed rather for the interchange of wit and complimentary or satiric verses than for the encouragement of historical and scientific research. The Conde da Ericeira’s _Portugal Restaurado_ and Freire de Andrade’s Life bear no comparison with works of the _Quinhentistas_. Yet it was the second golden age of Portuguese prose, as the names of Manuel Bernardes and Vieira prove. The latter’s letters, with those of Frei Antonio das Chagas and Mello, are in three different kinds--the political, religious, and familiar--the most notable written in the century. GASPAR PIRES DE REBELLO in the preface to his _Infortvnios tragicos da Constante Florinda_ (1625) excuses himself for its publication on the ground that ‘not spiritual and divine books only benefit our intelligence’. The book, which records the love of Arnaldo and Florinda, of Zaragoza, shows the modern novel growing through _Don Quixote_ out of the _Celestina_ plays and the romances of chivalry, but has little other interest. A second part was published in 1633, and _Novellas Exemplares_, six stories by the same author, in 1650. Numerous other works appeared with more or less alluring or sensational titles but contents disappointingly dull. MATTHEUS DE RIBEIRO (_c._ 1620-95), in his _Alivio de Tristes e Consolação de Queixosos_ (1672, 4), shows greater skill than Pires de Rebello in the invention of the story, but it is marred by the diffuse and pedantic style--April becomes an ‘academy in which Flora was opening the doors for the study of flowers’. The pastoral novel ended in sad contortions with the _Desmayos de Mayo em sombras de Mondego_ (1635) by DIOGO FERREIRA DE FIGUEIROA (1604-74). Its title and the three involved sentences which cover the first three pages (ff. 10, 11) convey an adequate idea of its character and contents.

Of several prose works written by MARTIM AFONSO DE MIRANDA, of Lisbon, in the first third of the century, the most important is _Tempo de Agora_ (2 pts., 1622, 4). It contains seven dialogues dealing with truth and falsehood, the evils of idleness, temperance, friendship, justice, the evils of dice and cards, and precepts for princes. Much of their matter is interesting and the comments incisive, especially as to the prevailing luxury in food and dress. They tell of the infinite number of curiously bound books at Lisbon, of the soldiers unpaid, ‘eating at the doors of convents’, of the delight in foreign fashions, and the craze for ‘diabolical’ books from Italy to the exclusion of _livros de historias_ and books in Portuguese. The anonymous _Primor e honra da vida soldadesca no Estado da India_ (1630), edited by the Augustinian FREI ANTONIO FREIRE (_c._ 1570-1634), is a different work from Geronimo Ximenez de Urrea’s _Diálogo de la verdadera honra militar_ (1566), which it resembles slightly in title. It is divided into four parts and contains various episodes of the Portuguese in the East and some curious information. MIGUEL LEITÃO DE ANDRADE (1555-1632) went straight from Coimbra University to Africa with King Sebastian. After the battle of Alcacer Kebir he succeeded in escaping from captivity, followed the cause of the Prior of Crato, and was imprisoned under Philip II. In his book, in twenty dialogues, _Miscellanea do Sitio de N. Sᵃ da Lvz do Pedrogão Grande_ (1629), he disclaims any purpose of writing history. It reveals an inquiring and observant but uncritical mind, interested in fossils, inscriptions, astrology, the early history of Portugal, etymology, heraldry, and the ‘infinite wonderful secrets of Nature daily being revealed’. It contains a graphic account of his escape from Fez, but on the whole, in spite of attractive passages and interesting details, scarcely merits its great reputation. _Do Sitio de Lisboa_ (1608), which Mello praises as _aquelle elegantissimo livro_, by the author of _Arte Militar_ (1612), LUIS MENDES DE VASCONCELLOS, is written in the form of a dialogue between a philosopher, a soldier, and a politician, and deserves its place among the minor classics of Portuguese literature.

The famous love letters of the Portuguese nun MARIANNA ALCOFORADO (1640-1723), which bring a breath of life and nature into the stilted writing of that day, only belong to Portuguese literature in the sense that Osorio’s history belongs to it--by translation. They first appeared in indifferent French (_Lettres Portvgaises_, Paris, 1669) and were not retranslated, or, if we accept the theory that the nun originally wrote them in French[616]--French _suranné et dénué d’élégance_--translated into Portuguese for a century and a half: _Cartas de uma Religiosa Portugueza_ (1819).[617] Meanwhile, even before their obscure author died in the remote and beautiful city of Beja, they had been translated into English and Italian and had received over fifty French editions. Colonel (later Marshal) Noël Bouton, Comte de Saint-Léger, afterwards Marquis de Chamilly (1636-1715), accompanied the French troops sent to help Portugal against Spain, and was in Portugal from 1665 to 1667. Marianna Alcoforado, belonging to an old Alentejan family, was a nun in the convent of Nossa Senhora da Conceição at Beja. Her five letters, written between the end of 1667 and the middle of 1668 after her desertion, in their artlessness, contradictions, and disorder, vibrate with emotion. They are a succession of intense cries like the popular quatrain:

Por te amar deixei a Deus: Ve lá que gloria perdi! E agora vejo-me só, Sem Deus, sem gloria, sem ti.

Sometimes, it is true, a trace of French reason seems to mingle with the ingenuous Portuguese sentiment, and it is almost incredible, although of course not impossible, since _omnia vincit amor_, that the nun should have written certain passages. From these and not on the amazing assumption of Rousseau that a mere woman could not write so passionately--he was ready to wager that the letters were the work of a man[618]--one may suspect that the lover, who did not scruple to hand over the letters to a publisher (unless he was merely guilty of showing them to his friends), sank a little lower and edited them, adding a phrase here and there more peculiarly pleasing to his vanity.[619] In that case the nun actually wrote these letters, full of passion and despair, and perhaps in French, to her French lover; but we only read them as they were touched up for publication by another hand.

A work which has nothing in common with these fervent love letters except an enigmatic origin is the _Arte de Furtar_, which in part at least probably belongs to the seventeenth century. It is a curious and amusing treatise on the noble art of thieving in all kinds, private and official, civil and military. Its anecdotes are racy if not original. Two of the happiest incidents (in caps. 6 and 41) are copied without acknowledgement from _Lazarillo de Tormes_.[620] The author seems to have had misgivings that he had presented his subject in too favourable a light, for he ends by assuring his reader thieves that many tons of worldly glory are not worth an ounce of eternal blessedness, and promises them before long another ‘more liberal treatise on the art of acquiring true glory’. These tardy qualms did not save his book from the Index. The first edition, purporting to be printed at Amsterdam, bears the date 1652[621] and attributes the work to Antonio Vieira. That attribution may be set aside. Were there no other reasons for its rejection it would suffice to read the book or even its title in order to be convinced that it is not from the _veneravel penna_ of that great statesman and preacher. He might dabble in Bandarra prophecies, but would scarcely have sunk to the picaresque familiarities of the _Arte de Furtar_ or occupy himself with the sad habits of innkeepers, the long stitches of tailors, or the price of straw. It has also been attributed, without adequate ground, to Thomé Pinheiro da Veiga (1570?-1656), the author of a lively account of the festivities at the Spanish Court and description of Valladolid in 1605, entitled _Fastigimia_ (it mentions Don Quixote and Sancho (p. 119) but says nothing of Cervantes), and to João Pinto Ribeiro (_c._ 1590-1649), the magistrate who played a notable part in the Restoration of 1640 and wrote various short treatises such as _Preferencia das Letras ás Armas_ (1645); and even less plausibly to DUARTE RIBEIRO DE MACEDO (1618?-80), statesman and diplomatist, an indifferent poet but an excellent writer of prose and a careful although not original historian. His halting verses and his treatises were collected in his _Obras_ (2 vols., 1743). Of the latter the _Summa Politica_ has been shown by Snr. Solidonio Leite[622] to be copied almost word for word from the work of identical title by D. SEBASTIÃO CESAR DE MENESES (†1672), Bishop of Oporto and Archbishop of Braga. Both author and book were too well known for Ribeiro de Macedo to claim it as his own. He seems merely to have translated it from the original Latin published at Amsterdam in 1650, a year after the first Portuguese edition. The work is remarkable for acute thought and clear and concise expression. A work of a similar character is the well-written _Arte de Reinar_ (1643) by P. ANTONIO CARVALHO DE PARADA (1595-1655). The _Tratado Analytico_ (1715), by MANUEL RODRIGUEZ LEITÃO (_c._ 1620-91), a controversial treatise written to prove the right of Portugal to appoint bishops, is also the work of a good stylist. Some would say the same of one of the best-known books of the seventeenth century, the _Vida de Dom João de Castro_ (1651), by JACINTO FREIRE DE ANDRADE (1597-1657). The author, born at Beja, was suspected at Madrid of nationalist inclinations, and retired to his cure in the diocese of Viseu; after the Restoration he refused the bishopric of Viseu. His book has often been regarded as a model of Portuguese prose. Pompous and emphatic,[623] it may be described as inflated Tacitus, or rather a mixture of Tacitean phrases, conceits, and rhetorical affectation. But if as a whole it is more akin to Castro’s garish triumph at Goa than to the scientific spirit of his letters, it scarcely deserves the severe strictures which followed excessive praise[624]: it might even become excellent if judiciously pruned of antitheses and artifice.[625] The second Conde da Ericeira, D. FERNANDO DE MENESES (1614-99), wrote a _Historia de Tangere_ (1732) and the _Vida e Acçoens d’El Rei D. João I_ (1677), which ends with an elaborate parallel between Julius Caesar and the Master of Avis. Equally clear but far more artificial is the style of the third Count, D. LUIS DE MENESES (1632-90), in the best-known historical work of the century in Portuguese: _Historia de Portugal Restaurado_ (2 pts., 1679, 98). Its author ended his life by leaping from an upper window into the garden of his palace on a May morning in a fit of melancholy.

The great prose-writer of the century, ANTONIO VIEIRA (1608-97), was born in the same year and city as D. Francisco Manuel de Mello and spent a life as unquiet. He was not literary in the same sense as Mello, but he has always been considered one of the great classics of the Portuguese language. He was the son of Cristovam Vieira Ravasco, _escrivão das devassas_ at Lisbon, but at the age of seven he accompanied his parents to Brazil (1615) and began his education in the Jesuit college at Bahia. In 1623, by his own ardent wish, long opposed by his parents, he became a Jesuit novice and professed in the following year. Before he was thirty he was Professor of Theology in the Bahia college and a celebrated preacher, the sermons in which he encouraged the citizens of Bahia in the war against the Dutch being especially eloquent. In 1641 he was chosen with Padre Simão de Vasconcellos to accompany D. Fernando de Mascarenhas, son of the viceroy, to Europe in order to congratulate King João IV on his accession. Vieira preached in the Royal Chapel on New Year’s Day, 1642. Both his sermons and his conversation greatly impressed the king, and from 1641 to the end of the reign (1656) his influence was great although not unchallenged. They were critical years in Portugal’s foreign policy, and Vieira, who refused a bishopric but was appointed Court preacher, was entrusted with several important missions--to Paris and The Hague (February-July 1646), London, Paris, and The Hague (1647-8), and Rome (1650). In 1652 he returned to Brazil as a missionary in Maranhão, and during two years roused the bitter hostility of the settlers by his protection of the slaves or rather by his opposition to slavery. In 1655 he again left Lisbon for Maranhão,[626] and during five arduous years showed unfailing courage and energy in dealing with natives and settlers. The latter in 1661 attacked the mission-house and arrested and expelled the Jesuits. At home King João, Vieira’s friend, was dead. Differences arose between the Queen Regent supported by Vieira, and her son, and one of the first acts of the latter on taking power into his own hands was to banish Vieira to Oporto and later to Coimbra. Here in the spring of 1665[627] he wrote that curious work _Historia do Futuro_ (1718), which was to interpret Portugal’s destiny by the light of old prophecies, but of which only the introduction (_livro anteprimeiro_) was printed. An even stranger book, in which he had paid serious attention politically to the prophecies of Bandarra, was denounced in 1663, and in October 1665 Vieira was consigned to the prison of the Inquisition at Coimbra. His sentence was not read till 1667 (December 24), and it condemned him to seclusion in a college or convent of his Order and to perpetual silence in matters of religion. The deposition of King Afonso VI (1667) and the accession of his brother Pedro II altered Vieira’s prospects, and his eloquent voice was again heard in the pulpit. After preaching before the Court in Lent 1669 he proceeded to Rome on business of the Company and spent six years there. He preached several times in Italian, and Queen Christina of Sweden, who had settled in Rome in 1655, offered him the post of preacher and confessor, which he refused. In August 1675 he returned to Lisbon, where he was coldly received by the Prince Regent, and in 1681 retired to Brazil. In the same year he was burnt in effigy by the mob at Coimbra. A special brief given to him by the Pope secured his person from the attacks of the Inquisition. But even at Bahia he was not free from troubles and intrigues. His activity continued to the end of his long life. In 1688 he preached in Bahia Cathedral, and was Visitor of the Province of Brazil from 1688 to 1691. Even in 1695 we find him, although feeble and broken, writing letters and eager to finish his _Clavis Prophetica_[628] (or _Prophetarum_), which now lies in manuscript in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris and elsewhere. Seventy years earlier he had been entrusted by the Jesuits with the composition of the annual Latin letters of the Company. Vieira’s vein of caustic satire no doubt made him numerous enemies and increased the difficulties which his advocacy of the Jews and slaves and his fearless stand against injustice and oppression were certain to produce. Ambitious and fond of power, he could devote himself to causes which entailed a life of toil and poverty. An energetic if unsuccessful diplomatist, an ingenious thinker, a statesman of far-reaching views, he was also a fantastic dreamer, but his dreams and restlessness rarely affected the sanity of his judgement. The works of this great writer and extraordinary man are an inexhaustible mine of pure and vigorous prose, at its best in his numerous _Cartas_, written in _selecta et propria dictio, nusquam verbis indulgens sed rebus inhaerens_. A Portuguese critic, Dias Gomes, notes his ’sustained elegance’, and we may sometimes sigh for an interval of Mello’s familiarity or Frei Luis de Sousa’s charm. In his famous _Sermões_ he bowed intermittently to the taste of the time for conceit and artifice. He condemned the practice in a celebrated sermon, but indeed a certain humorous quaintness was not foreign to his temperament, and in the obscurity, at least, of the _cultos_ he never indulged. When inspired by patriotism or indignation his words soar beyond cold reason and colder conceits to a fiery eloquence. Among writers whom he influenced was the Benedictine FREI JOÃO DOS PRAZERES (1648-1709), of whose principal work, _O Principe dos Patriarchas S. Bento_, or _Empresas de S. Bento_, only the first two volumes were published. Closer imitators of Vieira were FREI FRANCISCO DE SANTA MARIA (1653-1713), author of _O Ceo Aberto na Terra_ (1697) and many sermons, and the Jesuit preacher ANTONIO DE SÁ (1620-78), whose _Sermões Varios_ appeared in 1750.

FOOTNOTES:

[581] Bernardo de Brito, no lover of Spain, bears witness to _o favor e benevolencia com que trata os homens doutos_.

[582] _De Crepusculis_, Preface. Martim Afonso de Miranda later (_Tempo de Agora_, _prologo_ to Pt. 2, 1624) writes of _a pouca curiosidade que hoje ha acerca da lição dos liuros, como tambem o risco a que se expõem os que escreuem_.

[583] Menéndez y Pelayo set Mello above all except his friend Quevedo.

[584] Mr. Edgar Prestage discovered his baptismal certificate and established the date (1608) beyond doubt, though it is still often given as 1611. On his mother’s side Mello was great-grandson of the historian Duarte Nunez de Leam.

[585] Prefatory letter to _Las tres Mvsas del Melodino_ (1649): _el lenguaje estrangero tan poco es favorable al que compone_.

[586] He was writing it in January 1650.

[587] _Historia de los movimientos y separacion de Cataluña y de la guerra_, &c. Lisboa, 1645.

[588] On his release after four months of imprisonment the Count-Duke Olivares said to him: _Ea, caballero, ha sido un erro, pero erro con causa._

[589] The first five years were, in his own words, rigorous. In 1650 he was removed from the _Torre Velha_ to the Lisbon _Castello_, and thenceforth enjoyed greater liberty. He had been transferred from the Torre de Belem to the _Torre Velha_ on the left bank of the Tagus in 1646.

[590] The document was discovered by Dr. Braga and published in his _Os Seiscentistas_ (1916), p. 339.

[591] _Approbatio of Cartas_, Roma, 1664.

[592] A copy of this rare and curious work exists in the Lisbon Biblioteca Nacional (_Res._ 264 v.). It contains 71 ff. divided into four parts. The author, in his apophthegms on the character of women, quotes the classics widely, and refers to the Uthopia [so] of Sir Thomas More and to _Celestina_.

[593] _Relaçam_, 1842 ed., p. 233.

[594] His digressions are methodical: _por este modo de historiar (que é aquelle que eu desejo ler) pretendo escrever sempre_ (_Epan._ ii). In _Epan._ i he says: _Refiro, pode ser com demasia, todos os accidentes deste negocio._

[595] He re-wrote this _Epanaphora_ twice, the first two versions having been lost.

[596] Cf. _Visita das Fontes_ (_Ap. Dial._ 3), 1900 ed., p. 89: _cada qual desde o logar em que está acha uma linha muito junto de si que é o caminho por onde pode ir a Deus_.

[597] Cf. _Hospital das Lettras_ (_Ap. Dial._ 4), 1900 ed., p. 114: _por falta de cuidar cada um em se aproveitar deste mundo o que delle lhe toca, o lançam todos a perder todos juntos do modo que vemos_.

[598] _Relogios Fallantes_ (_Ap. Dial._ 1).

[599] _Escriptorio Avarento_ (_Ap. Dial._ 2).

[600] _Visita das Fontes_ (_Ap. Dial._ 3).

[601] Cf. the backwoodsman described by Couto as _algum fidalgo criado lá na Beira que nunca vio o Rei_ (_Dialogo do Sold. Prat._, p. 31).

[602] Cf. _Aulegrafia_ (1619), f. 85 v.: _emendar a Natureza_.

[603] Edgar Prestage, _Esboço_, pp. 128-9.

[604] Like another equally brilliant soldier historian, Napier, he rarely spells a foreign word aright. Cf. _Epanaphoras_, p. 204: _A este nome_ Milord _corresponde no estado feminil o nome_ Léde. Falmouth, where he had actually been, becomes Valmud, the Isle of Wight Huyt, Whitehall Huythal, the Earl of Northumberland Notaborlan (Brito has Northũbria).

[605] A more personal and picaresque satirist was D. THOMAS DE NORONHA (†1651), whose works were collected by Dr. Mendes dos Remedios in his _Subsidios_, vol. ii: _Poesias Ineditas de D. Thomás de Noronha_ (Coimbra, 1899). The satiric poem _Os Ratos da Inquisição_ by ANTONIO SERRÃO DE CASTRO (1610-85) was first published by Castello Branco in 1883.

[606] Vol. iii contains a poem by Jacinto Freire de Andrade with the same title.

[607] _Fenix Ren._ ii. 406; iii. 225; v. 376.

[608] Hers is the deplorable pun of a superior superior:

Que se Prior sois agora Sempre fostes suprior.

[609] The real title of the first (1623) edition is _Dos Novissimos de Dom Francisco Rolim de Moura_. Adam is conducted by his son Abel through Hell and comforted by a vision of Paradise. As he is the first man and only Abel has died, he must forgo Dante’s pleasure in meeting his personal enemies there, but there is something perhaps even more awful in the thought of the emptiness of these _infinitos logares_ (iii. 48). Virgil’s _Facilis descensus_, &c., is translated in two lines of great badness: _Onde descer he cousa tão factivel Quanto tornar atraz tem de impossivel_ (iii. 36).

[610] _Nihil tamen eo vivente excussum nisi Solitudines (hoc est Saudades)_, says the _Theatrum_.

[611] e.g. (x. 126):

Hũa montanha e serra inhabitada Se erguia ao ar, em cuja corpulenta Espalda....

[612] ii. 30-49:

Do undoso leito, donde repousava O mar, &c.

[613] xii. 79: _Sou fragil lenho._

[614] In the storm in canto 2 (_Eis que o ceo de improuiso se escurece_) he seems to have realized that Camões’ description could not be improved upon.

[615] Numerous other academies of the same kind came into being in this and the first half of the next century. Most of their members now belong to the (Brazilian) _Academia dos Esquecidos_--the Forgotten.

[616] The slip in the second letter by which in the French version not the Beja Mertola Gate but Mertola itself is seen from the convent, does not favour this theory, which recently has been sustained by the Conde de Sabugosa. This passage is held to be a convincing proof, were such proof needed, of the genuineness of the letters. It is rather a proof of the reality of the love intrigue than of the nun’s authorship. If Chamilly, for the edification of his vanity, were fabricating such a letter, what more likely than that he should wish to add his note of local colour and remembered vaguely the word Mertola in connexion with the view from the convent terrace? What he could scarcely have invented or expressed is the real depth of feeling.

[617] Seven spurious letters, and subsequently others, were added in many of the editions. Filinto Elysio translated the twelve.

[618] _Je parierais tout au monde que les Lettres portugaises ont été écrites par un homme._

[619] e.g. ‘You told me frankly that you were in love with a lady in your own country’ (letter 2). ‘Were you not ever the first to leave for the front, the last to return?’ (5). ‘My passion increases every instant’ (4). ‘I do not repent having adored you. I am glad that you betrayed me’ (3).

[620] Ed. H. Butler Clarke (1897), pp. 17-18 and 65-7.

[621] The 1652 edition speaks of _coroneis_ (p. 277) who, it has been argued, were called _mestres de campo_ till 1708 (Goes, however, in his _Cron. de D. Manuel_, 1619 ed., f. 213, has _os fez todos quatro coroneis de mil homens_; cf. Gil Vicente, i. 234: _Corregedor, coronel_); it refers (p. 393) to João IV as still alive (†1656): _Que Deos guarde e prospere_. It would appear to have been written at two periods, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, unless the passages implying the earlier date are as deliberately misleading as the 1652 title-page.

[622] _Classicos Esquecidos_ (Rio de Janeiro, 1915). Duarte de Macedo in his dedicatory letter says: ‘I have taken this _Summa Politica_ from the Latin and Italian languages.’ ‘I do not offer it as my own, because I restore it to your Highness as yours’, so that he had armed himself against such charges of plagiarism.

[623] It loses nothing in Sir Peter Wyche’s translation. Cf. the account of Castro’s first arrival at Goa: ‘When the entry was to be, the two Governours were in a Faluque with gilded Oars, and an awning of divers-coloured silks; the Castles and Ships entertain’d ’em with the horrour of reiterated shootings, the Vivas and expectation of the common people did without any cunning flatter the new Government, &c.’

[624] _Cada clausula he filha da eloquencia mats sublime_, &c. (Barbosa Machado).

[625] e.g. 1759 ed., p. 342: _cujas ruinas serião de sua fama os elogios maiores_ would be straightened out from Latin into Portuguese: _serião os maiores elogios de sua fama_.

[626] On his homeward voyage in 1654 he had suffered from a violent storm, and was only saved by a Dutch pirate who landed the passengers of the Portuguese ship at the Ilha Graciosa without their belongings.

[627] _Historia do Futuro_ (1718), p. 93.

[628] See letters from Bahia, July 22, 1695.

V

1706-1816

_The Eighteenth Century_

The eighteenth century did not kill literature in Portugal any more than in other countries, but poetry had lost its lyrism, and under the influence of French and English writers assumed a scientific, philosophical, or utilitarian character. No mighty genius arose in Portuguese literature at the bidding of João V (1706-50), but the king’s lavish patronage gave an impulse, and he founded the _Academia Real de Historia_ in 1720. A crop of scholars and poets followed in the second half of the century, so that it was not without some unfairness that Giuseppe Baretti wrote of the Portuguese in 1760 that _di letteratura non hanno punto fama d’essere soverchio ghiotti ... quel poco que scrivono, sia in prosa sia in verso, è tutto panciuto e pettoruto_.[629] It was the age of Arcadias: the famous _Arcadia Ulyssiponense_[630] (1756-74) and the _Nova Arcadia_ founded in 1790 (i. e. precisely a century after the Italian _Arcadia_). All the poets of the century belonged to one or other of these societies or made their mark as _dissidentes_ from them. One of the founders of the _Nova Arcadia_, FRANCISCO JOAQUIM BINGRE (1763-1856), lived on into the middle of the nineteenth century, and a few of his poems were collected under the title _O Moribundo Cysne do Vouga_ (1850). A typical eighteenth-century poet is D. FRANCISCO XAVIER DE MENESES (1673-1743), fourth Conde da Ericeira, who in turning to literature was but following the traditions of his family. A staunch defender of pure Portuguese against those who, he said, disfigure and corrupt the language by the introduction of foreign words and phrases, he wrote a large number of works in prose and in verse. The best known of them is his _Henriqueida_ (1741), a heroic poem on the conquest of Portugal by Count Henry in twelve long cantos of prosaic _oitavas_. It may contain lines more inspiring than these:

E a contramina fabricou Roberto, Da mina conhecendo o lugar certo,

but they do not really differ greatly from the rest of the poem. The large quantity of poetry still written at the beginning of the century had met with severe criticism in Frei Lucas de Santa Catharina’s _Seram Politico_. He slyly calls the _egloga campestre_ ‘_poesia ervada_’. The objects of the _Arcadia_ of 1756 were to free Portuguese literature from foreign influences and restore the purity of the language. If to some extent it merely substituted French or Italian influence for Spanish, its cry was also back to the classics and to the Portuguese _quinhentistas_. As to the language its services were invaluable, for at a time when French influence was great in Portugal and in the rest of Europe it checked the use of gallicisms; as to literature the attempt to write poetry on an ordered plan was perhaps foredoomed to failure: it plodded along in an artificial atmosphere of Roman gods and antiquities, and became hidebound in imitation of the Horatian ode.

PEDRO ANTONIO CORRÊA GARÇÃO (1724-72), one of the first members and most prominent poets of the _Arcadia_, did good service in his determined efforts to deliver his country’s literature from foreign imitations and the false affectation of the time, and to revert to the classics, Greek, Roman, and Portuguese. He even prophesied that Gil Vicente’s day would come. His master was Horace, _grande Horacio_, and his Horatian odes, if they show no remarkable lyrical gift, have a dry native flavour in the purity of their language. He was also successful in reviving the cultivation of blank verse. There is a fine sound in some of the sonnets in which he sings Marilia, Lydia, Belisa, Maria, Nise, writes to a friend to ask for a doubloon or for Spanish tobacco, sends birthday congratulations or laughs at a bald priest: the themes are mostly of this level. His satirical vein is marked in his two short comedies in blank verse, _Theatro Novo_, a skit on the drama then in vogue, and _Assemblêa ou Partida_, in which certain Lisbon types are ridiculed and which contains the famous and much overpraised _Cantata de Dido_. Corrêa Garção’s days ended tragically in prison. The motive of his arrest is not clear. Tradition wavers between a love intrigue and political reasons,[631] and declares that the Marques de Pombal, whom he had offended, signed the order for his release on the very day of the poet’s death after eighteen months of imprisonment.

Pombal was effusively praised by DOMINGOS DOS REIS QUITA (1728-70), a Lisbon hairdresser who wrote bucolic poetry melodiously, but with perhaps even less originality than we have learnt to expect in that kind since the time when Virgil mistranslated Theocritus. The influence of Bernardez and Camões is clear,[632] in many passages too clear, and he had undoubtedly caught something of their skill and harmony in technique. But his poems leave the impression that he had no real feeling for the rustic life which they describe; no doubt he was more at home with the scissors than with the faithful Melampus or the nymphs and shepherd’s pipe. When he is relating an event, such as the earthquake of 1755, which touched him nearly, his ready flow of verse deserts him, in spite of his skill in improvisation,[633] although the sonnet written on the same occasion, _Por castigar, Senhor_, stands out with a certain majesty from most of his other sonnets, which are mere slices of eclogue. If his mellifluous idylls show no individuality, his return to the classic poets of Portugal was, as with other Arcadian poets, a welcome change from the Spanish influence, the _mao uso_, as he calls it, of ‘rude strangers from the Manzanares’ (Eclogue 6). His tragedies and pastoral drama _Licore_ are not more original. One of his tragedies, _Inés de Castro_, suggested that of João Baptista Gomes (†1813), _Nova Castro_, which had a great vogue in its day but is now scarcely more remembered than _Osmia_ (1788), a tragedy of which the blank verse has vigour, although it is often scarcely distinguishable from prose. This play, published anonymously, was long attributed to Antonio de Araujo de Azevedo (1754-1817), but its real author was D. Theresa de Mello Breyner, Condessa de Vimieiro, who married her cousin, the fourth Count, in 1767.

It was a cruel kindness to edit the works of ANTONIO DINIZ DA CRUZ E SILVA (1731-99) in six volumes, for, despite the fame of his high-flown Pindaric odes, his three centuries of sonnets and his other lyrics are not of conspicuous merit and are often imitative. Having nothing to say, _Elpino Nonacriense_, like too many of the Arcadian poets, said it at inordinate length. _Que enorme confusão!_ he exclaims in an elegy on the Lisbon earthquake, and most of his poems are on a like plane of thought and expression. The son of a _Sargento Môr_,[634] he was born at Lisbon, and after studying law at Coimbra was appointed a judge at Castello de Vide. With Manuel Nicolau Esteves Negrão (†1824) and Theotonio Gomes de Carvalho (†1800) he founded the _Arcadia Ulyssiponense_, of which he drew up the statutes in September 1756. The first aim of these early Arcadians was, as we have noticed, to break the shackles of Spanish influence and _gongorismo_, which was, indeed, on the wane in the land of its birth. Diniz da Cruz’ own poems were written in good idiomatic Portuguese. In _O Hyssope_ he satirizes with telling vigour the use of gallicisms, and his comedy _O Falso Heroismo_ is thoroughly Portuguese in subject and treatment. From 1764 to 1774 he was stationed at Elvas, and here a quarrel between the bishop, D. Lourenço de Lancastre, and the dean, D. José Carlos de Lara, furnished him with the subject of his celebrated mock-heroic poem _O Hyssope_. The legend runs that he was summoned to read his satire to the all-powerful Pombal in the presence of the infuriated bishop, and that the poem proved too much for the gravity of the minister, who appointed him a judge at Rio de Janeiro (1776). Thence he was transferred to Oporto (1787), but in 1790 was again appointed to Rio de Janeiro, and showed himself merciless in sentencing the Brazilian poets Claudio Manuel da Costa, Gonzaga, and Ignacio José de Alvarengo Peixoto (1748-93), accused of conspiring to secure the independence of their country. _O Hyssope_ was first published in 1802, three years after the author’s death. The idea of the poem was derived from Boileau’s _Le Lutrin_. Boileau would have been horrified by its eight cantos of slovenly and monotonous blank verse, which often scarcely rises above prose; but as a satire on the times and in its grotesque portraiture of prelate and lawyer and notary it is sometimes irresistibly comic. The mock-heroic _Benteida_, written by ALEXANDRE ANTONIO DE LIMA of Lisbon (1699-_c._ 1760?) and published fifty years before _O Hyssope_, consisted of three cantos of _oitavas_. Two editions appeared in 1752, published at ‘Constantinople’ as written by ‘Andronio Meliante Laxaed’. Pedro de Azevedo Tojal (†1742) had used the same metre for his _Foguetario_ (1729). The burlesque poem _O Reino da Estupidez_ (1819), written in four cantos of easily-flowing blank verse by the Brazilians Francisco de Mello Franco (1757-1823) and José Bonifacio de Andrade e Silva (1763-1838), is professedly an imitation of _aquelle activo e discreto Diniz na Hyssopaïda_, only the butt here is not the Chapter of Elvas but the professors of Coimbra University.

Like the less celebrated poet son of an Alentejan painter, JOSÉ ANASTASIO DA CUNHA (1744-87), artillery officer, mathematician, Professor of Geometry at Coimbra, who translated Pope and Voltaire and had milk in his tea and buttered toast on a fast-day, FRANCISCO MANUEL DO NASCIMENTO (1734-1819), better known as _Filinto Elysio_,[635] was denounced to the Inquisition. His thrilling escape in the year of Cunha’s condemnation for apostasy and heresy (1778) brought him almost as much fame as his poems. The son of a Lisbon lighterman and a humble _varina_,[636] he was accused of not believing in the Flood and of throwing ridicule on the doctrine of original sin, and by another witness of being simply an atheist. He succeeded in locking up in his own rooms the official sent to arrest him early on the 4th of July, hid for eleven days in Lisbon, and then, disguised as a poor man carrying a load of oranges, escaped on a boat bound for Havre. Had this persecution come earlier, the disquieting atmosphere of Paris, into which he was now transplanted and where, except for a few years at The Hague, he lived for the rest of his life, might have given some originality to his talent. But his mind and poetic style were already fixed, and through every political disturbance he continued his steady flow of Horatian odes and similar artificial verse. He wrote for seventy years (Lamartine notes the _précoces faveurs_ of his muse), and at the age of sixty-four calculated that he had already composed 730,000 lines, probably too modest an estimate. He received by royal decree an amnesty and the restoration of his property, but never returned to Portugal. His influence on younger Portuguese poets was nevertheless great. Bocage, when his verses were praised by the older poet, exclaimed:

Filinto, o gran cantor, prezou meus versos ... Posteridade, és minha!

His influence was bad and good. It encouraged a dry and artificial classicism, but also careful versification in pure Portuguese. Although the poems of Lamartine’s _divin Manuel_ are no longer even by his countrymen held to be divine, they may be read with satisfaction by virtue of their indigenous expressions and a hundred and one allusions to popular traditions. It was by these characteristics that he expressed his revolt from the _Arcadia_. Half a long life spent in Paris was unable to imbue Filinto with the _mimo de fallar luso-gallico_, against which he vigorously protested to the end. This purity of style gives excellence to the many translations which he was obliged to write for a bare livelihood, and his native land is present even in his closest imitations of Horace (Falernian becomes _louro Carcavellos_). Unfortunately his contemporaries and successors were not always so discreet.

The genial satirist NICOLAU TOLENTINO (1741-1811), son of a Lisbon advocate, after studying law at Coimbra spent some years teaching rhetoric to the raw youth (_bisonhos rapazes_) of Lisbon. He was perpetually discontented with his lot or ready to profess himself so. ‘Long years have I already spent in begging,’ he says candidly, ‘and shall perhaps pass my whole life in the same way.’ He harps on his poverty; the kitchen, he complains, is the coolest room in his house. In 1781 he obtained a comfortable post in the civil service, his poems were printed for him in two volumes twenty years later, he would receive a pheasant from one friend, a Sunday dinner of turkey from another, he acknowledges a thousand benefits, and still begs on. Before he had had time to grow rich the habit had become incurable. His was no lyrical gift, but he imitated with success the _quintilhas_ of Sá de Miranda,[637] in which much of his work is composed (_O Bilhar_ is in _oitavas_). He writes naturally; his style is thoroughly Portuguese, often prosaic. His satire, repressed for personal reasons rather than from any failure of wit or talent, reducible to silence by the gift of a pheasant, lacks independence and thought, but sheds a gentle light on the manners of the time--on the travelled coxcomb who returns to Portugal affecting almost to have forgotten Portuguese, or the rich nun who knows by heart whole volumes of the _Fenix Renascida_--and one or two of his entertaining sonnets are likely to endure. The _Obras Poeticas_ of the MARQUESA DE ALORNA (1750-1839), in Arcadia _Alcippe_, are now more often praised than read, but her poetry is scarcely inferior to that of many even more celebrated writers of the time. As a child she defied the anger of the Marques de Pombal. She was detained with her sister Maria and her mother D. Leonor de Almeida in the convent of Chellas from the age of eight till the death of King José (1777). Two years later she married the Count of Oeynhausen, who became minister at Vienna in 1780. After his death in 1793 she lived partly in England, but spent the last twenty-five years of her life in the neighbourhood of Lisbon, and exercised considerable influence on young writers--not Garrett but Bocage, and especially Herculano--and thus with Macedo formed a link between the poets of the _Arcadia_ and the nineteenth century. Her works contain over 2,000 pages of verse. There are sonnets and odes, eclogues, elegies, epistles, translations or paraphrases of Homer, Horace, Claudian (_De raptu Proserpinae_), Pope (_Essay on Criticism_), Wieland, Thomson’s _Seasons_, Goldsmith, Gray, Lamartine, and the Psalms. There is a long poem on botany which notices more than a hundred kinds of scented geranium, and indeed the range of her subjects is very wide, from May fireflies to the ‘barbarous climate’ of England, from Leibniz to the ascent of Robertson in a balloon. Classical allusions are everywhere; she even drags in Cocytus in a sonnet on the death of her infant son. At the same time we have a constant sense of high ideals and love of liberty.

