CHAPTER XI.

WAGNER AND HIS OPERAS.

Wagner’s early days—At Würzburg—At Königsberg— At Riga—At Paris—_Rienzi_—Dresden—Zurich— Munich—Triebschen—Bayreuth—Death—Wagner’s methods—_The Flying Dutchman_—_Tannhäuser_ —_Lohengrin_—_Tristan and Isolde_—_Die Meistersinger_—_The Ring_—_Parsifal_— Wagner’s continued development.

The name of Wagner is the most interesting in all the annals of opera. We live too far away from the days of Lully and of Gluck to feel more than a shadowy interest in the personality of these men, although it was very marked; and in the case of more modern composers of pronounced character and distinctive achievement, such as Meyerbeer, Spontini, or Verdi, none can approach the great Richard Wagner in interest or in fascination. Since he is not only the most striking of opera composers, but also one whose work is judged, practically, by his efforts in this field alone of all musical art, we need have no hesitation in giving, in his case, a slightly more developed biographical notice than has been possible for men of less operatic repute.

[Sidenote: =Wagner’s Early Days=]

Richard Wagner, a junior member of a large family, was born in Leipsic in 1813 (May 22nd). His father died early, and his mother soon married again. Richard’s step-father, Geyer, was instrumental in introducing the boy to the stage, as he was an assistant at the Court Theatre at Dresden. Moreover, he perceived artistic instincts in the boy, and had him properly educated.

Wagner’s earliest dramatic effort was made at the age of fourteen, when he wrote a great tragedy _à la_ Shakespeare; forty-two of his characters were slaughtered in the first four acts, so for the _dénouement_ they were in part resuscitated as ghosts! These early attempts may cause us to smile, but in them may be seen the power to grapple with work on a large scale, which was so characteristic a feature of the man’s later life.

He struggled to master the pianoforte, very unsuccessfully, and also wrote the usual pianoforte sonatas and pieces. His education, proceeded with at Dresden and Leipsic, was of a very broken nature, and he was a bad pupil: his inclination being to study Weber and Beethoven rather than Latin and Greek; consequently he was always uneasy and desirous of escaping from the trammels of education.

[Sidenote: =At Würzburg, 1833=]

This he did when he was about nineteen years of age, taking a post as chorus master at the Würzburg theatre, and writing at the age of twenty his first opera, _The Fairies_; this work and its successor, _Das Liebesverbot_, need not detain us, except to record that the latter had two productions at Magdeburg in 1836, Wagner having gone there to act as conductor. Of these the first was a failure, the second was to an audience consisting of Wagner’s landlady, her husband, and a Polish Jew. After this the Magdeburg theatre retired gracefully into bankruptcy, and with it went the conductor.

[Sidenote: =At Königsberg, 1836=]

Being attracted by a certain Wilhelmina Planer, who was acting at Königsberg, Wagner’s next steps were directed to this small town, where he married his lady-love, and also received the directorship of the opera. Bankruptcy fell to the lot of this theatre also, and Wagner shifted to Riga, where he found better work on a more secure footing.

[Sidenote: =At Riga, 1838=]

Riga had a good opera-house, and so inspired the ambitious composer that he longed to scale greater heights, and set out for Paris. He went by sea to London, being well-nigh wrecked off the coast of Norway, and received impressions which are ably recorded for us in his setting of the story of the _Flying Dutchman_, composed shortly after the voyage.

[Sidenote: =At Paris, 1839=]

Crossing to Paris, Wagner lived for some time on the very verge of starvation; he had had introductions to Meyerbeer and other persons of influence in the French capital, but no one wanted the work of an unknown German composer, and he was forced to earn a living as best he could by arranging fantasias from popular operas, and turning out tuneful melodies for the cornet. His wife cheered him on and did her best, but misfortune dogged him, for a little theatre that agreed to produce _Das Liebesverbot_ failed before the day of production came.

[Sidenote: “=Rienzi=”]

Undaunted, Wagner continued his work on the score of his first real opera _Rienzi_, which is founded on Lytton’s novel of the same name. Its music is modelled after the style of Meyerbeer, and of the grand opera of Paris. The Wagner of reform was not yet born: before his crusade could start, its author must be convinced of the futility of the older methods, and as a struggling composer he had at present as his great idea the problem of making both ends meet; consequently in _Rienzi_ we do not find anything to specially arrest the attention, nor is the work looked upon by serious Wagnerians as worthy of consideration; it had its importance, however, in gaining Wagner a hearing, being produced at Dresden in 1842.

[Sidenote: =Dresden, 1842=]

Wagner went to Dresden to prepare the work for performance, and settled down there, taking up the duties of Hofkapellmeister. During his sojourn in the Saxon capital he produced _The Flying Dutchman_ (1843) and _Tannhäuser_ (1845). But in the latter year Wagner got himself into political troubles, and had to fly the kingdom. He settled down to a roving life in Paris and Switzerland, working at _Lohengrin_, which was produced by Liszt at Weimar in 1850.

