CHAPTER I
THE CAUSES OF THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
The war between Russia and Japan was a fight for disputed territory. Its immediate cause was the failure of the two nations to agree on the relation which each should maintain toward Korea and Manchuria. The underlying cause of the struggle was the mighty clash that was bound to come when those measures which Japan believed were necessary to her self-existence met the glacier-like progress of Russia eastward toward the Pacific. Through nearly three centuries the Russian Empire had advanced from the Ural Mountains to outposts and outlets on the Pacific Coast. Her mighty plans met no serious check until they came athwart the ambitions and policy of the modernized Japan, which saw in this alleged expansion for industrial development a menace to her integrity as a kingdom. Korea, a buffer between these two powers, became involved in the dispute by the results of the war between Japan and China in 1894. The intervention of the European Powers in the terms of treaty settlement robbed Japan of her chief spoil, the Liaotung Peninsula, whose stronghold was Port Arthur. Russia, Germany, and France intimated that Japanese occupation of this base must be regarded as a permanent threat to the independence of China and Korea. Three years later, Russia began to fortify Port Arthur, on the pretext that German acquisition of Kiaochau would otherwise disturb the balance of power in North China.
The Boxer outbreak of 1900 furnished Russia reasons for vastly increasing her military strength in Manchuria, to safeguard her railway across Siberia and her rapidly expanding commercial and colonization interests. Promises were made, and broken, that Manchuria would be evacuated and restored to Chinese control as soon as peaceful conditions were resumed in accordance with the joint agreements of the powers that the integrity of China should be preserved. When it became certain that Russia had no intention of loosening her grip on Manchuria, the Japanese Government proposed a conference, in July of 1903, for the purpose of assuring the lasting peace of Eastern Asia, by agreeing upon a working basis for settlement of the points at issue with Russia. Japan wished guarantees of the territorial integrity of China and Korea, and the “open door” in both countries for commercial opportunity. Russia replied that she was ready to recognize the rights of Japan as the predominating influence in Korea, but refused to discuss further pledges regarding the future of China and Manchuria. The Russian attitude was influenced most strongly by the facts that Russia wanted an outlet to the Pacific, and that the outlay of three hundred million dollars in Manchuria, to make that province both Russian and prosperous, called for some tangible return. Japan refused to consider herself outside the sphere of active interest in Manchuria, and negotiations came to a deadlock early in 1904.
On January 4, Japanese advices said that a conflict with Russia was inevitable, that the newspapers were urging the opening of hostilities, and that the Government was massing troops ready to embark on transports. The diplomats in St. Petersburg were delaying over the final reply to the Japanese note and were not expecting war, according to their assurances.
[Illustration:
TYPICAL STREET SCENE IN RUSSIA’S CAPITAL CITY
This photograph represents a procession leaving St. Catherine’s Church, in St. Petersburg, to go down to the Neva to bless the river waters, an example of that picturesque mediaevalism which survives in so many forms, and as such a real part of the everyday life of the people ]
During the following week, Russia was hurrying troops toward the frontier and buying horses, while the Argentine cruisers, _Nisshin_ and _Kasuga_, bought by Japan, were making ready to leave Genoa with rush orders to proceed to Yokohama. Meantime, the negotiations were continued with proposals and counter-proposals that made no progress.
On January 13, a conference before the Throne in Tokio decided upon the final terms to be sent to Russia, the only conditions which could avert war. Russia started two divisions of troops over the Trans-Siberian Railway to China, an obvious war measure. Two days later two transports crowded with Russian troops for the Far East sailed through the Bosphorus. Russia asked Turkey for permission to send the Black Sea fleet through the Dardanelles, and Lord Lansdowne said that such action would be considered a breach of treaty in which Great Britain could not acquiesce.
There was a lull of nearly two weeks, while Tokio fretted over the delay of the Russian reply. Japan adopted plans for raising seventy-five million dollars of an emergency war fund.