The compositions of the ‘pale, limber, odd-looking young man’, which ‘thrilled and agitated’ William Beckford in 1787, now scarcely move us, vanished the fire and glow which BOCAGE (1765-1805) brought to his improvisations. For the reader they are for the most part _carboni spenti_. His parents were a Portuguese judge and the daughter of a French vice-admiral in the Portuguese Navy, and he enlisted in an infantry regiment in the town of his birth, Setubal, in 1779. Ten years later he deserted at Damão, and after wandering in China reached Macao and thence Goa, which he still found a stepmother to poets, and Lisbon. Here he continued to live a dissipated life, till in 1797 his revolutionary opinions and his poem _A Pavorosa Illusão da Eternidade_ brought him first to the Limoeiro and then for a few months to the prison of the Inquisition. His unstable romantic spirit was influenced as much by the French Revolution during the latter years of his life as by the wish in his youth to become a second Camões, but he wrote an elegy on the execution of Queen Marie Antoinette, which he described as ‘a crime from Hell’. He supported life during his last years principally by translation. He was himself his chief enemy, and he was also the victim of the critics who applauded his improvisations until he no longer distinguished between poetry and prose, sense and absurdity. No better Portuguese pendant to the celebrated line of blank verse ‘A Mr. Wilkinson, a clergyman’ will be found than that in one of Bocage’s elegies: _Carpido objecto meu, carpido objecto_. The undoubted talent of _Elmano Sadino_, as he was in Arcadia, was thus frittered away in occasional verse in which his fecund gift of satire found expression, and a great poet was lost to Portuguese literature. His impromptu sallies against rival poets, such as Macedo, brought him contemporary fame, but in some of his poems, especially the sonnets, we have proof of a possibility of greater things. No doubt his work is disfigured by pompous phrases[638] and hollow classical allusions. He did not always rise above the bad taste of the period; he was unable to concentrate his talent or separate prosaic from poetical subjects. Thus he sang of an ascent in a _balão aerostatico_ in 1794, and saw in the _vil mosquito_ a proof of the existence of God. But his was nevertheless a very real and above all a very Portuguese inspiration,[639] and some of his sonnets have force and grandeur and hover on the fringes of beauty, especially when they voice his unaffected enthusiasm for Portugal’s past greatness and heroes.

One of the foremost poets of the _Nova Arcadia_ was BELCHIOR MANUEL CURVO SEMEDO (1766-1838), two volumes of whose _Composições Poeticas_ appeared in 1803. A crowd of secondary lights revolved round the great planets of the two _Arcadias_. The poems of _Alfeno Cynthio_, DOMINGOS MAXIMIANO TORRES (1748-1810), are not without vigour (_Versos_, 1791). Their unfortunate author died a political prisoner at Trafaria. The gay and lively Abbade of Jazente, PAULINO ANTONIO CABRAL[640] (1719-89), was the son of an Oporto doctor, and was parish priest at Jazente (near Amarante) from 1753 to 1784. His poems are still read for their pleasant satire, but he was careless of literary fame. Some of the sonnets of both these writers deserve not to be forgotten. JOÃO XAVIER DE MATTOS (†1789), a fourth edition of whose _Rimas_ appeared in the year after his death, is now remembered chiefly for some of his sonnets, as that beginning _Poz-se o sol_, with its melancholy charm. He was a true but not a great or original poet. Born at Oporto, the son of a Brazilian father and a Portuguese mother, THOMAS ANTONIO GONZAGA (1744-1807?) was a judge at Bahia when he was accused of taking part in the Republican conspiracy of Minas Geraes (1789), and after three years’ imprisonment was deported (1792) to Mozambique, where he died several years after his sentence had expired. Some of his Horatian and Anacreontic _lyras_ in many metres, addressed to Marilia and collected under the title _A Marilia de Dirceo_ (_Dirceo_ being his Arcadian name), are graceful lyrics of an idyllic character. Of the other poets implicated in the conspiracy, CLAUDIO MANUEL DA COSTA (1729-69), who was found dead in his prison cell, was an Arcadian poet of the Italian school, and shows a gentle love of Nature in his sonnets. Of the hundred sonnets printed in his _Obras_ (1768) some are in Italian. The eclogues number twenty. In Brazil at this time, as earlier in Portugal, patriotism if not poetry suggested epics. JOSÉ BASILIO DA GAMA (1740-95), who spent the greater part of his life in Portugal and died at Lisbon, wrote _O Uraguay_ (1769) in five cantos of prosaic blank verse--an account of the struggle between Portuguese and Indians. JOSÉ DE SANTA RITA DURÃO (_c._ 1720-84), Doctor in Theology (Coimbra), composed an epic entitled _Caramurú_ (1781) on the discovery of Bahia in the sixteenth century by Diogo Alvarez Corrêa. This poem in ten cantos of _oitavas_ is inferior to _O Uraguay_, but it contains some interesting notes on the country and the customs of Brazil.[641]

If a great poet lurked in Bocage, he had certainly never existed in Bocage’s contemporary and rival in Arcadia, JOSÉ AGOSTINHO DE MACEDO (1761-1831), who lived to be confronted by an even more formidable adversary in his old age, Almeida Garrett. (In one of his fierce political letters he prays that either he or Garrett may be sent to the galleys.) Born at Beja, he took the vows as an Augustinian monk at Lisbon in 1778. The future champion of law and order provoked the displeasure of his superiors at Lisbon, Evora, Coimbra, Braga, Torres Vedras, by his pranks and mutinies, his boisterous and dissipated life. Methodical theft of books was one of his minor failings. At last after fourteen years, his Order, tired of transferring and imprisoning, formally expelled the delinquent in 1792. He, however, obtained recognition as a secular priest, won fame as a preacher, and for the next forty years wrote in verse and prose with an amazing copiousness.[642] He is said to have composed a hundred Anacreontic odes in three days: _Lyra Anacreontica_ (1819). During the last three years of his life, after he had, as he said, capitulated to the doctors, he continued to write, although in great pain. His financial circumstances did not require this effort. His works had brought him considerable sums, he had become Court preacher and chronicler, and had many friends in high places, including Dom Miguel himself. His vanity was soothed, the unfrocked Augustinian had won the regard of princes. But to this learned[643] and splenetic priest virulent denunciation of his literary and political opponents had become a necessity, and he was at work on the twenty-seventh number of his periodical _O Desengano_ a fortnight before his death. He was spared the mortification of seeing his enemies triumph in 1832. His character was not amiable, and a large part of his life was unedifying, but there is something fine in his unfailing energy, for by sheer energy he imposed himself, and his self-conceit was so colossal as to be virtually innocuous, while his real horror of revolution, a horror based on experience, was expressed with persistency and courage. He seems to have been quite honest in the belief that the poems of Homer, which he could not read in the original, were worthless,[644] and that his own _O Oriente_ was a great epic. His utilitarian conception of literature was inevitably fatal to his verse. He wished to extend the boundaries of poetry.[645] He wrote a long poem--four cantos of blank verse--on _Newton_ (1813), recast and increased to 3,560 lines under the title _Viagem Extatica ao Templo da Sabedoria_ (1830), because Newton had conferred greater benefits on humanity than many a great conqueror (yet so may a dentist). He composed a long poem, _Gama_ (1811), re-written as _O Oriente_ (1814),[646] to show how Camões should have written _Os Lusiadas_. His poem is no doubt more correct; it observes all the rules, but unfortunately it lacks genius and is as dull and turgid as Macedo’s other verse. A good word for the sea in Portuguese is _mar_; the poets often call it _oceano_, Camões had ventured to name it _o falso argento_, _o liquido estanho_, _o fundo aquoso_, _o humido elemento_; with Macedo it becomes _o tumido elemento_ (or perhaps he adopted the phrase from _Caramurú_, in which it occurs). We can scarcely blame Bocage for labelling him _tumido versista_.[647] Among his other philosophical poems are _Contemplação da Natureza_ (1801), _A Meditação_ (1813), _A Natureza_ (1846), and _A Creação_ (1865), now not more often read than his many odes and other verse. The most scandalous of his satires is _Os Burros_ (1827), in blank verse, in which he lavishly and outrageously insults nearly all the writers of the time, and which may have been suggested by Juan Pablo Forner’s _El Asno Erudito_ (1782). Like his poems, his dramatic works usually have some ulterior object; their purpose is not less practical than his pamphlets against _Os Sebastianistas_ (1810) or _Os Jesuitas_ (1830): behind Ezelino and Beatriz in his tragedy _Branca de Rossi_ (1819) loom Napoleon and Joséphine, and the prose comedy _A Impostura Castigada_ (1822) is an attack upon the doctors. The fact is that Macedo was essentially not a poet or a dramatist or a philosopher, but a forcible and eloquent pamphleteer. His philosophical letters and treatises, _A Verdade_ (1814), _O Homem_ (1815), _Demonstração da Existencia de Deos_ (1816), _Cartas filosoficas a Attico_ (1815), are at their best not when he is developing a train of scientific thought but when he is arguing _ad hominem_; and his literary criticism in _Motim Literario_ (1811) is primarily personal. As a critic militant he has his merits, and he is pleasantly patriotic in denouncing the glamour of _missangas estranjeiras_. But it is in his political periodicals, pamphlets, and letters, _Cartas_ (1821), _Cartas_ (1827), _Tripa virada_ (1823), _Tripa por uma vez_ (1823), _A Besta Esfolhada_ (1828-31), _O Desengano_ (September 1830-September 1831), that he puts forth all his spice and venom. Ponderous and angry like a lesser Samuel Johnson, he bullies and crushes his opponents in the raciest vernacular. He may be unscrupulous in argument, but his idiomatic and vigorous prose will always be read with pleasure.

Macedo’s dramatic works were neither better nor worse than those of other playwrights of the time. It was the professed object of MANUEL DE FIGUEIREDO (1725-1801) to ‘write plays morally and dramatically correct’. The effect of this didacticism in the fourteen volumes of his _Theatro_ (1804-15) is disastrous. He wrote in prose and verse, but the plays in ordinary prose are to be preferred, since in the others, like M. Jourdain, he made _de la prose sans le savoir_. He wrote comedies, and tragedies in which he is involuntarily comic. Even in _Ignez_ he keeps the even tenor of his dullness, and he warns the reader in a preface that his Inés is not to be considered beautiful since she was probably over thirty, and that her and Pedro’s passion had had time to cool.[648] There is more life in the plays written in a medley of prose and verse by ANTONIO JOSÉ DA SILVA (1705-39), whom Southey considered ‘the best of their dramatic writers’, but it is doubtful whether they would have received any attention in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries had it not been for the tragedy of their author’s life. He was born at Rio de Janeiro, the son of Portuguese Jews, his mother had been arrested by order of the Inquisition as early as 1712, and the whole family came to Lisbon, where the father practised successfully as a lawyer. In 1726 his mother was re-arrested, and this time Antonio José with her. He was released after suffering torture and publicly abjuring Jewish doctrines in an _auto da fé_. Eleven years later, after studying at Coimbra and following his father’s profession in Lisbon, he was again arrested, with his wife--he had married his cousin despite the dangerous fact that her mother had been burnt and she herself imprisoned by the Inquisition--and on October 18, 1739, he was first strangled and then burnt in an _auto da fé_ at Lisbon. For some years (1733-8) before his death the people of Lisbon had admired the plays of ‘the Jew’, as they called him, at the _Theatro do Bairro Alto_. Of the eight plays that have survived in print it must be said that they are for the most part very purposeless and ineffective. He attracted his audience sometimes by wit, more often by sheer farcical absurdity; the constant plays on words, the meaningless snatches of verse interpolated, do not increase the interest, which flags on every page because the author has not the slightest power of concentration. The action at least is quick and varied; it shows Silva’s inventive talent and explains the popularity of his _galhofeiras comedias_,[649] however much it may weary the reader. His plays with classical subjects are especially cold and dull, _A Ninfa Syringa ou Amores de Pan e Syringa_,[650] _Os Encantos de Medea_,[651] _Esopaida_,[651] _Amphitrião_,[651] _As Variedades de Proteo_,[652] _Laberinto de Creta_.[652] His best play, _Guerras do Alecrim e Mangerona_ (1737), contains some elements of character-drawing and describes the devices of the starving gentlemen D. Gilvaz and D. Fuas to obtain rich wives at the expense of miserly father and country cousin. The action consists in a bewildering succession of disguises, the scene (Pt. ii, Sc. 5) in which Gilvaz and Fuas doctor their stolid rival and ridicule the medical profession has humour but shows the usual inability to end before the reader’s patience has been long exhausted. In the _Vida do Grande D. Quixote de la Mancha_ (1733) Silva made bold to dramatize _Don Quixote_ in a series of scenes not over-skilfully connected. Of his own invention there is a comical scene (Pt. i, Sc. 8), in which Don Quixote is harassed by doubts as to whether the enchanters have not transformed Dulcinea into Sancho Panza: he begins to see a certain likeness; but most of the scenes are directly copied and here become signally insipid, as that of Sancho’s judgements (ii. 4), or that of the lion (i. 5), which is as far removed from Cervantes as the sorry lions of the Alhambra at Granada from those in Trafalgar Square. The drama of NICOLAU LUIS, whose life is obscure but whose name was possibly Nicolau Luis da Silva, belongs to the _literatura de cordel_, popular plays imitated and often directly translated from the Spanish and Italian and acted with great applause in the eighteenth century at Lisbon. Most of them were published without the author’s name, and although it is believed that he wrote over one-third of the numerous _comedias de cordel_ of the century[653] only a few, as _O Capitão Belisario_ (1781) and _O Conde Alarcos_ (1788), can be definitely assigned to him, a fact which incidentally bears witness to his lack of individuality. His best-known tragedy is _D. Ignez de Castro_ (1772), an imitation of _Reinar después de morir_ by Luis Velez de Guevara (1579-1644).

In prose it was not an age of great writers, but of research and learning. The Lisbon _Academia Real das Sciencias_,[654] founded by the Duque de Lafões, met for the first time in 1780, and was not slow in inaugurating the work which has won for it the gratitude of all who care for the language or literature of Portugal. D. ANTONIO CAETANO DE SOUSA (1674-1759) had published his valuable _Provas da Historia Genealogica_ (1739-48) in seven volumes, and the learned _curé_ of Santo Adrião de Sever, DIOGO BARBOSA MACHADO (1682-1772), had spent a long life in bibliographical study and compiled his indispensable and magnificent _Bibliotheca Lusitana_ (1741-59) with a generous inaccuracy which is attractive in the minute pedantry of a later age. The scarcely less famous _Vocabulario Portuguez_ of RAPHAEL BLUTEAU (1638-1734), who was born of French parents in London but spent over fifty years in Portugal, began to appear in 1712. The work of research was now carried on, among others by FRANCISCO JOSÉ FREIRE (1719-73); FREI JOAQUIM DE SANTA ROSA DE VITERBO (1744-1822); the librarian ANTONIO RIBEIRO DOS SANTOS (1745-1818); D. FRANCISCO ALEXANDRE LOBO (1763-1844), Bishop of Viseu; CARDINAL SARAIVA (1766-1845), Patriarch of Lisbon; and FREI FORTUNATO DE S. BOAVENTURA (1778-1844). Critics of poetry were LUIS ANTONIO VERNEY (1713-92), Archdeacon of Evora, ‘El Barbadiño’, whose criticisms in his _Verdadeiro Methodo de Estudar_ (2 vols., 1746) are severe, even harsh; FRANCISCO DIAS GOMES (1745-95), whom Herculano called _o nosso celebre critico_, and who was indeed a better critic than poet, as may be seen in the notes and poems of his _Obras Poeticas_ (1799); and MIGUEL DE COUTO GUERREIRO (_c._ 1720-93), who showed good sense in the twenty-six rhymed rules of his _Tratado da Versificaçam Portugueza_ (1784).

The best-known work of the learned son of a Lisbon blacksmith who became the first Bishop of Beja and Archbishop of Evora, MANUEL DO CENACULO VILLAS-BOAS (1724-1814), is his _Cuidados Litterarios_ (1791). THEODORO DE ALMEIDA (1722-1804), an erudite and voluminous writer, one of the original members of the Academy of Sciences, was more ambitious. In _O Feliz Independente do Mundo e da Fortuna_ in twenty-four books (3 vols., 1779), he took Fénelon’s _Télémaque_ for his model and sought to combine the gall of instruction with the honey of entertainment. He wrote it first (_uma boa parte_) in rhyme, then turned to blank verse, but, still dissatisfied, finally adopted prose, taking care, however, he says, that it should not degenerate into a novel. The book had a wide vogue, but is quite unreadable. One may be thankful that it was not written in verse like that of his _Lisboa Destruida_ (1803), an account of the earthquake of 1755, with sundry moralizings in six cantos of _oitavas_, of which a Portuguese critic has said that the author, in an excess of Christian humility, resolved to mortify his pride of learning by making himself ridiculous to posterity in verse. A flickering interest enlivens the _Cartas Familiares_ (1741, 2) of FRANCISCO XAVIER DE OLIVEIRA (1702-83). Their subjects are various: love, literature, witchcraft, and even the relation of a man’s character to the ribbon on his hat. The author gave up a diplomatic career, perhaps on account of his Protestant tendencies, and went to Holland (1740) and England (1744), where he publicly abjured Roman Catholicism (1746). After the Lisbon earthquake of 1755 he addressed a pamphlet in French to the King of Portugal, exhorting him to mend his ways; to become Protestant with all his subjects and abolish the Inquisition. He was duly burnt in effigy at Lisbon (1761), but died quietly at Hackney twenty-two years later. The letters of ALEXANDRE DE GUSMÃO (1695-1753), born at Santos in Brazil, have not been collected; those of the remarkable Portuguese Jew of Penamacor, ANTONIO NUNES RIBEIRO SANCHES (1699-1783), physician to the Empress Catherine II of Russia, _Cartas sobre a Educação da Mocidade_, appeared in 1760 at Cologne. The _Cartas Curiosas_ (1878) of the Abbade ANTONIO DA COSTA (1714-_c._ 1780) consist of thirteen letters written from Rome and Vienna from 1750 to 1780, mainly on the subject of music. The century was not rich in memoirs. The _Miscellaneas_ of D. JOÃO DE S. JOSEPH QUEIROZ (1711-64) contain some interesting and amusing anecdotes. He speaks of the _Memorias Genealogicas_ of Alão de Moraes and of the general discredit of genealogists, and attributes Mello’s imprisonment to his polite acquiescence in the suggestions of the Condessa de Villa Nova, made at the instigation of King João IV: _para lisongea-la disse que seguiria o partido de Castella_. But without seeing the manuscript it is impossible not to suspect that there is as much of Camillo Castello Branco as of the Bishop of Grão-Para in the _Memorias_ (1868), which he was the first to publish.

FOOTNOTES:

[629] _Lettere Familiari_, No. 30.

[630] Or _Arcadia Lusitana_. For a list of its members see T. Braga, _A Arcadia Lusitana_ (1899), pp. 210-29; for its statutes, ibid., pp. 189-205.

[631] Debt might seem a more probable cause, were it not for the apparent rigour of his confinement.

[632] _A sua alma conversava com Bernardes e Ferreira_, says his friend Tolentino, who advises another _cabelleireiro_ poet to cease writing verses, since _vale mais que cem sonetos a peior penteadura_. The _Arte de Furtar_ mentions a barber who sank still lower, since he left his profession in order to cut purses. The modern writer Antonio Francisco Barata (1836-1910) likewise began life as a poor hairdresser at Coimbra.

[633] Cf. _Ecloga_ 1. Dorindo to Alcino (_Alcino Mycenio_ was Quita’s Arcadian name):

E tu és dos pastores mais famosos No cantar de improviso o verso brando.

[634] i. e. the military governor of a district, with rank next to that of _Capitão Môr_.

[635] This Arcadian name was given to him by the Marquesa de Alorna, although he did not properly belong to the _Arcadia_, being, like Tolentino, one of the _dissidentes_.

[636] = fishwife; literally ‘woman of Ovar’, a small sea-town between Aveiro and Oporto.

[637] Sá do Miranda, he says, _em quem das doces quintilhas Sómente a rima aprendi.... Falta-me arte e natureza, Mas pude delle imitar A verdadeira singeleza._

[638] The sky is _a estellifera morada_ (the starry abode), birds _o plumoso aereo bando_, bees _mordazes enxames voadores_, &c.

[639] Menéndez y Pelayo (_Antología_, tom. xiii (1908), p. 377) calls him _el poeta de más condiciones nativas que ha producido Portugal después de Camoens_, ‘the most indigenous Portuguese poet since Camões’, and elsewhere gives the highest praise to his sonnets.

[640] His modern editor, Visconde (Julio) de Castilho, has shown that the additional surname de Vasconcellos was bestowed on him gratuitously.

[641] The _Couvade_ (ii. 62) is also described by Henrique Diaz, _Naufragio da Nao S. Paulo_, 1904 ed., p. 25, and Pero de Magalhães Gandavo, _Historia da Provincia Sancta Cruz_ (1576), cap. 10.

[642] His works in the _Dicc. Bibliog._ go from J. 2163 to J. 2475. Many are, however, single odes, sermons, &c. Other eighteenth-century sermons worth reading are those of the learned Franciscan Frei Sebastião de Santo Antonio: _Sermões_, 2 vols. (1779, 84).

[643] Superficially, at least, more than Manuel Caetano de Sousa (1658-1734) he deserves to be called a _varão encyclopedico_.

[644] He admires Cicero--not only as philosopher and orator but as a ‘sublime poet’! (_O Homem_ (1815), p. 98)--and Seneca, calls Petrarca immortal, Tasso incomparable, and is generous in his appreciation of English writers. At about the same time John Keats, as Petrarca five centuries earlier, was also reading Homer in translation, but in a somewhat different spirit.

[645] _Newton, Proemio._

[646] In the second edition (1827) he says that this poem, in twelve cantos and about 1,000 _oitavas_, written with ‘more fire and a purer light’ than those of Camões, had cost him ‘nine years of assiduous application’.

[647] Macedo called Bocage _fanfarrão glosador_, and much abuse of the same kind varied the monotony of _elogio mutuo_.

[648] Such woodenness was unlikely to appreciate El Greco’s pictures. In the preface to his _Agriparia_ (_Theatro_, vol. v, 1804) he speaks of _a extravagancia do vaidoso Domenico_, herein following Faria e Sousa, who calls Theotocopuli the Góngora of painters and adds: _Pero vale más una llaneza del Ticiano que todas sus extravagancias juntas por mas que ingeniosas_ (_Fuente de Aganipe Prólogo_, § 37).

[649] Arnaldo Gama, _Um motim ha cem annos_, 3ᵃ ed. (1896), p. 35.

[650] _Theatro Comico Portuguez_, 4 vols. (1759-90), vol. iii.

[651] Ibid., vol. i.

[652] Ibid., vol. ii.

[653] Innocencio da Silva, _Dicc. Bibliog._ vi. 275-85; xvii. 91-3, gives 217 titles.

[654] Now _Academia das Sciencias de Lisboa_, but it is found convenient to retain the original title in order to distinguish it from a more recent (private) institution, the _Academia das Sciencias de Portugal_.

VI

1816-1910

§ 1

_The Romantic School_

In Portugal the first quarter of the nineteenth century was filled with violence and unrest. The French invasion and years of fighting on Portuguese soil were followed by a series of revolutions and civil wars. It seemed as if a more general earthquake had come to complete the ruin of 1755, against which Lisbon had so finely re-acted. The historian who attempts to record the conflicts between Miguelists and Constitutionalists, and the miserable political intrigues which accompanied the ultimate victory of the latter, must waver disconsolately between tragedy and farce. But horrible and pitiful as were many of these events, they succeeded in awakening what had seemed a dead nation to a new life. The introduction of the parliamentary system called into being eloquent orators, and, more valuable than much eloquence, the conviction sprang up, partly under foreign influence, partly through love of the soil, deepened by persecution and banishment, that literature might have a closer relation to earth and life than a philological Filintian ode. Returning exiles brought fresh ideas into the country, and the two men who dominated Portuguese literature in the first half of the century had both learnt much from their enforced sojourn abroad. ALMEIDA GARRETT (1799-1854), one of the strangest and most picturesque figures in literature, was born at Oporto, but spent his boyhood in the Azores (Ilha Terceira), where his uncles, especially the Bishop of Angra, gave him a classical education and destined him for the priesthood. He, however, preferred to study law at Coimbra (1816-21). Here politics were in the air and he soon made himself conspicuous as a Liberal. The fall of the Constitution drove him into exile (1823) in England (near Edgbaston and in London), and France (Havre and Paris), and for the next thirty years politics remained one of his ruling passions. His first great opportunity for rhetorical display was his defence in the law-courts against the charge of impiety incurred by the publication of his poem _O Retrato de Venus_ (1821), although even before going to Coimbra he is said to have preached to a church full of people. He was able to return to Portugal in 1826, and edited _O Chronista_ and _O Portuguez_, which evoked Macedo’s wrath and ended in Garrett’s imprisonment. When Dom Miguel returned from Brazil and, instead of ‘signing the paper’ (the famous _Carta_ of 1826), had himself declared absolute king (1828) Garrett again became an exile, chiefly in London, and did not return to his country till July 1832, when he landed as a private soldier at Mindello, one of the famous 7,500 who fought for King Pedro and his daughter, Maria da Gloria. His zeal and outspokenness rendering him an uncomfortable colleague at Lisbon, he fared rather badly in the ignoble scramble for office which followed the triumph of the cause. He was sent first on a mission to London and then as _chargé d’affaires_ to Brussels (1834-6). The diplomatic service was in many ways congenial to his character, but his enemies made the mistake of slighting and neglecting him, and, refusing the post of Minister at Copenhagen, he returned to Portugal and helped to bring about the Revolution of September 1836. But his life is the whole history of the time: enough to say that for the next fifteen years his activities in politics and literature were unceasing. In a hundred ways he showed his versatility and energy. He served on many commissions, was appointed Inspector of Theatres (1836), _Cronista Môr_ (1838), elected deputy (1837), raised to the House of Peers (1852). As journalist, founder and editor of several short-lived newspapers, as a stylist and master of prose, his country’s chief lyric poet in the first half of the nineteenth century (coming as a fire to light the dry sticks of the eighteenth-century poetry) and greatest dramatist since the sixteenth; as politician and one of the most eloquent of all Portugal’s orators, an enthusiastic if unscientific folk-lorist,[655] a novelist, critic, diplomatist, soldier, jurist and judge, Garrett played many parts and with success. This patriot who did not despair of his country, this marvellous dandy who seemed to bestow as much thought on the cut of a coat as on the fashioning of a constitution, and who refused to grow old, preferring to incur ridicule as a _velho namorado_ (his love intrigues ended only with his life and he wrote his most passionate lyrics when he was over fifty), this artist in life and literature, lover of old furniture and old traditions, this lovable, ridiculous, human Garrett, whom his countrymen called divine, can still alternately charm and repel us as he scandalized and fascinated his contemporaries. His motives were often curiously mixed. His immeasurable peacock vanity as well as his generosity prompted him to champion weak causes and assist obscure persons. A man of high ideals and an essential honesty, he only rarely deviated into truth in matters concerning himself. When past fifty he was still ‘forty-six’ and he wrote an anonymous autobiography and filled it with his own praise. He often gave his time and talent ungrudgingly to the service of the State and then cried out that his disinterestedness went unrewarded. Fond of money but fonder of show and honours, he died almost poor but a viscount. Although of scarcely more than plebeian birth he liked to believe that the name Garrett, which he only assumed in 1818, was the Irish for Gerald and that he was descended from Garrt, first Earl of Desmond,[656] and through the Geraldines from Troy.[657] At the mercy of many moods, easily angered but never vindictive, capable occasionally of half-unconscious duplicity but never of hypocrisy, he remained to the last changing and sensitive as a child. His faults were mostly on the surface and injured principally himself, offering a hundred points of attack to critics incapable of understanding his greatness. That he did not play a more fruitfully effective part in politics was less his fault than that of the politics of the day; but the twofold incentive of serving his country by useful legislation and of a personal triumph in the Chamber prevented this ingenuous victim of political intrigue from ever devoting himself exclusively to literature. In politics he was an opportunist in the best sense of the word and a Liberal who detested the art of the demagogue. His few months as Minister in 1852 gave no scope for his real power of organization and of stimulating others. In the life and literature of his country he was a great civilizing and renovating force. He taught his countrymen to read and what to read, and, having freed them from the trammels of pseudo-classicism, did his utmost to prevent them from merely exchanging pedantry for insipidity. _Adozinda_, based on the _romance_ _Sylvaninha_ and originally published in London in 1828 and reviewed in the _Foreign Quarterly Review_, October 1832) or by others, e. g. Balthasar Diaz’ _O Marques de Mantua_, or popular _romances_ revised and polished by their collector. His own compositions (vol. i) often have great charm, as _Miragaia_, _Rosalinda_, _Bernal Francez_.]

His early verses, many of the poems published or reprinted in _Lyrica de João Minimo_ (1829), _Flores sem Fructo_ (1845), and _Fabulas e Contos_ (1853), were written under the influence of Filinto Elysio and the eighteenth century, but, fired by romanticism during his first exile in France, he introduced it into Portugal in his epic poems _Camões_ (1825) and _Dona Branca_ (1826),[658] in which prosaic passages alternate with others of fervent poetic beauty and glimpses of popular customs which in themselves spell poetry in Portugal. But Garrett was no super-romantic, in fact he deprecated ‘the extravagances and exaggerations of the ephemeral romanticism which is now coming to an end in Europe’.[659] At Brussels he learnt German, and the poetry, and especially the plays, of Goethe cast a steadying influence over his work. Garrett had early been attracted towards the theatre. His _Merope_, in its subject derived from Alfieri, and _Catão_ (1821) were both written in his student days. Neither of them can be called dramatic. In vain a glow of liberty[660] and rhetoric strives to melt the ice of _Catão_: its parliamentary debates still leave the reader cold. When fifteen years later, in the tercentenary year of Vicente’s last comedy, he was able definitely to undertake his favourite scheme of providing Portugal with a national drama, he found difficulties. He had to provide not only theatre, actors, and audience, but also the plays. He succeeded in instilling his keenness into some of his more lethargic countrymen, but, not content with translating from the French, Italian, or Spanish, himself wrote a series of plays to pave the way. His themes, unlike those of his earlier efforts, were now entirely national: the legendary love of the poet Bernardim Ribeiro for the daughter of King Manuel in _Um Auto de Gil Vicente_ (1838);[661] the patriotism of the Condessa de Athouguia in arming her two sons on the morning of December 1, 1640, to throw off the Spanish yoke, in _Dona Philippa de Vilhena_ (1840); an early incident in the life of one of the most chivalrous soldiers that the world has seen, the Constable Nun’ Alvarez, in _O Alfageme de Santarem_ (1842); the fall of Pombal in _A Sobrinha do Marquez_ (1848);[662] two famous episodes in the life of Manuel de Sousa Coutinho, the first of which, the setting fire to his palace rather than entertain the Spanish Governors, preserves the national atmosphere, in _Frei Luiz de Sousa_ (1844). These plays, with the exception perhaps of the hastily improvised _D. Philippa de Vilhena_, are all remarkable, although their merit is unequal. The characters, and especially the epoch in which they are presented, lend their chief interest to the first and third. The fifth, overpraised by some critics but praised by all--Menéndez y Pelayo called it ‘incomparable’--_Frei Luiz de Sousa_, far excels the others by reason of the concentration of interest and the really dramatic character of the plot (or at least of the anagnorisis of Act II) and by its intensity and deliberately simple execution. The intensity may be almost too unrelieved, but the conception of the play showed a fine dramatic instinct. Like most of Garrett’s work it was composed in a white heat, and the effect is enhanced by its excellently clear and restrained style, which brings out every shade and symptom of tragedy without distracting the attention by any extraneous ornaments. But all these plays are written in admirable prose. Indeed, a value is given even to Garrett’s slighter pieces--_Tio Simplicio_ (1844), _Fallar Verdade a Mentir_ (1845)[663]--apart from their indigenous character, by his pliant, transparent, glowing prose, to which perhaps even more than to his poetry he owes his foremost place in Portuguese literature. Although essentially a poet, his poems of enduring worth are a mere handful of beautiful episodes and graceful lyrics--in _Folhas Cahidas_ (1853) and vol. 1 (1843) of his _Romanceiro_--but his prose stamps with individuality works so diverse as his historical novel _O Arco de Santa Anna_ (2 vols., 1845, 51),[664] his charming miscellaneous _Viagens na minha terra_ (1846) with its famous episode of Joaninha of the nightingales, his treatises _Da Educação_ (1829), _Portugal na balança da Europa_ (1830), _Bosquejo da Litteratura Portuguesa_ (1826), as well as his plays. All his work was thoroughly national, and when he died a group of younger writers was at hand ready to continue it.

Garrett intended as _Cronista Môr_ to write the history of his own time. More serious historians existed in the Canon of Evora, ANTONIO CAETANO DO AMARAL (1747-1819); his fellow-academician the Canon JOÃO PEDRO RIBEIRO (†1839); LUZ SORIANO (1802-99), author of a _Historia da Guerra Civil_ (1866-90) in seventeen volumes; the VISCONDE DE SANTAREM (1791-1856), whose able and persistent researches were of inestimable service to the history and incidentally to the literature of his country; and the patient investigator CUNHA RIVARA (1809-79).

While scientific research work was accumulating the bones of history a creator arose in the person of ALEXANDRE HERCULANO (1810-77). He had emigrated to France and England in 1831, lived for a time at Rennes, and from the Azores in 1832 with Garrett accompanied the Liberal army to Oporto as a private soldier. In the following year he obtained work as a librarian. His _A Voz do Propheta_ (1836) (Castilho in this year translated Lamennais’ _Paroles d’un Croyant_), written in the impressive style of a Hebrew prophet, although it appeared anonymously, brought its author fame, and in 1839 the King Consort D. Fernando appointed him librarian of the Royal Library of Ajuda. The salary was not large, under £200 a year, but the post gave him the two necessaries of literary work, quiet and books. From that year to 1867 his life was taken up with his work, with which politics only occasionally interfered. He edited _O Panorama_ from 1837 to 1844 and joined in founding _O Paiz_. Although he was elected deputy to the Cortes in 1840 he rarely attended the sittings. His friendship with D. Fernando and King Pedro V continued unbroken till their death. In 1867 with characteristic abruptness he left Lisbon and literature and gave his last ten years almost entirely to agriculture on the estate of Val de Lobos, near Santarem.[665] The call of the land was combined with disgust at the politics of the capital and probably a natural disinclination to a sedentary mode of life. His retirement was greeted as a betrayal, and attacks formerly directed against his historical work were now directed against him for abandoning it. But since he had no intention of continuing his history, his literary work was really ended. It has three main aspects, poetry, the historical novel, and history. From the prosaic height of forty-six he informed Soares de Passos in a letter that he had been a poet till he was twenty-five. Some of the poems of _A Harpa do Crente_ (1838),[666] especially _A Tempestade_ and _A Cruz Mutilada_, rise to noble heights by reason of a fine conviction and a rugged grandeur, as of blocks of granite. Herculano had returned to Portugal imbued with profound admiration for the historical novels of Sir Walter Scott, ‘immortal Scott’ as he called him, and Victor Hugo, and in his remarkable stories and sketches contributed to _O Panorama_ and published as _Lendas e Narrativas_ (1851), as well as in the more elaborate _O Monasticon_, consisting of two separate parts _Eurico o Presbytero_ (1844) and _O Monge de Cister_ (1848), he wrote romance based upon scrupulous historical research. A slight leaning towards melodrama is as a rule successfully withstood, and his intense and powerful style enchains the attention. _Eurico_ is really a splendid prose poem,[667] in which the eighth-century priest Eurico is Herculano brooding over the degeneracy of Portugal in the nineteenth century. His glowing patriotism unifies the action and raises the style to an impassioned eloquence. The Middle Ages were well suited to him in their mixture of passion and ingenuousness and their scope for violent contrasts of evil and virtue, light and shadow. Most of the _Lendas e Narrativas_ and _O Bobo_ belong to that period, and his _Historia de Portugal_ (4 vols., 1846-53) ends with the year 1279. That he should have stopped there when the character and achievements of King Dinis must have offered him a powerful incentive to proceed shows how deeply he had felt the controversial attacks levelled at his work; but with the Renaissance and the subsequent history of Portugal he was too intensely national to have great sympathy. As a historian he has been compared with Hallam, Thierry, and Niebuhr, and he stands any such comparison well. A passion for truth drove him to the original sources and documents, and, since _alle Gelehrsamkeit ist noch kein Urteil_, he brought the same patience and impartial sincerity to their interpretation. The results obtained he imposed on thousands of readers by his impressive and living style.[668] In his case the style was the man. Beneath coldness or roughness he concealed an affectionate, impetuous nature, a hatred of meanness and injustice. In his personal relations austere and difficult, sometimes no doubt unfair and undiscerning in the severity of his judgements, he was a perfect contrast to Almeida Garrett, compared with whom he was as granite to chalk or as the rock to the stream that flows past it. His strong will was fortunately directed by the Marquesa de Alorna in his youth to the thoroughness of German writers. Thoroughness marked all his work. When the Academy of Sciences entrusted him with the task of collecting documents on the early history of Portugal he threw himself into the labour with a fervour which produced the splendid _Portvgaliae Monvmenta Historica_, a series of historical works and documents of the first importance which began to appear in 1856. From 1867 to 1877 he undertook agriculture not as an amateur’s pastime but as the work of his life, with the result that he achieved another great success scarcely inferior to his success as a writer. The same thoroughness is evident in the Cyclopean fragment of his history and in his shorter writings, the _Opusculos_ (1873-76). His _Da Origem e Estabelecimento da Inquisição em Portugal_ (3 vols., 1854-9), a deeply interesting account of the negotiations and intrigues at the Vatican, in ceasing to be dispassionate may suffer as a purely historical work, but its vigour brooks no denial and its literary excellence is acknowledged even by those who dispute its fairness. Great as scholar and man, too great to be always understood during his life, his memory received a tribute from men so different as Döllinger and Núñez del Arce, and it is probable that his reputation will only increase with time.