[Sidenote: =Zurich, 1852-55=]

While living at Zurich he sketched the libretto of the _Ring_, a gigantic cycle of four operas, of which more anon. In 1855 he came to England as the conductor of the Philharmonic Society’s concerts for the year. A good deal of disapproval with his methods and his work was experienced by him in this country, and he returned to Zurich to take up his work again there, settling down not only to the _Ring_, but also to the newly-conceived _Tristan_.

[Sidenote: =Munich, 1861-65=]

In 1860 Wagner’s period of exile was at an end, and he returned to German soil and composed the most German of his operas, _Die Meistersinger_. Shortly afterwards he went to dwell in Munich, beneath the eye of his patron, King Ludwig II. of Bavaria, who financed him until the end of his life. The monarch and the composer were hand-in-glove with each other, so much so that in the year 1865 the latter had perforce to leave the Bavarian capital, returning to Swiss soil for six more years.

[Sidenote: =Triebschen, 1866-72=]

The well-known village of Triebschen, on the lake of Lucerne, was Wagner’s home during this period, during which most of the detail work of composition of the _Ring_ was polished off and in part produced. In 1870, his first wife having died, Wagner married Cosima von Bülow, a daughter of his friend Liszt. This is the present Madame Wagner, who rules all at Bayreuth to-day with so firm a grip.

[Sidenote: =Bayreuth, 1872-83=]

In 1872 Wagner returned to his patron, Ludwig II., who encouraged him to devise schemes to raise £45,000 to build a theatre where he liked, and after his own design; Bayreuth, a small Bavarian township, was pitched upon, and here a theatre was erected and opened in 1876. It was built with special reference to Wagner’s idea that every seat in the house should have a complete view of the stage, and should therefore be on a slightly higher level than the seat in front of it; and also that the orchestra should be out of sight beneath the stage. Special arrangements for the remarkably heavy stage scenes and mechanical devices necessary for the production of the _Ring_ were also made, and all was successfully brought to a happy issue by three performances of that cycle in full, under the well-known and happily living great Wagnerian conductor, Hans Richter.

[Sidenote: =Death=]

After a further visit to England in 1877, Wagner returned to Bayreuth and wrote his last work, _Parsifal_, which was produced at the new Opera House in 1882. Early in the following year Wagner died at Venice, but his body was taken to his home, “Wahnfried,” and there interred. Bayreuth is to-day the goal of many pilgrims, people of all nationalities assembling for the performances of the _Ring_ and other works, which generally take place during the summers of alternate years.

[Sidenote: =Wagner’s Methods=]

In our chapter upon the Reformers of Opera we noted the methods by which Wagner brought music into its proper sphere—namely, that of an adjunct to the work of the stage; we need not here recapitulate his theories of the absolute necessity of the music helping, rather than hindering, the dramatic action. Let it be borne in mind that he set before himself the object of eliminating all that was unworthy in the methods of his predecessors, and found himself unable, in the greater part of his work, to accept the set aria, duet, or other concerted movement, in their place substituting a continuous, rich, and fully-scored accompanied recitative, consisting very largely of a series of melodies, heard singly or in combination; each melody, or _leit-motif_ (which might, however, be also a chord-progression, or characteristic combination of instruments), being meant to bring to the mind of the listener, through his ear and brain, a definite train of thought.

[Sidenote: “=The Flying Dutchman=”]

Wagner did not by any means arrive at this conception straight away. _Rienzi_, with its spectacular effects and showy music, is an avowed copy of Meyerbeer and the grand opera methods. A step in advance was taken in _The Flying Dutchman_. The story is the well-known one of the sailor doomed to perpetually sail his vessel for ever and ever, being allowed to touch land once in seven years only; his chance of salvation being that some woman will voluntarily give herself to him; then only may he find peace. Senta, the heroine of the opera, offers to do this, in spite of her affection for her promised lover Erik; she clings to her determination, in spite of all entreaties of father (Daland) and lover, and throws herself into the sea as the Dutchman’s ship sails away. This proves her devotion, and the ship sinks; its wanderings now over at last.

The “Curse” Motive, associated with the “Flying Dutchman.”

[Music]

The music in this early work is still roughly divided into solo, duet, and chorus, and shows only a few traces of the Wagner of the future; the fine overture, with its well-known passages depicting the angry, stormy waves and the other sea portions of the work, were largely inspired by Wagner’s own perilous voyage in 1838. It contains much fine music, but much also that is dull and unconvincing.