The long-drawn tension of January ended with a pretence of negotiations oscillating between Tokio and St. Petersburg, but by this time the pursuits of diplomacy had become a farce, and both nations were making all possible preparations for a long struggle at arms. Although the Russian ultimatum had not been officially delivered, its contents were forecasted, and it was known that Japan’s final demands had been evaded. On February 2, the mobilization of the Manchurian reserves was announced, and on the next day a semi-official despatch from Vladivostok reported that the Russian squadron there had been stripped for action, and that the ships in the harbor of Port Arthur had joined those in the outer roadstead to unite the fighting strength for aggressive action. The Russian General Staff granted to Alexieff the right to declare war. Nearly a week before the first blow was struck, it was seen that the prolonged tension had reached the breaking point. At one of the last Cabinet conferences in Tokio hope of peace was abandoned, for the reason that, while Russia was unreasonably delaying her reply to the last Japanese note, she was daily increasing her warlike activities. It was known in advance that while Russia partly conceded the demands of Japan regarding Korea, important reservations were made, and that as regards Manchuria the reply would refuse to place on record recognition of the sovereignty of China, or even to discuss that question with Japan.
Japanese residents were told to leave Vladivostok, and 20,000 Russian troops were moving with the view of occupying Northern Korea. Japan continued extraordinary preparations for instant action, but the plans of her army and navy were so carefully guarded that no news of them was published up to the day war was declared by the first overt act.
[Illustration:
AN EVERYDAY SCENE IN ONE OF THE LARGE CITIES OF JAPAN
These are the little people whose surface daintiness covers a martial spirit more truly Spartan than that manifested by any other nation of the modern world. This street, gay with Japanese flags, is the “Isezakicho,” which has sometimes been called the Bowery of Yokohama ]
On Saturday, February 6, the Russian note was already in the hands of Baron de Rosen, the Russian Minister at Tokio, for delivery to Baron Komura, the Japanese Foreign Minister, when at four o’clock in the afternoon, M. Kurino, the Japanese Minister at St. Petersburg, called personally to inform the Russian Government that, in view of the delays in connection with the Russian replies, and the obvious futility of the negotiations, Japan considered it useless to continue diplomatic relations. Japan would take such steps as she deemed proper for the protection of her interests, therefore M. Kurino asked for his passports. The Russian Minister, a few hours later, prepared to leave Tokio as soon as possible.
The startling action of Japan, in severing diplomatic relations before the actual delivery of the Russian note, came like a bolt from a clear sky at St. Petersburg. It was expected that Japan would invade Korea and seek a naval battle within the next twenty-four hours. This was an accurate surmise, for in even less time forty Japanese transports were loaded with troops to be landed at various points in Southern and Central Korea. One naval division sailed from Japanese waters for Chemulpo, and another for Port Arthur, as soon as the news that there could be no peace was sent by wireless telegraphy to the waiting ships.
In the afternoon of February 8 a fleet of Japanese transports, escorted by a squadron of battleships and powerful cruisers, appeared off the harbor of Chemulpo. The Russian gunboat _Korietz_, on its way to Port Arthur with despatches, sighted the hostile craft; the commander cleared for action, fired a shot at the Japanese torpedo scouts, then returned at full speed to shelter near the Russian cruiser _Variag_, inside the Korean harbor. This proved to be the first shot of the war, and was so claimed by the Japanese when accused of attacking Port Arthur without formal declaration of war later in the same day. Early on the morning of February 9, Admiral Uriu, commander of the Japanese fleet, notified the two Russians that they must surrender or leave the harbor by noon, else he would attack them where they lay. The Russians did not surrender, but sailed out of the bay, with bands playing, to certain destruction. By four o’clock that afternoon the _Variag_ and the _Korietz_ were at the bottom of Chemulpo Harbor, and the war was on.
The man who judges things by weight, bulk, and dollars may well wonder at Japanese temerity. To Japan, with her 147,000 square miles, the annexation of Korea, with 82,000 square miles, meant what the annexation of Mexico would to the United States. To Russia, with her 8,666,000 square miles, it meant less than Southern California to us. Russia’s population was 140,000,000; Japan’s 44,000,000. On a peace footing the Russian army had 1,000,000 officers and men; the Japanese, 175,000. On a war footing, the Russian 4,600,000 and the Japanese 675,000.