In the historical novel Herculano had many followers. ANTONIO DE OLIVEIRA MARRECA (1805-89) wrote two laborious fragments in _O Panorama: Manoel Sousa de Sepulveda_ (1843) and _O Conde Soberano de Castella_ (1844, 53). JOÃO DE ANDRADE CORVO (1824-90), poet and dramatist,[669] author of a novel of contemporary politics, _O Sentimentalismo_ (1871), which contains excellent descriptions of Bussaco, wrote a long historical novel, _Um Anno na Corte_ (1850), in which interest in the actors at the Court of Afonso VI, in incidents such as a bullfight or a boarhunt, in witchcraft or the Inquisition, is skilfully maintained. His style in its sober restraint is superior to that of ARNALDO DA GAMA (1828-69), whose historical episodes of the French invasion of 1809 (_O Sargento Môr de Villar_ and _O Segredo do Abbade_), or of Oporto in the fifteenth century in _A Ultima Dona de S. Nicolau_, or in the eighteenth in _Um Motim ha cem annos_ (1861), are of considerable interest despite their author’s excessive fondness for Latin quotations. Perhaps the influence of Camillo Castello Branco may be traced in his novel _O Genio do Mal_ (4 vols., 1857). GUILHERMINO AUGUSTO DE BARROS (1835-1900) is the author of a novel of the fifteenth century, _O Castello de Monsanto_ (2 vols., 1879), of great length and dullness. Its chief interest is for the student of the Portuguese language, owing to its large vocabulary. BERNARDINO PEREIRA PINHEIRO (born in 1837) in _Sombras e Luz_ (1863) described scenes from the reign of King Manuel, and drew a strange portrait of King João III in _Amores de um Visionario_ (2 vols., 1874). But the mantle of Herculano, as historical novelist, fell especially upon LUIZ AUGUSTO REBELLO DA SILVA (1822-71), politician and journalist. His _Rausso por Homizio_, a short novel of the time of King Sancho II, written with the exaggeration of extreme youth, appeared in the _Revista Universal Lisbonense_ (1842-3), followed by _Odio Velho não cansa_ (reign of Sancho I), with similar defects, in 1848. In the same (the first) volume of _A Epocha_ appeared his short _conto_ entitled _A Ultima Corrida de Touros em Salvaterra_, which won and has retained popularity by its skilful presentment of a stirring and pathetic episode in the reign of José I (1750-77). Four years later Rebello da Silva published his principal novel, _A Mocidade de D. João V_ (1852). In its somewhat tedious descriptions the reader soon loses the thread of the story, but is entertained by the quick dialogue and almost clownish humour of the separate scenes. _Lagrimas e Thesouros_[670] (1863) may interest English readers from the fact that its principal character is William Beckford, but it has not the great merits of the preceding novel. The author was already at work on his unfinished _Historia de Portugal nos seculos XVII e XVIII_ (5 vols., 1860-71). In this, as in his _Fastos da Igreja_ (1854-5) and _Varões Illustres_ (1870), his defects fall away, while his real skill as a historian, his intensity, and his excellent style remain; indeed, an added intensity gives his style a new vigour and simplicity. His _Historia_, although less rigorously scientific and far less methodically ordered than that of his master Herculano, has value as history as well as literature. Rebello da Silva wrote too much, but his work generally improved with the years and might have resulted in a real masterpiece had he not died before attaining the age of fifty.

Meanwhile the novel had entered on a new and intensely modern phase in the hands of a slightly younger contemporary. The life of CAMILLO CASTELLO BRANCO (1825-90), whose numerous novels have been and still are read enthusiastically in Portugal, had about it an element of improbability which is reflected in his works and made it possible to combine their apparent sincerity with a peculiar unreality. Born at Lisbon but left an orphan at the age of eight, and brought up by a sister, wife of a doctor, in a small village of Tras-os-Montes,[671] a widower in his teens, then a boisterous Oporto medical student, twice imprisoned for love affairs and finally guilty of abducting an heiress as a bride for his son, his whole life was spent in a whirlwind, actual or imaginary, a tragicomedy which, stricken with blindness, he ended by suicide. He read and wrote in the same tempestuous fashion. The sentimental atmosphere of his novels is relieved systematically by outbursts of cynicism and sarcasm. When he began to write romanticism was in full swing, but his last twenty years were spent under what was to him the vexing and tantalizing shadow of the new realism. His first story, _Maria não me mates, que sou tua mãe!_ (1848),[672] was sentimental and sensational, and something of these qualities remained in the greater part of his work. His first more elaborate novel _Anathema_ (1851), in which the story is interrupted by lengthy musings and moralizings, he himself described as ‘a kind of literary crab’, and most of his novels are somewhat lop-sided: he confessed that his discursiveness was incurable. It is the more hysterical among his works, such as _Amor de Perdição_ (1862)--its character is well described by the title of the Italian version, _Amor sfrenato_--or _Amor de Salvação_ (1864) and those which combine this character with a chain of amazing coincidences, as _Os Mysterios de Lisboa_ (1854) and _O Livro Negro do Padre Diniz_ (1855), which were read most avidly in Portugal. He himself favoured the quieter _Romance de um Homem Rico_ (1861) and _Livro de Consolação_ (1872). We may prefer the attic flavour of the humorous sketch of a country gentleman (born in the year of Waterloo) at Lisbon, in _A Queda d’um Anjo_ (1866), which somehow recalls the best work of Pedro Antonio de Alarcón. Castello Branco had a true vein of comedy, and although a great part of the work of this specialist in hysterics has an air of unreality, he is many-sided and yields frequent surprises. The true Camillo appears only intermittently in his novels, and charms with a simplicity of style and description worthy of Frei Luis de Sousa, as in some of his _Novellas do Minho_ (12 vols., 1875-7), the country-house in _Coração, Cabeça e Estomago_ (1862), the Tras-os-Montes _fidalgo_‘s house in _Os Mysterios de Lisboa_, the village priest in _A Sereia_ (1865), Padre João in _Doze Casamentos Felizes_ (1861), the farrier in _Amor de Perdição_, the charcoal-burners in _O Santo da Montanha_ (1865). Then (as if with the question: what will the Chiado, what will the Lisbon critics say?) he pulls himself up, lashes himself with sarcasms, and plunges into his improbabilities and passions. A poet and a learned and ingenious if unscholarly critic, he saw and described the charm of the villages of North Portugal, but he satirized with peculiar venom the _bourgeois_ life and the enriched _brazileiros_ of Oporto, as in _A Filha do Arcediago_ (1855), _A Neta do Arcediago_ (1856), _A Douda do Candal_ (1867), _Os Brilhantes do Brazileiro_ (1869), _Memorias de Guilherme do Amaral_ (1863), and _Um Homem de Brios_ (1856),[673] the last two being continuations of _Onde está a Felicidade?_ (1856). This last work has a broader historical setting, and many of his novels are really historical episodes,[674] some of which bear a strong resemblance to Pérez Galdós’ _Episodios Nacionales_. Especially is this the case with the latter part of _As Tres Irmãs_ (1862) and with _A Bruxa de Monte Cordova_ (1867), both written before the appearance of the first _Episodio Nacional_. In _Eusebio Macario_ and _A Corja_ he set his hand to the naturalistic novel, and in _A Brazileira de Prazins_ (1882) modified this method to suit his favourite phantasy of extremes, in which the angel and martyr are contrasted with the romantic Don Juan or vulgar _brazileiro_ or narrow-minded Minho noble. Apart from their historical interest and occasional charming glimpses of life and literature, his books are invaluable for their style, and he is the author of many masterly passages rather than of any masterpiece. He sometimes--here, as in all else, leaving moderation to the _bourgeois_ _épaté_--allows himself to be carried away by his immense vocabulary, but often, indeed usually, his language is a flawless marble, a rich quarry of the purest, most vernacular Portuguese, derived from the Portuguese religious and mystic writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[675] Absorbed in his work night after night till the first songs of birds announced the dawn, writing in or after a paroxysm of grief or excitement in his own life, he first lived, then swiftly set on paper, the incidents of his novels--_Amor de Perdição_ was written in a fortnight. Their plot may be ill constructed, the delineation of characters shallow, Balzac _manqué_, the episodes far-fetched and melodramatic, but they corresponded, if not to life, to the life of their author and thereby attained intensity of style and a certain unity of action. Yet he was always greatly concerned with schools and tendencies (he imitated Émile Zola in _Eusebio Macario_, although he declared the realistic school to be the perversion of Nature, Émile Souvestre in _As Tres Irmãs_, Octave Feuillet in _Romance de um Homem Rico_), sure of his genius but not of the channels into which he should direct it, at his best perhaps in brief essays and sketches from which his high-flown romanticism is absent, as in the studies of the lives of criminals in _Memorias do Carcere_ (2 vols., 1862) and his many scattered reminiscences of life in Minho, the valley of the Tamega, and Oporto. With his sensitive restless temperament, his imagination, his satire and sadness (of tears rather than _saudade_, for which the action in his stories is too rapid), his intolerant hatred of tyranny and intolerance, his essential interest not in things nor even characters but in life and passion, and his unfailing power of expression, he may well be called ‘the [modern] Portuguese genius personified’.[676] His life is a strange contrast to the almost idyllic serenity of that of ANTONIO FELICIANO DE CASTILHO (1800-75), whose admirable persistency as poet and translator during a period of nearly sixty years--he had been blind from the age of six--enabled him to attain an extraordinary pre-eminence in Portuguese poetry after Garrett and other poets had been broken like crystals while he remained as a tile upon the housetop. A romantic with a natural leaning to perfection of form, he always retained something of the Arcadian school, and like the Arcadians sought his inspiration in Bernardim Ribeiro and other bucolic _quinhentistas_. Unsympathetic critics incapable of appreciating Castilho’s masterly style may feel that in the twenty-one letters of the _Cartas de Echo e Narciso_ (1821), in _A Primavera_ (1822)[677] and _Amor e Melancholia ou a Novissima Heloisa_ (1828) he combined the classical school’s dearth of thought with the diffuseness of the romantics. But his _quadras_ (_A Visão_, _O São João_, _A Noite do Cemiterio_) and his blank verse are alike so easy and natural, his style so harmonious and pure that, despite the lack of observation and originality in these long poems, they have not even to-day lost their place in Portuguese literature. In their soft, vague melancholy and gentle grace they were even more popular than his romantic poems, _A Noite do Castello_ (1836)[678] and _Os Ciumes do Bardo_ (1838), and influenced many younger writers. Like Garrett he taught them to seek the subjects of their verse in the popular traditions of their own land. Indeed, so great was his bent for the national in literature that his numerous translations (from the French and English, Latin and Greek, to which, with an occasional aftermath of poems such as _Outono_ (1862), his later years were devoted) are often remarkable rather for their excellent Portuguese versification than for faithfulness to the originals, and the _Faust_ of Goethe, whose powerful directness was unintelligible to his translator, especially as he only read the poem in a French version, became translated indeed.

The most prominent or the least insipid of the numerous group of romantic and ultra-romantic poets, a generation younger than Garrett and Castilho, who published their verses in _O Trovador_ (1848)[679] and _O Novo Trovador_ (1856), were LUIZ AUGUSTO PALMEIRIM (1825-93), whose _Poesias_ appeared in 1851, and JOÃO DE LEMOS (1819-89), some of whose poems (one of the best known is _A Lua de Londres_) in _Flores e Amores_ (1858), _Religião e Patria_ (1859), and especially _Canções da Tarde_ (1875), have a delicacy of rhythm and are more scholarly than those of most of the romantic poets. The three volumes form the _Cancioneiro de João de Lemos_. JOSÉ DA SILVA MENDES LEAL (1818-86), author of _Historia da Guerra no Oriente_ (1855), and, like Palmeirim, a successful dramatist, in _Os Dois Renegados_ (1839) and _O Homem da Mascara Negra_ (1843), and also a novelist (_O que foram os Portugueses_), as a poet is at his best in patriotic, military, or funeral odes: _O Pavilhão Negro_ (1859), _Ave Cesar_, _Gloria e Martyrio_ (perhaps suggested by Tennyson’s _Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington_), _Napoleão no Kremlin_ (1865), _Indiannas_, in which his sonorous verse has a certain grandeur. His _Canticos_ (1858) contain among others a good translation of _El Pirata_ of Espronceda, whose influence is evident in the ode to Vasco da Gama, which forms the first part of _Indiannas_. ANTONIO AUGUSTO SOARES DE PASSOS (1826-60), son of an Oporto chemist, studied at Coimbra and published a volume of sentimental romantic poems in 1856 (_Poesias_). The most remarkable is the noble if a little too grandiloquent ode entitled _O Firmamento_, which far excels the poems of death, pale moonlight, autumn regrets, and vanished dreams of this excellent translator of Ossian. After his death a fellow-student, Dr. Lourenço de Almeida e Medeiros, accused him of having stolen _O Firmamento_ and other poems. He had himself, he said, written the melancholy ballad _O Noivado do Sepulchro_ in February 1853, but unfortunately for his contention it had appeared over Soares de Passos’ signature eight months earlier in _O Bardo_. A miscellaneous writer, like so many of his contemporaries, FRANCISCO GOMES DE AMORIM (1827-92) achieved popularity with his plays, published two volumes of sentimental poems, _Cantos Matutinos_ (1858) and _Ephemeros_ (1866), of which perhaps _O Desterrado_ is now alone remembered, and several pleasantly indigenous stories of his native Avelomar (Minho) collected in _Fruitos de Vario Sabor_ (1876), with an attractive sketch of the priest, Padre Manuel, _Muita parra e pouca uva_ (1878), and _As Duas Fiandeiras_ (1881). He played the sedulous Boswell to Almeida Garrett during the last three years of the latter’s life, and the result was one of the few interesting biographies in the modern literature of the Peninsula: _Garrett, Memorias Biographicas_ (3 vols., 1881-8). Among the host of pale moon-singers following in the wake of Castilho it is a relief to find a satirist, FAUSTINO XAVIER DE NOVAES (1822-64), who in his _Poesias_ (1855), _Novas Poesias_ (1858), and _Poesias Postumas_ (1877), preferred to take Tolentino for his model. He ridiculed the _janota com pouco dinheiro, com fumos de grande_ and other types of his native Oporto, where for some time he worked as a goldsmith. Later he emigrated to Rio de Janeiro, but there found ‘everything except literature well paid’.

Two of the romantic poets lived on into the twentieth century, one even survived the Monarchy. THOMAZ RIBEIRO (1831-1901), born at Parada de Gonta in the district of Tondella (Beira), advocate, journalist, playwright, historian, politician, deputy, minister, peer of the realm, won enduring fame with his long romantic poem _D. Jayme_ (1862), which opens with fifteen striking stanzas addressed to Portugal. In this introductory ode he rises on the wings of ardent patriotism and sturdy faith in Portugal to a fine achievement in verse. Less rhetorical, the rest of the poem (or series of poems in varying metre) would have gained by reduction to half its length, but is sometimes not without charm in its meanderings. Yet it is a kind of inspired rhetoric and natural grandiloquence that best characterize Ribeiro, and when his inspiration falters it leaves but a hollow and metallic shell of verse. We will expect no delicate shades from a lyric poet who calls the sky _o celico espectaculo_. Subsequent volumes--_Sons que passam_ (1867), which contains poems written as early as 1854, _A Delfina do Mal_ (1868), _Vesperas_ (1880), _Dissonancias_ (1890), _O Mensageiro de Fez_ (1899)--maintained, but did not increase, his reputation as a poet. The chief work of RAIMUNDO ANTONIO DE BULHÃO PATO (1829-1912), a Portuguese born at Bilbao, was _Paquita_, which he began to publish in 1866, and to the completion of which he devoted nearly forty years of loving care. It is a facetious romantic poem of sixteen cantos, mostly in verses of six lines (_ababcb_ or _ababca_), intended to be in the manner of Byron but more akin to Antonio de Trueba, whose verses are imitated in _Flores Agrestes_ (1870). The modern reader, after readily agreeing with Herculano that the poem has its faults, will perhaps be disposed to inquire further if it has any merits; but, although its subject is often unpoetical and trivial, the versification is easy and occasionally excellent. Bulhão Pato published other volumes of gentle album poetry, as _Poesias_ (1850), _Versos_ (1862), _Canções da Tarde_ (1866), and _Hoje: Satyras, Canções e Idyllios_ (1888), besides sketches and recollections in prose. Nearly fifty years before his death the romantic school in Portugal had received a severe shock, and the fact that long romantic poems continued to appear is proof how deep its roots had penetrated.

FOOTNOTES:

[655] His _Romanceiro_ published in 3 vols. (1843, 51) contains poems of national themes drawn from popular songs and traditions, written by himself (as

[656] The name of the first Earl of Desmond (cr. 1328) was Maurice fitzThomas (†135) not Gerald, Gerod, Gerott, Garrett, or Garrt (see Lord Walter FitzGerald, _Notes on the FitzGeralds of Ireland_). The forms Garret and Gareth existed in Catalonia in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, e. g. the Catalan poet Bernardo Garret, born at Barcelona, who wrote in Italian and became known as Chariteo (_c._ 1450-_c._ 1512).

[657] Amorim, _Memorias_, i. 28.

[658] Of _O Magriço_, a still longer epic, only fragments remain; it went down in manuscript in the _Amelia_, sunk by the Miguelists off the Portuguese coast.

[659] Preface to 4th ed. (1845) of _Catão_.

[660] The ‘tyranny’ of the day was that of General Beresford. Some scenes of _Catão_ (derived from the _Cato_ (1713) of Addison), of which a Portuguese version by Manuel de Figueiredo (_Theatro_, vol. viii) had appeared in Garrett’s boyhood, were directed against this English despot. A few years later Garrett learned to enjoy English society, as his Anglophobe biographer, Amorim, admits.

[661] Published in 1841.

[662] Written ten years earlier.

[663] These two plays were published in vol. vii of his _Obras_ (1847) with _D. Philippa de Vilhena_.

[664] A contemporary novel, _Helena_ (1871), remained unfinished at his death.

[665] It was, however, no sudden decision. As early as 1851 he wrote, in a letter to Garrett, ‘... _me ver entre quatro serras com algumas geiras de terra proprias, umas botas grossas e um chapeu de Braga, bello ideal de todas as minhas ambições mundanas_’.

[666] The second edition with additional poems was entitled _Poesias_ (1850).

[667] _Cronica, poema, lenda ou o que quer que seja_, he says.

[668] The late Dr. Gonçalvez Viana considered Herculano ‘the most vernacular, scrupulous and perfect writer of the nineteenth century’ (_Palestras Filolójicas_, 1910, p. 116).

[669] _O Alliciador_ (1859), _O Astrologo_ (1860).

[670] The last novel to appear in Rebello da Silva’s lifetime was _A Casa dos Phantasmas_ (1865). _De Noite todos os gatos são pardos_ was published posthumously.

[671] After Camillo, as he is always called in Portugal, had been created Visconde de Corrêa Botelho in 1885, his descent was traced back to Fruela, son of Pelayo.

[672] That is, a year before the novel _Memorias de um Doudo_ (1849) by Antonio Pedro Lopes de Mendonça (1826-65).

[673] Cf. also _Carlota Angela_ (1858), _O que fazem mulheres_ (1858), _Annos de Prosa_ (1863), _O Sangue_ (1868), _Estrellas Propicias_ (1863), _Estrellas Funestas_ (1869).

[674] e. g. _Lagrimas Abençoadas_ (1857), _Carlota Angela_ (1858), _O Santo da Montanha_ (1865), _A Engeitada_ (1866), _O Judeu_ (2 vols., 1866), _O Regicida_ (1874), _A Filha do Regicida_ (1875).

[675] That it is not impeccable such a phrase as _confortar o palacio_ (_O Livro Negro do Padre Diniz_, 1896 ed., p. 135) well shows.

[676] M. A. Vaz de Carvalho, _Serões no Campo_ (1877), p. 171.

[677] Part 2 is entitled _A Festa de Maio_ (two cantos).

[678] Written in 1830.

[679] This ‘collection of contemporary poems’ contains verses of considerable merit. Of some 200 poems by twenty-one poets twenty-eight are by João de Lemos, thirty by José Freire de Serpa Pimentel (1814-70), second Visconde de Gouvêa, author of _Solaos_ (1839), thirty-four by Antonio Xavier Rodrigues Cordeiro (1819-1900), and thirty-six by Augusto José Gonçalves Lima (1823-67), who reprinted his contributions in _Murmurios_ (1851). A similar collection of verse was _A Grinalda_ (Porto, 1857).

§ 2

_The Reaction and After_

It was in 1865 that Castilho, the acknowledged high-priest of literary aspirants, wrote a long letter which was published as introduction (pp. 181-243) to Pinheiro Chagas’ _O Poema da Mocidade_ (1865), in which he deprecated the pretentious affectations of the younger poets. For while Castilho was dispensing his patronage to the acolytes of romanticism a new school of writers had grown up at Coimbra, who refused to know Joseph. They turned to Germany as well as to France, professed to replace sentiment by science, and in the name of philosophy chafed unphilosophically at the old commonplaces and unrealities. Castilho stood not only for romanticism but for the classical style of the eighteenth century, and in some respects the secession from his school may be described as the revolt of the Philistine against Filinto. Anthero de Quental now voiced the cause against the aged Castilho’s preface in an article entitled _Bom Senso e Bom Gosto_ (1865). For the next few months it rained pamphlets.[680] Snr. Julio de Castilho, subsequently second Visconde de Castilho (1840-1919), and author of many well-known works, including the drama _D. Ignez de Castro_ (1875) and the eight volumes of _Lisboa Antiga_ (1879-90), took up the cudgels on behalf of his father. The high principles at stake, good sense and good taste, were sometimes forgotten in personal bitterness; a duel was even fought between Quental and Ramalho Ortigão, in which both the poet and his critic were happily spared to literature.

But romanticism in Portugal has nine lives, and raised its head at intervals during the second half of the century. In the domain of history JOAQUIM PEDRO DE OLIVEIRA MARTINS (1845-94) always remained more than half a romantic. His life explains the character of his historical writings. Born at Lisbon, obliged to work for a living when he was barely fifteen, he succeeded at the same time in educating himself, supported his mother and her younger children, married before he was twenty-five, had published a dozen works before he was forty, was elected deputy for Viana do Castello in 1886, became Minister of Finance in 1892, and died in his fiftieth year. A career so meteoric could scarcely give scope for that scrupulous research, that careful sifting of evidence which modern ideas associate with the work of the historian; and Oliveira Martins as historian embraced not only the whole of Portuguese but the whole of Iberian history, and that of Greece and Rome to boot. But even had he had more time, the result would only have been more subjects treated, not a different treatment. His whole idea of history was coloured with romance, his work impetuous and personal as that of a lyric poet. His first book, the historical novel _Phebus Moniz_ (1867), passed almost unnoticed. After several pamphlets, appeared his first historical work, _O Hellenismo e a Civilisação Christã_ (1878), and then in marvellous rapidity the _Historia da Civilisação Iberica_ (1879), _Historia de Portugal_ (1879), _Elementos de Anthropologia_ (1880), _Portugal Contemporaneo_ (1881), and a further succession of historical works ending with the _Historia da Republica Romana_ (1885). Although politics now occupied much of his time he continued to publish, and wisely emphasized the biographical side of his work, of which _Os Filhos de D. João I_ (1891) and _A Vida de Nun’ Alvares_ (1893) are not the least valuable part. _O Principe Perfeito_ (1896), dealing with King João II, appeared posthumously and incomplete. A master of psychology and impressionistic character-sketching, all his work is a gallery of pictures--and especially of portraits--from Afonso Henriquez to Herculano, which reveal the artist as well as his subjects. His style, nervous, coloured, insinuating, is a swift and supple implement for his exceptional power of skilfully summarizing a person or a period. He is capable of vulgarity (as in the account of Queen Philippa and the frequent use of colloquialisms perfectly unbefitting the dignity of history) but not of dullness. He uses and abuses epigram and metaphor, and is not free from the pompous rhetorical antitheses of Victor Hugo (e.g. _De Cid transformou-se em Wallenstein_), till the reader suspects him of being ready at all times to sacrifice truth to a phrase. Yet it is surprising, considering the circumstances of his life and the extent of his work, how often he bases his history, if not on documents, on the work of reliable earlier historians, Portuguese and foreign. If he fills in the gaps with pure romance or an uncritical use of texts (for instance, in _A Vida de Nun’ Alvares_ he incorporates as authentic those charming ‘letters of Nun’ Alvarez’ which a mere glance at their style shows to be apocryphal) these are but the poet’s arabesques, the main structure is often sound enough. Were there no other history of Portugal it might be necessary to consider his work not only fascinating but dangerous, nor would _Portugal Contemporaneo_ alone convey an impartial or complete idea of Portuguese history in the first two-thirds of the nineteenth century. We may deny him the title of great historian, we cannot deny him a foremost place in the literature of the century as a writer of brilliant intellect and feverish energy and a powerful re-constructor of characters and scenes in their picturesqueness and their passions.

The work of MANUEL PINHEIRO CHAGAS (1842-95), poet, playwright, critic, novelist, historian, was even more abundant and for the most part of a more popular character and more commonplace. He is also more Portuguese, and his works deserve to be read if only for their pure and easily flowing style. Many of his novels are historical. _A Corte de D. João V_ (1867) has an account of an _outeiro_[681] in which figures the _Camões do Rocio_ as the poet Caetano José da Silva Souto-Maior (_c._ 1695-1739) was called. The subject of the earlier novel _Tristezas á beira-mar_ (1866) is that which Amorim in his _A Abnegação_ derived from an English novel, but is here more naturally treated. _A Mascara Velha_ (continued in _O Juramento da Duqueza_) appeared in 1873. _As Duas Flores de Sangue_ (1875) is concerned with revolution in France and at Naples. _A Flor Secca_ (1866) treats of more everyday scenes and contains some amusing if rather obvious character-sketches, as the old servant Maria do Rosario (a rustic Juliana), or the devout and vixenish old maid D. Antonia. His _Novelas Historicas_ (1869) contains six historical tales dealing with Afonso I, Nun’ Alvarez, Prince Henry the Navigator, King Sebastian, Pombal, and the French Revolution. His _Historia de Portugal_ (8 vols., 1867), begun on a plan originally laid down by Ferdinand Denis, contains lengthy and frequent quotations from previous historians but is coloured by later political ideas. The two shorter works _Historia alegre de Portugal_ (1880) and _Portugueses illustres_ (1869) are admirably suited for their purpose--to interest the people in the history and heroes of their country.

The chief work of the able and industrious critic and historian JOSÉ MARIA LATINO COELHO (1825-91) was his _Historia Politica e Militar de Portugal desde os fins do seculo XVIII até 1814_ (3 vols., 1874-91). ANTONIO COSTA LOBO (1840-1913), editor of the instructive _Memorias de um Soldado da India_, in his _Historia da Sociedade em Portugal no seculo XV_ (1904) began a meticulous and well thought-out study of an earlier period of Portuguese history. JOSÉ RAMOS COELHO (1832-1914) is chiefly known for his elaborate romantic biography of the brother of King João V: _Historia do Infante D. Duarte_ (2 vols., 1889, 90). Dr. HENRIQUE DA GAMA BARROS (born in 1833) in the invaluable _Historia da Administração Publica em Portugal nos seculos XII a XV_ (3 vols., 1885, 96, 1914) has collected an abundance of concrete, carefully verified details, and thrown a searching light on the early history of Portugal.[682]

In literary criticism as well as in historical research the nineteenth century worthily continued the traditions of the eighteenth. FRANCISCO MARQUES DE SOUSA VITERBO (1845-1910) after first appearing in print as a poet in _O Anjo do Pudor_ (1870) rendered excellent service in both those fields; the best-known work of LUCIANO CORDEIRO (1844-1900) is his study _Soror Marianna_ (1890); ZOPHIMO CONSIGLIERI PEDROSO (1851-1910) and ANTONIO THOMAZ PIRES (†1913) were celebrated for their studies in folk-lore[683]; the VISCONDE DE JUROMENHA (1807-87) for his edition of the works of Camões; the CONDE DE FICALHO (1837-1903) for several remarkable studies and his edition of Garcia da Orta; ANNIBAL FERNANDES THOMAZ (1840-1912) as a bibliographer; AUGUSTO EPIPHANIO DA SILVA DIAS (1841-1916) as scholar and critic; JOSÉ PEREIRA DE SAMPAIO (1857-1915), who used the pseudonym _Bruno_, as a critic; ANICETO DOS REIS GONÇALVEZ VIANA (1840-1914) and JULIO MOREIRA (1854-1911) as philologists; LUIZ GARRIDO (1841-82) as critic and classical scholar in his _Ensaios historicos e criticos_ (1871) and _Estudos de historia e litteratura_ (1879). After the death of the diligent and enthusiastic but sadly unmethodical bibliographer INNOCENCIO DA SILVA (1810-76), his celebrated _Diccionario Bibliographico Portuguez_ was carried on by BRITO ARANHA (1833-1914), and the task of continuing it is now entrusted to Snr. GOMES DE BRITO. To the eminent folk-lorist FRANCISCO ADOLPHO COELHO (1847-1919) the language, literature, and folklore are indebted for many works of permanent value. Notable among living scholars, apart from D. Carolina Michaëlis de Vasconcellos and Mr. Edgar Prestage, who both write in Portuguese, are Colonel FRANCISCO MARIA ESTEVES PEREIRA, whose editions of early works are invaluable; Dr. JOSÉ JOAQUIM NUNES, who has devoted his careful scholarship to the early poetry and prose; the Camões scholar, Dr. JOSÉ MARIA RODRIGUES; Snr. PEDRO DE AZEVEDO, archaeologist and historian; Snr. DAVID LOPES, a scholar equally versed in literature and history; Snr. CANDIDO DE FIGUEIREDO (born in 1846), enthusiastic student and exponent of the Portuguese language; while Dr. FIDELINO DE FIGUEIREDO has a wide and growing reputation as critic and as editor of the _Revista de Historia_. Snr. ANSELMO BRAAMCAMP FREIRE (born in 1849), founder and editor of the _Archivo Historico Portugues_ and a most sagacious critic and keen investigator, is the author of attractive and important historical studies and editions, which have become more frequent since he has been able to spare more time from public affairs. Dr. JOSÉ LEITE DE VASCONCELLOS (born in 1858) has a European reputation as archaeologist, folk-lorist, philologist, and founder and editor of the _Revista Lusitana_. Ethnology, numismatics, and poetry are among his other subjects, and he maintains the renown of the Portuguese as polyglots, since he writes in Portuguese, Spanish, French, Latin, and Galician. His untiring enthusiasm for all that is popular or genuinely Portuguese is reflected in his numerous books and pamphlets, and he happily infects younger scholars. The gift and training of exact scholarship were denied to Dr. THEOPHILO BRAGA (born in 1843), but his exceptional ardour, industry, and ingenuity have been of inestimable value to Portuguese literature, which will always venerate his name even though his works perish. More than thirty years ago they numbered over sixty, and that was, as it were, only a beginning. His volumes of verse, _Folhas Verdes_ (1859), _Visão dos Tempos_ (1864), _Tempestades Sonoras_ (1864), _Ondina do Lago_ (1866), _Torrentes_ (1869), _Miragens Seculares_ (1884), which was intended to succeed where Victor Hugo’s _Légende des Siècles_ had failed through lack of a _plano fundamental_, have been variously judged, some regarding them as real works of genius, others as a step removed from the sublime; his works on the Portuguese people are always full of interesting matter. His important _Historia da Litteratura Portuguesa_ was to have been completed in thirty-two volumes, but his energies have been spent in many directions, and he has further written works of history, including that of Coimbra University in four volumes, positivist philosophy, and sociology, as well as short stories and plays.

The Portuguese novelists in the nineteenth century showed an increasing tendency to write plays, while authors whose reputation belonged more exclusively to the drama rarely rose above mediocrity. The success of Garrett’s plays was bound to fire a crowd of dramatists. Gomes de Amorim’s _Ghigi_ (1852), on a fifteenth-century theme, was followed by plays with a thesis, such as _A Viuva_ (1852), _Odio de Raça_ (1854), written on the slavery question at Garrett’s request, and _Figados de Tigre_ (1857), which entitles itself a parody of melodramas. Having emigrated as a boy to Brazil, he was able to use his knowledge of South America, sometimes with more zeal than discretion, as in _O Cedro Vermelho_, an exotic play in five acts and seventy-nine scenes, which the unfamiliar dresses and hybrid dialogue helped to make popular at Lisbon.[684]

The notable success of more recent playwrights has perhaps developed in proportion as the drama has ceased to be drama in order to become a series of isolated scenes, a novel or _conto_ in green-room attire. They are at their happiest when they abandon formal drama for the lighter _revista_. Pathos is theirs and a deft handling of social themes; they can reproduce the peasant or _bourgeois_ or noble as a class in thought and action and external conditions. Some of them possess technical skill, choose indigenous subjects and an atmosphere of chastened romanticism. But individual psychology and dramatic

## action are scarcely to be found. A reader with the patience to peruse

the hundreds of plays acted and published in Lisbon during the last fifty years would be rewarded by many delicate half-tones, polished and impeccable verse, excellent prose, admirable sentiments, and poignant scenes, but could with difficulty afterwards recall a striking character or situation. FERNANDO CALDEIRA (1841-94) was a poet, and his plays, _O Sapatinho de Setim, A Mantilha de Renda_ (1880), _Nadadoras, A Madrugada_ (1894), are read less for the plot than for his carefully limned verse. His volume of poems, _Mocidades_, appeared in 1882. ANTONIO ENNES (1848-1901), journalist, librarian, politician, diplomatist, Minister of Marine, showed command of pathos and humour as well as of style in his plays _O Saltimbanco_ (1885), the tragedy of the noble devotion of a mountebank, Falla-Só, descendant of Jean Valjean, for his daughter, who has been brought up in ignorance of her birth, _Os Lazaristas_ (1875), and _Os Engeitados_ (1876), which insists throughout on its thesis, the wickedness and cruelty of exposing children, but has some good scenes and living characters, and the notable one-act piece _Um Divorcio_ (1877). The principal play of MAXIMILIANO DE AZEVEDO (1850-1911), author of many light and commonplace comedies, as _Por Força_ (1900), was the drama _Ignez de Castro_ (1894). The scene in which Inés, full of foreboding, takes leave of Pedro before he goes hunting, and that at the end of Act IV, in which Pedro returns to find Inés, in the words of their little son, _ali a dormir_, are effective. A fifth act six years later [1361] comes as an anti-climax. _O Auto dos Esquecidos_ (1898) is the work not of a dramatist but of a poet, JOSÉ DE SOUSA MONTEIRO (1846-1909), whose poems were published under the title _Poemas: Mysticos, Antigos, Modernos_ (1883). The _auto_, written in the old _redondilhas_ of which another modern poet has sung the praises, necessarily suffers by comparison with plays in which Gil Vicente touched upon the subject--the humbler forgotten heroes of the Portuguese discoveries--but it has its own charm and pathos.

But the most noteworthy of the dramatists of the latter part of the century was D. JOÃO DA CAMARA (1852-1908), son of the first Marques and eighth Conde da Ribeira Grande and grandson of the third Duque de Lafões. He early began writing for the stage one-act pieces such as _Nobreza_ (1873). His work is various, for it includes elaborate historical dramas in heroic couplets, as _Affonso VI_ (1890), in which the king is treated with a sympathy denied to Cardinal Henrique in _Alcacer-Kibir_ (1891), slight pieces in verse, as _O Poeta e a Saudade_ or the _Auto do Menino Jesus_ (1903); and prose plays of contemporary Lisbon society: _O Pantano_ (a series of scenes of madness and murder), _A Rosa Engeitada_, _A Toutinegra Real_, _A Triste Viuvinha_, _Casamento e Mortalha_. In these he is lifelike and natural, but many may prefer him in his more fanciful pieces, portraying the old Canon who lives up under the roof of Lisbon Cathedral, in _Meia Noite_ (1900), or the _prior_ and other rustic worthies of Alentejo, in _Os Velhos_ (1893), or the ancient mariner of _O Beijo do Infante_ (1898). The mad José of _O Pantano_, the scatterbrained Clytemnestra in _A Toutinegra Real_, the _parvenu_ Arroiolos and select Dona Placida in _A Rosa Engeitada_ give little idea of the essential mellow humanity of his work, enhanced by a prose style carefully chosen and at times slightly archaic. Snr. Abel Botelho is more peculiarly concerned with the novel, and his plays _Germano_ (1886), _Os Vencidos da Vida_ (1892), _Jucunda_ (1895) derive their interest from the description of certain phases of Lisbon life which could have been presented equally well in novel form. MARCELLINO MESQUITA (1856-1919), doctor and deputy, wrote historical dramas, _O Regente_ [1440] in prose, _Leonor Telles_ (1889, published in 1893) in verse, _O Sonho da India_ (1898) (scenes from the discoveries of Gama and ten other famous Portuguese navigators), and _Pedro O Cruel_ (1916). If these historical tragedies are somewhat ponderous, he has a lighter touch in the _redondilhas_ of _Margarida do Monte_ (1910) and in the charming sketch _Peraltas e Secias_, and displays psychological insight in prose plays dealing with more modern problems: the comedy _Perola_ (1889), _Os Castros_ (1893), _O Velho Thema_ (1896), _Sempre Noiva_ (1900), _Almas Doentes_ (1905), which treats of hereditary madness and suicide, and in the moving tragedy _Envelhecer_ (1909), although it is perhaps out of keeping with the finely portrayed character of Eduardo de Mello that he should so end who had endured so nobly. His prose style has great merit (a few words require excision, e. g. _restaurante_, _rewolver_, _desconforto_), and he wrote many shorter problem pieces or episodes in prose: _Fim de Penitencia_ (1895), _O Auto do Busto_ (1899), _O Tio Pedro_ (1902), _A Noite do Calvario, A Mentira_ (in which a wife lies to her husband by the life of their child, who dies). The monotony of the rhymed couplets in _Leonor Telles_ is intensified in the work of Snr. HENRIQUE LOPES DE MENDONÇA (born in 1856). His verse is more declamatory, the use of strained _esdruxulo_ endings is carried so far that it becomes a mannerism and the verse often resembles a hurdle-race, the line running on smoothly to the obstacle at its end (_thalamo_--_cala-m’o_; _silencio_--_recompense-o_; _phantasma_--_faz-m’a_). This no doubt helps to increase the effect of hollow resonance. Nor is there a compensating skill in psychology. There is nothing subtle, for instance, in the characters of _O Duque de Vizeu_ (1886): the cruel João II, the timid Manuel, the high-minded Duke, and self-sacrificing Margarida. _A Morta_ (1891) deals with Pedro I’s justice and _saudade_ for the dead Inés. _Affonso d’Albuquerque_ (1898) has a tempting subject (handled previously by Costa Lobo in his play--also in verse--_Affonso d’Albuquerque_, 1886), but it is embarrassing to find the most unrhetorical of heroes, will of iron but not as here tongue of gold, solemnly haranguing in couplet after couplet, (although here, as in the other plays, the atmosphere of Portugal’s spacious days is well maintained):

E em psalmos de christão se ha de mudar o cantico De Brahma, confundindo o Indico no Atlantico.