[Sidenote: “=Tannhäuser=”]

_Tannhäuser_ deals with the story of the knight who leaves the world, his affianced bride, and his duties, for the unhallowed delight of Venus. Tiring at last of these, a chorus of pilgrims on their way to Rome moves him to penitence, and he returns to the court of the Landgrave of Thuringia, whose daughter Elizabeth welcomes back Tannhäuser her beloved. He, however, cannot refrain from boasting of the joys of his impious haunts, and is banished from the Court, to seek forgiveness at Rome. Elizabeth prays in solitude for him, but the pilgrims return without him, he eventually reappearing in despair, for the Pope has refused him absolution. He desires to return to Venus, but Wolfram, his friend, reminds him of Elizabeth, who has died of grief; her funeral procession passes, and Tannhäuser falls dead by her bier, just as messengers from Rome announce his ultimate forgiveness by the Pope.

“Venusberg” Motives, “Tannhäuser.”

[Music]

[Music]

To all concert goers the _Tannhäuser_ music is familiar by the overture, based mainly on the pilgrims’ chorus and the Venusberg music, and by the song of Wolfram to the Evening Star. Throughout the opera the scoring is fine and effective, and the _leit-motif_ makes a few definite appearances; it is a step towards Wagner’s goal, but only an early one. The music is continuous throughout each act, and less definitely split up than in the _Dutchman_; a good deal of the success of _Tannhäuser_ depends on its spectacular opportunities, the grand scene in the second act with the majestic march offering special scope in this respect.

[Sidenote: “=Lohengrin=”]

In _Lohengrin_ we meet with one of the most popular of Wagner’s works: Lohengrin, an unknown knight, appears in a boat drawn by a swan, as it were by magic, to succour Elsa of Brabant, wrongfully accused of the murder of her brother by Frederic of Telramund, and Ortrud his wife: he defeats Telramund in a duel, and Elsa bestows her hand upon him. Ortrud nurtures revenge, and suggests that Elsa has married a nameless adventurer. Elsa, although she has promised never to question Lohengrin as to his name, or origin, falls a prey to insinuation and to anxious curiosity: she elicits from him that he is son to Parsifal, guardian of the Holy Grail, and now his origin is known, the swan will come to bear him away once more. At his departure Ortrud suggests that the swan is none other than the brother whom Elsa is under suspicion of having made away with, but Lohengrin, by the power of the Holy Grail, restores her brother to her, and then sails away, leaving her for ever.

The mystical beauty of the “Grail” (see p. 28) theme, with its distinctive and original scoring for flutes and string harmonics, always throws the hearer, at the outset of the Prelude, into the right mood for this work. The music is not throughout at an equally high level, but there is a greater consistency than in the earlier works, and more use is made of guiding themes. The well-known “Bridal Chorus,” so often played at weddings, occurs in the second act, and adds greatly to the spectacular opportunities afforded; there is beautiful writing, also, in Elsa’s procession to the Cathedral, and in Lohengrin’s “Farewell.”

[Sidenote: “=Tristan and Isolde=”]

_Tristan and Isolde_ is an exposition of a legend which narrates how King Mark of Cornwall sends his trusty knight Tristan to bring back for him from Ireland a bride, Isolde. The knight and the maiden, under charm of a love potion administered by the maid Brangäne, fall in love with each other during the voyage, and on their return are neither of them faithful to King Mark. The followers of the latter surprise them, and Melot stabs Tristan, who is then conveyed to his castle in Brittany. Here he pines away in longing for Isolde, and dies just as she reaches the shore.

The combined themes of Tristan’s Sufferings and Isolde’s Love-longing.

[Music]

This opera has been described as one long love duet, with occasional interludes: there is very little action or movement, and it is the surpassing beauty of the music which accounts for the wondrous hold the work has upon the cultured public. It is the manifestation to the full of Wagner’s ideas of the propriety of music for illustrative purposes, and the music is a continuous stream of surging sound, passion laden. The chromatic nature of the themes intensify the emotionalism sought to be conveyed: such music can never be popular in the ordinary interpretation of the word, but as an illustration of the musical expression of the beauty and passion of love it is unapproachable and inimitable.

[Sidenote: “=Die Meistersinger=”]

_The Mastersingers of Nuremberg_ is the one work of Wagner embodying touches of humour. It is sometimes called a comic opera, but this is to give it a misleading title: humorous it is in parts, but these are separated by long stretches of music of a serious and dignified nature.

The plot is concerned with the old guild of Mastersingers, entry to which was hedged about by numberless petty restrictions in the middle ages. Walther, a young knight, seeks entry, since it is only as a master singer that he can hope to win the hand of Eva, daughter to Pogner, who awards her as the prize to the composer and singer of the most beautiful song. Beckmesser, another candidate for the fair Eva, is also umpire to the guild, and thus has an unfair advantage over Walther when he sings the song which he hopes will gain him admission. He breaks every possible rule, and is hopelessly rejected. But Hans Sachs, the shoemaker, is convinced of the beauty of Walther’s song, and induces the other masters to give him another hearing. Beckmesser breaks down in a comically hopeless attempt at the final competition, and Walther, with a beautiful and impassioned “Prize Song,” wins the coveted award.