Russia is the Christian nation which has been slowest in development. Mentally, she is just out of the Dark Ages, equipped with the mechanical progress of modern times. Japan is the pagan nation which has been foremost in adopting the worldly essentials of a civilization which is Christian in its origin. Russia is a union of nomadic races, but lately ushered into feudalism, which have, in turn, conquered many other races. Japan has had a stable, organized government longer than England, and the Japanese were a free people when the Saxons were the serfs of the Normans. The Czar is a pope; the Mikado divinity itself. If the Jews were still a nation and a descendant of Moses were their king, he would mean to them what the Mikado means to the Japanese. For all the centuries of the nation’s existence the Japanese had known no acquisition of territory. The Russians have lived by this.
[Illustration:
RECRUITS GOING THROUGH FIRING DRILL WITHOUT RIFLES ]
[Illustration:
INFANTRY DRILLING IN HEAVY MARCHING ORDER ]
[Illustration:
SOLDIERS LEARNING HOW TO CARRY WOUNDED COMRADES ]
[Illustration:
RIFLE PRACTICE ON THE PARADE GROUND ]
JAPANESE TROOPS PREPARING FOR WAR
These photographs were taken on the parade ground at the Oyama Barracks in Tokio just before the outbreak of the war. Japan had already been practically on a war footing for months, and the busy work of preparation here suggested was typical of the spirit that prevailed throughout the nation and brought Japan’s army to a state of preparedness perhaps never before duplicated in the history of war.
[Illustration:
LEARNING HOW TO JUMP ]
[Illustration:
PRACTICING THE SABRE THRUST ]
[Illustration:
CAVALRY RECRUIT LEARNING TO RIDE WITHOUT STIRRUPS OR BRIDLE ]
[Illustration:
TRAINING JAPANESE CAVALRYMEN AT THE TOKIO BARRACKS ]
The Japanese cavalry was the weakest branch of the service. The Japanese are not natural horsemen, and both the men and their mounts were inferior, in a military sense, to the other branches of the service. The horses were scrubby little beasts with neither speed nor tractability. The trooper whose mount finally succeeded in clearing the bar shown above thought the feat very remarkable
[Illustration:
CHANGING GUARD AT THE OYAMA BARRACKS IN TOKIO ]
[Illustration:
SWAPPING STORIES IN THE GUARD HOUSE AT OYAMA BARRACKS ]
In spite of his inscrutable manner the Japanese soldier when with a crowd of his comrades becomes almost as loquacious as the typical regular of other countries. In the Oyama Barracks, where this photograph was taken, a large number of troops were quartered ready to be rushed to the front as soon as hostilities were declared
[Illustration:
CLEANING AND OILING RIFLES IN PREPARATION FOR WAR ]
[Illustration:
DEPARTURE OF BARON ROSEN, THE RUSSIAN MINISTER, FROM YOKOHAMA ]
On the breaking off of diplomatic relations the Russian Minister took passage for Marseilles on the French steamship “Yarra.” He left Yokohama on February 12, when war had actually been begun by the actions at Chemulpo and Port Arthur. The French and Belgian Ministers and attaches and a few other friends from the diplomatic circle accompanied him to the dock to bid him farewell
[Illustration:
MINISTER PAVLOV LEAVING LEGATION UNDER ESCORT ]
[Illustration:
REPRESENTATIVES OF NEUTRAL POWERS TALKING WITH M. PAVLOV AT THE WHARF ]
RUSSIAN MINISTER TO KOREA DEPARTING FROM SEOUL
[Illustration:
NEWSPAPER BULLETINS ON THE CHEMULPO BATTLE IN THE MAIN STREET OF TOKIO ]