It is perhaps a relief to turn to the prose plays, _O Azebre_ (1909, written in 1904), the interest of which centres in the artist Fidelio, _Nó Cego_ (1904), dealing with divorce, and especially to _O Salto Mortal_, which treats of more homely peasant affairs, and to the admirably natural fishermen’s scenes and dialogues enacted at Ericeira in the second half of the nineteenth century, in _Amor Louco_ (1899). The author succeeds in giving a more definite picture of a whole community here than of any of his individual heroes in high places. _A Herança_ (1913) also has the lives of fishermen for its subject. An equally slight but charming one-act piece in verse is _Saudade_ (1916), while the dramatist’s power of evoking past scenes is shown in the glowing historical tales of _Sangue Português_ (1920), _Gente Namorada_ (1921), and _Lanças n’Africa_ (1921).

The most conspicuous among slightly younger dramatists is Snr. JULIO DANTAS (born in 1876), who published a first volume of poems, _Nada_, in 1896. He is gifted with wit, lightness of touch, an excellent style, and a sense of atmosphere, which enables him to bring a pleasant archaic flavour to reconstructions of the past and observe the true spirit of history in periods the most diverse. His malleable talent is equally at its ease in _O que morreu de amor_ (1899) and _Viriato Tragico_ (1900); in Spain of the seventeenth century: _Don Ramón de Capichuela_ (1911); contemporary Lisbon: _Crucificados_ (1902), _Mater Dolorosa_ (1908), _O Reposteiro Verde_ (1912); the Inquisition-clouded Portugal of the seventeenth century: _Santa Inquisição_ (1910), or its lighter side, with the _bonbon_ marquis: _D. Beltrão de Figueiroa_ (1902); the gentle, romantic Portugal of the middle of the nineteenth century: _Um Serão nas Laranjeiras_ (1904), or the bull-fighting Portugal of the same period: _A Severa_ (1901) with the gallant Marques de Marialva and the beautiful and magnanimous gipsy of the Mouraria. The filigree of his elaborate stage directions is skilfully used to enhance the effect,[685] and some of his scenes are exquisite, especially the simple, very charming, and tragic one-act comedy _Rosas de todo o anno_ (1907). If the characters are usually sacrificed to their setting, here and there a slight sketch stands out, as that of the cynical old cardinal who delights in the mental torture of others, in _Santa Inquisição_, the attractive bishop of _Soror Mariana_ (1915), or the characters in _A Ceia dos Cardeais_ (1902). ERNESTO BIESTER (1829-80) in the middle of last century wrote lively comedies of contemporary Lisbon life. The comedies of GERVASIO LOBATO (1850-95), as _Os Grotescos_, _A Condessa Heloïsa_ (1878), _O Festim de Balthazar_ (1892), _O Commissario de Policia_, _Sua Excellencia_, and many others, are natural, farcical scenes of high spirits and real good humour and good feeling. More literary and charming is the work of Snr. EDUARDO SCHWALBACH, whose _O Dia de Juizo_ (1915) and _Poema de Amor_ (1916) came to crown a long series of plays and _revistas_. There are touches of real comedy in the lightly sketched scenes and characters of Snr. AUGUSTO DE CASTRO’S _Caminho perdido_ (1906), _Amor á Antiga_ (1907), _As nossas amantes_ (1912), _A Culpa_ (1918), as in his slight, attractive essays _Fumo do Meu Cigarro_ (1916), _Fantoches e Manequins_ (1917), and _Conversar_ (1920); thought and character in Snr. AUGUSTO LACERDA’S _O Vicio_ (1888), _Casados Solteiros_ (1893), _Terra Mater_ (1904), _A Duvida_ (1906), _Os Novos Apostolos_ (1918). In Snr. BENTO MANTUA’S _O Alcool_ (1909) and _Novo Altar_ (1911) the problem may be a little too much in evidence, but in his prose plays _Má Sina_ (1906) and _Gente Moça_ (1910) the human interest is insistent. _Má Sina_, apart from the author’s weakness for strained coincidences, is a story of peasant life very naturally told. A young playwright of promise is Snr. VASCO DE MENDONÇA ALVES, author of _Promessa_ (1910) and _Filhos_ (1910). The subject of _Filhos_ is unpleasant if not original (it is that of Eça de Queiroz’ _Os Maias_ and Ennes’ _Os Engeitados_), but is treated with dignity and in a good prose style. Snr. JAIME CORTESÃO, hitherto known rather as a poet, has turned to the drama in _Egas Moniz_ (1918).

The novelists of the second half of the century were numerous and, as a rule, too dependent upon foreign models, chiefly French. JOAQUIM GUILHERME GOMES COELHO (1839-71) neither by date nor inclination belonged to one or other of the two schools between which lies his brief ten years’ activity. His talent developed early. As a medical student at his native Oporto he published poems and several stories, originally printed in the _Jornal do Porto_ and later collected with the title _Serões de Provincia_ (1870), and at the age of twenty-one, under the pseudonym JULIO DINIZ, he wrote the novel which brought him immediate fame and is still sometimes preferred to his later works: _Uma Familia Ingleza_ (1868). In these scenes of the life of Oporto he drew with the most elaborate analysis the relations between English and Portuguese which he had had frequent opportunities of observing in that city. Portuguese critics hint that what to superficial readers has seemed the tediousness of his novels is due to the influence of Dickens and other English novelists who revel in detail, and it is interesting that Gomes Coelho’s maternal grandmother was an Englishwoman, Maria, daughter of Thomas Potter. But it is a mistake to call his work tedious; the deliberate dullness of his novels has an excitement of its own, ‘’tis a good dullness’. The reader, tired with sensational plots and strained incidents, follows not only with relief but with growing absorption the homely daisy-chain of his stories, in which not the tiniest link in the development of the action or thought, especially the latter, is omitted. The interest never flags and never disappoints, leading gently on with carefully measured steps; the approval of virtue and disapproval of wickedness only occasionally becomes obtrusive and insipid. Julio Diniz confessed to a preference for _bourgeois_ types, but his real interest was in the country, and _As Pupillas do Senhor Reitor_[686] (1866), a village chronicle suggested by Herculano’s _O Parocho de Aldea_, is by many held to be his best work. The characters are delineated with the same delicate charm as that of Jenny in his earlier novel, and there is a background of curious observation--_esfolhadas_ (husking the maize), _espadeladas_ (braking flax), _ripadas_ (dressing the flax), _fiadas_ (gatherings of women to spin at the winter _lareira_ in the faint light of a lamp hanging on the smoke-blackened wall), the men at cards in the tavern, the old country doctor going his rounds on horseback, the solemn greetings _Guarde-o Deus, Louvado seja nosso Senhor Jesu Christo_. If he sometimes sees the peasants as he would have them be rather than as they are, if his realism is subdued and gentle, his descriptions are at least truer than those of the naturalistic school. In _A Morgadinha dos Canaviaes_ (1868), another village chronicle of Minho, the winter life of the peasantry is described, the _consoada_ preceding ‘cock-crow mass’ on Christmas Eve, the _auto_ represented on a rough stage in the village on the Day of Kings, together with the inevitable missionaries, _beata_, enriched ‘Brazilian’, and electioneering intrigues. Some critics have seen a falling off in his last novel, _Os Fidalgos da Casa Mourisca_ (1871), written in the winter of 1869-70 at Madeira, whither he went in vain quest of health, but it is perfectly on a level with his previous work. There may be a slight tendency to exaggerate some of the characters, as there was in _A Morgadinha_, the contrast between Jorge and Mauricio may be too crude, the last scenes may be touched with melodrama, the style may have traces of the _francesismo_ which Castilho noticed in his first novel, the execution may be excessively minute--these were not new defects in his works. On the other hand, the ruined _fidalgo_ D. Luiz, his chaplain and agent Frei Januario, who scents a Liberal doctrine leagues away, the large-hearted peasants Anna do Vedor and Thomé da Povoa, are as interesting as Tio Vicente the herbalist or any of his previous characters, and the charming and accurate descriptions of the country that he loved so well show him at his best. This demure chronicler of quiet scenes, this specialist in the obvious, in his _romances lentos_, as he calls them--a Portuguese blend of Jane Austen, Enrique Gil, and Fernán Caballero: his delicacy is essentially feminine--achieved an originality which so often eludes those who most furiously pursue it. His _Poesias_ (1873), partly consisting of poems interspersed in his novels, have a quiet, intimate charm. A curious originality had been attained earlier by a young naval lieutenant, FRANCISCO MARIA BORDALLO (1821-61). When he published _Eugenio_ (1846) at Rio de Janeiro, and a second edition at Lisbon in 1854, it was claimed that this sea novel (_romance maritimo_) was the first of its kind to be written in Portuguese; but his use of naval technical terms and descriptions of the sea is perhaps too deliberate. His _Quadros maritimos_ appeared in _O Panorama_ in 1854.

Few authors are more interesting to the critic (owing to the courageous and persistent development of his art) than JOSÉ MARIA DE EÇA DE QUEIROZ (1843-1900), a far more robust writer than Julio Diniz and the greatest Portuguese novelist of the realistic school. Born at Villa do Conde, the son of a magistrate, he was duly sent to study law at Coimbra, and after taking his degree contributed in 1866 and 1867 a series of _feuilletons_ to the _Gazeta de Portugal_. These _folhetins_, reprinted in _Prosas Barbaras_ (1903), are remarkable because they show beside a love of the gruesome and fantastic (_O Milhafre_, _O Senhor Diabo_, _Memorias de uma Forca_) at least one story (_Entre a neve_) of a perfect simplicity, such as the author is sometimes supposed to have attained only towards the end of his life. His partiality for the exotic was fostered by travels in Egypt and Palestine in 1869 and manifested itself in _A Morte de Jesus_, _Adão e Eva no Paraiso_, and _A Perfeição_, as well as in _A Reliquia_ and in part of _A Correspondencia de Fradique Mendes_. In 1873 he went to Havana as Portuguese Consul, and twenty-six years as Consul at Newcastle-on-Tyne (1874-6), Bristol (1876-88), and Paris (1888-1900), where he died, enabled him to see his own country in a new light. His prose lost its exuberance, his taste became more severe, his extravagant fancy, so strangely combined with realism in many of his works, was merged in natural descriptions of his native land. He regained his own soul without losing that peculiar mockery with which he veiled a kindly, sensitive temperament, and which agreeably stamps the greater part of his writings. But indeed the introducer of the naturalistic novel into Portugal only played with materialism, which in his hands was always unreal: legendary and romantic, as in _Frei Genebro_, _S. Christovam_, _O Tesoiro_; deliberately false and artificial, as _A Civilisação_; a macabre fantasy, as _O Defunto_; or half-intentional caricature, as _O Primo Basilio_ and _Os Maias_. What more chimerical than _A Reliquia_ or more elusive than _O Suave Milagre_, or more fanciful than _O Mandarim_ (1879), in which without himself knowing China the author makes his readers know it! All through his life he was as it were groping through Manueline for a purer Gothic; the pity was that his education from the first should have thrown him into contact with French models--so that his very language too often reads like translated French--instead of directing him to a truer realism (such as that of his nearer neighbour Pereda), to which he turned in his last works, and in which he might have written regional masterpieces had he not died at a moment when his art apparently had lost nothing of its vigour. More probably, however, his still unsatisfied craving for perfection would have sought relief in mysticism. His first novel was a sensational story written in collaboration with Ramalho Ortigão: _O Mysterio da Estrada de Cintra_ (1870), originally published in the _Diario de Noticias_ (July 24-September 27, 1870). It was, however, _O Crime do Padre Amaro_ (1876), in which he grafted the naturalistic novel on the quiet little town of Leiria, and the two notable if unpleasant Lisbon stories _O Primo Basilio_ (1878) and _Os Maias_ (1880), that marked him out as the most powerful writer of the time in Portugal. But he was still feeling his way. _A Reliquia_ (1887) is as different from _Os Maias_ as it is from the remarkable and charming letters of _A Correspondencia de Fradique Mendes_ (1891) and his last two novels, _A Illustre Casa de Ramires_ (1900), most Portuguese of his works, and _A Cidade e as Serras_ (1901). The three fragments in _Ultimas Paginas_ (1912) were probably written earlier. There are samples of all his phases in his _Contos_ (1902), and the short story gave scope for his powers of observation and insight without calling for an elaborate plot, in which he often failed. _A Cidade e as Serras_, after developing the earlier story _A Civilisação_, is but a fascinating succession of country scenes. All Eça de Queiroz’ characters are caricatures, some more so, others less, but they are nevertheless true to a certain degree, that is to say, they are good caricatures, and living, and this is so especially in these later novels, which show how great a regionalist writer was lost in him through the influence of French schools. Yet no one can deny that his works have an originality of their own as well as power and personal charm, and all contain some striking character-sketches or delightful descriptions that are not easily forgotten.

The dullness of the naturalistic novels of JULIO LOURENÇO PINTO (1842-1907) is not relieved by Eça de Queiroz’ pleasant irony and definite characterization. These ‘scenes of contemporary life’, while they display a praiseworthy restraint, give the idea rather of exercises in imitation of a French exemplar or of one of Eça de Queiroz’ early novels than of living stories. Their style is slovenly, the development of the plot prolix and monotonous. A certain interest attaches to _Margarida_ (1879)--although even here the author is too methodical in detailing the past lives of the four protagonists, the nonentity Luiz, the aspiring Adelina (a Portuguese Madame Bovary), Fernando, and Margarida, after they have been duly presented in the opening pages--and to the descriptions of a fair, a bull-fight, a flood, or provincial politics in _Vida Atribulada_ (1880), _O Senhor Deputado_ (1882), _Esboços do Natural_ (1882), and _O Homem Indispensavel_ (1884). Snr. JAIME DE MAGALHÃES LIMA (born in 1857) in _O Transviado_ (1899), _Na Paz do Senhor_ (1903), and _O Reino da Saudade_ (1904), has written novels _à thèse_ which are quite as interesting as naturalistic novels and more natural, but his art, especially in the presentation of contemporary politics, is a little too photographic. Snr. LUIZ DE MAGALHÃES (born in 1859), author of several volumes of verse, wrote a single novel, _O Brasileiro Soares_ (1886). It would offer little new in theme or treatment to distinguish it from other naturalistic novels were it not for the author’s success in drawing in Joaquim Soares a natural and attractive portrait of the Portuguese returned rich from Brazil (the _Brasileiro_). None of these novelists can rival the reputation of FRANCISCO TEIXEIRA DE QUEIROZ (1848-1919). He became prominent as a novelist of the realistic school over forty years ago when under the pseudonym of BENTO MORENO he inaugurated the series of his _Comedia do Campo_ (8 vols.), of which the last volume is _Ao Sol e á Chuva_ (1916), followed by a second series: _Comedia Burgueza_ (7 vols.), which began with _Os Noivos_ (1879). The obvious defects of his work--its laborious realism, its insistence on medical or physical details, its vain load of pedantry[687]--need not obscure its real merits. The careful style has occasional lapses, the psychology is thin, the conversations commonplace. His art, like a winter sunshine, fails to penetrate. Yet even in the _Comedia Burgueza_, where the interest must depend on the psychology, he succeeds in _D. Agostinho_ and _A Morte de D. Agostinho_ (1895) in giving individuality to that strange rickety figure of the old _fidalgo_ in his ruined Lisbon _palacio_. And in the Minho scenes of the _Comedia do Campo_ his scrupulous descriptions obtain their full effects. In the _romaria_ (pilgrimage), the _cantadeira_ (improvisator), the _diligencia_ with its load of priests (in _Amor Divino_), the girl shepherdess, the _abbade_ fond of hunting wolves and boars, the old women spinning, the lawsuit of centuries over the fruit of an orange-tree, the sexton Coruja and his dog Coisa (in _Vingança do morto_ and _O Enterro de um Cão_), and especially some old familiar country-house, with Dona Maria and her preserves and _receios infernaes_, in _Amor Divino_ and _Amores, Amores_ (1897), Minho and the Minhotos are presented with naturalness and skill. Many of these scenes are from the short stories of _Contos_, _Novos Contos_ (1887), _A Nossa Gente_ (1900),[688] and _A Cantadeira_ (1913),[689] some of which have been collected in an attractive volume, _Arvoredos_ (1895).

Snr. MANUEL DA SILVA GAYO (born in 1860), poet and novelist, wrote in _Peccado Antigo_ (1893) a short _novela_ as it calls itself, or rather a _conto_, remarkable for its combination of colour and restraint. It describes country scenes and customs in a style that may not be spontaneous but is well subservient to the matter in hand, and has a vigour, purity, and concision too often lacking in modern Portuguese prose. Some of his early stories were collected in _A Dama de Ribadalva_ (1904). In his later novels this style is not maintained. We will not quarrel with its abruptness in _Ultimos Crentes_ (1904), a remarkable story of nineteenth-century _Sebastianistas_ in a fishing village to the extreme north of Estremadura, but it is more slovenly in _Os Torturados_ (1911), in which a certain originality of thought seems to have damaged the form in which it was expressed. There is a welcome Spanish directness in the work of the able journalist Snr. CARLOS MALHEIRO DIAS (deputy for Vianna do Castello in 1903-5) in his novels _O Filho das Hervas_ (1900), _Os Telles de Albergaria_ (1901), and _A Paixão de Maria do Ceo_ (1902). Frankly sensational in _O Grande Cagliostro_ (1905), he displays his gift for the short story in _A Vencida_ (1907), a volume of dramatic tales, of which _A Consoada_ is especially effective. Snr. JOÃO GRAVE (born in 1872) carefully elaborates his prose in _A Eterna Mentira_ (1904) and _Jornada Romantica_ (1913). It turns to marble in the musings of the marble faun in _O Ultimo Fauno_ (1906), but loses this unreality in studies of the poor in country, _Gente Pobre_ (1912), and town, _Os Famintos_ (1903), a tragic story of a workman’s family at Oporto. More recently he has treated historical themes with success in _Parsifal_ (1919) and _A Vida e Paixão da Infanta_ (1921). In the historical novel Snr. FRANCISCO DE ROCHA MARTINS has won a special place by picturesque works such as _Os Tavoras_ (1917). He has an eye for dramatic episodes and has composed many a living picture of the past.

ABEL BOTELHO (1856-1917), a colonel in the Army, and for some years Minister of the Portuguese Republic at Buenos Aires, author of a volume of verse, _Lyra Insubmissa_ (1885), showed an intermittent power of description in seven stories of his native Beira, collected under the title _Mulheres da Beira_ (1898). In his series of novels published under the heading _Pathologia Social: O Barão de Lavos_ (1891), _O Livro de Alda_ (1898), _Fatal Dilemma_ (1907), _Prospera Fortuna_ (1910), he would seem to have laboured under a misapprehension, believing apparently that the introduction of physiology into literature might prove him an original writer.[690] Sainte-Beuve may speak of the _saletés splendides_ of Rabelais, a great stylist like Signor Gabriele d’ Annunzio, except when his art fails, may redeem if he does not justify any theme. But Abel Botelho’s style in these wearisome novels can only be described as worthy of their matter. They are a welter of shapeless sentences, long abstract terms, French words, gallicisms, expressions such as _pathognomonico_, _autopsiação_, _neuro-arthritico_, _a etiologia dos hystero-traumatismos_. This may be magnificent pathology, but it is not art or literature. _As Farpas_ had come to an end some years before these novels began to appear, otherwise their defects might have been pilloried by an adept in ridicule who in contemporary literature occupies a place apart. As critic JOSÉ DUARTE RAMALHO ORTIGÃO (1836-1915) took his share in the controversy of 1865, as a traveller he wrote a vivid, witty, and charming account of Holland, with malicious side-reflections on Portugal: _A Hollanda_ (1883). Between these two dates a series of papers, _As Farpas_ (1871-87), originally suggested by Alphonse Karr’s _Les Guêpes_ and begun in collaboration with his friend Eça de Queiroz, had made him famous. His clear and pointed style was an excellent instrument for the barbed shafts of his satire and irony and, having discovered how powerful a weapon he possessed, he wielded it to right purpose. With abundant good sense he ridiculed and undermined the foibles and follies of Lisbon life, obstinately determined to bring health to the minds and the bodies of his fellow-countrymen and succeeding by his wit where a more sedate reformer might have failed. The range of subjects covered was very wide--the interest of many of them necessarily ephemeral--and his skill in brief character-sketches is remarkable. But although Ramalho Ortigão will always be remembered as the author of _As Farpas_ it is perhaps _A Hollanda_ that will be read. The former work was imitated by Fialho de Almeida in _Os Gatos_ (1889-94), which achieved popularity in Lisbon. His is a more lumbering wit: the rapier of Ramalho Ortigão is exchanged for bludgeon or umbrella. But _Os Gatos_, despite much that is vulgar and much that is dull, contains some good literary criticism and successful descriptions, of places rather than of persons. A battling critic was MANUEL JOSÉ DA SILVA PINTO (1848-1911) in _Combates e Criticas_ (1882), _Frente a frente_ (1909), and _Na procella_ (1909). Equally vigorous and pure was the style of JOAQUIM DE SENNA FREITAS (1840-1913) in _Per agoa e terra_ (1903) and _A Voz do Semeador_ (1908), as likewise that of FRANCISCO SILVEIRA DA MOTA in _Viagens na Galliza_ (1889). The literature of travel is not extensive. Oliveira Martins published in the _Jornal do Commercio_ of Rio de Janeiro in 1892 his _A Inglaterra de hoje_ (1893); Eça de Queiroz showed a deeper acquaintance with England in his _Cartas de Inglaterra_ (1905). Snr. WENCESLAU JOSÉ DE SOUSA MORAES (born in 1854), sometimes called the Portuguese Pierre Loti, has skilfully described China and Japan in _Traços do Extremo Oriente_ (1905), _Paisagens da China e do Japão_ (1906), and _Cartas do Japão_ (three series, 1904-7). In a letter in French at the end of his _Traços_ he says: _J’ai dit ce que je pensais, naïvement, au gré de mes souvenirs._

Snr. MANUEL TEIXEIRA GOMES, versatile and gifted, traveller, diplomatist (Portuguese Minister at the Court of St. James), and author, is essentially an artist. With a clear, coloured, liquid style he excels in painting the blue seas, transparent air, and sun-burnt soil of Algarve in _Agosto Azul_ (1904). His pagan and unconventional art has the power of impressing incidents on the mind, as of giving sharp relief to fantastic persons such as the Canon and his three witless sisters in _Gente Singular_ (1909), the Danish literary lady in _Inventario de Junho_ (1899), or the avaricious Dona Maria and the inane Minister of _Sabina Freire_ (1905). This ‘comedy in three acts’ contains sufficient shrewdness, humour, and clever characterization for a long novel instead of a short play. The tiny volumes _Tristia_ (1893) and _Alem_ (1895) by Snr. ANTERO DE FIGUEIREDO (born in 1867) were notable for their style, and in other works, _Partindo da Terra_ (1897), the passionate letters of _Doida de Amor_ (1910), the novel _Comicos_ (1908), and the fascinating historical studies _D. Pedro e D. Inês_ (1913) and _Leonor Teles, Flor de Altura_ (1916), his prose maintains a restraint and charm which place him among the best stylists of the day. One of the noblest qualities of this prose is its precision, the scrupulous use of the right word, common or archaic. It is the more disconcerting to find good Portuguese words such as _estação_, _hospedaria_, _comodo_, _bondade_ ousted by _gare_, _hôtel_, _confortavel_, _bonomia_. But these are only occasional blemishes in a style of rare distinction. It can paint a whole scene in a brief sentence, as _os milheiraes amarellecem-se caladamente_. This power of description gives excellence to his _Recordações e Viagens_ (1905), whether the recollections be of Minho or of _uma aldeia espiritual_ in Italy. It is really as a writer of short sketches and essays that he excels. In _Senhora do Amparo_ (1920) and especially in the seventeen sketches of _Jornadas de Portugal_ (1918) skill in the choice of indigenous words gives a forcible and original poetry to glowing descriptions redolent of the soil.

D. MARIA AMALIA VAZ DE CARVALHO (1847-1921) collaborated with her husband, the poet Gonçalves Crespo, in _Contos para os nossos filhos_, and in _Serões no Campo_ (1877), three stories, in one of which, _A Engeitada_, one may perhaps see reminiscences of Julio Diniz’ _A Casa Mourisca_, and _Contos e Phantasias_ (1880) treated slight themes with a delicate charm. But she is less well known as writer of _contos_ or as poet, in _Vozes do Ermo_ (1876), than as the author of a notable historical biography, _Vida do Duque de Palmella_ (1898-1903), and of critical essays on Portuguese and foreign literatures. In the latter the English predominates, but French, German, and Italian, as in _Arabescos_ (1880), are not forgotten. The sane judgement, sympathy, and insight of _Alguns homens do meu tempo_ (1889), _Figuras de Hoje e de Hontem_ (1902), _Cerebros e Corações_ (1903), _No Meu Cantinho_ (1909), _Coisas de Agora_ (1913), and other volumes have been appreciated by countless readers in Portugal and Brazil. A writer who likewise combines literary and historical criticism with original work in verse (_Poemetos_, 1882) and prose is the CONDE DE SABUGOSA (born in 1854), skilful and delicate reconstructor of the past in _Embrechados_ (1908), _Donas de Tempos Idos_ (1912), _Gente d’Algo_ (1915), _Neves de Antanho_ (1919), and _A Rainha D. Leonor_ (1921), who collaborated with another stylist, the CONDE DE ARNOSO[691] (1856-1911), author of _Azulejos_ (1886), in the volume of _contos_ entitled _De braço dado_ (1894). His historical portraits are full of life and charm, painted in the warm colours of knowledge and emotion.

If we except D. Maria Amalia Vaz de Carvalho, the literary achievement of women in Portugal in recent years has not been remarkable. Like D. CLAUDIA DE CAMPOS, author of the novels _Elle_ (1898) and _A Esfinge_ and short stories, D. ALICE PESTANA (_Caiel_) has cultivated with success both the novel, as in _Desgarrada_ (1902), and the _conto_, as in _De Longe_ (1904), which contains stories of familiar life written with sincerity and truth. If D. ANNA DE CASTRO OSORIO’S _Ambições_ (1903) gives the impression rather of a series of scenes than of a long novel, in her short stories _Infelizes_ (1898)--especially _A Terra_--and _Quatro Novelas_ (1908) she ably describes common family life in town or country, or (in _A Sacrificada_) the lives, past and present, of aged nuns in a dwindling convent. D. VIRGINIA DE CASTRO E ALMEIDA has written two novels concerning the development of the soil in Alentejo: _Terra Bemdita_ (1907) and _Trabalho Bemdito_ (1908).[692] They are frankly novels with a thesis to prove, but contain so much vigour and zest of living that they stand out from other more futile or anaemic novels of contemporary Portugal.

The growing prominence of the _conto_ is felt in the work of Castello Branco, Eça de Queiroz, Teixeira de Queiroz, Snr. Jaime de Magalhães Lima (_Via Redemptora_, 1905, _Apostolos da Terra_, 1906, _Vozes do Meu Lar_, 1912), and many other novelists. JULIO CESAR MACHADO (1835-90) showed talent in _Contos ao luar_ (1861), _Scenas da minha terra_ (1862), _Quadros do campo e da cidade_ (1868), _Á Lareira_ (1872). His skill in the description of rustic scenes would have been more convincing had he not thought it necessary to introduce touches of extraneous elegance and humour into his very real love of the country, so that the patent leather boot is ever appearing among the _tamancos_ in these light humorous sketches and romantic tales. As slight but perhaps more natural are the _Contos do Tio Joaquim_ (1861) by RODRIGO PAGANINO (1835-63); the pleasant stories of village life, _Contos_ (1874) and _Serões de Inverno_ (1880), written by CARLOS LOPES (born in 1842) under the pseudonym PEDRO IVO; and _Contos_ (1894) and _Azul e Negro_[693] (1897) by Afonso Botelho. The poet AUGUSTO SARMENTO (born in 1835) also wrote stories of village life, _Contos do Soalheiro_ (1876), but stories _à thèse_, treating of emigration and other _minhoto_ evils, among which he includes _beatas_, witches, and _brasileiros de torna-viagem_. A writer of _contos_ as disappointing as Machado is ALBERTO BRAGA (1851-1911). He has a sense of style and technique, and some of his tales, especially _O Engeitado_, are pathetic, but after reading his _Contos da minha lavra_ (1879), _Contos de aldeia_, _Contos Escolhidos_ (1892), _Novos Contos_, one has the perhaps somewhat unfair impression that they are mainly concerned with _viscondessas_ and canaries. The learned Conde de Ficalho in _Uma Eleição Perdida_ (1888) evidently relates his own experiences, and this and the five accompanying _contos_ contain some charming descriptions of Alentejo, of the _reisinho cacique_ Lopes, Paschoal the _passarinheiro_, the gossips of the village _botica_, the girls carrying _bilhas_, the scent of rosemary in morning dew. The same province supplies the background of the work of JOSÉ VALENTIM FIALHO DE ALMEIDA (1857-1912). Born at Villa de Frades, the son of a village schoolmaster, he spent seven years sadly against the grain as chemist’s assistant before he was able to turn more exclusively to literature. No recent writer has had a greater vogue in Portugal. One must account for this by the fact that in the somewhat nerveless literature of the day he showed a virile and often brutal colour and energy. A few descriptions of Alentejo gave interest to his _Contos_ (1881) and _A Cidade do Vicio_ (1882), an interest strengthened in _O Paiz das Uvas_ (1893). This collection of naturalistic stories of great variety and very unequal merit is, indeed, redeemed by the author’s love for his native province. He sometimes obtains powerful effects when his subject is the wide spaces, the night silences, or the summer drought and midday zinc-coloured sky of Alentejo. The shepherdess with her distaff, the village crier, the small proprietor, the harvesters with their week’s provision of coarse bread, goat’s cheese, and olives, toiling in a temperature of 122 degrees, appear in his stories. His art is wholly external. One need not have complained of his lack of psychology had he been able to express what he saw in good Portuguese prose. But if we turn to his style we find uncouth constructions, the constant use of French words, and worse still, French words disguised as Portuguese: _deboche_, _coquettemente_, _crayonar_. This is the more pity because, had he written in Portuguese, he might have left robust pictures of the Alentejan peasant’s life in its grim reality which would have been read with pleasure. A sober and fastidious style, sometimes recalling that of the Spanish essayist Azorín, marks the _Contos_ (1900) of the dramatist D. João da Camara. The clear etching of the blind man and his grandson going through the streets on Christmas Eve in _As Estrellas do Cego_ and, especially, the poignant sketch of the ruined old scholar _fidalgo_ in _O Paquete_ show admirably what a skilful craftsman can make of the slightest of themes. This is true to an even greater degree of the best of all the Portuguese _contistas_, JOSÉ FRANCISCO DE TRINDADE COELHO (1861-1908). His _contos_ collected under the title _Os Meus Amores_ (1891), natural and deeply felt scenes of peasant life, are all marked by an exceptional delicacy of style and by a most alluring freshness and simplicity. The tinkling of the bells of flocks, the thin blue smoke above the roofs, the evening mists, the flight of doves are in these pages. And the peasants are treated with the same sympathetic insight as their surroundings, the women singing at their work in the fields, the olive-gatherers at supper in the great farm kitchen; vintage and harvest, tragedy and idyll. The sympathy is extended to the animals, donkey (_Sultão_), goat (_Mãe_), and hen (_A Choca_). The _saudade_ of peasant soldiers for the land in _Terra-Mater_ gives an opportunity for describing the life of the peasants with its hardy toil and many simple pleasures. In _Á Lareira_, the longest of these stories, a rustic _serão_ of peasants _ao borralho_ is pleasantly drawn out with quatrains, riddles, anecdotes, fairy-tales, only interrupted by the ringing of the angelus for the saying of prayer on prayer. Two little masterpieces stand somewhat apart from the rest: _Abyssus Abyssum_, the tragic story of two small boys, brothers, rowing to overtake the evening star, and _Idyllio Rustico_, which with its two ingenuous little shepherds and their flocks of sheep in the lonely places might almost be a chapter from Don Ramón María del Valle Inclán’s _Flor de Santidad_ (1904). _Os Meus Amores_ shows realism at its best, that is to say, hand in hand with idealism. The author is not so enamoured of his delightful style that he does not make the peasants speak their natural language, and although he realizes keenly and expresses the poetry of their life, he never sacrifices truth to this perception any more than to the strange and essentially false propensities of the naturalistic school, nor refines his descriptions to a rose-colour insipidity. A good scent of the earth and of wild flowers pervades these realistic descriptions. On such lines, if this book influences younger writers, it might lead the way to many a delightful novel of the _parfum du terroir_ of Portugal. Snr. JULIO BRANDÃO (born in 1870), equally distinguished in prose and verse, is the author of _Maria do Ceo_ (1902), mystic love letters in a chiselled style, only with the mystic writers of old the style flowed naturally from an inner fervour, here it has evidently been the chief consideration. If the effort is apparent it is sometimes very successful, and in _Perfis Suaves_ (1903) and _Figuras de Barro_ (1910), fantastic stories and fascinating fairy-tales, he occasionally achieves simplicity. Equally studied is the prose of Snr. JUSTINO DE MONTALVÃO’S _Os Destinos_ (1904), twelve stories, of which _Conto dos Reis_ relates the death of a peasant child as voices outside sing _São chegados os tres Reis_. The VISCONDE DE VILLA-MOURA (born in 1877) has shown in the five _contos_ of _Doentes da Belleza_ (1913), as in _Bohemios_ (1914), that his sensitive plastic style is excellently suited to the short story. Snr. ANTONIO PATRICIO’S _Serão Inquieto_ (1910) contains two poignant _contos_: _O Precoce_ and _O Veiga_. _Os Pobres_ by Snr. RAUL BRANDÃO (born in 1869) is a succession of scenes, a striking analysis of suffering as exhibited in various strange types of the poor and of its beauty and necessity in the philosophy of Gabiru. Snr. SEVERO PORTELA displays a tortured style in _Os Condemnados_ (1906) and _Agua Corrente_ (1909); smoother but equally artificial is that of Snr. HENRIQUE DE VASCONCELLOS in _Contos Novos_ (1903) and _Circe_ (1908), the former of which contains the slight sketch _O Caminheiro_. _Excentricos_ is the title of a volume containing some notable stories by Snr. ALBERTO DE SOUSA COSTA. The large number of _contos_ is a sign of the times, corresponding to the favour shown towards the brief _revista_ in the drama and the host of sonnets which now replace the long romantic poems of the past.

ANTHERO DE QUENTAL[694] (1842-91), the Coimbra student who waved the banner of revolt against a too complacent romanticism in 1865, was that rare thing in Portuguese literature, a poet who thinks. Powerfully influenced by German philosophy and literature, his was a tortured spirit, and when in his sincerity he attempted to translate his philosophy into action the result was too often failure. Born at Ponta Delgada in the Azores, he studied law at Coimbra from 1858 to 1864, became a socialist, worked for some time as a compositor in Paris, in spite of his independent means; then, after a visit to the United States of America, settled at Lisbon for some years and figured as an

## active socialist. Weary and ill, he retired in 1882 to the quieter town

in the north, Villa do Conde, but he could not escape from his own turbulent thoughts and nine years later he shot himself in a square of his native town. If his life was ineffectual in its series of broken, noble impulses, there is nothing vague or uncertain about the splendid sonnets of _Odes Modernas_ (1865) and _Sonetos_ (1881). They are the effect, often perfectly tranquil, of a previous agony of thought, like brimmed furrows reflecting clear skies after rain. His search was for truth, not for words to express it, far less for words to describe his own sensations. Indeed, he was far from considering poetry as an end in itself and destroyed more of his poems than his friends published. In his autobiographical letter addressed to Dr. Storck in 1887 he states that his poetry was written _involuntariamente_. That is to say, after much thought on the great problems of existence verse came to him unrhetorical and spontaneous, as it did to João de Deus without any thought whatever:

Já sossega depois de tanta luta, Já me descansa em paz o coraçam.

Quental’s poems owe their strength and intensity to the fact that they had passed through the fire of _tanta luta_.