“The Mastersingers.”

[Music]

The dignified overture, with its contrapuntal skill in combined themes, the songs sung by Walther at various periods in the development of the story, the curious and humorous lute music allied to Beckmesser’s quaint verses, the noble monologue for Hans Sachs, the dance of the apprentices, and the quintet of the principal characters which occurs late in the opera, are all features of musical interest. The story allows more scope than in the other music dramas for numbers in set musical form, with the result that we have several delightful excerpts from this work which are quite capable of effective performance apart from the stage setting. For the rest, the music is in Wagner’s advanced manner, but often in lighter style than is usual with him; a natural sequel to the humorous nature of many of the scenes which the music portrays.

[Sidenote: “=The Ring=”]

The cycle of four operas written on the same set of legends, _Rheingold_, _Die Walküre_, _Siegfried_, and _Gotterdämmerung_, is conveniently spoken of as the “Ring.” The term is derived in the same way as is the word cycle or circle, and expresses a complete or rounded group of ideas: it is not in any way taken from the actual golden ring which figures largely in the plot as the desired object around which so much of the story centres. It is not possible here to go into detail as to the plots of these four operas; they may and should be studied before hearing the work, by means of one of the numerous handy volumes on the subject which have been published during recent years. Suffice it to say that each of the operas is a complete work in itself, the shortest being _Rheingold_, which is in one long act lasting about two hours: the longest is _The Dusk of the Gods_, which plays for about five hours. _Die Walküre_ and _Siegfried_ are each of them ordinary operas in three acts.

The legendary story of the Nibelungs forms the basis of the operas, and with it is combined the birth of Siegfried, child of earth-mortal and of war-maiden (Walküre), his life, death, and the general fall of the gods. The conception of the “Ring” was somewhat fortuitous. Wagner started with the story of Siegfried; he then found that he must explain that by telling the story of Brünnhilde, the war-maiden. To make this clear, a prelude (Rheingold) was necessary for the explanation of the presence of the cursed gold which lies buried beneath the Rhine, and over which gods and mortals fight and contend.

In the _Ring_, Wagner’s use of _leit-motiven_ and general principles reach their highest consummation. The music has its supreme moments of beauty, which are apparent to every auditor. For him who would sound these works to their fullest depths, study and concentrated thought are, in addition, necessary. In most cases, full enjoyment of the wondrous beauties and complexities of the scores will only come after hearing and much rehearing.

[Sidenote: “=Parsifal=”]

Wagner’s last opera, _Parsifal_, returns to the subject of the “Holy Grail,” and is entitled a Sacred Festival Drama. Its composer’s wish was that it should be performed at Bayreuth only, and for more than twenty years this request, backed also by copyright laws, was followed. Recently, however, in New York and in Amsterdam enterprising managers have, much against Madame Wagner’s wish, put it before their patrons. According to all accounts it is less impressive in an ordinary theatre than amidst the quiet surroundings of Bayreuth, and it seems to be a work unsuited for general performance, and one that should only be given at a suitable time, in a suitable place, and before an audience thoroughly in sympathy with the subject. Its performances in England have so far been restricted to the concert-room, when its Prelude, the Good Friday music, the chorus of Flower Girls, and other excerpts are sometimes given.

The story deals with the dual relationship of the hero, Parsifal, in his service to the Holy Grail (guarded by Titurel and Amfortas), and in his contact with the temptations of the world, as exemplified by Klingsor, with his magic charms, and Kundry, his most beautiful and ravishing assistant. Parsifal maintains his spotless innocence, spite of all temptation, and eventually opens up a way of salvation to the fallen Amfortas, and to all the knights of the Grail whose faith had languished and faded.

The music throughout is of intensely devotional feeling and of a religious fervour, varied only by the strains that accompany Kundry and the Flower Girls: the use of the guiding-theme is less prominent and important in this work than in the case of the _Ring_ operas, nor are the principles of its composer so closely followed out. Its sincerity, poetry, and depth always command our admiration and attention, even if the charm be not always so apparent as in some of the earlier operas.

[Sidenote: =Wagner’s Continued Development=]

Betwixt first and last in Wagner is a great gulf fixed: his was a nature that was content to go on only from strength to strength. Unlike Meyerbeer or Rossini, who were mostly content to write opera after opera upon the same general outline, the same broad pattern, Wagner always presses on towards a closer realization of an ideal form of work which he has set himself for achievement. Hence the cumulative power displayed in the wondrous series of music dramas of which we have attempted to give some slight account in this chapter.