[Illustration:
PATRIOTIC CITIZENS STANDING IN THE RAIN WAITING THEIR TURN TO ENLIST ]
[Illustration:
BUILDING TEMPORARY STABLES IN TOKIO IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWING THE DECLARATION OF WAR ]
[Illustration:
ENLISTED TROOPS, NEWLY ARRIVED IN TOKIO, WAITING THEIR TURN TO BE FITTED OUT ]
[Illustration:
IN HEAVY MARCHING ORDER READY TO DEPART ]
[Illustration:
TROOPS BILLETED AT PRIVATE HOUSES IN TOKIO ]
MOBILIZATION OF TROOPS IN TOKIO AT THE OUTBREAK OF WAR
[Illustration:
TROOPS MARCHING TO STATION THROUGH THE STREETS OF TOKIO ]
[Illustration:
ENTRAINING AT THE SHIMBASHI STATION, TOKIO ]
[Illustration:
JAPANESE CAVALRYMEN ABOUT TO TAKE THE TRAIN ]
[Illustration:
TROOPS ASSEMBLING IN STREETS NEAR THE STATION ]
[Illustration:
INDUCING A FRACTIOUS CAVALRY HORSE TO BOARD THE TRAIN ]
DEPARTURE OF JAPANESE TROOPS FOR KOREA
[Illustration:
EXAMINING CAVALRY HORSES AFTER ARRIVAL AT HIROSHIMA ]
[Illustration:
UNLOADING THE LIGHT PORTABLE TRANSPORT CARTS ]
[Illustration:
UNLOADING CAVALRY HORSES FROM BOX CARS ]
[Illustration:
TRANSPORT CARTS LOADED WITH SUPPLIES ]
JAPANESE TROOPS DETRAINING AT HIROSHIMA
At Hiroshima the troops were detrained for the port of Ujina, whence a large part of the Japanese forces were embarked for Korea. Many of the cavalry horses were injured during their railroad journey by kicking each other or their stalls. The light “collapsable” carts shown here were one of the features of the mobile Japanese equipment. They kept pace with the marching column
[Illustration:
JAPANESE CAVALRYMEN IN RAILWAY CARRIAGE ]
[Illustration:
TROOPERS IN CHARGE OF CARS CONTAINING HORSES ]
[Illustration:
OFFICERS IN COMMAND OF CAVALRY REGIMENT ]
CAVALRY TRAIN LEAVING SHIMBASHI STATION
[Illustration:
MEN OF THE ARMY SERVICE CORPS READY TO ENTRAIN ]
[Illustration:
“SAYONARA!”—GOOD-BY ]
It was not until the troops had been departing from Tokio for several days that the general populace showed any such resemblance to Occidental enthusiasm as this. When some of the members of the staff left Tokio, they awakened and behaved like any other crowd at such a time. They shouted good-bys and the band, in a quaint imitation of Western customs, played “Auld Lang Syne”
[Illustration:
FIFTH DIVISION ENGINEERS STUDYING PLANS ]
[Illustration:
FIRST SECTION FINISHED SHOWING MANNER OF CONSTRUCTION WITH TIMBER AND ROPES ]
[Illustration:
PUSHING THE FIRST STAGING OUT INTO THE RIVER ]
ENGINEERS AT HIROSHIMA PRACTICING BUILDING BRIDGES LIKE THOSE USED AT THE YALU
[Illustration:
BRIDGE AT HIROSHIMA READY FOR THE PONTOONS ]
The bridges used at the Yalu were all planned and constructed in practice in Japan long before war was declared. After being built they were taken apart, carried along with the rest of the equipment, and put together when the time came. The Japanese engineers had complete maps and measurements of the streams in Manchuria, so that they always knew just what difficulties were to be met
[Illustration:
“TIKOKU BANZAI!”—“LONG LIVE THE EMPIRE!” ]
Enthusiasm at Kobe upon the departure of a troop train for Ugina, a port of embarkation for Korea. On leaving for the front the Japanese soldier suppressed all emotions of sorrow. Not to be impassive was unmanly. It was only at such times as this that the collective enthusiasm showed itself, and it was not until a number of trains had passed en route for the front that it awoke.
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