Totally different from Quental’s was the genius of JOÃO DE DEUS (1830-96), the most natural Portuguese poet of the nineteenth century. Born at Messines in Algarve, he studied law at Coimbra, became a journalist, but did not come to live permanently at Lisbon until he was elected to represent Silves in the Chamber of Deputies in 1868. It is significant that many of his most perfect lyrics were contributed to provincial journals. They are written in the simple language of a peasant composing a quatrain. He sought his inspiration not in books or any of the rival schools of poetry but in his native soil and popular speech, and through him Portuguese poetry was renovated. His first published work, _A Lata_ (Coimbra, 1860), in _oitavas_, gives no measure of his genius, but some of his best poems, such as _A Vida_, were widely known before _Flores do Campo_ (1868) appeared, followed by _Ramo de Flores_ (1875), _Folhas Soltas_ (1876), and finally the collected edition, _Campo de Flores_ (1893). His last years were spent in advertising and perfecting his special method for teaching children to read. If ever poet was born, not made, it was João de Deus. He is at his best when he does not attempt thought or philosophy or even give rein to his satire. His verse, clear and light as a leaf, a cloud, a stream--its favourite metaphors--and entirely free from rhetorical effects, has a most spontaneous charm. Despite occasional defects, the use of lukewarm or unpoetical words, _objectos_, _chaile_, _affavel_, _bussola_, or such rhymes as _gotta_--_dou-t-a_, his work, which lacks the fire that more spacious times might have elicited, abounds in exquisite love lyrics. The popular inspiration is also evident in the _Peninsulares_ (1870) of JOSÉ SIMÕES DIAS (1844-99), many of whose poems are a mere string of _quadras_.

GUILHERME BRAGA (1843-76), who wrote vigorous political verse against ‘Jesuit reactionaries’ and the like in _Os Falsos Apostolos_ (1871) and _O Bispo_ (1874), proved himself a talented poet in _Heras e Violetas_ (1869), although even here are to be found words and expressions frequently out of tune. Like ALEXANDRE DA CONCEIÇÃO (1842-89), whose best-known volume of verses, _Alvoradas_ (1866), belongs to the romantic school, GUILHERME DE AZEVEDO (1846-82) began with romantic verse in imitation of Garrett in _Apparições_ (1861), wavered in _Raçõdiaes da Noite_ (1871), and succumbed to the new school in _A Alma Nova_ (1874). JOÃO PENHA (1839-1919) in _Rimas_ (1882) and _Novas Rimas_ (1905) shows a command of metre and harmony worthy of something better than his commonplace themes. Gonçalves Crespo heard in his verse ‘the plaining music of a guitar of Andalucía’, but Penha never cared to be serious. CESARIO VERDE (1855-86) was a Lisbon poet who in verse written between 1873 and 1883, _O Livro de Cesario Verde_ (1886), showed a most promising gift of presenting reality in phrases limpidly clear without straining after effect. Another poet who died almost as young left a far more definite achievement, although his poems are scarcely more numerous than those of Verde. Few Portuguese writers have, indeed, published less than ANTONIO CANDIDO GONÇALVES CRESPO (1846-83), a Portuguese born at Rio de Janeiro. He studied at Coimbra University, and became a distinguished journalist and a colonial member of the Portuguese Parliament from 1879 to 1881. Two tiny volumes of lyrics, _Miniaturas_ (1870) and _Nocturnos_ (1882), comprise his whole work, but his restraint and his fastidiously chiselled verse place him at the head of the Portuguese Parnassians. Portuguese in his hands becomes a pliant medium crystallizing round an emotion, _longes de saudade_, or, more frequently, round a concrete image, a parting at sunset (_Mater dolorosa_) or a village in a summer noontide (_Na Aldeia_). The latter sonnet recalls a few lines of Leopardi’s _Il Sabato del Villaggio_, and in one respect, the perfection of form with which he describes quite ordinary scenes, the Portuguese poet need not fear the comparison. An old woman spinning, children at play, a peasant’s song in the fields, an orange-grove at dawn musical with birds--these are incidental pictures in his poems, and by his combination of a vague dreaming temperament with a delicate, definite artistic sense they receive a new significance. An earlier Brazilian poet, ANTONIO GONÇALVES DIAS (1823-64), author of _Primeiros Cantos_ (1846), _Segundos Cantos e Sextilhas de Frei Antão_ (1848), and _Ultimos Cantos_ (1851), made a name for himself by his _sextilhas_.

It might be said of that marvellous poet Victor Hugo that he is not for exportation: the tendency has been for those who lack his genius to take shelter in his defects. Since one of his earliest followers, CLAUDIO JOSÉ NUNES (1831-75), published _Scenas Contemporaneas_ (1873) his influence has been very marked in Portugal and manifests itself in the grandiloquence, over-emphasis, and love of antithesis of much of Snr. ABILIO MANUEL GUERRA JUNQUEIRO’S work. The greatest of Portugal’s living poets was born at Freixo de Espada á Cinta in 1850 and was thus a small child when Hugo’s poems _Les Contemplations_ (1856) and _La Légende des Siècles_ (1859) appeared. After studying law at Coimbra he was returned to Parliament in 1878. Enthusiastically revolutionary until 1910, he became Portuguese Minister at Berne in the following year, but retired from the service of the Republic in 1914. His first verses were published at the age of fourteen, _Duas paginas dos quatorze annos_ (1864), and before he was twenty he had written _Mysticae Nuptiae_ (1866), _Vozes sem Echo_ (1867), and _Baptismo do Amor_ (1868), with a preface by Camillo Castello Branco. But it was _A Morte de Dom João_ (1874), a poem or series of poems in which Don Juan and Jehovah are attacked impartially, that brought him resounding success, a success followed up and increased by _A Velhice do Padre Eterno_ (1885) and, under the influence of the political crisis of 1890, _Finis Patriae_ (1890) and the play _Patria_, in which his eager and vigorous patriotism found vent. In all these, as in the quieter volume _A Musa em Ferias_ (1879), there is true poetry (as well as unfailing sincerity and passionate sympathy for the oppressed), but it has to be looked for. A weird ghostliness in _Finis Patriae_ and in the _doido’s_ part in _Patria_ is accompanied by a strange and impressive lilt in the rhythm[695] which corresponds to the haunting refrains of some of the shorter poems. But there seemed a danger that on the wings of applause, in political invective, and turgid rhetoric the poet might allow his genius to be totally misdirected, and it is his most remarkable achievement that in _Os Simples_ (1892) he laid all that aside and returned to the simpler themes of peasant life which cast a spell over some of the lyrics in _Finis Patriae_: harvesters, the _linda boeirinha_ guiding her great oxen, the old shepherd with his flute and crook on the scented hills, the _cavador_ going to his work at cockcrow beneath the red morning star. _A Caminho_, the inimitable opening poem, has a delicate inspiration which is masterly in its restraint and ingenuous charm. It was well to rest on such laurels. In two subsequent odes, _Oração ao Pão_ (1902) and _Oração á Luz_ (1904), filled with a vague music, Snr. Guerra Junqueiro’s poetry merges into a mystic philosophy which he intends to express in prose. Some early poems appeared in _Poesias Dispersas_ (1921). A victim of Victor Hugo to whom it is not easy for a critic to do justice, is the Lisbon poet ANTONIO DUARTE GOMES LEAL (1849-1921). His capacity is felt to be so much greater than his achievement. The grandiloquence and declamatory character of the verse in his first volume, _Claridades do Sul_ (1875), are accentuated in subsequent works: _A Fome de Camões_ (1880), _A Historia de Jesus_ (1883), _O Fim de um Mundo_ (1900), _A Mulher de Luto_ (1902). His satire here, as in _Satyras Modernas_ (1899), or the biting sonnets of _Mefistófeles em Lisboa_ (1907), is sincerely indignant but too often based on ignorance. In _O Anti-Christo_ (1884) it voices the eternal revolt against false civilization and materialism. This, the most celebrated of his works, presents a strange medley of persons, from Barabbas to Tolstoi and Huysmans, who have this in common that they all declaim in hollow sonorous Alexandrines. Science, saints, Hebrew prophets, Chinese philosophers, the eleven thousand Virgins pass in a vision before the Anti-Christ and converse with him. It is as if a Goethe without genius had written the second part of _Faust_. But _Claridades do Sul_ contains poems in a totally different kind, poems like _De Noute_ and _Os Lobos_, which seem to have caught something of the pathos and simplicity of _Les Pauvres Gens_, satire and _humorismo_ forgotten. In his descriptions of homely scenes his verse becomes quiet, natural, and effective; after reading the restrained and skilful _tercetos_ of _De Noute_ one is inclined to wonder whether the secret of his comparative failure is that here was an excellent Dutch genre-painter striving to be a high-flown Velazquez. But certainly he has no lack of talent, imagination, and power of expression in resonant verse.

The cult of _saudade_ has been deliberately revived by a group of poets in the north who have founded the school of _Saudosismo_, and in their monthly _A Aguia_ and the _Renascença_ press seek to foster all that is native in Portuguese literature. Their creed is a vague pantheism, their poetry is often equally vague and lacking in individuality, but they have the advantage of being remote from Lisbon and of not concerning themselves with foreign schools, and can therefore be natural and Portuguese. At the head of these poets Snr. JOAQUIM TEIXEIRA DE PASCOAES (born in 1877) sings musically in an enchanted land of mists and shadows of pantheism, _saudade_, and his native Tras-os-Montes. Merging itself entirely in Nature, his poetry becomes a wavering symphony[696] woven of night and silence. The vagueness present in the lyrics of _Sempre_ (1897), _Terra prohibida_ (1899), _Jesus e Pan_ (1903), _Vida Etherea_ (1906), _As Sombras_ (1907), is more marked in his longer poems _Marános_ (1911), in eighteen cantos, and _Regresso ao Paraiso_ (1912), in twenty-two cantos of monotonous blank verse. But Nature is justified of her child, and _Marános_, like a mountain-stream threading its transparent pools, shows abundantly that the author has also the power of condensing a picture into a single line. To this group belong Snr. MARIO BEIRÃO (born in 1891), whose verse in _O Ultimo Lusiada_ (1913) and _Ausente_ (1915) is strong and concrete; Snr. AFONSO DUARTE (born in 1896), Snr. AUGUSTO CASIMIRO, author of _Para a Vida_ (1906), _A Victoria do Homem_ (1910), and _A Evocação da Vida_ (1912), and other young writers of promise.

Few if any of the younger poets have found in Portugal so ready a reception for their work as ANTONIO NOBRE (1867-1900), whether this be due to the all-pervading melancholy, _saudades de tudo_, to the metrical skill, or to the haunting intensity of his verse. In a series of poems written between 1884 and 1894 he combined the dreams of a student at Coimbra, _a lendaria Coimbra_, the home-sickness of a Portuguese in Paris, and a real sympathy for the poor and miserable. In these poems of suffering and disillusion, published under the title _Só_ (1892), a strange alternation of ingenuousness and satanism, fantastic visions and serene simplicity, genuine poetry and sheer prose, refrains of rustic gaiety and of morbid sentiment, produces a certain measure of originality. He can fit his pliant metres to his will, mould them like wax, and if the book contains no perfect poems this is partly due to a deliberate intention to reflect his own incoherent moods and to an evident pleasure in incongruous effects. A second volume, of poems written between 1895 and 1899, _Despedidas_ (1902), appeared posthumously.

The permanent Secretary of the Lisbon Academy of Sciences, Colonel CRISTOVAM AYRES (born in 1853), has won distinction in many fields. Well known as an historian of the army (_Historia Organica e Politica do Exercito Portuguez_, 8 vols., 1896-1908) and as a critic, he has also written short stories and volumes of verse which have placed him in the front rank of the living Parnassian poets of Portugal. In _Indianas_ (1878), _Intimas_ (1884), _Anoitecer_ (1914), and _Cinzas ao Vento_ (1921), he displays great technical skill, especially in the reproduction of still scenes as in the sonnets _Paizagem_, _Aguarella_, or _Ao luar_. The Parnassian verse of JOAQUIM DE ARAUJO (1858-1917) in _Lyra Intima_ (1881), _Occidentaes_ (1888), and _Flores da Noite_ (1894) has a narcotic spell, a slow lulling music. And there is real opium in the pliant melodies of ANTONIO FEIJÓ (1862-1917), during sixteen years Portuguese Minister at Stockholm, in _Lyricas e Bucolicas_ (1884) and _Ilha dos Amores_ (1897). The words are heavy with sleep like cistus flowers: _Astros das noites limpidas velae-vos_ or _A neve cae na terra lentamente_ (_les lourds flocons des neigeuses années_). This perfection of metre is seen at its highest in his _Cancioneiro Chinez_ (1890), translations from the French _Livre de Jade_ (1867), itself a translation by Judith Gautier from various Chinese poets. The poems of JOÃO DINIZ, in _Aquarellas_ (1889); MANUEL DUARTE DE ALMEIDA (1844-1914), in _Estancias ao Infante Henrique_ (1889), _Ramo de Lilazes_ (1887), and _Terra e Azul_; Snr. Manuel da Silva Gayo, in _Novos Poemas_ (1906); Snr. Julio Brandão, in _Saudades_ (1893), in which he weaves the _linho luarento das saudades_, _O Jardim da Morte_ (1898) and _Nuvem de Oiro_ (1912); Snr. FAUSTO GUEDES TEIXEIRA (born in 1872), in his remarkable _O Meu Livro, 1896-1906_ (1908); Snr. LUIZ OSORIO, in _Neblinas_ (1884), _Poemas Portuguezes_ (1890), and _Alma lyrica_ (1891); Snr. GUILHERME DE SANTA RITA in _Vacillantes_ (1884) and _O Poema de um Morto_ (1897), and indeed of a great _caterva vatum_,[697] belong to this school. The chiselling of faultless sonnets has become a mannerism, but the critic who recalls the vague and often slipshod diffuseness of earlier romantic poems pauses before condemning. Perhaps it may be possible in time to combine the cunning artifice of the verse-cutter with thought and a breath of life and Nature.

The CONDE DE MONSARAZ (1852-1913) wrote some pleasant regional verse in _Musa Alemtejana_ (1908), in which he describes life in the _charnecas_ (moors) and _herdades_ (estates) of Alentejo: the sound of the well-wheel among orange-trees, the ringing of _trindades_, the long lines of women hoeing, the old herdsman singing melancholy _fados_, the smoking _açorda_ of the workmen’s meals, the storks fleeing from the July heat, the processions to pray for rain. The same out-of-door air and fullness of treatment pervade the work of Snr. AUGUSTO GIL, with a more popular strain, in _Musa Cerula_ (1894), _Versos_ (1901), _Luar de Janeiro_ (1909), _Sombra de Juno_ (1915), _Alba Plena_ (1916), Snr. JOSÉ COELHO DA CUNHA’S _Terra do Sol_ (1911) and _Vilancetes_ (1915),[698] and D. BRANCA DE GONTA COLLAÇO’S _Canções do Meio Dia_ (1912). A more vigorous talent, also, is that of Snr. JOÃO DE BARROS in _Algas_ (1899), _Entre a Multidão_ (1902), _Dentro da Vida_ (1904), _Terra Florida_ (1909), and _Anteu_ (1912). At the head of the Portuguese Symbolists (their symbolism has been rather external than philosophic) stands Snr. EUGENIO DE CASTRO (born in 1869). He wished, while retaining perfection of form, to fill it with a new imagery and colour, and that his verse in describing Nature through his sensations should remain detached and impersonal: the poet is _uma sombra saudosa d’outras sombras_. The success achieved in _Oaristos_ (1890) was strikingly maintained in _Sagramor_ (1895), _O Rei Galaor_ (1897), _Constança_ (1900), _Depois da Ceifa_ (1901), _A Sombra do Quadrante_ (1906), _O Annel de Polycrates_ (1907), _O Filho Prodigo_ (1910), and the twenty-one sonnets of _Camafeus Romanos_ (1921). His versification is not sufficiently varied (a defect naturally less apparent in the shorter poems), his rare words and rhymes often have a cumbrous air, but a real fire occasionally runs through the cold monotony of his verse, lighting up its heavy jewels with a glow almost of life. If it is sometimes an echo of Baudelaire, it is a Baudelaire thoroughly acclimatized.[699] His debt was not wholly to French Parnassian or Symbolist, for he had also drunk deep of Greek and German literature. His originality in modern Portuguese poetry is a very real one. Yet it is a pleasure to pass from verse often so perfect, always so artificial, to the more natural poems of two younger writers. Snr. ANTONIO CORRÊA DE OLIVEIRA (born in 1880) in his _Auto do Fim do Dia_ (1900), _Raiz_ (1903), and _Auto de Junho_ (1904) shows a true lyrical gift, an inspiration of the soil, of the quatrains of popular poetry:

Passou Maio taful, Maio magano, E por onde passou nasceram rosas.

In his later works, _Alma Religiosa_ (1910), _Auto das Quatro Estações_ (1911), _Os Teus Sonetos_ (1914), _A Minha Terra_ (1916), the effect is sometimes strained or marred by an almost morbid iteration. Snr. AFONSO LOPES VIEIRA (born in 1878) displays a genuine talent in _O Naufrago_ (1898), _O Encoberto_ (1905), _Ar Livre_ (1906), and _O Pão e as Rosas_ (1908). _Ilhas de Bruma_ (1918) is filled with the rhythm of the sea and with the traditions and native poetry of Portugal. There is a certain strength as well as a subtle music about his verse which is of good promise for the future. Whatever that future may be for Portuguese literature, Portugal will join the more worthily in the great literary age which will eventually spring from years of terrific upheaval if she studies and utilizes her full heritage of prose and verse. There is the less excuse now for its neglect since the devoted labour of many Portuguese scholars is rendering it yearly more accessible.

FOOTNOTES:

[680] The incomplete list in the _Dicc. Bibliog._, vol. viii. records forty-four published in 1865 and 1866. These include Julio de Castilho’s _O Senhor Antonio Feliciano de Castilho e O Senhor Anthero de Quental_ (1865, 2ᵃ ed., 1866), R. Ortigão’s _Litteratura d’Hoje_ (1866), Snr. Braga’s _As Theocracias Litterarias_ (1865), Quental’s _A Dignidade das Lettras_ (1865), and C. Castello Branco’s _Vaidades irritadas e irritantes_ (1866).

[681] The _outeiro_ (lit. ‘hill’) was an assembly of poets to _glosar motes_. Often the gathering-place was outside a convent, from the windows of which the nuns gave the _motes_ for the poets to gloss.

[682] Historical research and compilation are carried on by Snr. Fortunato de Almeida in his _Historia da Igreja em Portugal_ (1910, &c.), and by Snr. Afonso de Dornellas (_Historia e Genealogia_, 1913, &c.). Snr. Lucio de Azevedo, well known for his studies of Pombal (_O Marquez de Pombal e a sua epoca_, 1909) and Antonio Vieira (_Historia de Antonio Vieira_, 2 vols., 1918, 21), is a Brazilian.

[683] For the works of these and other authors here mentioned consult the Bibliography.

[684] It was published, with the necessary explanations, in two volumes (1874).

[685] In this most delicate upholstery, if Wedgwood and Baedeker (as well as Maple and Mappin) are introduced, they should surely be spelt correctly.

[686] _The Athenaeum_ in 1872 announced that Lord Stanley of Alderney was preparing a translation of _As Pupillas_. According to a letter of Julio Diniz (March 25, 1868), ‘an Englishman, a relation of Lord Stanley, who is here [Oporto] studying the history of the Portuguese discoveries’, had expressed a wish to translate it. The translation was never published. The date of the first Portuguese edition is 1867. It was dramatized at Lisbon in 1868.

[687] e.g. a girl, Rosario, in _Amor Divino_, is described--annihilated--with the assistance of Cybele, Goya, the Venus of Milo, Reynolds, Shakespeare. Cf. the names, from Descartes to Darwin, in _O Conto do Gallo_.

[688] _Comedia do Campo_, vol. vi.

[689] Vol. vii.

[690] Pathology, religious and social, crops up in the later novels of Snr. Vieira da Costa, _Irmã Celeste_ (1904), _A Familia Maldonado_ (1908); yet his earlier work, _Entre Montanhas_ (1903), a story of contemporary life in the high-lying vine-lands of Douro written in 1899, was more original. The modern Portuguese novelists are nearly, although not quite, as numerous as the poets. José de Caldas is the author of _Os Humildes_ (1900) and _Cartas de um Vencido_ (1910), D. João de Castro of _Os Malditos_ (1894) and _A Deshonra_, in which a strange situation is too long drawn out.

[691] He wrote under the name Bernardo de Pindella or Bernardo Pinheiro.

[692] In novels intimately connected with the Portuguese soil such expressions as _colorido gritante_ (_criard_), _lunchar_ (to partake of luncheon), _endomingado_ (_endimanché_) are more than ever out of place. The authoress has written other stories: _Capital Bemdito_ (1910), _Fé_ (a Socialist novel), _Inocente_ (1916), _A Praga_ (1917).

[693] A _conto_ written by Snr. Julio de Lemos in 1905 bears the same title.

[694] de Quental or do Quental. See J. Leite de Vasconcellos, _Lições de Philologia Portuguesa_ (1911), p. 125 _ad fin._

[695] e.g. _Tive castellos, fortalezas pelo mundo.... Não tenho casa, não tenho pão._ The cadence here, as in many of Snr. Guerra Junqueiro’s lines, is singularly arresting. The tendency to morbid repetition is exaggerated in _Patria_ and has influenced many younger poets, as Snr. Corrêa de Oliveira and, especially, Antonio Nobre. The reader is credited with no imagination and the effect is diminished. For instance, in _Patria_: _deixa-me dormir, Dormir em paz ... dormir!_ That is excellent; but the word _dormir_ is then again thrice repeated, until the reader sleeps.

[696] In details his ear is not faultless. Cf. the unscannable line _E que na corda do remorso enforçou Judas_ (unless this is deliberately onomatopoeic).

[697] Without counting those of Brazil, which had an exquisite word-chiseller in the poet OLAVO BILAC (1865-1918), author of _Panoplias_ and other verse published in _Poesias_ (1888, Nova ed. 1904).

[698] He is the son of Snr. ALFREDO CARNEIRO DA CUNHA (born in 1863), whose _Versos_ (1900) contains the poignant lines _A uma creança morta_, which recall Coventry Patmore and the pathos of Dr. Robert Bridges’ _On a Dead Child_. The earlier edition, _Endeixas e Madrigaes_, appeared in 1891.

[699] The word _Nephelibatas_ (= Cloud-treaders), formerly applied to poets of the decadent school in Portugal, is now seldom heard.

APPENDIX

§ 1

Literature of the People

Side by side with literature proper there has always existed in Portugal a literature of the people. Indeed, before Portuguese poetry was written it flourished on the lips of the people, in the songs of the women. Sometimes this popular literature almost coalesced with written literature, as in the case of the _cossantes_ in the thirteenth century. Its poetry lent a glow and magic to the work of Gil Vicente and later to some of the lyrics of Camões; its proverbial lore was reproduced in Jorge Ferreira de Vasconcellos’ prose plays and later by D. Francisco Manuel de Mello; in indigenous folk-tales Trancoso found part of his material. Eighteenth-century writers neglected it, but Filinto Elysio returned to popular sources, and in the nineteenth century they inspired two great poets, Almeida Garrett and João de Deus. Literature and illiteracy have often gone hand in hand. In Ferreira de Vasconcellos’ _Eufrosina_ (Act III, sc. ii) we read of the workwoman (_lavrandeira_) who ‘sings _de solao_, composes songs, loves to learn _trovas_ by heart, gives a schoolboy farthings to buy cherries in return for reading _autos_ to her’; and the _Pratica de Tres Pastores_ gives us a picture of an old peasant reading out from the Bible[700] of an evening to the whole village:

Esse velhinho Tinha hum cartapolinho Feito de letra de mão Em papel de pergaminho, E chamava-se o feitinho Do livro da creação. E então Que sempre cada serão Á noyte depois da cea Com oculos á candea O lia por devoção A toda a gente d’aldea.

The popular appetite for _autos_, simple Christmas plays, legends of saints, and for long vague _romances_ never flagged, and some of the literature written to satisfy it, by Balthasar Diaz and others, is reprinted and hawked about the country in _folhas volantes_ at the present day, as Diaz’ _Historia da Imperatriz Porcina_ (Porto, 1906)--a _romance_ of some 1,500 octosyllables in -_ía_--and his _Tragedia do Marques de Mantua_. The prose _Verdadeira Historia do Imperador Carlos Magno_ (Porto, 1906) is the last descendant of Nicolas Piamonte’s Spanish translation (from the French original) _Carlomagno_, printed at Seville in 1525 and at Alcalá in 1570, or rather of Jeronimo Moreira de Carvalho’s Portuguese version (2 pts., 1728, 37). It is an instance of the Portuguese delight in strange, even fantastic, but in any case foreign, themes. The _Verdadeira Historia da Donzella Theodora_ (Porto, 1911), daughter of a merchant of Babylon, was introduced from the East and was translated by Carlos Ferreira from the Spanish (1524) and published at Lisbon in 1735. The _Verdadeira Historia do Grande Roberto Duque de Normandia e Imperador de Roma_ (Porto, 1912) is a belated echo of the French story of Robert le Diable, which also came to Portugal through Spain (Burgos, 1509). The _Verdadeira Historia da Princeza Magalona_ (Porto, 1912) has a similar derivation from France (14th or 15th c.) through Spain (Sevilla, 1519), and retains its popularity as a record of unswerving constancy _na fe e na virtude_. The _Verdadeira Historia de João de Calais_, reprinted at Oporto in 1914, is also undisguisedly foreign. The story of _Flores e Branca Fror_, last offshoot (a ‘vile extract’ Menéndez y Pelayo called it) of the charming Greek tale which came originally from the East,[701] was mentioned by several poets (King Dinis, Joan de Guilhade, the Archpriest of Hita) in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries[702] and in the _Gran Conquista_ _de Ultramar_ (13th c.), and was condemned by Luis Vives. The prose story copied by Boccaccio in his _Filocolo_ is still popular in Portugal and Galicia. There is an edition printed at Oporto in 1912: _Historia de Flores e Branca-Flor, seus amores e perigos que passaram por Flores ser mouro e Branca-Flor christã_. García Ferreiro refers to _a historia de Branca Fror_ as recited at a Galician _escasula_.[703] Most of these popular threepenny leaflets are very quaintly illustrated on the title-page. The woodcut on the 1912 edition of _Flores e Branca-Flor_ is worth many an epic.[704] The portrait of Robert le Diable (1912 ed.) represents no less a person than Napoleon III, and the ‘true likeness of the beautiful Princess Magalona’[705] (1912 ed.) is Queen Alexandra. These _folhas volantes_ of the _literatura de cordel_ with many _farsas_, such as _Manoel Mendes_ by Antonio Xavier Ferreira de Azevedo (1784-1814), reprinted at Oporto in 1878, and various progeny of the ingenious Bertoldo, as _Astucias de Mengoto_, _Industrias de Malandrino_ (both Porto, 1879), _Astucias de Zanguizarra_ (Porto, 1878), _Vida de Cacasseno_ (Porto, 1904), contain little of the real people and less of literature. More indigenous, but still attracting by virtue of its foreign episodes, is the _Auto_, _Livro_ (1554?), _Historia_ or _Tratado do Infante D. Pedro que andou as quatro (sete) partidas do mundo_, which is attributed to Gomez de Santo Estevam, one of the prince’s attendants in his long travels, and of which the first known edition (1547) is in Spanish. It has been constantly reprinted and, with romances of chivalry, formed the education of the notary in _O Hyssope_.[706] Nor do the _Trovas do Bandarra_ belong to literature, although these verses of the cobbler prophet of Trancoso, GONÇALO ANNEZ BANDARRA (†1556?), which caused him to figure in one of the earliest trials before the Inquisition (1541) and were subsequently interpreted as referring to the return of King Sebastian, exercised the fancy of the people and even the wits of the educated for some three centuries. Forbidden in Portugal, they were printed abroad, probably at Paris in 1603, at Nantes in 1644, Barcelona 1809, London 1810 and 1815. It was not until 1852 (Porto) that an _Explicação_ of them could be published in Portugal. Their interest was then much diminished, since the thirty scissors of the verse,

Augurai gentes vindouras Que o Rey que de vos ha de hir Vos ha de tornar a vir Passadas trinta tesouras,

had been thought to signify the year 1808, i.e. thirty closed scissors = 30 × 8: 240 years after King Sebastian began to reign (1568). A more reasonable computation would have been from Alcacer Kebir (_de vos ha de hir_) = 1818, or, if the scissors were open: ✂ (10), = 1878. Many sought to connect with Bandarra’s prophecies the sayings of Simão Gomez (1516-76), the ‘Holy Cobbler’, and his biography, written by the Jesuit MANUEL DA VEIGA (1567-1647), _Tratado da Vida, Virtudes e Doutrina Admiravel de Simão Gomes, vulgarmente chamado o Çapateiro Santo_ (1625), a book in more than one respect singular and charming, was burnt by the public hangman at Lisbon in 1768 in ‘Black Horse Square’. The 1759 edition had received the ordinary _licenças_. But farther afield, deeper in the heart of the people and far more ancient, exists another literature. Writers who have gone to this source have never come away unrewarded. Their work has gained a freshness and a charm[707] which the most successful disciples of imported learning and latinity have in vain attempted to rival, and gives the reader the impression that if he is not plucking the bough of gold he is not far from the tree on which it grows. And the reason is, perhaps, that the Portuguese people still retains an element pre-Christian, even pre-Roman, an element which goes back to solar myths and pagan beliefs, and about which hangs a primaeval mystery and wonder, a glamour and enchantment born of direct contact with the forces of Nature, and the worship, fear, and propitiation of many unseen powers and divinities. A great part of the people still inhabits a region of fiery dragons and apples of gold, and with ready imagination peoples streams and woods, sea and air with spirits. December and June are connected with the birth and supremacy of the sun’s power, and paganism, thinly disguised, survives in several of the ceremonies of the Christian Church, and serves to increase the Church’s hold on the minds of the people. Both the songs and the dancing with which it was accompanied were no doubt originally religious. The movements of the dance seem to have influenced the song, so that its metre was divided by real feet. When the Archbishop of Braga, Frei Bartholomeu dos Martyres, was visiting his diocese in the sixteenth century he was met by Minhoto peasants with _danças e folias_ and with _cantigas que entoavam entre as voltas e saltos dos bailes_,[708] songs evidently similar to those in the works of Gil Vicente, with _leixapren_ and refrain (_aaxbbx_[709] or _abxbcx_).[710] The _volta_ would correspond in action to the _leixapren_[711] of the song, the _salto_ to the refrain. The origin of the refrain was perhaps the pause (preceded by a final leap into the air) made by the breathless dancers, as in the words _no penedo_ of this version of ‘The House that Jack Built’: _Quaes foram os perros que mataram os lobos que comeram as cabras que roeram o bacello que posera João preto no penedo._[712] The phrase _ver cantar_, ‘to see these songs sung’, might be defended.[713]

In modern times the refrain has not been entirely lost, it occurs occasionally, e.g. _Valhame Deus_, or _Valhame Deus e a Virgem Maria_, but the usual song is a refrainless quatrain rhyming in the second and fourth lines, perhaps originally a distich broken up into four lines like the sixteen-syllable lines of the old _romances_, and from which the refrain has disappeared. It is essentially a love song: instead of the song of the people, sung to the tread of dancing feet, the song of the love-lorn individual, sung to the strumming of his guitar or of the professional _cantadeira_ at a rustic pilgrimage. But they are also sung by the people generally, often by women[714] who can neither read nor write but have a large stock of these _cantigas_, which, indeed, are almost innumerable. They may be read in their thousands in Antonio Thomaz Pires’ _Cantos Populares Portuguezes_ (4 vols., Elvas, 1902-10), Dr. Theophilo Braga’s _Cancioneiro Popular Portuguez_ (2 vols., Lisboa, 1911, 1913), Snr. Jaime Cortesão’s _Cancioneiro Popular_ (Porto, 1914), and in other collections, and hundreds of thousands die uncollected and unknown. Although it is perhaps a pity that all the popular poetical talent should tend to adapt itself to one mould--the quatrain--their brevity is excellent in that it imposes concision. Their thought has to be expressed in some twenty words, although they are rarely epigrammatic in the sense of the modern epigram. Some are geographical, or local, in praise of some town or village, river or fountain. Many are religious, that is, they combine love and religion in honour of the Lady of the Hills, the Star, the Snows, the Rosary, the Sands, Pity, Affliction, Health, Hope, or in honour of saints, and especially of the three popular saints of June: St. Anthony, St. John, and St. Peter. Others are devoted to special festivals: Christmas (_Natal_), the New Year (_Anno Bom_), the Epiphany (_Os Reis_), the Resurrection.[715] The majority are concerned with Nature, either generally or in detail. Sometimes they are frankly pantheistic, more often they content themselves with singing the praises of a favourite flower, rosemary, myrtle, the rose, and especially the carnation--the red _cravos_ which glow in doorway or window-ledge of countless houses and cottages in June. Among the birds the swallow,[716] ‘the bird of the Lord’, as the peasants call it, is rare--perhaps its rhyme is disdained as too easy--the parrot, the dove, and the nightingale are far commoner. Numerous _cantigas_ are concerned with the sea, fewer with the sun, the stars, superstitions, witches, sirens; many with dancing and various occupations--the herdsman (_ganadeiro_), yokel (_ganhão_), shepherd (_pastor_), harvesters (_ceifeiros_, _ratinhos_, _malteses_, _mondadeiras_). But of course the principal subject is love, jealousy, separation, constancy, _saudade_, satire. The occasional presence of a French word, e.g. _négligé_ or _cache-nez_, is not necessarily a proof that the _cantiga_ in question is not of popular origin, but merely that it is urban. Of many _cantigas_ the first line consists simply of a long-drawn _Ailé_ (αἴλινον, αἴλινον εἰπέ, τὸ δ’ εὖ νικάτω) or _Ai lari lari lolé_ (where the fanatic of Basque can find _il_ (= dead) as easily as in the refrain of C. V. 415), so that they really consist of three lines, the _ailé_ being introductory.

Some of the quatrains rise to real poetical beauty, and most of them are charmingly spontaneous, forming in their unpremeditated art the natural song-book of a nation of poets. The number in print already approaches fifty thousand. In the mass they perhaps produce a monotonous effect, being mostly of the one pattern, despite the variety of their contents:

Tudo o que é verde se seca Em vindo o pino do verão: Só meu amor reverdece Dentro do meu coração.[717]

Inda que o lume se apague Na cinza fica o calor: Inda que o amor se ausente No coração fica a dor.[718]

Os tres reis foram guiados Por uma estrella do ceu: Tambem teus olhos guiaram Meu coração para o teu.[719]

A few links in these modern _cantigas_ carry us back to the songs in Gil Vicente’s plays and beyond: a dialogue between mother and daughter, a reference to dancing _de terreiro_, _balho_, dance and song, to the _casada_, _mas mal casada_, or _i-a_ sequence, as _Filho da Virgem Maria_ (_Sagrada_). Other links in the popular literature throughout the ages are the riddles (_adivinhas_) at which Gil Vicente’s shepherds played in the _Auto Pastoril Castelhano_ (the example given in João de Barros’ _Grammatica_ (1540) is:

Ainda o pae não é nado Já o filho anda pelo telhado (1785 ed., p. 176)

--the father is still unborn and the son is on the roof: a fire and its smoke; modern instances are printed in Dr. Theophilo Braga’s _Cancioneiro Popular Portuguez_, vol. i (1913), pp. 363-70); the lullabies (cf. the modern _Ró ró, meu menino, Dorme e descansa, Tu es meu alivio E a minha esperança_ with Gil Vicente’s _Ro, ro, ro, Nuestro Dios y Redentor, No lloreis_, &c., i. 57); the _cantigas de Anno Bom_; the ‘pagan _janeiras_’, as Filinto Elysio called them; the _cantigas dos Reis_, the _alvoradas_, the _maios_. The _alva_ or _alvorada_ should properly contain the word _alva_ in the refrain, as in C. V. 172, or Guiraut de Bornelh’s

Qu’el jorn es apropchatz, Qu’en Orien vey l’estela creguda Qu’adutz lo jorn, qu’ieu l’ai ben conoguda, Et ades sera l’alba.

(For day is near, and high in the East appears the star that brings in the day: I know it well, and soon it will be dawn.) The theme is the

## parting of lovers at dawn:

Wilt thou be gone? it is not yet near day....

A Catalan _alba-cossante_ is given in Milá y Fontanals’ _Romancerillo Catalán_[720]:

Marieta lleva’t lleva’t de mati Que l’aygua es clara, el sol vol sortir. Como m’en llevaré si gipo no tinch? Marieta lleva’t, de mati lleva’t, Que el sol vol sortir, que l’aygua es clara. Como, &c.

An example of a Galician _mayo_, that is, a song introducing the _Mayo_ or May-boy (corresponding to our Queen of the May), is given in Milá’s article in vol. vi of _Romania_. It closely resembles that of Gil Vicente (_Este é o Mayo, o Mayo é este_) in the _Auto da Lusitania_:

Este é o Mayo que Mahiño é, Este é o Mayo que anda d’o pé. O noso Mayo anque pequeniño Da de comer á Virxen d’o Camiño. Velay o Mayo cargado de rosas, Velay o Mayo que las trae más hermosas.

It then breaks into a _muiñeira_ (in Castilian):

Ángeles somos, del cielo venimos (bajamos), Si nos dais licencia a la Reina le pedimos (la cantamos).

To the _janeiras_ more than one classical author alludes. Mello (_Epan._ i) thus notices them at Evora on New Year’s Eve, 1638, before the house in which the Conde de Linhares was lodged: _a fim de se lhe cantarem certas Bençoens & Rogatiuas (costume de nossos anciãos que com nome de Janeiras entoavam placidamente pelas portas dos mais caros amigos) se congregou grande numero de pouo_.[721] Some _romances_ (also _xacara_, _xacra_, and in the Azores _arabia_) have been printed direct from the lips of the people by Dr. Leite de Vasconcellos in his _Romanceiro Portuguez_ (1886). The degenerate, more modern, and subjective form of the _romance_ is the _fado_, a ballad (melancholy as the old _solao_[722]), composed by the professional _fadistas_ of the towns. The _fado_ is even more modern than the _modinha_ (end of eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century). It dates from the first third of the nineteenth century, and has not even now penetrated to the south, being indeed largely a Lisbon product. It may be composed in verses of four (_quadras_), five (_quintilhas_), or ten (_decimas_) lines.

The individual in the favourite _quadras_ expresses his personal sorrow and his love; the immemorial lore of the Portuguese people as a whole survives less in them than in the no less numerous proverbs--_um bosque de muitas e varias maneiras de adagios_. There is scarcely a Portuguese writer whose works do not furnish a goodly crop of these proverbs, often in evidently popular form, sometimes betraying their Spanish origin in the rhyme. They have been collected in Antonio Delicado’s _Adagios Portugueses_ (1651), in _Adagios_ (1841), _Philosophia Proverbial_ (1882), and elsewhere. The language is full of proverbial phrases, and most Portuguese could at will conceal their meaning from a foreigner in a maze of idiomatic expressions. The variety of their names is sufficient proof of the extraordinary number of the proverbs. They are crystallizations of some forgotten fable or event (_adagios_)[723] or of a more personal anecdote (_anexins_), or the refrain of a long-lost song (_rifões_).[724] Or they are moral (_maximas_ and _sentenças_), biblical (_proverbios_), satirical (_dictados_ or _ditados_, _ditos_). Many of them embody the wisdom of the ages in a form admirably concise and forcible, e.g. _Quem muito abarca pouco abraça_ (which is the very reverse of Portuguese history: _e nulla stringe e tutto ’l mondo abbraccia_), or _Até ao lavar das cestas é vindima._ Many of course correspond more or less closely to those of other countries, e.g. _Muitos enfeitadores estragão a noiva_ (Too many cooks spoil the broth), _Gato escaldado de agua fria ha medo_ (The burnt child fears the fire); _Manhan ruiva, ou vento ou chuva_ (= _Alba gorri, hegoa edo uri_); _Pedra movediça não cria bolor_ (= _Pierre qui roule n’amasse pas mousse_).[725] Many of these saws as well as the _contos_ (folk-tales) have their birth at _fiandões_ as the women sit spinning, or as _nossas velhas_ sit at their cottage doors and gossip in the sun (_soalheiro_), or as all gather round the spacious _lareira_. After the day’s work on the farm, in field and granary, to the sound of singing, legend and tradition come into their own of an evening round the great fire of logs and scented brushwood. The _contos_ have been collected by Z. Consiglieri Pedroso, _Portuguese Folk Tales_ (London, 1882); F. Adolpho Coelho, _Contos Populares Portuguezes_ (Lisboa, 1879); Dr. Theophilo Braga, _Contos Tradicionaes do Povo Portuguez_ (2 vols., Porto, 1883); F. X. de Athaide Oliveira, _Contos Tradicionaes do Algarve_ (2 vols., Tavira, 1900, 5). As was to be expected, they have their equivalents in the folklore of other nations, a fact which does not prevent them from possessing an indigenous character, a charm and flavour of their own. The glowing imagination of the peasants spins out fairy and allegorical tales with marvellous facility. Thus old Mother Poverty (_Tia Miseria_) owned a pear-tree in front of her cottage, and had obtained the privilege that whoever went up it to steal her pears should be unable to come down. When Death comes she asks him to fetch her one more pear. Once up the tree all the priests and lawyers cannot bring him down, and only when he agrees to the bargain that Poverty shall never die is she willing to release him.

A great part of the popular literature has been set down in cold print during the last half-century. Much remains ungarnered. In every province there are peculiar words, phrases, traditions, heirlooms of times prehistoric, waiting to be gathered in, and both the Portuguese literature and the Portuguese language of the future will owe a debt of gratitude to their collectors, and find rich material in the pages of the _Revista Lusitana_.

FOOTNOTES:

[700] The whole Bible in Portuguese was not translated until the eighteenth century, by JOÃO FERREIRA DE ALMEIDA, _O Novo Testamento_ (Amsterdam, 1681), _Do Velho Testamento_, 2 vols. (Batavia, 1748, 53). This is the version still commonly in use. Another translation, entitled _Biblia Sagrada_, was made from the Vulgate at the end of the eighteenth century by ANTONIO PEREIRA DE FIGUEIREDO (1725-97), author of some fifty theological and historical works in Latin and Portuguese, and a paraphrase (_Historia Evangelica_, 1777, 78, _Historia Biblica_, 1778-82) by Frei FRANCISCO DE JESUS MARIA SARMENTO (1713-90). See C. Michaëlis de Vasconcellos et S. Berger, _Les Bibles Portugaises_ in _Romania_, xxviii (1899), pp. 543-8: _La littérature portugaise est en matière de traductions bibliques d’une pauvreté désespérante._ The _Parocho Perfeito_ (1675) speaks of _os parochos que não tiverem Biblias_ (p. 19). See also G. L. Santos Ferreira, _A Biblia em Portugal, 1495-1850_ (L. 1906).

[701] See _Floire et Blancheflor. Poèmes du xiiiᵉ siècle. Publiés d’après les manuscrits ... par E. du Méril_, Paris, 1856. In the original story Flores in a basket of roses enters the tower where Brancaflor is imprisoned. Señor Bonilla y San Martín (_La Historia de los dos Enamorados Flores y Blancaflor_, Madrid, 1916) attributes an Italian origin to the Spanish prose story. The Spanish translation probably dates from the fifteenth century.

[702] For its popularity with the Provençal troubadours see Raynouard, _Choix_, e. g. ii. 297, 304, 305.

[703] _A historia de Branca Fror Outra saca a relocer_ (_Chorimas_ (1890), p. 148).

[704] It has been reproduced, from an earlier edition, in T. Braga, _Os Livros Populares Portuguezes_ (_Era Nova_, vol. i, 1881).

[705] At either side explanatory verses, the only verse in the leaflet, tell us that ‘Magalona was the most beautiful of all contemporary princesses, beloved daughter of the King of Naples, and her heart full of goodness. She was a model of virtues, of pure beliefs and a loving heart, married with Pierres, Pedro of Provence, a noble knight and virtuous man.’

[706] One of the Elvas Chapter was _homem versado Na lição de Florinda e Carlo Magno_.

[707] This charm hangs over many anonymous lyrics of popular inspiration, as the _Trovas da Menina Fermosa_, seventeenth or eighteenth century variations of a sixteenth century song: _Menina fermosa Dizei do que vem Que sejais irosa A quem vos quer bem; Porque se concerta Rosto e condiçam Dais por galardam A pena mui certa. Sendo tam fermosa Dizei_, &c. Even less genuinely popular are the _Trovas do Moleiro_ (1602), written by an obscure native of Tangier, Luis Brochado, and others.

[708] Luis de Sousa, _Vida_, 1763 ed., i. 462.

[709] e. g. _Em Belem vila do amor_ (i. 183).

[710] e. g. _Que no quiero estar en casa_ (i. 73) (which is _como laa cantaes co’ gado_, essentially a peasant’s song).

[711] The _leixapren_ occurs in most of the songs accompanied by dance in Gil Vicente: e. g. _Quem é a desposada_ (_chacota_, i. 147), _Pardeus bem andou Castella_ (_em folia_) (ii. 389), _Ja não quer minha senhora_ (ii. 439, _Esta cantiga cantarão e bailarão de terreiro os foliões_). _Não me firaes madre_ (ii. 440, _em chacota_), _Mor Gonçalves_ (ii. 509, _bailão ao som desta cantiga_), _Por Mayo era, por Mayo_ (ii. 525, _a vozes bailarão e cantarão a cantiga seguinte_: i. e. a _romance_ with _leixapren_ and refrain). They are thus a combination of glee and dance.

[712] Gil Vicente, _Obras_ (ii. 448).

[713] _Não nas quero ver cantar_ (Gil Vicente) is, however, probably a misprint, for which D. Carolina Michaëlis de Vasconcellos suggests _quer’ eu_.

[714] Cf. J. Leite de Vasconcellos, _Ensaios Ethnographicos_, ii. 264: _O povo (principalmente as mulheres) canta-as_ [_cantigas soltas_] _em qualquer occasião_.

[715]

_Já os campos reverdecem, Já o alecrim tem flor, Já cantam os passarinhos A resurreição do Senhor._

(Now to the fields returns the green and the rosemary’s in flower, and the little birds are singing the Lord’s Resurrection hour).

[716]

_Ó triste da minha vida, Ó triste da vida minha, Quem me dera ir contigo Onde tu vaes, andorinha._ (O how sad my life is, O how sad my plight! Would I might go with thee, swallow, in thy flight!)

recalls the French _Si j’étais hirondelle Que je pusse voler, Sur votre sein, ma belle, J’irais me reposer_ (A swallow I Would be to fly And take my rest Upon thy breast).

[717] All green things in summer Their freshness lose: Only my heart Its love renews.

[718] When the light of the fire is dead The ashes its heat retain: When love is over and fled In the heart abides the pain.

[719] To the three kings was given A star in heaven for sign: And thy eyes have guided My heart unto thine.

[720] Reprinted in his article in _Romania_, vol. vi, and by Dr. Braga. _Aygua_ in the second line is probably a corruption from _alua_ (dawn) to _agua_ (water).

[721] Fernam Rodriguez Lobo Soropita, speaking of the _noites privilegiadas_--the eves of New Year and Epiphany--refers to _os villões ruins que essas noutes vos perseguem_ and to their _pandeirinhos, musica de agua-pé que toda a noute vos zune nos ouvidos como bizouro, e sobre tudo isto haveis de lhe offertar os vossos quatro vintens, e quando lh’os entregais a candeia vos descobre o feitio dos ditos musicos: um mocho com sombreiro com mais chocas que um corredor de folhas_. They thus resembled Christmas ‘waits’.

[722] The Spanish translator of _Eufrosina_ apparently derived this name from musical notes (= a sung _romance_), since he translates _un romance de sol la_, _Eufr._ i. 3; iii. 2 (_Oríg. de la Novela_, iii. 77 and 110), but even he would not derive it from the _selah_ of the Psalms (T. Braga, _Hist. da Litt. Port._ i (1914), p. 205). In the Spanish _solao_ in _Obras de Dom Manoel de Portugal_ (1605), Bk. XII, pp. 282-7, each singer takes three lines, of which the last two rhyme together.

[723] Formerly _verbos_ (e.g. in the _Canc. da Vat._) and _exemplos_ (_enxempros_).

[724] The word _rifão_ does not now mean the refrain or burden (_estribilho_) of a song but proverb, like the Spanish _refrán_.

[725] There is another proverb _Mentras a pedra vae e vem Deus dará de seu bem_ (While the [mill?] stone doth come and go God his blessing shall bestow).

§ 2

_The Galician Revival_

For over four hundred years--with the exception of a few poems by Padres José Sanchez Feijoo and Martín Sarmiento[726] in the eighteenth century--the Galician language held aloof from literature. It was peculiarly fitting that at a time when Portugal was recovering for her own literature the early Galician lyrics, which are now one of its most precious possessions, a new company of poets should have sprung up in the region now, as of old, _fertil de poetas_[727]--Galicia. They were no doubt multiplied and encouraged by the discovery of the _Cancioneiros_, but began independently of these, in the wake of that regionalism which manifested itself so vigorously in the second half of the nineteenth century, for instance in Provence, Catalonia, and Valencia. Besides their general character--the mingling of irony and sentimental melancholy--and a few conscious imitations, the new poets and the ancient _Cancioneiros_ present several striking similarities. It is now some three-quarters of a century since regionalism in Galicia assumed its first literary pretensions. In 1861 the poets had become sufficiently numerous and distinguished to warrant the holding of _Juegos Florales_ (_xogos froraes_) at La Coruña. JUAN MANUEL PINTOS (1811-76) had published eight years earlier a small volume of verses, _A Gaita Gallega_ (Pontevedra, 1853), and FRANCISCO AÑON (1817-78) had contributed poems to various local newspapers. Añon led the life of a wandering _jogral_ of old, and his occasional verses soon won him popularity, so that he came to be regarded as the father of modern Galician poetry. He could express his love for his native province in the tender and melancholy stanzas (_abbcdeec_) _A Galicia_, and in his other poems, at once ingenuous and satirical; he is also thoroughly Galician and foreshadowed the poetry that was to follow. A leaflet of his verses appeared in the year after his death, _Poesías_ (Noya, 1879), and a more satisfactory collection ten years later: _Poesías Castellanas y Gallegas_ (1889). JOSÉ MARÍA POSADA Y PEREIRA (1817-86), born at Vigo, the son of a Vigo advocate, published his first volume of verses in 1865 and others were collected in _Poesías Selectas_ (1888). The second part of this collection (pp. 111-250) is written in Spanish, but the Galician poems include a series of letters in octosyllabic verse, the wistful humour of which is attractive. Born in the same year as Añon, he survived Rosalía de Castro, twenty years his junior. He survived in disillusion, for he had been one of the pioneers and now felt himself neglected in the changed conditions. When the first floral games were celebrated the most talented of these early poets, ALBERTO CAMINO (1821-61), had but a few months to live. Another generation passed before his poems were published: _Poesías Gallegas_ (1896). Camino was not a prolific writer, and this tiny book contains but twelve of his poems; but there is not one of them that we would willingly miss, whether he is giving harmonious form to a poignant theme, as in _Nai Chorosa_ and _O Desconsolo_, or in lighter verses describing with a contagious glow and spirit some scene of village merriment, as in _A Foliada de San Joan_ or _Repique_.

Galician patriots, indignant at the neglect or contempt habitually meted out to their region, might persevere in their belief that the language which had produced the _cantigas_ of King Alfonso X, the Portuguese _Cancioneiros_, and the poems of Macías was capable of revival as an instrument of poetry; but it was for the most part by scattered poems, manuscript or printed in periodicals (especially the Coruña paper _Galicia_, 1860-6), that they justified their faith, until in 1863 appeared _Cantares Gallegos_ by ROSALÍA DE CASTRO[728] (1837-85). The authoress, born at Santiago, was but twenty-six when this collection of poems gave her a wider celebrity than has been granted to any Galician writer since Macías. Emilio Castelar wrote a preface for her second volume, _Follas Novas_ (1880), and hailed her as ‘a star of the first order’. Indeed, so great was her fame as a Galician singer that until recently it obscured her Spanish poems, _En las orillas del Sar_ (1884). It was an unsought fame. Rosalía de Castro wrote much more than she published and destroyed much that was worth publishing. She sank herself in Galicia; her voice is that of the Galician _gaita_ in all its varying moods. In her preface to _Cantares Gallegos_ she wrote: ‘I have taken much care to reproduce the true spirit of our people.’ That she succeeded in this all critics are agreed. A favourite method in the _Cantares Gallegos_ is to take a popular quatrain and develop it at some length, as, for instance, in the beautiful variations on the lines _Airiños_, _airiños_, _aires_, _Airiños_ _da miña terra_, _Airiños_, _airiños_, _aires_, _Airiños_, _levaime á ela_.[729] Here, as throughout the book, there is such yearning passionate sadness that we may say, in her own words, _non canta que chora_. The sadness is of _soedade_ and brooding over her country’s plight. She has felt all the peasants’ sorrows, the longing of the emigrant for his country, the fate of the women at home who find no rest from toil but in the grave,[730] above all the neglect and poverty in which those sorrows centre--with the result of sons torn from their families and scattered abroad to Castile and Portugal and across the seas in search of bread. Her themes are thus often homely; their treatment is always plaintive and musical. The metres used are very various. The book opens with a chain of _muiñeiras_ singing _Galicia frorida_, and the rhythmical beat of the _muiñeira_ constantly recurs throughout. Nothing could serve better to express, as she so marvellously expresses, the very soul of the Galician peasantry in its gentle, dreaming wistfulness and tearful humour. Her style is so thin and delicate, yet so flowing and natural, that it is more akin, almost, to music than to language. Few writers have attained such perfection without a trace of artifice. It is Galician--_esta fala mimosa_[731]--seen at its best, clear, soft, and pliant, rising in protest or reproach to a silvery eloquence. In _Follas Novas_ the melancholy note is accentuated, without becoming morbid: the new leaves are autumnal. The music of her sad and exquisite poetry had been forged in the crucible of her own not imaginary suffering and grief, and in these lyrics she utters her _inmortales deseios_ (immortal longings) as well as the woes of the peasant women of Galicia, ‘widows of the living and widows of the dead’. New metres are introduced, the old skill and perfection of form is maintained. A few poems in the second half even succeed in repeating that identification between the poet and the genius of the people which makes much of _Cantares Gallegos_ almost anonymous and assures its immortality.

Midway between the publication of _Cantares Gallegos_ and _Follas Novas_ appeared the first volume of Galician verse by the blind poet of Orense, VALENTÍN LAMAS CARVAJAL (1849-1906). This book, _Espiñas, Follas e Frores_ (1871), has remained the most popular of his works.[732] He is a true poet of the soil (_poeta del terruño_), the soil of Galicia which he sings with melancholy charm, and his verse is filled with _soedades_. He complains of the peasant’s lot, protests against its injustice and the tyranny of the _caciques_, laments the drain on Galicia’s best forces through emigration and military service, and his later work especially betrays a rustic cynicism and disillusion. But the value both of his first book and of _Saudades Gallegas_ (1889) and _A Musa d’as Aldeas_ (1890) is that in them speak the voices of the peasants. Only occasionally does Aesop or Macías intrude to dispel the charm, and even sophisticated touches--as when he speaks of ‘this century of enlightenment’, of Galicia as ‘a poetical garden’, or of the _tamborileiro_ as ‘the inseparable companion’ of the _gaiteiro_--are not out of keeping, since the peasant, to whom a long word is a sign of education, will in ambitious moments use such phrases. The Galician peasants are shown in their sadness and superstitions, at their common tasks and _festas_. When Lamas Carvajal is describing an _escasula_[733] or a _fiadeiro_,[734] a dance in the beaten space before the doors (_baile de turreiro_), a _foliada_[735] in honour of some saint, a _ruada_ or _rueiro_ (street courting), a summer _romaxe_ or _romaria_ (pilgrimage), or autumn _magosto_ (feast of chestnuts), his melancholy almost deserts him, and he can sing, in his own phrase,

Algun ledo cantar d’a sua terriña.

The toil often becomes a _festa_, in which, he says, there is more mirth than in all the city’s joys. In _Ey, boy, ey_ he admirably reproduces the thoughts of the slow-footed, slow-reasoning peasant as he trudges along to market in front of his droning and shrieking ox-cart. And, generally, all the life of the province of Orense is in his poems: witches, exorcisers, _beatas_, _curandeiros_ (to whom the peasants turn in place of the doctor), pilgrims, blind singers, _santeiros_ selling images of saints, the wailing _alalaa_, the evening litany or _rosario_, the angelus (_Ave Maria_ or _as animas_, or tocar _ás oraciós_). The _gaiteiro_, of course, is a prominent figure, for without his bagpipe (the _gaita gallega_) and the accompanying drum (_tamboril_), cymbals (_ferriñas_, _conchas_), tambourine (_pandeiro_, _pandeireta_), and castanets (_castañolas_),[736] no village _fête_ would be welcome or complete, and his _alborada_ or his rhythmical dance-song, the _muiñeira_, is the emblem of all the peasant’s pleasures. Melancholy pervades the _Rimas_ (1891) of D. JUAN BÁRCIA CABALLERO (born in 1852), but it is no longer the melancholy of the peasant, but of the poet. His verse is more artificial and subjective, and expressions such as the ‘bed of Aurora’, ‘Olympic disdain’, ‘the Nereids’, carry us far away from the peasant scenes so pleasantly described by Lamas Carvajal. Yet in his lyrics lives a faint music which raises them above the commonplace. He writes of moonlight, the fall of the leaves, a flowing stream, tears, death, and admires Heine and Leopardi; but in his slight fancies, often built into a single brief sentence, he has a natural charm of his own.

BENITO LOSADA (1824-91) gained great popularity in Galicia with his _Contiños_ (1888), epigrammatic and often far from edifying stories in verse which mostly do not exceed ten lines. He is said to have had them printed on matchboxes _ad maiorem gloriam_, but for this he was probably not responsible. More interesting and equally racy of the soil are the poems of his _Soaces d’un Vello_ (1886), of which the _contiños d’a terra_ form only Part 3. The first part consists of a long legend in octosyllabic verse, and in the second some thirty poems give a coloured, homely, delightful picture of peasant life in Galicia:

En fias e espadelas, En festas, en foliadas[737]

--song and dance, the pot of chestnuts (_zonchos_) over the _lareira_ fire on the night of All Saints’ Day, the ox-girl quietly singing, the girl with spindle and distaff keeping the cows, the sorrowful, hard-working peasant women, the priests exorcising those possessed by the Devil. The gay notes of the _gaita_ with its plaintive undertone sound from his pages. The language, _a garrida lengua nosa_, has rarely been written more idiomatically or with a surer instinct for the force and fascination of the native word used in its rightful place. To turn from Losada to EDUARDO PONDAL (1835-1917), the poet of Ponteceso, a small village in the district of Coruña, is to go from a village _praça_ to a high mountain-top. He stands quite apart from the other Galician poets.[738] Their irony and scepticism, sorrows and mirth, are mostly of the peasant. But here we have no dance or rustic merriment. The pipe and the drum give place to the wind blowing through an Aeolian harp. The poet

soña antr’as uces hirtas Na gentil arpa apoyado En donde o vento suspira.[739]

He is a lonely, martial spirit, disdainful but never arrogant, hating all servitude and looking upon a comfortable inertness as a kind of servitude. There is no pettiness in him, although details of Nature he may notice and love. The most learned of Galician poets, and not sparing of classical allusions, he is yet entirely merged in the forces of Nature and becomes a voice, a mystery. Some of his poems are a single sentence of perhaps twenty words, a musical cry borne slowly away on the wings of the wind. He sings of mists (the Gallegan _brétoma_) and pregnant silences, the whispering of the pines, the great chestnut-trees and Celtic oaks, of the swift daughter of the mists and the ‘intrepid daughter of the noble Celts’, of old forgotten far-off things, battles long ago. One must go to Ireland for a parallel. It has been noticed of him that he is entirely pre-Christian; he is almost prehistoric. His long epic on the discovery of America, in twenty-seven cantos, _Os Eoas_, remained unpublished at his death. Nor would it be easy to account for his popularity were it not for the poem by which he won early fame: _A Campana d’Anllons_. It is full of music and melancholy, a plaintive farewell addressed to his native village by a Galician peasant imprisoned at Oran. His subsequent verses, collected in _Rumores de los Pinos_ (1879) and _Queixumes dos Pinos_ (1886), if they could not increase his popularity, brought him a wide recognition among all lovers of poetry. The undefinable fascination of many of these poems is due to their aloofness, tenderness, and sorrowful music. He is a genuine Celtic bard, child of the wind and the rain, with Rosalía de Castro the truest poet produced by modern Galicia.

The most prominent of the later Galician poets was MANUEL CURROS ENRIQUEZ (1851-1908), whose work _Aires d’a miña terra_ (1880) was condemned by the Bishop of Orense and republished in the following year. Born at Celanova in the middle of the nineteenth century, he studied law at Santiago de Compostela and became a journalist. His advanced opinions caused him to emigrate, first to London, then to South America. His anticlericalism was pronounced in _Aires d’a miña terra_, and even more so in a forcible satire describing a pilgrimage to Rome, written in _triadas_[740] and entitled _O Divino Sainete_ (1888). He writes of dogma assassinating liberty, heaps abuse on Ignacio de Loyola, hails the advent of the railway to Galicia as bringing not priests but progress. All this has caused his poems to be widely read. But the reader has the agreeable surprise to find that many of them deal quite simply with the legends (_A Virxe d’o Cristal_) or customs (_Unha Boda en Einibó_, _O Gueiteiro_, &c.) of his native country, and show a true poetic power and a quiet and accurate observation of Nature. We forget all about anticlericalism and the Pope in reading of spring in Galicia, of the _xentis anduriñas_, the _anemas_ ringing, and the children who come singing a _mayo_ and asking for chestnuts. Curros Enriquez would not be a Galician were not his work of a melancholy cast, and the charm of some of his poems is also indigenous. The torch of Galician poetry burnt on after Curros Enriquez had ceased to write. D. EVARISTO MARTELO PAUMAN (born c. 1853) in his _Líricas Gallegas_ (1891) showed that he possessed the traditional charm and satire of Galician verse, but a charm and satire that in his case had become all individual and subjective. AURELIANO J. PEREIRA (†1906), author of _Cousas d’a Aldea_ (1891), displayed a rustic humour in sketching with many a gay note the life of the Galician peasantry, and, in his more subjective poems, a very real and delicate lyrical gift. A sly humour also marks the work of ALBERTO GARCÍA FERREIRO (1862-1902) in _Volvoretas_ (1887) and _Chorimas_ (1890). It is sometimes marred by the bitterness of his anticlerical and anti-Spanish feeling. In the stream’s voice he hears a murmur against the mayor and the judge, the _cacique_ is ‘dragon, tiger and snake’, the monks and priests are greedy and ignorant. On the other hand, when they describe a fair (_N’a feira_) or a pilgrimage or the woes of the Galician emigrant, his poems are moving, vivid, and full of local colour. In a slight volume of poems, _Salayos_ (1895), MANUEL NÚÑEZ GONZÁLEZ (1865-1917) shows true lyrical power. They are poems in Galician rather than of Galicia, telling in a plaintive music of night, autumn, _morriña_, _soedades_. For all the author’s love of his smaller country, it is Galicia seen from without,[741] or sung from memory. The ‘vintage songs and the gay din of chestnut gatherings’ are no longer, as with Losada and Lamas, a part of life, but ‘a dream in the ideal realm of thought’,[742] a subject of disillusion and regret. _Folerpas_[743] (1894) by D. ELADIO RODRÍGUEZ GONZÁLEZ (born in 1864) is also essentially not of the people. In its less elaborate poems it often describes, attractively and with much colour, popular customs and dances, the night of St. John, _as festas d’a miña terra_. Yet after recording the pleasant superstition that on St. John’s Day the sun rises dancing, the author must needs pause to say ‘away with these fanatical beliefs, unworthy of a civilized region’, to which the answer is that such reflections may be sincere but are unworthy of poetry, and should be expressed in prose. But the author of these verses can, when he wishes, identify himself with the peasants whose life he depicts,[744] and is capable of writing poems of great delicacy. The general impression is that he has not grown up among these scenes but is observing them keenly as might a stranger. The edict of the Archbishop of Santiago (June 26, 1909), which made it a deadly sin to read _Fume de Palla_ (1909), by ‘ALFREDO NUN DE ALLARIZ’, as containing impious, blasphemous, and heretical propositions, gave these poems a wider publicity than they might otherwise have attained, and they received a second edition in the same year. It certainly savours of blasphemy and is bad criticism to call Curros Enriquez the Galician Christ, but it is to be feared that the excommunication of the author will only encourage him to abandon ‘simple verses written without art’, as in his preface he describes these, for more studied poems with a thesis to prove. It is perhaps disquieting to find that three poets in most respects so different, agree in this, that between them and popular poetry a gulf is fixed, owing to the sensitive aloofness of a true poet (for Núñez González was undoubtedly the most talented of the younger Galicians), or owing to the adoption of the superior standpoint of the rationalist or the anticlerical. Younger poets of remarkable promise and achievement are D. GONZALO LÓPEZ ABENTE (born in 1878), a relative of Eduardo Pondal, whom he sometimes recalls in the original inspiration of _Escumas da Ribeira_ (1914) and _Alento da Raza_ (1917); D. ANTONIO NORIEGA VARELA (born in 1869), whose deep love for his native moors and mountains gives an eternal magic to _Montañesas_ (1904) and _D’O Ermo_ (1920); D. RAMÓN CABANILLAS, who voices the sorrows and aspirations of Galicia in _Vento Mareiro_ and _Da Terra Asoballada_ (1917); and D. ANTONIO REY SOTO, who, however, writes chiefly in Castilian. D. XAVIER PRADO expresses the very soul of the peasantry in _A Caron do Lume_ (1918). The poets of the last half-century have unquestionably justified the literary revival of the Galician language, and even if in the future no poetry of the highest order be written in Galicia, it is unthinkable that so musical an instrument should be allowed to perish. Galician poetry may be a thin, an elfin music, a scrannel voice, as of a wind blowing through tamarisks, but it has a natural charm, a raciness, a native atmosphere which give it a peculiar flavour and attraction. Literary contests, _veladas_, _certames_, _xogos froraes_, keep the flame of poetry alive in Galicia, but in its anonymous form it is a very vigorous growth which needs no fostering, and flourishes now as it flourished in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, as it flourished in the time of the Romans. Hundreds of anonymous _quadras_ (_cantiga_, _cantar_, _cantariño_, _cantilena_, _cantiguela_, _cantiguiña_, _copra_, or _canció_) have been collected in the _Cancionero Popular Gallego_ (Madrid, 3 vols., 1886) by JOSÉ PÉREZ BALLESTEROS (†1918). The peasant women compose and sing their songs to-day[745] as when Fray Martín Sarmiento (1695-1772) noticed that _en Galicia las mujeres no solo son poetisas sino tambien músicas naturales_,[746] or the Marqués de Montebello listened to _los tonos que a coros cantan con fugas y repeticiones las mozuelas_, or the Archpriest of Hita watched the cantaderas dancing (as well as singing) in neighbouring Asturias.[747]

The ancient _muiñeira_ rhythm continues, and the parallel-strophed songs of the early _Cancioneiros_ have their echoes in the anonymous poetry of to-day. It is, indeed, of interest to note how the poets of the revival fall quite naturally into the same parallelism and the same repetition.[748] Besides these _muiñeiras_ the popular poetry consists principally of _quadras_.[749] Traditional _romances_ are nearly non-existent. This popular poetry (soft, musical, malicious, satirical) connects by a thread of anonymous song the Galicia of to-day with the whole of its past life, and the revivalists are likely to prosper in proportion as they seek their inspiration in popular sources, as did Rosalía de Castro. For the Galician peasants, living in a land of mists and streams, inlet arms of sea, dark pinewoods, deep-valleyed mountains, green maize-fields, and grey mysterious rocks, a land of spirits and fairies and witches, of legends and ruins, have the Celt’s instinct and love of poetry. Poetry is their natural expression. For prose in Galician literature there is less genius, and perhaps less incentive, since the country has been described with intimate knowledge and charm in the Castilian novels of Doña Emilia Pardo Bazán (1851-1921) and Don Ramón María del Valle-Inclán (born in 1870), and more recently by Don Jaime Solá (born in 1877). But the value and possibilities of Galician prose have been shown by D. AURELIO RIBALTA (born in 1864) in _Ferruxe_ (1894) and by D. MANUEL LUGRIS Y FREIRE (born in 1863) in _Contos de Asieumedre_ (1909). It is, indeed, in the _conto_ that especial success has been won, and HERACLIO PÉREZ PLACER, whose novel _Predicción_ appeared in 1887, is widely known for his _Contos, Leendas e Tradiciós de Galicia_ (1891), _Contos da Terriña_ (1895), and _Veira do Lar_ (1901). _Contos da Terriña_, thirty-four stories in some two hundred brief pages, are various and unequal in value. Most of them are sad, even the harmless St. Martin _magosto_ ends in a death. They contain many intimate descriptions of Galicia and the life of the villages about Orense. There is much pathos in _Velliña, miña velliña!_, in _Rapañota de Xasmís_, and especially in _Follas Secas_, an exquisite picture of an old peasant dying alone in a dark room--its walls are black with smoke, yellow maize-cobs hang from the ceiling--while through the open door come all the gay sounds and colours of a Galician vintage. The poetess FRANCISCA HERRERA, author of _Almas de Muller_ (1915) and _Sorrisas e Bágoas_ (1918), has recently turned to prose with remarkable success in _Néveda_ (1920). Few Galician poets have published volumes of prose, although many have contributed as journalists to the local press, but it would be difficult to find a prose-writer who is not also a poet.[750] And it is by its poetry that Galicia has won for itself a notable place in modern literature and added another leaf to the literary laurels of the Peninsula.

FOOTNOTES:

[726] See Antolín López Peláez, _Poesías Inéditas del P. Feijoo ... seguidas de las poesías gallegas ‘Dialogo de 24 Rusticos’ y ‘O Tio Marcos da Portela’ por el P. Sarmiento_, Tuy, 1901.

[727] Cf. A. Ribeiro dos Santos, _Obras_ (MS.), vol. xix, f. 21: _Galicia ... muito affeita desde alta antiguidade ao exercicio de trovas e cantares._

[728] Or Rosalía Castro de (or y) Murguía. Her husband, DON MANUEL DE MURGUÍA (born in 1833), author of _Los Precursores_ (1886), _Diccionario de Escritores Gallegos_ (1862), and other works devoted to the study of Galicia, its ethnology and history, is still alive.

[729] O winds of my country blowing softly together, Winds, winds, gentle winds, O carry me thither! (1909 ed., pp. 95-8).

[730] _Follas Novas: Duas palabras d’a autora_, 1910 ed., p. 31.

[731] _Follas Novas_ (1910 ed.), p. 254.

[732] A sixth edition appeared in 1909, whereas most books of Galician verse cling to the obscurity of their first edition or at best obtain a second in the hospitable _Biblioteca Gallega_.

[733] _Esfolhada_ or _desfolla_: gathering to husk the maize.

[734] _Fiada_, _fiandon_: a rustic _tertulia_ (evening party) of women to spin.

[735] _Fuliada_, _afuliada_, _folion_.

[736] In Tras-os-Montes potatoes are called _castanholas_, i. e. large chestnuts, which recalls the fact that Andrea Navagero, eating potatoes for the first time at Seville in 1526, considered them to taste like chestnuts. In parts of Galicia they are called _castañas d’a terra_.

[737] _Soaces_, p. 156. The _espadela_ is the task of braking flax.

[738] Perhaps the only poem that might have been written by Pondal is that on p. 177 (the first verse) of Rosalía de Castro’s _Follas Novas_ (1910 ed.).

[739] _Queixumes dos Pinos_ (1886), p. 101.

[740] For an earlier example of the same kind of tercets (_abacdcefe_) see R. de Castro, _Follas Novas_, 1910 ed., p. 158.

[741] The very word _morriña_ is more common (in the sense of _saudade_) at Madrid than in Galicia.

[742] _Salayos_, p. 65.

[743] Also _flepa_, _folepa_, _folepiña_, Portuguese _folheca_--_floco_, _froco_, _copo_ (= ‘flake’).

[744] The passage (_Folerpas_, p. 182) in which a peasant, refusing alms to an old woman, bids her beg of the rich, is scarcely drawn from life.

[745] Cf. _Cancionero_, i. 50: _Cantade, nenas, cantade_; G. Ferreiro, _Chorimas_, p. 76, _as cantiguiñas das moças_; R. de Castro, _Cant. Gall._, p. 102, _As meniñas cantan, cantan_. Cf. also E. Pardo Bazán, _De mi tierra_ (1888), p. 122: _las_ [_coplas_] _gallegas de las cuales buena parte debe ser obra de hembras_.

[746] _Memorias para la historia de la poesía y poetas españoles_ (_Obras Postumas_, vol. i, Madrid, 1775, p. 238, § 538).

[747] See _C. da Ajuda_, ed. C. Michaëlis de Vasconcellos (1904), ii. 902.

[748] Cf. R. de Castro, _Cantares Gallegos_ (1909 ed.), p. 18 (_mantelo_, _refaixo_), p. 19 (_mar_, _río_), pp. 20-1 (_e-a_), p. 27 (_terras_, _vilas_), p. 29 (_pousaban_, _vivían_), p. 85 (_vestira_, _calzara_); _Follas Novas_ (1910 ed.), p. 229 (_a-e_); _Aires d’a miña terra_ (ed. 1911). p. 35 (_quería_, _pensaba_), p. 139 (_i-a_), p. 249 (_á miles_, _á centos_); _Chorimas_, p. 36 (_estrevidos_, _ousados_); A. Camino, _Poesías Gallegas_, p. 19: _Qué noite aquela en que eu a vin gemindo!_ (_chorar!_).

[749] Quatrains of which lines 2 and 4 are in rhyme or assonance, e.g. _Ruliña que vas volando Sin facer caso á ninguen, Vai e dille á aquela nena Que sempre a quixen ben_. _Tercetos_ are rarer (_aba_). Sometimes the _quadra_ is really a tercet with line 1 repeated (_aaba_).

[750] D. Aurelio Ribalta is author in verse of _Os meus votos_ (1903) and _Libro de Konsagrazión_ (1910); D. Manuel Lugris of _Soidades_ (1894), _Noitebras_ (1910); Snr. Pérez Placer of _Cantares Gallegos_ (1891). D. FLORENCIO VAAMONDE (born in 1860), author of a _Resume da Historia de Galicia_ (1898), also wrote, in verse, _Os Calaicos_ (1894). Recently Galician literature has found a keen historian in D. EUGENIO CARRÉ ALDAO, whose _Literatura Gallega_ (2nd ed., 1911) also contains an anthology.

INDEX

A

Aboim (D. Joan de), 46, 52.

Abranches, Conde de, 88.

Abreu Mousinho (Manuel de), 203.

Academia das Sciencias de Portugal, 284.

Academia dos Esquecidos, 261.

Academia dos Generosos, 261.

Academia dos Singulares, 261.

Academia Real da Historia, 270.

Academia Real das Sciencias de Lisboa, 14, 15, 284, 294.

Acenheiro. _See_ Rodriguez Azinheiro.

_Actos dos Apostolos_, 59.

_Adagios_, 346.

Addison (Joseph), 290.

Aesop, 60, 350.

Afonso I, 188, 211, 305, 307,

Afonso III, 38, 42, 46, 52.

Afonso IV, 38, 87.

Afonso V, 82, 86, 87, 88, 89, 92, 93, 100, 111, 211, 261.

Afonso VI, 260, 268, 295, 311.

Afonso, Infante [xiii c.], 67.

Afonso, Infante [xiv c.], 67, 70.

Afonso, Infante [xv c.], 88, 100, 101, 103.

Afonso, Mestre, 220.

Afonso (Gregorio), 124.

Afonso (Martim), Mestre, 220.

_Aguia, A_, 333.

Agustobrica, 234.

Airas (Joan), 52.

Aires (Francisco), 247.

Alarcón (Pedro Antonio de), 297.

Alarte (Vicente) _pseud._ _See_ Gomez de Moraes.

Albuquerque (Afonso de), 57, 88, 99, 107, 108, 116, 127, 190, 191, 194, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 209, 220, 228-9, 260, 312.

Albuquerque (Bras de), 201-2.

Albuquerque (Jeronymo de), 204.

Albuquerque (D. Jorge de), 218.

Alcobaça (Bernardo de), 59, 95.

Alcoforado (Marianna), 263-4, 307.

Aleandro, Cardinal, 126.

_Aleixo, Vida de Santo_, 60.

Alexandra, Queen, 340.

Alfieri (Vittorio), 290.

Alfonso X, 13, 26, 28, 30, 37, 40, 41-6, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 61, 69, 91, 98, 103, 124, 126, 349.

Alfonso XI, 38, 42, 90.

_Alfonso Onceno, Poema de_, 73.

Almeida (Cristovam de), 245.

Almeida (Diogo de), 192.

Almeida (Fortunato de), 307.

Almeida (D. Francisco de), 92, 98.

Almeida (D. Leonor de), 276.

Almeida (Lopo de), 92, 128.

Almeida (Manuel de), 205.

Almeida (Rodrigo Antonio de), 163.

Almeida (Theodoro de), 285.

Almeida e Medeiros (Lourenço de), 301.

Almeida Garrett (João Baptista da Silva Leitão), Visconde de, 21, 33, 74, 186, 242, 261, 277, 279, 287-92, 293, 294, 299, 300, 302, 309, 338.

Alorna, Marquesa de [D. Leonor de Almeida Portugal Lorena e Lencastre, Condessa de Assumar, Condessa de Oeynhausen], 274, 276-7, 294.

Alvarengo Peixoto (Ignacio José de), 274.

Alvarez (Afonso), 157.

Alvarez (Francisco), 33, 219-20, 224.

Alvarez (João), 89.

Alvarez (Luis), 245.

Alvarez de Andrade (Fernam), 239.

Alvarez de Lousada Machado (Gaspar), 62.

Alvarez de Villasandino (Alfonso), 77, 79, 125.

Alvarez do Oriente (Fernam), 152, 253, 255.

Alvarez Pereira (Nuno), 50, 62, 81, 84, 86, 92, 155, 291, 306, 307.

_Amadis de Gaula_, 64, 65-71, 119, 225.

Amaral (Antonio Caetano do), 292.

Amaral (Francisco do), 245.

_Amaro, Vida de Santo_, 60.

Ambrogini (Angelo). _See_ Poliziano.

Amigo (Pedro) de Sevilha, 51.

Amorim. _See_ Gomes de Amorim.

Andrade (Antonio de), 204.

Andrade (Francisco de), 189, 209, 224, 239.

Andrade (Thomé de). _See_ Jesus (Thomé de).

Andrade Caminha (Pero de), 143, 149-50, 213.

Andrade Corvo (João de), 295.

Andrade e Silva (José Bonifacio de), 274.

Anez Solaz (Pedro), 29.

Angeles (Juan de los), 250.

Angra, Bishop of, 287.

Anjos (Luis dos), 247.

Anjos (Manuel dos), 247.

Annunzio (Gabriele d’), 321.

Añon (Francisco), 348.

Anrique. _See_ Henrique.

Anriquez (Luis), 100, 102-3.

Antonio, Mestre, 125.

Antonio, D., Prior of Crato, 145, 195, 229, 236, 263.

Antonio (Nicolás), 68, 93, 130, 169, 192, 197, 207, 212.

Antunes (João), 249.

Aquinas (Thomas). _See_ Thomas.

Araujo (Joaquim de), 335.

Araujo de Azevedo (Antonio de), 273.

Arcadia, A Nova, 270.

Arcadia Ulyssiponense, 270, 271, 272, 273.

_Archivo Historico Portuguez_, 308.

Argote de Molina (Gonzalo), 77.

Arias Montano (Benito), 209.

Ariosto (Lodovico), 139, 140, 146, 152, 164, 180, 197, 260.

Aristotle, 85, 90, 92, 119, 163, 193.

Arnoso, Bernardo Pinheiro Corrêa de Mello, Conde de, 324.

_Arquivo._ See _Archivo_.

_Arquivo Historico Português._ See _Archivo Historico Portuguez_.

Arraez (Jeronimo), 238.

Arraez de Mendoça (Amador), 16, 227, 232, 235, 237-8.

_Arte de Furtar_, 125, 264-5, 272.

Asenjo Barbieri (Francisco), 36, 123.

Athaide (Catherina de), 175, 179.

Athaide Oliveira (Francisco Xavier de), 347.

Augustine, Saint, 26, 56, 101, 115.

Austen (Jane), 316.

_Auto da Fome_, 162.

_Auto da Forneira de Aljubarrota_, 163.

_Auto da Geraçao Humana_, 156.

_Auto das Padeiras_, 162.

_Auto de Deus Padre_, 156-7.

_Auto del Nascimiento de Christo_, 155.

_Auto de Santa Genoveva_, 162.

_Auto do Dia de Juizo_, 157.

_Auto do Escudeiro Surdo_, 125.

_Auto Figurado da Degolação dos Inocentes_, 162.

Aveiro, D. João de Lencastre, Duque de, 221.

Aveiro, Dukes of, 71.

Aveiro (Pantaleam de), 220.

Avellar Brotero (Felix de), 17.

Avicenna, 85.

Avis, Mestre de. _See_ João I.

Ayres de Magalhães Sepulveda (Cristovam), 223, 334-5.

Ayres Victoria (Anrique), 165.

Azevedo (Briolanja de), 142.

Azevedo (Guilherme de). _See_ Azevedo Chaves.

Azevedo (João Lucio de), 307.

Azevedo (Luis de), 100.

Azevedo (Manuel de), 17.

Azevedo (Maximiliano Eugenio de), 310.

Azevedo (Pedro A. de), 13, 81, 211, 308.

Azevedo Chaves (Guilherme Avelino de), 330.

Azevedo Tojal (Pedro de), 274.

Azinheiro. _See_ Rodriguez Azinheiro.

Azorín _pseud._ [Don Jose Martínez Ruiz], 134, 326.

Azurara. _See_ Zurara.

B

Bacellar (Antonio Barbosa). _See_ Barbosa Bacellar.

Bacon (Francis), 209.

Bahia (Jeronimo), 256.

Baião (Antonio), 13.

Baist (Gottfried), 65, 70.

Balzac (Honoré de), 299.

Bandarra (Gonçalo Annez), 265, 268, 340-1.

Bandello (Matteo), 231.

Barata (Antonio Francisco), 272.

Barbieri (Francisco Asenjo). _See_ Asenjo Barbieri.

Barbosa (Ayres), 106.

Barbosa (Duarte), 198, 219, 227.

Barbosa Bacellar (Antonio), 256.

Barbosa de Carvalho (Tristão), 247.

Barbosa Machado (Diogo), 87, 168, 192, 197, 217, 220, 232, 236, 240, 250, 284.

Barcellos, Conde de. _See_ Pedro Afonso.

Bárcia Caballero (Juan), 351.

Baretti (Giuseppe), 270.

_Barlaam e Josaphat, Lenda dos Santos_, 59.

Barradas (Manuel), 205.

Barreira (João da), 203.

Barreiros (Caspar), 219.

Barreiros (Lopo), 219.

Barreto (Francisco), 177, 178, 195.

Barreto (Pedro), 178.

Barros (Bras de), 95.

Barros (Guilherme Augusto de), 295.

Barros (João de), 20, 69, 75, 86, 88, 95, 113, 169, 180, 181, 184, 190, 192-5, 196, 197, 198, 201, 206, 207, 208, 215, 216, 218, 220, 232, 233, 243, 344.

Barros (João de), of Oporto, 68, 125, 253.

Barros (João de), poet, 336.

Barros (Lopo de), 192.

Baudelaire (Charles), 336.

Beatriz, Infanta, mother of King Manuel, 111.

Beatriz, Infanta, daughter of King Manuel, 120, 133, 291.

Beauvais (Vincent de), 44.

Beccari (Camillo), 205.

Beckford (William), 111, 277, 296.

Beirão (Mario), 334.

Beja, Bishop of. _See_ Villas-Boas.

Belchior, Padre, 223.

Bembo (Pietro), 39, 140, 212.

_Bento, Regra de S._, 59.

Berceo (Gonzalo de), 43.

Beresford (William Carr), Viscount, 290.

Berger (S.), 338.

Bermudez (Geronimo), 165.

Bernard, St., 94, 207.

Bernardes (Manuel), 14, 16, 20, 224, 245, 249-50, 261.

Bernardes (Maria), 249.

Bernardez (Diogo), 14, 143, 145-7, 148, 149, 153, 181, 183, 184, 185, 272.

Bezerra (Branca), 110.

_Bible, The_, 59, 94, 95, 113, 128, 170, 246, 251, 338.

Biester (Ernesto), 314.

Bilac (Olavo), 335.

Bingre (Francisco Joaquim), 270.

Bluteau (Raphael), 284-5.

Bocage (Manuel Maria de Barbosa du), 186, 275, 277-8, 281.

Bocarro (Antonio), 198.

Boccaccio (Giovanni), 132, 231, 340.

Boccalini (Traiano), 255.

Boileau (Nicolas), 274.

Bonamis, 122.

Bonaval (Bernaldo de), 28, 29.

Bonifazio II, 41.

Bonilla y San Martín (Adolfo), 339.

_Boosco Delleytoso_, 93-4.

Bordallo (Francisco Maria), 316.

Borges (Gonçalo), 176.

Bornelh (Guiraut de), 48, 344.

Boron [= Borron] (Robert de), 64.

Boscán Almogaver (Juan), 58, 136, 140, 143, 154, 160, 172, 181.

_Bosco Deleitoso._ See _Boosco Delleytoso_.

Bosque (Dimas), 226.

Boswell (James), 302.

Botelho (Abel Acacio de Almeida), 311, 321-2.

Botelho (Afonso), 325.

Bouterwek (Friedrich), 14, 137.

Braamcamp Freire (Anselmo), 14, 15, 81, 84, 112, 115, 308.

Braga (Alberto Leal Barradas Monteiro), 325-6.

Braga (Guilherme), 330.

Braga (Joaquim Theophilo Fernandes), 14, 15, 23, 24, 37, 65, 70, 74, 75, 76, 90, 111, 112, 133, 137, 142, 231, 253, 304, 309, 342, 344, 345, 347.

Braganza, Ferdinand, Duke of, 97.

Braganza, Isabella, Duchess of, 149.

Braganza, James, Duke of, 103, 120.

Braganza, John, Duke of. _See_ João IV.

Braganza, Theodosio, Duke of, 147, 153.

Brancuti, di Cagli, Paolo Antonio, Conte, 37.

Brandão (Antonio), 73, 207, 208, 216.

Brandão (Diogo), 102, 103-4.

Brandão (Francisco), 62, 208.

Brandão (Hilario), 241.

Brandão (Julio), 327-8, 335.

Brandão (Maria), 137.

Brandão (Raul), 328.

Braunfels (Ludwig von), 65.

Bridges (Robert), 336.

Brito (Bernardo de), 18, 72, 139, 206-8, 215, 216, 251.

Brito (Duarte de), 104, 118, 124, 127.

Brito Aranha (Pedro Wenceslau de), 308.

Brito de Andrade (Balthasar de), 207.

Brito Pestana (Alvaro de), 100, 101, 127.

Brito Rebello (Jacinto Ignacio de), 112, 168.

Brochado (Luis), 341.

Brulé (Gace), 48.

Bruno _pseud._ _See_ Pereira de Sampaio.

Buchanan (George), 106.

Bulhão Pato (Raimundo Antonio), 302-3.

Bunyan (John), 249.

Buonarroti (Michelangelo), 230.

Burgos (André de), 18, 203.

Bussinac (Peire de), 47.

Byron, George Gordon Noel, Lord, 183, 302.

C

Caamoões. _See_ Camões.

Caballero (Fernán) _pseud._ [Cecilia Böhl de Faber], 316.

Cabanillas (Ramón), 355.

Cabedo de Vasconcellos (José de), 109.

Cabral (Paulo Antonio), 278.

Cabral (Pedro Alvarez), 107.

Cacegas (Luis de), 242.

Caceres (Lourenço de), 191, 102.

Caiel _pseud._ _See_ Pestana (Alice).

Cairel (Elias), 112.

Caldas (José de), 321.

Caldeira (Fernando Afonso Geraldes), 310.

Calderón de la Barca (Pedro), 129, 130, 249.

Calvo (Pedro), 244.

Camacho (Diogo), 256.

Camara (D. João Gonçalves Zarco da), 311, 326, 327.

Caminha (Antonio Lourenço), 147.

Caminha (João), 149, 150.

Camino (Alberto), 348-9.

Camões (Luis de), 14, 16, 20, 77, 130, 139, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153, 155, 158, 166, 167, 174-86, 193, 197, 204, 206, 216, 217, 226, 229, 256, 258, 259, 260, 261, 272, 277, 278, 281, 338.

Campancho (Airas). _See_ Carpancho.

Campos (Agostinho de), 231.

Campos (Claudia de), 324.

Campos Moreno (Diogode), 204.

_Cancioneirinho de Trovas Antigas_, 36, 37, 39.

_Cancioneiro Colocci-Brancuti_, 27, 36, 37, 38, 63, 66, 69, 70, 140.

_Cancioneiro da Ajuda_, 36, 37, 38, 39, 56, 61.

_Cancioneiro da Vaticana_, 13, 36, 37, 38, 50, 73, 96, 98, 125, 344.

_Cancioneiro del Rei D. Dinis_, 36, 37.

_Cancioneiro de Resende._ See _Cancioneiro Geral_.

_Cancioneiro Gallego-Castelhano_, 36, 67, 76, 77.

_Cancioneiro Geral_, 13, 33, 36, 79, 96-105, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 128, 129, 140, 141, 167, 184, 225, 256.

_Cancionero de Baena_, 36, 66, 77, 79, 96.

_Cancionero General_, 36, 98, 104.

_Cancionero Musical._ See _Asenjo Barbieri_.

_Cancionero Popular Gallego_, 36, 355-6.

Cantanhede, Conde de, 101.

_Canzoniere Portoghese Colocci-Brancuti._ See _Cancioneiro Colocci-Brancuti_.

_Canzoniere Portoghese della Biblioteca Vaticana._ See _Cancioneiro da Vaticana_.

Cardim (Antonio Francisco), 217.

Cardim (Fernam), 205.

Cardoso (João), 245.

Cardoso (Jorge), 71.

_Carlos Magno, Verdadeira Historia do Imperador_, 339.

Carneiro da Cunha (Alfredo), 336.

Carpancho (Airas), 29.

Carré Aldao (Eugenio), 357.

Cartagena (Alonso de). Bishop of Burgos, 91.

_Cartas que os Padres ... escreveram_, 205.

Carvalho de Parada (Antonio), 266.

Casimiro (Augusto), 334.

Casquicio (Fernam), 77, 78.

Castanheda (Fernam Lopez de). _See_ Lopez de Castanheda.

Castanheira, Conde de [_or_ da], 141, 214.

Castanhoso (Miguel de), 196, 203.

Castelar (Emilio), 349.

Castello Branco (Camillo), Visconde de Corrêa Botelho, 109, 134, 187, 243, 256, 286, 295, 297-9, 304, 325, 332.

Castello Rodrigo, Marqueses de, 211.

Castiglione (Baldassare), 154.

Castilho (Antonio de), 203.

Castilho (Antonio Feliciano), Visconde de, 292, 299-300, 302, 304, 316.

Castilho (João de), 203.

Castilho (Julio), second Visconde de, 278, 304.

Castillejo (Cristobal de), 33.

Castro (Augusto de), 314.

Castro (Eugenio de), 336-7.

Castro (Inés de), 75, 84, 97, 165, 273, 282, 284, 304, 310, 312.

Castro (D. João de), 158, 187, 190, 199, 227-8, 243, 266.

Castro (D. João de), novelist, 321.

Castro (João Baptista de), 248.

Castro (Publia Hortensia de), 107.

Castro de Murguía (Rosalía de), 348, 349-50, 352, 353, 356.

Castro e Almeida (Virginia de), 325.

Castro Osorio (Anna de), 324-5.

Catherina, Queen, 120.

Catherine II, Empress of Russia, 286.

_Cava, Poema da_, 72.

Caxton (William), 60.

Ceita (João da), 17, 244-5.

_Celestina, La_, 65, 124, 159, 167, 169, 254, 262.

Ceo (Maria do) [Maria de Eça], 257.

Ceo (Violante do) [Violante Montesino], 35, 235, 256-7.

Cervantes (Miguel de), 78, 116, 130, 152, 233, 241, 262, 265, 284.

Cerveira (Afonso), 86.

Chagas (Antonio das), 221, 248-9, 261.

Chamilly, Noël Bouton, Marquis de, 263, 264.

Chariño (Pai Gomez). _See_ Gomez Chariño.

Charles V, Emperor, 121, 212, 215, 229.

Châtillon, Duc de, 233.

Chiado. _See_ Ribeiro Chiado.

Child Rolim de Moura (Francisco), 257.

_Chrisfal, Trovas de._ _See_ Crisfal.

Christina, Queen of Sweden, 268.

_Chronica._ _See_ Cronica.

Cicero, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 94, 209, 214, 280.

_Cid, Poema del_, 23, 46, 63.

Claro (João), 59.

Claudian, 277.

Clenardus (Nicolaus), 106, 125, 215, 251.

Cleynarts (Nicholas). _See_ Clenardus.

Clusius. _See_ Écluse.

Codax (Martin), 29.

Coelho (Estevam), 30, 52.

Coelho (Francisco Adolpho), 15, 112, 231, 308, 347.

Coelho (Jorge), 180.

Coelho da Cunha (José), 336.

Coelho Rebello (Manuel), 163.

Coimbra (Leonardo de), 20.

Coincy (Gautier de), 43, 44.

Colocci (Angelo), 37, 39.

Colonna (Egidio), 66.

Colonna (Vittoria), 140, 230.

Conceição (Alexandre da), 330.

Conestaggio (Girolamo Franchi di), 210.

Congreve (William), 224.

_Conquista de Ultramar, Gran_, 339.

Consciencia (Manuel), 250.

Consiglieri Pedroso (Zophimo), 307, 347.

Cordeiro (Antonio), 138, 206.

Cordeiro (Luciano), 307.

Cornu (Jules), 59.

Corpancho (Airas). _See_ Carpancho.

Corpancho (Manuel Nicolás), 29.

_Corpus Illustrium Poetarum Lusitanorum_, 18.

_Coronica do Condestabre de Purtugal._ _See_ Cronica.

Corrêa (Gaspar), 14, 20, 88, 177, 194, 198-201, 226.

Corrêa (Jeronimo), 112.

Corrêa (Luis Franco), 186.

Corrêa de Oliveira (Antonio), 332, 337.

Corrêa Garção (Pedro Antonio Joaquim), 271-2.

Corrêa Pinto (Roberto), 85.

Correggio (Antonio Allegri da), 134.

Correia. _See_ Corrêa.

_Corte Imperial_, 94, 113.

Corte Real (Jeronimo), 181, 187-8.

Cortesão (Jaime), 314, 342.

Costa (Antonio da), 286.

Costa (Bras da), 99.

Costa (Claudio Manuel da), 274, 279.

Costa (Diogo da), 163.

Costa (D. Francisco da), 239, 240.

Costa (Leonel da), 144.

Costa (Manuel da), 180.

Costa Lobo (Antonio de Sousa da Silva), 307, 312.

Costa Perestrello (Pedro da), 147-8.

Cota (Rodrigo), 23.

Coudel Môr, O. _See_ Silveira (Fernam de).

Coutinho (Fernando de), 99.

Coutinho (D. Francisco), Conde de Redondo, 178, 220.

Coutinho (D. Gonçalo), 140, 206.

Couto (Diogo do), 138, 177, 178, 184, 190, 192, 195-8, 216, 218, 225, 254.

Couto Guerreiro (Miguel de), 285.

Craveiro (Tiburcio Antonio), 54.

_Crisfal, Trovas de_, 136-9.

Cristoforus, Dr., 82.

_Cronica Breve do Archivo Nacional_, 60.

_Cronica da Conquista do Algarve_, 61.

_Cronica da Fundaçam do Mosteiro de S. Vicente_, 61.

_Cronica da Ordem dos Frades Menores_, 60.

_Cronica do Cardeal Rei D. Henrique_, 210.

_Cronica do Condestabre de Portugal_, 84-5.

_Cronica dos Vicentes._ See _Cronica da Fundaçam_.

_Cronica Troyana_, 61.

_Cronicas Breves_, 60.

Cruz (Agostinho da), 145, 148.

Cruz (Bernardo da), 209.

Cruz (Caspar da), 220.

Cunha (João Lourenço da), 31.

Cunha (José Anastasio da), 274.

Cunha (Nuno da), 161, 176, 199.

Cunha (D. Rodrigo da), 243.

Cunha (Tristão da), 97, 116.

Cunha Rivara (Joaquim Heliodoro da), 292.

Curros Enriquez (Manuel), 353-4, 355.

Curvo Semedo Torres Sequeira (Belchior Manuel), 278.

D

Daniel (Samuel), 164.

_Danse macabre_, 123.

Dantas (Julio), 313.

Dante Alighieri, 19, 54, 123, 139, 146, 179, 188, 197, 257.

_Danza de la Muerte_, 123.

_De Imitatione Christi_, 240.

Delicado (Antonio), 346.

_Demanda do Santo Graall_, 63, 64, 67, 71.

Denis, King. _See_ Dinis.

Denis (Jean Ferdinand), 19, 307.

Deslandes (Venancio), 231.

Desmond, Maurice, first Earl of, 289.

_Destroyçam de Jerusalem._ See _Vespeseano, Estorea de_.

_Destruction de Jérusalem_, 64.

Deus (João de). _See_ Nogueira Ramos.

Dias (Epiphanio). _See_ Silva Dias.

Dias Gomes (Francisco), 20, 21, 269, 285.

Diaz (Balthasar), 158-9, 289, 339.

Diaz (Bartholomeu), 98.

Diaz (Henrique), 218, 279.

Diaz (D. Lopo), 51.

Diaz (Nicolau), 215.

Diaz (Ruy), El Cid, 92.

Diaz de Landim (Gaspar), 88.

Dickens (Charles), 315.

Dinis, King, 13, 14, 28, 30, 37, 38, 39, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54-7, 58, 59, 60, 61, 67, 69, 70, 105, 140, 208, 294, 339.

Diniz, King. _See_ Dinis.

Diniz (João), 335.

Diniz (Julio) _pseud._ _See_ Gomes Coelho.

Diniz da Cruz e Silva (Antonio), 186, 273-4, 340.

Dioscorides, 226.

_Ditos da Freira._ _See_ Gama (D. Joana da).

Döllinger (Johann Joseph Ignaz von), 295.

Dornellas (Afonso de), 307.

Dozy (Reinhart), 22.

Drake (Sir Francis), 150.

Dryden (John), 209.

Duarte, Infante [†1576], 150.

Duarte, Infante [†1540], brother of João III, 164, 167, 215.

Duarte, Infante, brother of João V, 307.

Duarte, King, 13, 38, 46, 55, 59, 63, 79, 81, 82, 83, 86, 87, 88, 90-2, 93, 124, 211.

Duarte (Afonso), 334.

Duarte de Almeida (Manuel), 335.

Dürer (Albrecht), 212.

E

Eanez (Rodrigo). _See_ Yannez.

Eanez de Vasconcellos (D. Rodrigo), 54.

Eanez de Zurara (Gomez). _See_ Zurara.

Eannez. _See_ Eanez.

Eannez (Rodrigo). _See_ Yannez.

Ébrard (Ayméric d’), 54.

Eça (Maria de). _See_ Ceo (Maria do).

Eça de Queiroz (José Maria de), 97, 314, 316-18, 322, 325.

_Eccos que o Clarim da Fama dá_, 256.

Écluse (Charles de l’), 226.

Edward I, of England, 41.

Egas Moniz. _See_ Moniz Coelho.

Elizabeth, Queen of England, 209.

_Eloy, Lenda de Santo_, 60.

Elysio (Filinto). _See_ Nascimento.

Encarnação (Antonio da), 242.

Ennes (Antonio), 18, 310, 314.

Enzina (Juan del), 19, 109, 113, 122, 123, 124.

Erasmus (Desiderius), 130, 212, 215.

Ericeira, Conde da. _See_ Meneses.

Esguio (Fernando), 29.

_Esopo, Livro de_, 60.

_Espelho de Prefeyçam_, 95.

_Espelho de Christina._ _See_ Pisan (Christine de).

Esperança, Visconde de, 187.

Esperança (Manuel da), 243.

Espinola (Fradique), 247-8.

Espirito Santo (Antonio do). _See_ Ribeiro Chiado.

Esplandian. _See_ Sergas.

Espronceda (José de), 301.

Esquio (Fernando). _See_ Esguio.

Estaço (Achilles), 106.

Estaço (Balthasar), 151.

Estaço (Gaspar), 151.

Este (João Baptista d’), 245.

Esteves Negrão (Manuel Nicolau), 273.

Esteves Pereira (Francisco Maria), 14, 60, 64, 84, 90, 308.

_Estorea de Vespeseano._ _See_ Vespeseano.

Estrella (Antonio da), 162, 338.

_Eufrosina, Vida de_, 59.

F

Falcão (Cristovam de Sousa), 105, 137-9, 197.

Falcão de Resende (André), 21, 150-1.

Faria (Antonio de), 222.

Faria (Pedro de), 222.

Faria e Sousa (Manuel de), 18, 20, 68, 130, 140, 145, 147, 153, 176, 180, 184, 187, 204, 209, 216, 224, 282.

Faria Severim (Manuel de), 215.

Feijó (Antonio Joaquim de Castro), 335.

Feijoo (José Sanchez), 347.

Felipe, Infante, 120.

Fénelon (François de), 285.

_Fenix Renascida_, 155, 256, 276.

Feo (Antonio), 17, 156, 244.

Ferdinand, King. _See_ Fernando.

Fernandes Thomaz Pippa (Annibal), 308.

Fernandez (Alvaro), 217.

Fernandez (Antonio), 230.

Fernandez (Diogo) [xv c.], 92.

Fernandez (Diogo) [xv c. poet], 112.

Fernandez (Diogo) [xvi c.], 234.

Fernandez (Lucas), 124.

Fernandez (Roy), 30.

Fernandez Alemão (Valentim), 95.

Fernandez de Lucena (Vasco), 87, 88.

Fernandez Ferreira (Diogo), 89, 229.

Fernandez Galvão (Francisco), 244.

Fernandez Torneol (Nuno), 28, 31.

Fernandez Trancoso (Gonçalo), 231-2, 338.

Fernando, Infante [son of João I], 81, 89.

Fernando, Infante [son of King Manuel], 230.

Fernando, King Consort, 292, 293.

Fernando I, of Portugal, 84, 210.

Fernando III, of Castile, 40, 41, 51.

Ferrandez de Gerena (Garci), 78-9.

Ferreira (Antonio), 13, 67, 103, 145, 148-9, 165, 166, 272.

Ferreira (Carlos), 339.

Ferreira de Almeida (João), 338.

Ferreira de Azevedo (Antonio Xavier), 340.

Ferreira de Figueiroa (Diogo), 262.

Ferreira de Lacerda (Bernarda), 18, 257.

Ferreira de Vasconcellos (Jorge), 14, 16, 74, 101, 130, 155, 164, 166, 167-73, 232, 251, 338, 346.

Ferreira de Vera (Alvaro), 182.

Ferrer (Miguel), 234.

Ferrus (Pero), 66, 67.

Feuillet (Octave), 299.

Fialho de Almeida (José Valentim), 322, 326.

Ficalho, Francisco Manuel Carlos de Mello, third Conde de, 226, 308, 326.

Fielding (Henry), 255.

Figueira (Guilherme), 32.

Figueiredo (Antero de), 323.

Figueiredo (Antonio Candido de), 308.

Figueiredo (Fidelino de Sousa), 16, 308.

Figueiredo (Manuel de), 282, 290.

Fitzmaurice-Kelly (James), 16.

Flaubert (Gustave), 235, 319.

_Flores e Branca Flor, Historia de_, 65, 339, 340.

Florida. See _Relaçam Verdadeira dos trabalhos_.

_Flos Sanctorum_, 94, 225, 259.

Fonseca (Balthasar Luis da), 163.

Fonseca (João da), 249.

Fonseca Soares (Antonio da), 248.

Fontaines, Baron de, 233.

Forner (Juan Pablo), 281.

Fradique, Infante, 83.

Franco (Luis). _See_ Corrêa (Luis Franco).

François I, 212.

Frederick III, Emperor, 93.

Freire (Antonio), 262.

Freire (Francisco José), 285.

Freire de Andrade (Jacinto), 256, 261, 266-7.

Froissart (Jean), 81, 83.

Fructuoso (Gaspar), 138, 206.

Furtado de Mendoza (Diego), 22.

G

_Galaaz, O Livro de_, 63.

Galen, 226.

Galhegos (Manuel de), 58, 74, 258.

Galvam (Antonio), 190, 191, 202-3, 219.

Galvam (Duarte), 88, 180, 202, 219.

Galvam (Francisco), 147-8.

Galvam de Andrade (Antonio), 17.

Gama (Arnaldo de Sousa Dantas da), 295.

Gama (D. Cristovam da), 203.

Gama (D. Estevam da), 196.

Gama (D. Joana da), 241.

Gama (Jose Basilio da), 279.

Gama (Leonarda Gil da). _See_ Gloria (Maria Magdalena Euphemia da).

Gama (D. Vasco da), Conde de Vidigueira, 99, 107, 175, 190, 191, 192, 196, 200, 301, 312.

Gama Barros (Henrique), 307.

Gandavo. _See_ Magalhães de Gandavo.

Garcia (Fernan), Esgaravunha, 52.

Garcia (Pero) de Burgos, 51.

Garcia de Castrogeriz (Johan), 66.

Garcia de Guilhade (D. Joan), 51.

Garcia de Mascarenhas (Bras), 259-60.

García Ferreiro (Alberto), 340, 354.

Garcia Peres (Domingo), 18, 151.

Garret (B.), Chariteo, 289.

Garrett. _See_ Almeida Garrett.

Garrido (Luiz Guedes Coutinho), 308.

Gautier (Judith), 335.

Gavaudan, 40.

Gavy de Mendonça (Agostinho de), 203.

Gayangos y Arce (Pascual de), 65.

Gibbs (James), 209.

Gil (Augusto), 336.

Gil y Carrasco (Enrique), 316.

Ginzo (Martin de), 29.

Giraldez (Afonso), 73.

Giraldi (Giambattista), 231.

Giraldo, Mestre, 17.

Glareanus (Henricus), 212.

Gloria (Maria Magdalena Euphemia da) [Leonarda Gil da Gama], 257.

Godinho (Cristovam), 238.

Godinho (Manuel), 221, 240, 254.

Goes (Damião de), 14, 15, 39, 83, 86, 88, 92, 113, 194, 202, 209, 211-14, 215, 265.

Goethe (Johann Wolfgang von), 290, 300, 333.

Goldsmith (Oliver), 277.

Gomes (João Baptista), 273.

Gomes Coelho (Joaquim Guilherme) [Julio Diniz], 314-16, 317, 324.

Gomes de Amorim (Francisco), 290, 301-2, 306, 309, 310.

Gomes de Brito (José Joaquim), 308.

Gomes de Carvalho (Theotonio), 273.

Gomes Leal (Antonio Duarte), 332-3.

Gomez (Simão), 341.

Gomez Chariño (Pai), 29-30.

Gomez de Briteiros (Rui), 46.

Gomez de Brito (Bernardo), 217.

Gomez de Moraes (Silvestre), 17.

Gonçalves Crespo (Antonio Candido), 324, 330-1.

Gonçalves Dias (Antonio), 331.

Gonçalves Lima (Augusto José), 300.

Gonçalves Vianna. _See_ Gonçalvez Viana.

Gonçalvez (Ruy), 229.

Gonçalvez de Seabra (Fernan), 47, 48.

Gonçalvez Lobato (Balthasar), 234.

Gonçalvez Viana (Aniceto dos Reis), 18, 294, 308.

Góngora (Luis de), 74, 155, 258.

Gonta Collaço (Branca de), 336.

Gonzaga (Thomaz Antonio), 274, 279.

Gonzalez de Sanabria (Ferrant). _See_ Gonçalvez de Seabra.

Gouvêa (André de), 106.

Gouvêa (Antonio de), 106, 206.

Gouveia. _See_ Gouvêa.

Gower (John), 89, 90.

Gracián (Baltasar), 19, 154, 253.

Granada (Luis de), 243.

Grão Para, Bishop of. _See_ S. Joseph Queiroz.

Grave (João), 321.

Gray (Thomas), 277.

Gregory, St., 90.

_Grinalda, A_, 300.

Guarda (Stevam), 51.

_Guarda, Foros da_, 17.

Guedes Teixeira (Fausto), 335.

Guerra Junqueiro (Abilio Manuel), 331-2.

Guilhade (Joan de), 28, 51, 339.

Guilherme (Manuel), 13.

Guimarães (Delfim), 136.

Gusmão (Alexandre de), 286.

Gusmão (Alexandre de), Jesuit, 249.

H

Halifax (John of), 227.

Hallam (Henry), 294.

Heine (Heinrich), 351.

Henrique, Cardinal, King, 106, 150, 164, 210, 214, 219, 227, 238, 250, 251, 311.

Henrique, Infante, 18, 86, 88, 89, 90, 92, 307.

Henriques (Guilherme J. C.), 214.

Henry VIII, of England, 212.

Henry the Navigator, Prince. _See_ Henrique, Infante.

Henry, of Burgundy, Count, 210, 271.

Henryson (Robert), 60.

Herberay des Essarts (Nicholas), 71.

Herculano de Carvalho e Araujo (Alexandre), 61, 87, 97, 127, 208, 243, 277, 285, 287, 292-5, 296, 303, 305, 315.

Herodotus, 226.

Herrera y Garrido (Francisca), 357.

_Historia dos Cavalleiros da Mesa Redonda._ See _Demanda do Santo Graall_.

_Historia Tragico-Maritima_, 196, 217-8.

_Historia Tristani_, 63.

_Historias abreviadas do Testamento Velho_, 59.

Hita, Archpriest of. _See_ Ruiz.

Hollanda (Antonio de), 229.

Hollanda (Francisco de), 229-30, 237.

Homem (Pedro), 105.

Homer, 19, 143, 174, 180, 182, 183, 233, 277, 280, 281.

Horace, 72, 143, 148, 258, 272, 275, 277.

Horta. _See_ Orta.

Hugo (Victor), 293, 306, 308, 310, 331, 332, 333.

Humboldt (Alexander von), 177.

Hurtado (Luis), 234.

Huysmans (J. K.), 333.

I

Ichoa (Martim), 89.

Idanha (Pedro de Alcaçova Carneiro), Conde de, 182.

Ignacio de Loyola, San, 353.

Isabel, Empress, 121.

Isabel, Infanta, 121.

Isabel, Queen Consort of Afonso V, 80, 95.

Isabel, Queen Consort of Dinis, 54, 60, 247.

Isabel, Queen of Spain, 127.

_Isabel, Vida de Santa_, 60.

Ivo (Pedro) _pseud._ _See_ Lopes (Carlos).

J

Jardin (G. du). _See_ Orta.

Jeanroy (Alfred), 29.

Jerome, St., 85.

Jesus (Francisco de). _See_ Sá de Meneses (F. de).

Jesus (Raphael de), 208.

Jesus (Thomé de), 14, 20, 189, 237, 238-40.

Joana, Infanta, 215.

João I, 14, 68, 81, 82, 84, 89-90, 94, 110, 211.

João II, 88, 89, 93, 96, 100, 102, 103, 108, 125, 148, 221, 227, 246, 305, 312.

João III, 98, 103, 106, 107, 110, 117, 119, 132, 140, 141, 158, 167, 175, 189, 192, 193, 195, 208, 209, 211, 215, 226. 232, 233, 237, 296.

João IV, 216, 242, 244, 253, 259, 265, 267, 268, 286.

João V, 270.

João, Infante [xvi c.], 106, 143, 150, 151, 166, 168, 169, 176, 179.

_João de Calais, Verdadeira Historia de_, 339.

João Manuel (D.). _See_ Manuel (D. João).

John, Prester, 219, 225.

Johnson (Samuel), 282.

Jorge, D., 221.

Jorge (Ricardo), 153.

José I, 276, 296.

_Josep ab Arimatia, Livro de_, 64.

Joséphine, Empress, 281.

Juan I, 78, 84.

Juan de Austria, Don, 188.

Juan Manuel, Infante Don, 91, 94.

Juana, Infanta, 151.

Juana, la Loca, Queen, 133.

Juromenha, João Antonio de Lemos Pereira de Lacerda, Visconde de, 176, 308.

Justinianus (Laurentius), 94.

K

Karr (Alphonse), 322.

Keats (John), 138, 281.

L

La Bruyère (Jean de), 91.

Lacerda (Augusto), 314.

Lafões, Duque de, 284.

Lafões, third Duque de, 311.

La Fontaine (Jean de), 117.

Lamartine (Alphonse de), 275, 277.

Lamas Carvajal (Valentin), 350-1.

Lamennais (Hugues Félicité Robert de), 292.

Lancastre (D. Lourenço de), 273.

Lang (Henry Roseman), 23, 24, 37, 76, 79, 123.

Lara (João Carlos de), 273.

Lasso de la Vega (Garci), 140, 141, 143, 147, 172, 181, 260.

Latino Coelho (José Maria), 201, 307.

Lavanha (João Baptista), 195, 218.

_Lazarillo de Tormes_, 115, 125, 160, 265.

Leam (Gaspar de), 241.

_Lear, King_, 62.

Leitão de Andrade (Miguel), 72, 73, 263.

Leite (Solidonio), 266.

Leite de Vasconcellos Cardoso Pereira de Melo (José), 15, 33, 34, 60, 308-9, 342, 346.

Leite Ferreira (Miguel), 67, 68, 69, 71, 148.

Lemos (Jorge de), 203.

Lemos (Julio de), 325.

Lemos Seixas Castello Branco (João de), 300, 301.

Lencastre (D. Philippa de), 80, 94.

Leo X, 97.

Leon (Luis de), 133, 236, 238, 239, 253, 258.

Leonor. _See_ Lianor.

Leonor, successively Queen of Portugal and France, 233.

Leopardi (Giacomo), Count, 331, 351.

_Lettres Portugaises._ _See_ Alcoforado.

Levi (Juda), 94.

Lianor, Empress, 93.

Lianor, Queen Consort of Duarte, 90.

Lianor, Queen Consort of João II, 93, 95, 111, 112, 113, 114, 119, 120, 229.

Lima (Alexandre Antonio de), 274.

Lima (D. Rodrigo de), 219.

Lima Pereira (Paulo de), 197.

Linhares, second Conde de. _See_ Noronha (D. Francisco de).

Linhares, Conde de [xvii c.], 252, 345.

Linhares, Violante, Condessa de, 239.

Lipsius (Justus), 255.

Lisboa (Antonio de), 162.

Lisboa (Cristovam de), 245.

Lisboa (João de), 227.

_Livro da Noa_, 60.

_Livro das Aves_, 90.

_Livro das Heras_, 60.

_Livro de Josep ab Arimatia._ _See_ Josep.

_Livro Velho_, 61.

_Livro Vermelho_, 17.

_Livros de Linhagens_, 61.

Livy, 193, 194.

Lobato (Gervasio), 314.

Lobeira (Gonçalo de), 70.

Lobeira (Joan de), 68, 69, 70, 159.

Lobeira (Pedro de), 68, 70, 71.

Lobeira (Vasco de), 67, 68, 69, 70.

Lobo (Alvaro), 210.

Lobo (D. Francisco Alexandre), Bishop of Viseu, 285.

Lobo (Francisco Rodriguez). _See_ Rodriguez Lobo.

Lollis (Cesare de), 45.

Lopes (Carlos), 325.

Lopes (David de Melo), 308.

Lopes (Francisco), 155, 162.

Lopes de Mendonça (Antonio Pedro), 297.

Lopes de Mendonça (Henrique), 312-13.

Lopes de Moura (Caetano), 37.

Lopes Vieira (Afonso), 337.

Lopez (Afonso), 160.

Lopez (Anrique), 159.

Lopez (Diogo), 84.

Lopez (Fernam), 14, 19, 61, 62, 68, 77, 81-5, 87, 88, 89, 97, 117, 180, 212, 255.

Lopez (Martinho), 81.

Lopez (Thomé), 204.

López Abente (Gonzalo), 355.

Lopez de Ayala (Pero), 66, 67.

Lopez de Bayan (D. Afonso), 53.

Lopez de Camões (Vasco), 77.

Lopez de Castanheda (Fernam), 180, 181, 190-1, 192, 193, 194, 197, 198, 200, 201, 206, 209.

Lopez de Sousa (Pero), 225.

Lopez de Ulhoa (D. Joan), 52.

Lopo, jogral, 29.

Losada (Benito), 352.

Loti (Pierre) _pseud._ [Julien Viaud], 89, 323.

Louis XI, 89.

Lourenço, jogral, 29.

Lucan, 99.

Lucena (João de), 16, 75, 243.

Lucena (Vasco Fernandez de). _See_ Fernandez Lucena.

Lucian, 99.

Ludolph of Saxony. _See_ Sachsen.

Lugris y Freire (Manuel), 357.

Luis, Infante, 106-7, 168, 170, 185, 191, 195, 209, 227, 228.

Luis (Nicolau), 284.

Lull (Ramón), 94.

Luther (Martin), 126, 212.

Luz (André da), 163.

Luz (Philipe da), 17, 244, 245.

Luz Soriano (Simão José da), 292.

M

Macedo (Anna de). _See_ Sá e Macedo.

Macedo (José Agostinho de), 17, 99, 182, 183, 187, 224, 237, 244, 250, 277, 278, 279-82, 288.

Machado (Julio Cesar), 325.

Machado (Simão), 18, 161.

Machado de Azevedo (Manuel), 77, 142.

Macias, 76-77, 78, 98, 104, 132, 349, 350.

Magalhães (Fernam de), 219.

Magalhães (Luiz Cypriano Coelho de), 319.

Magalhães de Gandavo (Pedro de), 193, 204, 279.

Magalhães Lima (Jaime de), 319, 325.

_Magalona, Verdadeira Historia da Princeza_, 65, 339, 340.

Malheiro Dias (Carlos), 320.

Mallarmé (Stéphane), 86.

Malory (Sir Thomas), 85.

Mangancha (Diogo Afonso), 90.

Manrique (Gomez), 76, 100, 104.

Manrique (Jorge), 76, 100, 102, 104.

Mantua (Bento), 314.

Manuel I, 88, 89, 96, 101, 103, 107, 110, 111, 112, 115, 117, 118, 120, 121, 126, 129, 133, 145, 175, 192, 200, 201, 202, 208, 209, 211, 214, 221, 228, 295, 312.

Manuel, Infante, 116, 121.

Manuel (D. João), 98, 101.

_Maranhão, Jornada do_, 204.

Marcabrun, 39.

Marcos, Frei, 59.

Maria, Infanta, 15, 107, 110, 121, 193, 233.

Maria, Consort of King Manuel, 118.

Maria da Gloria, Queen, 288.

_Maria Egipcia, Vida de_, 59.

Marialva, second Conde de, 241.

Marialva, Marques de, 313.

Mariana (Juan de), 208.

Marie Antoinette, Queen, 277.

Marinho de Azevedo (Luis), 18.

Mariz (Antonio de), 206.

Mariz (Pedro de), 206, 207.

Marot (Clément), 233.

Martelo Pauman (Evaristo), 354.

Martial, 125.

Martim Afonso, Mestre. _See_ Afonso (Martim).

Martinez de Resende (Vasco), 13.

Martínez Salazar (Andrés), 61.

Martinho, de Alcobaça, 98.

Martorell (Pedro Juan), 65.

Martyres (Bartholomeu dos), 195, 242, 243, 342.

Marueil (Arnaut de), 35.

Mascarenhas (D. Fernando de), 267.

Mascarenhas (D. João de), 187.

Mascarenhas (D. Pedro de), 126.

Mattos (João Xavier de), 278-9.

Medina e Vasconcellos (Francisco de Paula), 186.

Meendinho, 29, 52.

Melanchthon (Philip), 212, 227.

Mello (Carlos de). _See_ Ficalho.

Mello (D. Francisco Manuel de), 14, 74, 108, 164, 170, 205, 252-5, 261, 263, 267, 269, 338, 345.

Mello (Garcia de), 101.

Mello (Martim Afonso de), 82.

Mello Breyner (D. Theresa de), Condessa de Vimieiro, 273.

Mello Franco (Francisco de), 274.

Mena (Juan de), 77, 104, 197.

Menander, 130.

Mendes de Vasconcellos (Luis), 263.

Mendes dos Remedios (Joaquim), 16, 256.

Mendes Leal (José da Silva), 301.

Mendez (Afonso), 205.

Mendez (Manuel), 60.

Mendez de Sá (Gonçalo), 139.

Mendez de Vasconcellos (Diogo), 215.

Mendez Pinto (Fernam), 151, 203, 220, 221-5, 243.

Mendez Silva (Rodrigo), 255.

Mendoça (Jeronimo de), 210.

Mendoça (Joana de), 196.

Mendonça (Francisco de), 245.

Mendonça (Jeronimo). _See_ Mendoça.

Mendonça Alves (Vasco de), 314.

Menéndez Pidal (Ramón), 73.

Menéndez y Pelayo (Marcelino), 19, 65, 83, 112, 133, 135, 140, 151, 168, 169, 233, 252, 278, 291, 339.

Meneses (D. Aleixo de), 206.

Meneses (D. Duarte de), 86.

Meneses (D. Fernando de), 177.

Meneses (D. Fernando de), second Conde da Ericeira, 266-7.

Meneses (D. Francisco Xavier de), fourth Conde da Ericeira, 270-1.

Meneses (D. Henrique de), 195.

Meneses (D. João de), 101, 103, 104.

Meneses (D. Luis de), third Conde da Ericeira, 69, 261, 267.

Meneses (D. Pedro de), 86.

Meneses (D. Sebastião Cesar de), 266.

_Menina Fermosa, Trovas da_, 341.

Menino (Pero), 17, 78.

Meogo (Pero), 29.

_Merlim_, 63.

Mesquita (Marcellino Antonio da Silva), 311-12.

Mesquita Perestrello (Manuel de), 217.

Meyer (Paul), 44.

Michaëlis (Gustav), 15.

Michaëlis de Vasconcellos (Carolina), 14, 15, 22, 23, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37, 39, 50, 53, 62, 65, 75, 76, 80, 104, 112, 136, 180, 184, 308, 338, 342.

Michelangelo. _See_ Buonarroti.

Mickle (William Julius), 14.

Miguel I, 280, 288.

Milá y Fontanals (Manuel), 41, 345.

Milton (John), 127, 184.

Miranda (Afonso de), 226.

Miranda (Jeronimo de), 226.

Miranda (Martim Afonso de), 252, 262.

_Misterio de los Reyes Magos_, 123.

_Moleiro, Trovas do_, 341.

Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin), 116, 130, 164.

Molteni (Enrico Gasi), 38.

Monaci (Ernesto), 13, 37.

Moniz Barreto (Guilherme), 21.

Moniz Coelho (Egas), 72.

Mons (Nat de), 42.

Monsaraz, Antonio de Macedo Papança, Conde de, 335-6.

Montaigne (Michel de), 83, 106, 212.

Montalvão (Justino de), 328.

Montalvo. _See_ Rodriguez de Montalvo.

Montebello, Marques de, 356.

Monteiro (Diogo), 246-7.

Montemayor (George de). _See_ Montemôr (Jorge de).

Montemôr (Jorge de), 17, 151-2.

Montesino (Violante). _See_ Ceo (Violante do).

Montesquieu (Charles Louis de Secondat), 182.

Montoia (Luis de), 239.

Montoro (Anton de), 23, 127.

Moogo (Pero). _See_ Meogo.

Moraes (Cristovam Alão de), 109, 286.

Moraes Cabral (Francisco de), 65, 76, 152, 161, 204, 232-4.

More (Sir Thomas), 254.

Moreira (Julio), 308.

Moreira Camello (Antonio), 338.

Moreira de Carvalho (Jeronimo), 339.

Moreno (Bento) _pseud._ _See_ Teixeira de Queiroz.

Moura (Miguel de), 210.

Mousinho de Quevedo (Vasco), 261.

Murguía (Manuel de), 349.

N

Napier (Sir William), 255.

Napoleon I, 281.

Napoleon III, 340.

Nascimento (Francisco Manuel do), 263, 274-5, 290, 304, 338, 344.

Navagero (Andrea), 351.

Newton (Sir Isaac), 281.

Niebuhr (Barthold Georg), 294.

_No figueiral figueiredo_, 72.

_Nobiliario do Collegio dos Nobres_, 61.

_Nobiliario do Conde._ _See_ Pedro Afonso, Conde de Barcellos.

Nobre (Antonio), 332, 334.

Nobrega, Padre, 45.

Nogueira Ramos (João de Deus), 249, 250, 329-30, 338.

Noriega Varela (Antonio), 355.

Noronha (D. Anna de), 242.

Noronha (D. Antonio de), 175, 177, 179.

Noronha (D. Francisco de), second Conde de Linhares, 175, 232, 239.

Noronha (D. Lianor de), 107.

Noronha (D. Thomas de), 256.

Novaes (Francisco Xavier de), 112, 302.

Nun’ Alvarez. _See_ Alvarez Pereira (Nuno).

Nun de Allariz (Alfredo) _pseud._, 355.

Nunes (Claudio José), 331.

Nunes (José Joaquim), 26, 60, 308.

Nunes Ribeiro Sanches (Antonio), 286.

Nunez (Airas), 23, 31, 47, 52-3.

Nunez (João), 210.

Nunez (Pedro), 18, 107, 226-7, 251.

Nunez (Philipe), 230.

Nunez da Silva (Manuel), 231.

Nunez de Leam (Duarte), 39, 55, 56, 68, 210-11, 252.

Nuñez del Arce (Gaspar Esteban), 295.

Nuñez González (Manuel), 354, 355.

O

Oeynhausen, Count of, 276.

Olanda (Francisco de). _See_ Hollanda.

Olivares, Conde-Duque de, 252.

Oliveira (Fernam de), 109, 220, 227.

Oliveira (Francisco Xavier de), Cavalheiro de Oliveira, 74, 285-6.

Oliveira Marreca (Antonio de), 295.

Oliveira Martins (Pedro Joaquim de), 305-6, 322.

Orta (Garcia da), 178, 225-6, 308.

Orta (Jorge da), 225.

Ortigão (Ramalho). _See_ Ramalho Ortigão.

Osborne (Dorothy), 20.

_Osmia._ _See_ Mello Breyner.

Osorio (Luiz), 335.

Osorio da Fonseca (Jeronimo), 18, 209, 224, 228, 263.

Ossian, 301.

Ovid, 85.

P

Pacheco (João), 248.

Pacheco Pereira (Duarte), 191, 227.

Paez (Balthasar), 245.

Paez (D. Maria), 22.

Paez (Pedro), 205.

Paganino (Rodrigo), 325.

Paiva (Isabel de), 239.

Paiva de Andrade (Diogo de) [xvi c.], 239, 244.

Paiva de Andrade (Diogo de) [xvii c.], 215, 239, 253.

Palmeirim (Luiz Augusto), 300-1.

_Palmeirim de Inglaterra._ _See_ Moraes (F. de).

_Palmerín de Oliva_, 234.

Pardo Bazán (Emilia), Condesa de, 356.

Patmore (Coventry), 336.

Pato Moniz (Nuno Alvares). _See_ Pereira Pato Moniz.

Patricio (Antonio), 328.

_Paixam de Jesu Christo, A_, 94, 95.

Paul III, Pope, 212, 219.

Paulo (Marco). _See_ Polo.

Payne (Robert), 90.

Pedro I, of Portugal, 80, 84, 312.

Pedro II, of Portugal, 268, 288.

Pedro V, of Portugal, 293.

Pedro Afonso, Conde de Barcellos, 38, 57, 61-2.

Pedro, Duque de Coimbra, 71, 79, 80, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 100.

Pedro, O Condestavel D., 38, 77, 79-80, 86, 92, 95, 100.

Pedro, King of Aragon. _See_ Pedro, O Condestavel D.

_Pedro, Tratado do Infante D._, 340.

_Pelagia, Vida de Santa_, 60.

Penha Fortuna (João de Oliveira), 330.

Pereda (José María de), 318.

Pereira (Antonio Nunalvarez), 141.

Pereira (Aureliano J.), 354.

Pereira (Nuno), 98, 102, 143.

Pereira Brandão (Luis), 188-9.

Pereira de Castro (Gabriel), 258-9.

Pereira de Castro (Luis), 258.

Pereira de Figueiredo (Antonio), 338.

Pereira de Novaes (Manuel), 20.

Pereira de Sampaio (José) [Bruno], 308.

Pereira Pato Moniz (Nuno Alvarez), 187.

Pereira Pinheiro (Bernardino), 295-6.

Pereira Teixeira de Vasconcellos (Joaquim). _See_ Teixeira de Pascoaes.

Pérez Ballesteros (José), 356.

Pérez Galdós (Benito), 298.

Pérez Placer (Heraclio), 357.

Perez de Camões (Vasco), 77, 78, 174.

Perez de Oliva (Hernan), 165.

Pestana (Alice), 324.

Petrarca (Francesco), 139, 146, 147, 148, 152, 161, 181, 185, 186, 197, 237, 280, 281.

Philip II, of Spain, 146, 151, 195, 216, 223, 224, 230, 236, 237, 238, 250, 263.

Philip III, of Spain, 155.

Philip IV, of Spain, 216, 243.

Philippa, Queen Consort of João I, 84, 85, 89, 305.

Piamonte (Nicolas), 339.

Picaud (Aimeric), 25.

_Pierres de Provence_, 65.

Pimenta (Agostinho). _See_ Cruz (Agostinho da).

Pimentel (Manuel), 228.

Pina (Fernam de), 87.

Pina (Ruy de), 87-9, 97, 110, 125, 180.

Pindella (Bernardo de). _See_ Arnoso.

Pinheiro (D. Antonio), 214, 244.

Pinheiro (Bernardino). _See_ Pereira Pinheiro.

Pinheiro (Bernardo). _See_ Arnoso.

Pinheiro Chagas (Manuel), 304, 306-7.

Pinheiro da Veiga (Thomé), 265.

Pinto (Heitor), 14, 16, 101, 230, 236-7, 238.

Pinto (João Lourenço), 318-19.

Pinto (Jorge), 159.

Pinto Ribeiro (João), 265.

Pintos (Juan Manuel), 348.

Pires (Antonio Thomaz), 69, 308, 342.

Pires de Rebello (Gaspar), 262.

Pirez Lobeira (Joan). _See_ Lobeira (Joan de).

Pisan (Christine de), 85, 95.

Pisano (Mattheus de), 85.

Pius IV, Pope, 193.

_Platir_, 234.

Plato, 119, 237.

Plautus, 108, 130, 164, 167.

Pliny, 226.

_Poema da Perda de Espanha._ _See_ Cava.

_Poema del Cid._ _See_ Cid.

_Poetica_, 48, 49, 58, 66.

Poitou, Guillaume, Comte de, 39.

Poliziano (Angelo [Ambrogini]), 103, 139, 141.

Polo (Marco), 95.

Pombal, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Mello, Marques de, 272, 273, 276, 291, 307.

Ponce (Bartolomé), 151.

Pondal y Abente (Eduardo), 352-3, 355.

Ponte (Pero da), 28, 51.

Pope (Alexander), 50, 209, 274, 277.

Portela (Severo), 328.

Porto Carreiro (Lope de), 78.

Portugal (D. Anrique de), 103.

Portugal (D. Francisco de) [xvi c.], 203.

Portugal (D. Francisco de) [xvii c.], 18, 70, 129, 258.

Portugal (D. Francisco de), Conde de Vimioso, 100, 103-4, 122, 126, 145, 150.

Portugal (D. João de), 241, 242.

Portugal (D. Manuel de), 145, 180, 346.

_Portugaliae Monumenta Historica._ _See_ Herculano (Alexandre).

Posada y Pereira (José María), 348.

Potter (Maria), 315.

Potter (Thomas), 315.

Poyares (Pedro de), 109.

Prado (Xavier), 355.

Prazeres (João dos), 269.

Presentação (Cosme da), 239.

Prestage (Edgar), 14, 15, 214, 252, 308.

Prestes (Antonio), 19, 160-1, 166.

_Primlaeon_, 119, 234.

_Primor e honra da vida soldadesca_, 262.

Ptolemy, 193.

Purificaçam (Antonio da), 18.

Purser (William Edward), 233.

Q

Queimado (Roy), 52.

Quental (Anthero Tarquinio de), 304, 328-9.

Quevedo y Villegas (Francisco Gomez de), 169, 252, 253, 255.

Quinet (Edgar), 19.

Quintilian, 247.

Quita (Domingos dos Reis), 272-3.

R

Rabelais (François), 321.

Rabello (Gabriel de), 203.

Racine (Jean), 182.

Raleigh (Sir Walter), 228.

Ramalho Ortigão (José Duarte), 304, 318, 321-2.

Ramos Coelho (José), 307.

Ramusio (Giovanni Battista), 204.

Rebello da Silva (Luiz Augusto), 296.

Redondo, Conde de. _See_ Coutinho (D. Francisco).

_Regras e Cautelas_, 241.

_Relaçam verdadeira dos trabalhos_, &c., 203.

Renan (Ernest), 240.

Resende (Garcia de), 75, 88, 89, 96-8, 99, 100, 110, 113, 123, 124, 127, 140, 150, 199.

Resende (Lucio André de), 13, 39, 130, 150, 180, 206, 215, 216.

_Revista de Historia_, 308.

_Revista Lusitana_, 309, 347.

Rey Soto (Antonio), 355.

Ribalta (Aurelio), 356-7.

Ribeira Grande, Conde da, 311.

Ribeiro (Bernardim), 14, 19, 105, 132-9, 141, 152, 154, 291, 300.

Ribeiro (Jeronimo), 161.

Ribeiro (João), 204.

Ribeiro (João Pedro), 292.

Ribeiro (Mattheus de), 261.

Ribeiro Chiado (Antonio), 157-8, 161.

Ribeiro de Macedo (Duarte), 265-6.

Ribeiro de Sousa (Salvador), 203.

Ribeiro dos Santos (Antonio), 285.

Ribeiro Ferreira (Thomaz Antonio), 302.

Ribeiro Sanches (Antonio Nunes). _See_ Nunes Ribeiro Sanches.

Ribeiro Soarez (Jeronimo). _See_ Ribeiro (Jeronimo).

Richardson (Samuel), 170.

Riquier (Guiraut), 42, 55.

_Roberto, Verdadeira Historia do Grande_, 339.

Rocha Martins (Francisco de), 321.

Rodrigues (José Maria), 180.

Rodrigues Cordeiro (Antonio Xavier), 300.

Rodriguez (Fernan), 78.

Rodriguez (Gonzalo), Archdeacon of Almazan, 78.

Rodriguez (Gonzalo), Archdeacon of Toro, 78, 123.

Rodriguez (Melicia), 110.

Rodriguez Azinheiro (Cristovam), 211.

Rodriguez de Calheiros (Fernan), 52.

Rodriguez de Escobar (Gonçalo), 78.

Rodriguez de la Cámara (Juan), 63, 77, 104, 132.

Rodriguez de Montalvo (Garci), 65, 66, 67, 69, 119.

Rodriguez de Sá e Meneses (João), 103.

Rodriguez de Sousa (Gonçalo), 78.

Rodriguez del Padrón (Juan). _See_ Rodriguez de la Cámara.

Rodriguez González (Eladio), 354-5.

Rodriguez Leitão (Manuel), 266.

Rodriguez Lobo (Francisco), 74, 153-5, 170, 185, 232.

Rodriguez Lobo Soropita (Fernam), 229, 345.

Rodriguez Silveira (Francisco), 229, 307.

Roiz. _See_ Rodriguez.

_Roland, Chanson de_, 53.

Rolim de Moura. See Child Rolim.

_Romances_, 74-6, 124, 161, 172.

Romero (Sylvio), 17.

Roquette (José Ignacio), 91.

Rousseau (Jean-Jacques), 264.

Rucellai (Giovanni), 140.

Rudel (Jaufre), 47.

Rueda (Lope de), 112, 130.

Ruiz (Juan), Archpriest of Hita, 23, 38, 53, 90, 113, 124, 125, 339, 356.

Ruiz de Toro (Alvar), 78.

S

Sá (Antonio de), 269.

Sá (Diogo de), 228.

Sá (Gonçalo de), 143.

Sá (Mem de), 143.

Sá de Meneses (Francisco de), epic poet, 260.

Sá de Meneses (Francisco de), Conde de Mattosinhos, 13, 150, 260.

Sá de Miranda (Francisco de), 13, 19, 39, 53, 77, 104, 105, 117, 120, 138, 139-45, 146, 149, 164, 165, 166, 174, 176, 206, 260, 263, 276.

Sá e Macedo (Anna de), 174, 179.

Sá Sottomaior (Eloi de), 153.

Sabugal, Conde de, 256.

Sabugosa (Antonio Maria José de Mello Silva Cesar e Meneses), Conde de, 121, 158, 324.

Sacchetti (Franco), 231.

Sachsen (Ludolph von), 90, 95.

_Sacramental._ _See_ Sanchez de Vercial.

Sacro Bosco (Joannes de). _See_ Halifax (John of).

Sadoletto (Jacopo), Cardinal, 212.

Sainte-Beuve (Charles-Augustin), 91, 321.

Saint-More (Benoît de), 61.

Saint Victor (Adam de), 24.

San Pedro (Diego de), 124, 132.

Sanches de Baena Farinha Augusto Romano, Visconde, 111.

Sanchez (D. Afonso), 30, 57.

Sanchez (Francisco), 20.

Sanchez de Badajoz (Garci), 104.

Sanchez de Vercial (Clemente), 95.

Sancho I, of Portugal, 22, 27, 34, 39, 87, 122.

Sancho II, of Portugal, 17, 53, 296.

Sannazzaro (Jacopo), 140, 152.

Santa Catharina (Lucas de), 152, 242, 271.

Santa Maria (Francisco de), 269.

Santa Rita (Guilherme de), 335.

Santa Rita Durão (José de), 279.

Santa Rosa de Viterbo (Joaquim de), 285.

Santarem (Manuel Francisco de Barros e Sousa de Mesquita Leitão e Carvalhosa), Visconde de, 292.

_Santarem, Foros de_, 17.

Santillana, Iñigo Lopez de Mendoza, Marqués de, 22, 32, 38, 41, 48, 49, 77, 79, 80, 104.

Santo Antonio (Pedro de), 247.

Santo Antonio (Sebastião de), 280.

Santo Estevam (Gomez de), 340.

Santos (João dos), 220.

Santos (Manuel dos), 208.

Santos e Silva (Thomaz Antonio de), 187.

S. Bernardino (Gaspar de), 221.

S. Boaventura (Fortunato de), 285.

S. Joseph Queiroz (D. João de), 286.

S. Luis (D. Francisco de), Cardinal Saraiva, 285.

Saraiva, Cardinal. _See_ S. Luis.

Sarmento (Augusto Cesar Rodrigues), 325.

Sarmento (Francisco de Jesus Maria), 338.

Sarmiento (Martín), 347, 356.

Savoy, Duke of, 120, 133.

Schwalbach Lucci (Eduardo), 314.

Scott (Sir Walter), 293.

Sebastian, King, 146, 150, 168, 179, 181, 187, 188, 209, 210, 226, 227, 239, 241, 247, 261, 263, 307, 340, 341.

Semmedo (Alvaro), 204.

Semmedo (Curvo). _See_ Curvo Semedo.

Seneca, 92, 94, 161, 280.

Senna Freitas (Joaquim de), 322.

Sepulveda (D. Lianor de). _See_ Sousa (D. Lianor de).

_Sergas de Esplandian, Las_, 65, 68.

Serpa Pimentel (José Freire de), 300.

Serrão de Castro (Antonio), 256.

Servando (Joan), 29.

Severim de Faria (Manuel), 107, 180, 184, 192, 193, 197, 215-16, 245.

Sevilha (Pedro Amigo de). _See_ Amigo.

Shakespeare (William), 19, 108, 118, 129, 130, 160, 164.

Sigea (Angela), 107.

Sigea (Luisa), 107.

Siglar (Pierres de), 43.

Silius Italicus, 41.

Silva (Antonio José da), 282-4.

Silva (Innocencio Francisco da), 61, 148, 163, 192, 193, 220, 237, 308.

Silva (Nicolau Luis da). _See_ Luis (Nicolau).

Silva Dias (Augusto Epiphanio da), 308.

Silva Gayo (Manuel da), 320.

Silva Mascarenhas (André da), 260.

Silva Pinto (Manuel José da), 322.

Silva Souto-Maior (Caetano José da), 306.

Silveira (Fernam da) [†1489], 101.

Silveira (Fernam da), O Coudel Môr, 100-1, 102.

Silveira (Francisco Rodriguez). _See_ Rodriguez Silveira.

Silveira (Jorge da), 102.

Silveira da Motta (Francisco), 322.

Simões Dias (José), 330.

Soares de Brito (João), 52, 68, 182, 207, 224, 258.

Soares de Passos (Antonio Augusto), 293, 301.

Soarez (Martin), 52.

Soarez Coelho (D. Joan), 52.

Soarez de Paiva (D. Joan), 48, 76.

Soarez de Sousa (Gabriel), 205.

Soarez de Taveiroos (Pai), 22.

Solá (Jaime), 356.

Sophocles, 165.

Soropita. _See_ Rodriguez Lobo Soropita.

Soto (Hernando de), 203.

Sotomaior (Luis de), 130.

Sousa (D. Antonio Caetano de), 284.

Sousa (Diogo de), 256.

Sousa (Francisco de) [xvi c.], 98, 105.

Sousa (Francisco de) [xvii c.], 244.

Sousa (D. Lianor de), 188, 217.

Sousa (Luis de), 14, 16, 203, 209, 215, 241-3, 269, 291, 298.

Sousa (Manuel Caetano de), 280.

Sousa (Martim Afonso de), 225, 227.

Sousa (Philippa de), 150.

Sousa (Rui de), 122.

Sousa Costa (Alberto de), 328.

Sousa Coutinho (Lopo de), 196, 203.

Sousa Coutinho (Manuel de). _See_ Sousa (Luis de).

Sousa de Macedo (Antonio), 56, 68, 74, 130, 209, 224, 258, 260-1.

Sousa Falcão (Cristovam de). _See_ Falcão.

Sousa Farinha (Bento José de), 244.

Sousa Monteiro (José de), 311.

Sousa Moraes (Wenceslau José de), 322-3.

Sousa Sepulveda (Manuel de), 187, 196, 217.

Sousa Viterbo (Francisco Marques de), 13, 307.

Southey (Robert), 15, 19, 282.

Souto-Maior (Caetano Jose da Silva). _See_ Silva Souto-Maior.

Souto Maior (Eloi de Sá). _See_ Sá Sottomaior.

Souvestre (Émile), 299.

Spinoza (B.), 20.

Stanley of Alderney, Lord, 315.

Storck (Wilhelm), 174, 176, 178, 329.

Straparola (Giovanni Francesco), 231.

Stuart (Charles), Lord Stuart of Rothesay, 37.

_Sylvia de Lisardo_, 139.

T

Tacitus, 266.

Tancos (Hermenegildo de), 90.

Tasso (Bernardo), 71, 181.

Tasso (Torquato), 146, 180, 181, 280.

Tavares (Manuel), 110.

Tavares Zagalo (Joana), 133.

Teive (Diogo de), 106.

Teixeira de Pascoaes (Joaquim), 333-4.

Teixeira de Queiroz (Francisco), 319-20, 325.

Teixeira Gomes (Manuel), 323.

Tellez (Balthasar), 204-5.

Tellez (Lianor), Queen Consort of Fernando I, 84.

Tellez (Maria), 84.

Tellez de Meneses (Aires), 148.

_Tello, Vida de D._, 60.

Tennyson (Alfred), Lord, 64, 301.

Tenreiro (Antonio), 220.

Terence, 130, 164.

_Testament de Pathelin_, 123.

Theocritus, 272.

_Theodora, Verdadeira Historia da Donzella_, 339.

Theotocopuli (Domenico), El Greco, 114, 282.

Thierry (Augustin), 294.

Thomas (Henry), 65.

Thomas Aquinas, St., 86, 90, 92, 94.

Thomson (James), 277.

Tilly (John), 204.

Timoneda (Juan de), 231.

_Tinherabos nam tinherabos_, 72.

_Tirant lo Blanch_, 65.

Tolentino de Almeida (Nicolau), 272, 274, 276.

Tolstoi (Leo), Count, 333.

Tolomei (Lattanzio), 140, 230.

Torcy (Claude Blosset de), 233.

Toro, Archdeacon of. _See_ Rodriguez (Gonzalo).

Torres (Alvaro de), 241.

Torres (Domingos Maximiano), 278.

Torres Naharro (Bartolomé de), 124.

Trancoso (Gonçalo Fernandez). _See_ Fernandez Trancoso.

Trindade (Adeodato da), 196, 197.

Trindade Coelho (José Francisco de), 327.

Trissino (Giangiorgio), 165.

_Tristam, O Livro de_, 63.

_Tristan_, 65, 69, 70.

_Trovador, O_, 300.

_Trovador, O Novo_, 300.

Trueba (Antonio de), 302, 303.

_Tundalo, Visão de_, 59.

U

Usque (Abraham ben), 246.

Usque (Samuel), 245-6.

V

Vaamonde (Florencio), 357.

Valcacer. _See_ Valcarcel.

Valcarcel (Pedro de), 78.

Valdés (Juan de), 65.

Valente (Afonso), 112.

Valera (Juan), 19.

Valla (Lorenzo), 180.

Valle Inclán (Ramón María del), 327, 356.

Van Zeller (Francisco), 169.

Vaqueiras (Raimbaut de), 41.

Varnhagen (Francisco Adolpho de), 37, 133, 205, 206.

Vasconcellos (Antonio de), 39, 259.

Vasconcellos (Henrique de), 328.

Vasconcellos (Joaquim de), 15, 214, 230.

Vasconcellos (Jorge de), 167.

Vasconcellos (Jorge Ferreira de). _See_ Ferreira.

Vasconcellos (Simão de), 267.

Vaz (Francisco), de Guimarães, 161-2.

Vaz (Joana), 107.

Vaz da Gama (Guiomar), 174.

Vaz de Camões (Luis). _See_ Camões.

Vaz de Camões (Simão), 174.

Vaz de Carvalho (Maria Amalia), 324.

Vazquez (Francisco), 234.

Veer (Pero de), 29.

Vega (Garci Lasso de la). _See_ Lasso de la Vega.

Vega Carpio (Lope Felix de), 76, 129, 130, 147, 153, 169, 181, 183, 258.

Veiga (Manuel da), 340.

Veiga (Thomas da), 17, 244, 245.

Veiga Tagarro (Manuel da), 258.

Velázquez (Diego), 333.

Velez de Guevara (Luis), 284.

Velez de Guevara (Pero), 79.

Velho (Alvaro), 190.

Verba (João), 92.

Verde (José Joaquim Cesario), 330.

Vernier (P.), 226.

Verney (Luis Antonio), 285.

Veronese (Paolo), 182.

Vespasian, Emperor, 64.

_Vespeseano, Estorea de_, 64.

_Vespesiano, Estoria del noble_, 64.

Vicente (Belchior), 110.

Vicente (Gil), 13, 16, 19, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 62, 74, 75, 97, 102, 105, 106-31, 132, 133, 138, 139, 141, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 178, 235, 271, 291, 311, 338, 342, 344, 345.

Vicente (Luis), 109.

Vicente (Luis), son of Gil Vicente, 110, 168.

Vicente (Martim), 109.

Vicente (Paula), 110.

Vicente de Almeida (Gil), 162.

_Vicentes, Cronica dos._ See _Cronica da Fundaçam_.

Vieira (Antonio), 14, 16, 156, 190, 245, 248, 249, 261, 265, 267-9, 307.

Vieira (Nicolao), 59.

Vieira da Costa (J.), 321.

Vieira Ravasco (Cristovam), 267.

Vilhena (D. Joana de), 145.

Vilhena (D. Magdalena de), 241, 242.

Vilhena (D. Philippa de), Condessa de Athouguia, 291.

Villa-Moura, Visconde de, 328.

Villa Nova, Condessa de, 253, 286.

Villani (Giovanni), 83.

Villareal, Fernando, Marques de, 107.

Villas-Boas (D. Manuel do Cenaculo), Bishop of Beja, 285.

Villena (D. Enrique de), 77.

Vimieiro, Counts of, 71.

Vimieiro, fourth Conde de, 273.

Vimioso, first Conde de [_or_ do]. _See_ Portugal (D. Francisco de).

Vimioso, third Conde de, 242.

Virgil, 174, 180, 181, 182, 183, 257, 272.

_Visão de Tundalo._ See _Tundalo_.

Viseu, Diogo, Duke of, 102.

Viseu, Henry, Duke of. _See_ Henrique, Infante.

_Visio Tundali_, 59.

_Vita Christi._ _See_ Sachsen (Ludolph von).

Vives (Juan Luis), 65, 212, 340.

Voltaire (François Arouet), 179, 182, 274.

Vyvyães (Pero), 52.

W

Wieland (Christoph Martin), 277.

Wyche (Sir Peter), 266.

X

Xavier, St. Francis, 190, 223, 225, 243.

Xavier de Mattos. _See_ Mattos.

Xavier de Novaes. _See_ Novaes.

Xenophon, 85.

Ximenez de Urrea (Geronimo), 262.

Y

Yannez (Rodrigo), 73.

Ychoa (João de), 89.

Z

Zamora (Gil de), 42.

Zola (Émile), 299.

Zorro (Joan), 29, 31, 53.

Zurara (Gomez Eanez de), 14, 15, 68, 69, 81, 82, 85-7, 88, 201.

PRINTED IN ENGLAND AT THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS