CHAPTER XIX.

A CHAPTER OF CHATTER.

Opera and politics—_Lohengrin_ in Paris— Opera non-lucrative to the composer—Jenny Lind’s contract—Modern fees—Royalties— Librettists—Metastasio and Scribe—The prima donna—Stories of singers and composers.

[Sidenote: =Opera and Politics=]

Now and again it happens that Opera rubs shoulders with Politics, and acquires some importance in the affairs of nations. Lully’s power at court in the days of Louis XIV. was notorious, and none too generously exercised so far as his fellow musicians were concerned. But influence with monarchs, such as that which he acquired, is exceptional and rarer now, and less powerful than in those earlier days. Lully profited by the royal favour bestowed on him, but some great composers have been less fortunate.

Cherubini, for instance, was detested by the great Napoleon, who lost no opportunity of inflicting slights upon him. Cherubini’s sympathies were clearly manifested in his _Water Carrier_ opera, as on the side of revolution, but distinctly contrary to the excesses to which it often led. So enraged were some ruffians with him that he was in 1794 dragged out of his house, marched through Paris, and finally compelled to provide music for the pleasure of his captors. Napoleon frequently called him into his presence in order to praise other composers, suggesting that he compared unfavourably with them. When Cherubini replied with some little spirit, he was promptly punished by being compelled to conduct various concerts and state performances with no reward whatever.

On the other hand, Napoleon, for a time, could not do enough for Spontini: he commanded the production of _La Vestale_, and rewarded him with a present of 10,000 francs, loading him, moreover, with praises and honours; this did not, however, last for very long, for the downfall of the great conqueror was at hand, and anxieties and cares claimed his attention.

[Illustration: _Photo_] [_W. Shadwell Clerke._]

[Sidenote: =“Lohengrin” in Paris=]

Political feeling has probably never run so high over operatic matters as it did in Paris after the Franco-German war: for years no German work was tolerated, at any rate so far as new matter was concerned, and the determination of the management to produce Wagner’s _Lohengrin_ in 1891 was the signal for a riotous uproar. Public feeling ran high; some of the leading singers, considering discretion the better part of valour, caused frequent postponements of the performance by means of convenient indispositions, and when the work actually came to presentation cordons of police were called out to guard the opera house, both inside and out. M. Lamoureux, who conducted, did so with a pistol in his pocket. Opposition inside the theatre made itself felt by an objectionable device of setting floating in the auditorium little balloons of evil-smelling gas; while opposition in the street was met by cavalry charges and frequent arrests. The whole occasion was made one of political import, but fortunately commonsense prevailed, and no serious issues resulted; happily for opera, such scenes as these are infrequent and unusual.

In our country opera has little or no connection with political matters, except that when some foreign potentate visits our shores, a gala performance at Covent Garden is usually arranged as one of the features of his visit: so far as English art or English artists are concerned, there is, unfortunately, little use made of either on these occasions.

[Sidenote: =Opera non-lucrative to the Composer=]

Opera is not a fortune-making business for the majority of those who embark on such enterprise: so far as the composition of opera is concerned, financial result is usually very small. Nowadays an opera cannot be lightly tossed off in a few days: it is true that Handel composed _Rinaldo_ in fourteen days, Rossini _Il Barbiere_ in thirteen (a wonderful performance), and Pacini his _Saffo_ in four weeks; but these are very exceptional instances, and may fitly be compared with the labour of Wagner, who had the _Meistersinger_ and the _Ring_ on hand for something like twenty years. Modern opera, with its polyphonic orchestral background and amorphous movements, demands years of work, and for the majority of those who give so much of their lives to it there is little to show in return, so far as a monetary point of view is taken.

Operatic management, too, is very speculative; Handel lost his whole fortune (£10,000) and became bankrupt through his operatic ventures, and yet his works had enormous success in their day. It is to be feared that the example set by him has been followed by many a subsequent manager, and is yet in store for many another.

The chief item in expenditure is, of course, the enormous amount swallowed up in the fees paid to the singers; Handel paid Senesino 1,400 guineas for the season in 1731, and even allowing for the greater value of money in those days, that is a comparatively small amount. Here, for example, is the contract made by Jenny Lind with Mr. Lumley in 1846. Far less liberal, by the way, than such a singer would receive to-day:—

[Sidenote: =J. Lind’s Contract=]

“1. An honorarium of 120,000 francs (£4,800) for the season (April 14th-August 20th, 1847).

“2. A furnished house, carriage, and pair of horses.

“3. A sum of £300 should she desire to have a preliminary holiday in Italy.

“4. Liberty to cancel the engagement should she feel dissatisfied after her first appearance.

“5. An agreement not to sing elsewhere for her own emolument.”

It generally happens that a singer commands higher fees for private than for public singing, the advantage of the latter being as a rule a guaranteed number of appearances; Farinelli, for example, the chief singer engaged by the noble faction that set up in opposition to Handel in 1734 received only £1,500 per annum, but his private engagements made up his income to £5,000 a year—a large one at that date. This singer afterwards visited the court of Philip V. of Spain; that monarch was suffering from mental depression, from which nothing aroused him until the advent of Farinelli. The Queen was so delighted to see her royal spouse once more interested in anything that she engaged Farinelli at a salary of 50,000 francs to remain in Madrid; this he did, singing the _same four songs to the King every night for ten years_! Eventually Philip V. succumbed, but he must have been a patient monarch.

It does not always happen that singers of equal merit receive the same payments, some being more fortunate than others; Catalani, for example, in 1807 received £5,000 for the season, and with her concerts and provincial tours netted a profit for the year of £16,700. A more famous singer, Lablache, in 1828 could only command £1,600 for four months; while Malibran in 1835 received £2,755 for twenty-four appearances in London, and 45,000 francs for one hundred and eighty-five performances a few years later at La Scala.

[Sidenote: =Modern Fees=]

But these fees are as nothing compared with those commanded by the leading singers of to-day, more especially in America, where money is poured out like water, and where artists are retained at high fees by one opera house, even if they do not sing a single note during the whole season, so that a rival house should not secure their services. It is not very unusual for a singer to receive £1,000 per performance in the twentieth century. Madame Patti has stated that she received £1,200 per night for two seasons of sixty nights each. Caruso has been paid £20,000 for eighty performances, and about £8,000 per annum for singing into gramophones; his contract for four years at £40,000 per annum with the New York Metropolitan is probably a record in this direction.

Of course the amount received by those who compose the music never approximate to such figures as these. For _Don Juan_ Mozart received only 500 thalers, and for _Figaro_ 100 ducats. Weber’s payment for _Der Freischütz_ was 80 Friedrich d’ors, out of which he had to pay the librettist; after the treasury had netted 30,000 thalers from this work Weber was presented with another 100! There are, however, a few examples of fair bargains made by musicians: Spontini in 1814 was offered the then liberal salary of £750 per annum for two operas each year in Berlin; in 1819 he accepted a ten years’ engagement at the court of Frederick William III. of Berlin at a salary of 4,000 thalers, a benefit of 1,050 thalers, a free concert, and a pension. He was well treated, but did not himself behave very well, allowing his servant to sell free admissions to the theatre, and grumbling because his first-night presentations did not bring in as much as he wished. He finally ended by a demand for compensation for 46,850 thalers, and that in face of the fact that he was convicted of _lèse-majesté_ and sentenced to nine months’ imprisonment: an indignity from which his new monarch graciously released him.

[Sidenote: =Royalties=]

Sometimes an agreement is made with the composer by which he receives a royalty or lump sum for each performance of his work. To the composer of an opera that takes the public fancy this spells fortune, and vast sums have now and again been made in this way. Isouard, for example, received for the performances of his _Cendrillon_ in Paris alone over 100,000 francs in 1810, while Rossini and others have by similar strokes of luck easily acquired wealth. So small, however, is the proportion of new works to-day which become popular, that the chances of such good fortune are very small; a _Cavalleria Rusticana_ only makes its appearance now and then, nor is the composer of such a work often able to repeat his success.

[Sidenote: =Librettists=]

Although rarely recognized, the work of the author of the libretto is of vast importance. In the days when the story meant little or nothing, provided so many pegs were provided on which to hang the “Arias,” the share of the librettist was a less conspicuous one; to-day no inconsiderable part of the failure of an opera is due to a poor libretto. It therefore frequently happens that composers, finding it impossible to find a poem to please them, write their own libretti, the chief example of this dual work being Wagner, whose dramas are often very fine considered from a literary point of view alone.

[Sidenote: =Metastasio and Scribe=]

Most famous of the librettists of early operas is Metastasio (1698-1782), some of whose poems were set by thirty and forty different composers: he wrote dramas used by such composers as Handel, Hasse, Jomelli, Porpora, Graun, Gluck, Meyerbeer, Caldara, Haydn, Cimarosa, and Mozart. In later days mention may be made of the dramatist Scribe (1791-1861), a French poet who provided a vast number of works for both the Grand Opera and the Opera Comique. The list of composers who have used Scribe’s libretti includes Auber, Adam, Boieldieu, Donizetti, Hérold, Halèvy, Meyerbeer, and Verdi. Quite one hundred of his operas were staged and performed, to say nothing of light dramatic and other pieces.

[Sidenote: =The Prima Donna=]

Scattered here and there in literature that deals with opera may be found endless stories of singers, composers, and art-patrons. Most fruitful in providing amusing tales are the _prime donne_, whose jealousies and bickerings, although unpleasant enough for those who have to contend against them, make sufficiently good reading. The Prima Donna generally knows her power, and is autocratic: there is not every day at hand a Handel, to take such a one forcibly by the scruff of her neck and hang her suspended from a window in mid-air until his will is granted. When such a factious lady has a husband in the same rôle consequences may be very bad indeed: the tenor Arsani, for example, the teacher of the Garcias, had a wife who was a prima donna; but instead of acting together, so jealous were they of each other, that when one was receiving the plaudits of the audience the other would go round into the auditorium and hiss!

Rivalry is not always, however, so apparent, and when fine singers are willing to co-operate, very fine results are sometimes obtained. The most notable ensemble in this respect was probably that of the four great singers, Grisi, Rubini, Tamburini, and Lablache, a combination of talent very seldom equalled, which delighted auditors of the early Victorian era.

Nowadays, although a person of power, the great singer has not the field so entirely to himself as to be able to dictate as to what he will or will not do: a certain tenor, for example, at Marseilles early in 1905 withdrew his promise to sing at a certain concert for the reason that a rival tenor had been engaged. Great was his amazement to find that this refusal by no means jeopardized the concert, as he had hoped, but rather became an additional source of amusement; for the management, having advertised him, determined that he should be seen upon the stage, and a ridiculous effigy of him was brought forward, and a trio from _Faust_ sung by other singers grouped round it. This may not have been very dignified, or even witty, but a few drastic measures of this kind might induce singers to be a little more reasonable in their treatment of the public.

Strange measures are sometimes taken to prevent the success of an opera: a hired body of fellows to hiss in opposition to the organized claque is by no means a rare sight in a French house; but sometimes more militant measures are taken. Rousseau’s _Le Devin du Village_, for example, received its _coup de grace_ from the fact that in 1828 some person (supposed to have been Berlioz) threw a huge powdered wig on to the stage in the midst of the performance. So bad was the opposition to Jomelli’s _Armida_, produced in 1750, that its composer flew the house for his life by a back door. The opposition to _Lohengrin_ in Paris has already been commented upon, but that to _Tannhäuser_, organized by the Jockey Club in 1866, was even stronger: noise and disorder filled the theatre; people in the pit played flageolets, while the gallery sang riotous songs. So prejudiced was public opinion that a fair hearing was not accorded to the work. Under these conditions it is not altogether incredible that Merimée should have exclaimed that he could write similar music after hearing his cat walk up and down the pianoforte!

Of composers, there are perhaps more amusing stories of Spontini than of any other single opera writer. This very opinionated and high-handed Italian thought much of himself, and little of all else, with the result that his life is very amusing reading. He _would_ have what he wanted. If his cellos could not play loud enough, they were made to sing their parts as well; if, after six hours’ rehearsal, his prima donna fainted, he suggested that someone with more physique should be engaged. He did not, however, always have his own way. When _La Petite Maison_ was produced in 1804, the audience dashed on the stage and smashed everything, while _La Vestale_ was greeted with laughing, snoring, and the putting on of nightcaps. His orchestra, although moderate in volume in comparison with what often obtains to-day, was considered very noisy, so much so that it is said that a certain doctor who had a very deaf patient thought he might be made to hear by attending a performance of _La Vestale_. After a specially noisy passage the deaf man with delight turned to his doctor: “I can hear,” said he. His remark met with no response, for the reason that the doctor himself had been deafened by the noise.

Spontini felt such opposition very keenly: others are less affected by hostility. When Rossini’s _Il Barbiere_ was produced at Rome in 1816, it was hooted and hissed, much to the chagrin of several of the composer’s friends. Thinking to commiserate with him on the failure of his work, they called at his house, expecting to find him in the depths of despair: instead of that the maestro was safely tucked up in bed and fast asleep.

Quotations of stories of singer and composer might fill many chapters of such a book as this, but there are books such as Sutherland Edward’s _History of the Opera_ and Ella’s _Musical Reminiscences_ to which those interested may readily turn, and therefore need not be reprinted here.

A whole wealth of amusement may be derived from the daily papers, and to-day the impressarios of New York seem to be the most persecuted persons in the world. Opera has its worries and troubles, but to those who love it it is a constant source of refreshment and of artistic joy.

Appendices.

A. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF COMPOSERS OF OPERA, GREAT SINGERS, CONDUCTORS, ETC.

B. FINANCIAL AID GRANTED TO OPERATIC SCHEMES FROM STATE OR MUNICIPAL FUNDS.

C. GLOSSARY OF TERMS MAINLY USED IN OPERA.

D. LIST OF INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE ORCHESTRAS OF COMPOSERS OF DIFFERENT PERIODS OF OPERA.

E. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF OPERA.

Appendix A.

Chronological List of Composers of Opera (with names of their chief works), Great Singers, Conductors, etc.

1535 (?). =Vincenzo Galilei= (Florence). Early writer of music drama on the lines of Greek tragedy.

1550 (?). =Cavalieri.= Composer of the first oratorio, also of four music dramas. One of the earliest composers to seek to illustrate the meaning of the words by the music.

15— (?). =Giovanni Bardi.= The instigator of the idea of modern opera: at Bardi’s house the circle of dilletanti and musicians assembled and endeavoured to resuscitate Greek drama by the provision of suitable music.

15— (?). =Jacopo Peri.= Composer of first real opera in the modern sense of the term; _Dafne_ (1597) and _Euridice_ (1600) are the titles of his works, in the monodic style. These opened up new ground, and set a model which other composers quickly followed.

1558. =Guilio Caccini= (Rome). Opera composer of the monodic school; shares with Peri the merit of founding modern opera.

1567. =Claudio Monteverde= (Cremona), 1567-1643. Writer of many operas, intermezzi, etc.; he was a great innovator in harmony, and also did much to extend the use of the various instruments of the orchestra. The earliest composer to associate certain groups of instruments with certain of the stage characters.

1575. =Thomas Campion= (London). English composer of masques and ballets.

1580. =John Coperario= (London). An Englishman who travelled in Italy, and wrote music for English plays.

1582. =William Lawes= (Dinton). English composer of court masques and airs.

1585. =Heinrich Schütz= (Köstritz), 1585-1672. First German operatic composer, who also excelled in church music.

1588 or 1590. =Nicholas Laniere= (Italy). A foreign musician who settled in England and wrote music for masques; one of his compositions was a masque by Ben Johnson, “in stylo recitativo.”

1596. =Henry Lawes= (Dinton). English composer who shared with Matthew Lock and Cook the composition of one of the earliest English operas, _The Siege of Rhodes_.

1597. =Benedetto Ferrari= (Venice). Helped to found the Venetian School of Opera.

1600. =Pietro F. Cavalli= (Crema). A follower of Monteverde, who wrote at least twenty-seven operas, mostly for Venice, but some were performed in Paris; a composer of dramatic power.

1600. Production of Peri’s _Orfeo_, the first publicly performed opera.

1600 (?). =Francesco Manelli= (Venice). Shares with Ferrari the credit of the foundation of opera in his native city.

1604. =Giacomo Carissimi= (Marino). Great composer of oratorio, who also wrote occasionally for the stage.

1620. =Marcantonio Cesti= (Florence?). Follower of Cavalli and Carissimi; wrote about twelve operas.

1625. =Giovanni Legrenzi= (Bergamo). Composer of seventeen operas, mostly produced in Venice.

1627. The first German opera (_Dafne_) produced.

1628. =Robert Cambert= (Paris). First French composer of opera; at first thoroughly successful, this musician was ousted from his position by Lully, and died in England in 1677.

1632 (?). =Matthew Lock= (Exeter). Composer of incidental music to plays (_The Tempest_, _Macbeth_, etc.), one of which (_Psyche_) was published under the title of “The English Opera.”

1633. =Jean Batiste Lully= (Florence). Migrated to France at an early age; obtained great power at the court of Louis XIV., and monopolized French opera for many years. He wrote at least thirty ballets and twenty operas. Lully died in 1687.

1635. =G. V. Draghi.= Italian composer who settled in England and wrote incidental music and act tunes.

1637. =Bernardo Pasquini= (Tuscany). Wrote a few operas for Rome; a fine polyphonic composer.

1640. =Giovanni Buononcini= (Modena). Father of a more famous son; wrote five operas, which remain in MS.

1645. =Alessandro Stradella= (Venice?), 1645-81. Although more famous for his church music, wrote eleven operas.

1645. =Francesco Rossi= (Bari). Wrote four operas for Venice.

1646. =Johann Thiele= (Naumburg). Composer of opera and also of Singspiel. His Singspiel, _Adam and Eve_, produced in 1678, was the first of such works to be publicly performed in Germany, and is interesting as being the forerunner of many a subsequent work of the same class which has obtained world-wide popularity.

1646. _Akebar, Roi de Mogol_, the first French opera (words and music by the Abbé Mailly), performed at Carpentras.

1649. =Pascal Colasse= (Rheims). Wrote many operas, after the model of Lully.

1650. =Marais.= Composer of French opera; died 1718.

1658. =Henry Purcell= (London), 1658-95. English composer of great dramatic power and of marked originality. Wrote music for many masques, plays, and for the first real English opera, _Dido and Æneas_; had it not been for the powerful personality of Handel, which dwarfed all other matters musical during the time he lived in London, Purcell might have founded a real school of English opera. Chief works: _Dido and Æneas_ (1677), _The Indian Queen_ (1690), Dryden’s _Tempest_ (1690), _Dioclesian_ (1690), _King Arthur_ (1691), _Bonduca_ (1695).

1659. =Alessandro Scarlatti= (Trapani), 1659-1725. Composer of one hundred and fifteen operas; is important as the first to largely employ set forms in his works. His use of the Da capo Aria, although at first attended with success, became so popular as to be the means of its own undoing. He also uses the orchestral ritornello, occasionally employed by Monteverde, and is the first composer to make full use of the orchestra for the accompaniment of recitative. While histrionically interesting, little of his music would be accepted to-day.

1659. =Francesco A. Pistocchi= (Palermo). A member of the Bolognese school of composers.

1660. =André Campra= (Aix, Provence). Popular writer of French opera, who attempted to combine the features of the Italian and French schools; he produced about thirty works of high rank.

1661. =J. A. Perti= (Bologna). Another member of the Bolognese school; produced operas in his native town and at Venice.

1667. =Antonio Lotti= (Venice). Produced an opera before he was sixteen years of age, and wrote many others in after life.

1667. =Dr. Pepusch= (Berlin). Famous German composer who settled in London, and collected the songs and pieces which made up _The Beggar’s Opera_, the first of a long line of such ballad operas.

1670 (?). =Johann Conradi.= Early writer of German opera; produced works at Hamburg.

1672. =Giovanni Batiste Buononcini= (Modena), 1672-1750 (?). Writer of twenty-two operas; mainly famous as having been the selected composer pitted against Handel, with disastrous results to both parties financially.

1672. =André Destouches= (Paris). Wrote a famous opera, _Issé_; and many other works for the stage.

1674. =Reinhard Keiser= (Weissenfels), 1674-1739. First important composer of German opera, composing sometimes as many as eight in one year; one hundred and sixteen works stand to his name, many with the recitatives in German and the arias in Italian.

1675. =Marc Antonio Buononcini= (Modena). Wrote an opera, _Camilla_, which was played sixty-four times in England during four years; brother of Handel’s rival.

1677. Production of Purcell’s _Dido and Æneas_, the first real English opera.

1678 (?). =Antonio Caldara= (Venice). Wrote sixty-six operas, besides a large number of oratorios and other works.

1680 (?). =Senesino.= Famous male soprano, who appeared in many of the operas Handel wrote for London; he retired from the stage in 1735 with a fortune of £15,000.

1681. =Johann Mattheson= (Hamburg). Opera singer and composer and a friend of Handel, in some of whose operas he appeared.

1683. =Jean Phillippe Rameau= (Dijon), 1683-1764. One of the early fathers of French opera, and second only in importance to Lully; produced many operas, and influenced Gluck, who heard some of his works in Paris.

1684. =Francesco Durante= (Naples). Wrote occasionally for the stage, but mostly for the church.

1685. =George Frederick Handel= (Hallé), 1685-1759. Wrote operas for Italy, Germany, and England. In great contrast to the music of his oratorios, his opera music sounds antiquated and dull; its only performance to-day is the occasional singing of an air from one of the operas.

1686. =Niccola Porpora= (Naples), 1686-1767. Wrote many operas, mainly consisting of florid arias and vocal gymnastics; a wonderful singing-master, who turned out some excellent pupils.

1698. =P. A. D. B. Metastasio= (Rome). One of the greatest of librettists; he furnished subjects for operatic treatment for a vast number of composers, including Gluck and Mozart.

1699. =Johann A. Hasse= (Bergedorf), 1699-1783. Fertile opera composer, who produced over one hundred works with success. Hasse possessed great gifts of melody, and was fortunate in having a remarkably fine singer in his wife, who acted as exponent of many of the leading parts.

1700. =Faustina Hasse= (Venice). Sang also for Handel, and was very popular in London; her salary for 1726 was £2,000; a great rivalry existed between Hasse and Cuzzoni.

1700. =Francesca Cuzzoni= (Modena). Also sang for Handel; this is the lady whom he threatened to throw out of the window unless she sang what he wished. She died in poverty in 1770.

1700. =Nicolo Logroscino= (Naples). Wrote comic operas, and is credited with the invention of the concerted finale; his operas are all in the Neapolitan dialect.

1701. =K. H. Graun= (Wahrenbrüch). Wrote twenty-seven operas, which contain melodies and good arias. He is better known by his church cantatas, especially _Der Tod Jesu_.

1703. =G. M. Caffarelli= (Naples). Famous singer, said to have been kept by Porpora for five years to one page of exercises and then dismissed as the greatest singer in Europe. He had great success in male soprano parts.

1705. =Giovanni Carestini= (Ancona). Famous male contralto, who sang for Handel in London.

1705. =C. B. Farinelli= (Naples). Another pupil of Porpora, who sang for the party opposed to Handel; one of the most renowned singers the world has ever produced.

1709. =Egidio Duni= (Matera). Seems to have founded opera comique in France, writing many such works for the Parisian stage.

1710. =Thomas Arne= (London), 1710-78. One of the most famous of early English opera writers; besides many masques (including Milton’s _Comus_) he wrote the opera _Artaxerxes_, which enjoyed many years of popularity. Arne is best known to-day by the incidental music which he wrote to Shakespeare’s _Tempest_, the song, “Where the Bee sucks,” being world known.

1710. =G. V. Pergolesi= (Jesi), 1710-36. A composer of great promise, whose early death may be much lamented. Although best known by his church music, he had many merits as a writer of opera. His best work in this direction is a short operetta, _La Serva Padrona_.

1712. =J. J. Rousseau= (Paris), 1712-78, the famous litterateur, wrote operas, the most famous of which, _Le Devin du Village_, may claim to have been the first opera comique; its success was enormous, but the orchestration and some of the details are not Rousseau’s.

1714. =Nicolo Jommelli= (Aversa), 1714-74. One of the best composers of the Neapolitan school, who combined skilful design with melodious and expressive themes. Mozart thought much of his music and extolled his operas; his sacred music alone has come down to our day.

1714. =Cristopher Willibald Gluck= (Weidenwang), 1714-87. The first of the great reformers of opera. Besides a very large number of works written on old models, his newer-fashioned and enduring masterpieces include _Orfeo_ (1762), _Alceste_ (1767), _Iphigénie en Aulide_ (1774), _Amide_ (1777), _Iphigénie en Tauride_ (1778).

1725. =Gaetano Guadagni= (Lodi). A great male contralto who sang for Handel and created a _furore_ in London.

1726. =F. A. D. Philidor= (Dreux). Famous chess player and operatic composer; was a prolific writer. He was the first to introduce the unaccompanied quartet upon the stage. His happiest essay was upon the English subject _Tom Jones_.

1728. =J. A. Hiller= (Görlitz). Established the Singspiel, composing fourteen of these works, which met with pronounced success.

1728. =Nicolo Piccini= (Bari). A good composer, now mostly remembered as the opponent of Gluck; while the fact militated against the success of his operas upon their production, it has kept his memory green and has gained attention for his music, which, although on the prevalent model of its time, has much merit.

1729. =Guiseppe Sarti= (Faenza). Produced many operas of great excellence, which are forgotten to-day. His triumphs were won in such contrasted centres as Milan and St. Petersburg.

1729. =P. A. Monsigny= (St. Omer). Composed many forgotten operas; while possessing melodic gifts he had little training, and his scoring and constructive powers were weak. His best works are _Le Déserteur_ (1769), and _Félix ou l’enfant trouvé_ (1777).

1732. =Joseph Haydn= (Rohrau), 1732-1809, the master who excelled in so many branches of the art, made no serious claim to be a composer of opera. A few works were written by him for the stage while he was attached to Count Esterhazy, but they can in no way compare with his labours in other fields, nor had they any bearing upon the growth and development of opera as an art form.

1733. =F. J. Gossec= (Hainault). A Belgian composer of some repute in his day; his operas were mostly written for Paris.

1734. =A. M. G. Sacchini= (Pozzuoli), 1734-86. A composer of dramatic gifts much influenced by Gluck, whose compositions quite overshadow those of his follower. Sacchini wrote over forty operas.

1739. =K. D. von Dittersdorf= (Vienna). Composed very many operas, both serious and light. He is best known by the Singspiel, _Doctor und Apotheke_ (1786).

1741. =A. E. M. Grétry= (Liége). A fertile composer, very gifted for the writing of opera comique, wrote fifty operas for Paris. He had a knack of cleverly illustrating the stage situation, and although his harmonies were so thin that it was said that one could “draw a coach and four between the bass and the first fiddle,” he yet seems to have been more apt in his musical conceptions than many a more cultured musician.

1741. =Giovanni Paisiello= (Tarento). May be reckoned amongst the most prolific of Italian composers of his period. He was one of the first to introduce the concerted finale into serious opera, this form having hitherto been almost entirely confined to light opera. His _Barber of Seville_ became so famous as almost to wreck the production of an opera under the same title by Rossini.

1743. =Lucretia Agujari= (Ferrara). Was a singer of extraordinary ability and compass.

1745. =Ludwig Fischer= (Mainz). Also a singer of great compass, having a round bass voice of two and a half octaves. He was a friend of Mozart’s, and sang in the production of _Entführung aus dem Serail_.

[Music]

1748. =William Shield= (Durham). Composer to Covent Garden Theatre; wrote operas both serious and comic. He appears to have possessed great melodic gifts, and his many works are notable for their vigour and their tunefulness. He died in 1829.

1749. =The Abbé Vogler= (Würzburg), 1749-1814. Was a man of many parts; he wrote upon theatrical matters, and composed music for the organ, for instruments, for the church, and for the stage. His operatic music is perhaps of the least importance, although his stage productions number some sixteen pieces.

1749. =Domenico Cimarosa= (Aversa). Was in his day a most popular composer of opera, sixty-six fine works standing to his credit. He made his mark more especially in his comic operas, of which _Il matrimonio segreto_ (1792) is the best known.

1749. =Gertrude Elizabeth Mara= (Cassel). A fine singer, made little impression upon Mozart, but still appears to have been a great artist. She had a beautiful voice and great facility; she was one of Handel’s best singers in England.

1750. =Antonio Salieri= (Legnano). Wrote thirty-seven operas and a Singspiel. His works were modelled upon those of Gluck, and present no special features of interest.

1752. =J. F. Reichardt= (Königsberg). Wrote some moderately successful operas, and some important specimens of Singspiel, mostly for Berlin.

1752. =N. A. Zingarelli= (Naples). Was a prolific operatic composer, who penned some thirty operas, besides much sacred music. His style was recommended by Napoleon to Cherubini, much to the disgust of the last-named composer.

1754. =Peter Winter= (Mannheim), 1754-1825. Wrote a very large number of tuneful and melodious operas. His works have not survived to the present day, being structurally weak, but they were very successful during the composer’s life and for a few years afterwards.

1756. =Vincenzo Righini= (Bologna). Was operatic singer, composer, and conductor. His twenty operas were many of them produced at Berlin, where he was for some years conductor of the Italian Opera.

1756. =Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart= (Salzburg), 1756-91. The long list of Mozart’s operas (many of them written in youth) includes _Idomeneo_ (1781), _Die Entführung aus dem Serail_ (1782), _Le Nozze di Figaro_ (1786), _Don Giovanni_ (1787), _Cosi fan tutte_ (1790), _La Clemenza di Tito_ (1791), _Die Zauberflöte_ (1791).

1760. =Maria Luigi C. Z. S. Cherubini= (Florence), 1760-1842. An accomplished musician in all departments; wrote fine operas, containing a wealth of sterling music. His chief operas are _La Finta Principessa_ (1785), _Giulio Sabino_ (1786), _Démophon_ (1788), _Lodoiska_ (1791), _Médée_ (1797), _Les deux Journées_ (1800), _Anacreon_ (1803), _Faniska_ (1806), _Les Abencerages_ (1813), _Ali Baba_ (1833).

1760. =Aloysia Weber= (Mannheim). A vocalist for whom Mozart conceived a great affection, eventually, however, marrying her sister. The part of “Constance,” in _Die Entführung aus dem Serail_, was written for her.

1761. =Katherina Cavalieri= (Währing). Was a singer for whom both Mozart and Salieri wrote special parts in their operas. Mozart said of her that “she was a singer of whom Germany might well be proud.”

1763. =Stephen Storace= (London). Produced some early operas in Vienna, where he formed a friendship with Mozart. On his return to London he produced _The Haunted Tower_ (1789), _The Pirates_ (1792), and many other works, which attained very great success. He is almost the earliest example of an English composer introducing the concerted finale.

1763. =Etienne Henri Méhul= (Givet). Had a wonderful talent for opera, of which he produced a great quantity of examples, in addition to writing ballets and operettas. His best known works are _Uthal_ and _Joseph_. Méhul died in 1822.

1763. =J. F. Lesueur= (Abbeville). Wrote a certain number of operas for Paris, of which the best is _Les Bardes_. The march of time has left Lesueur behind, in company with many another composer of considerable but not commanding merits.

1766. =F. X. Süssmayer= (Steyer). Is chiefly known to fame as being a sort of “hack” to Mozart, writing recitatives and filling in details for the great and busy composer, whose factotum he was for some years.

1766. =G. Crescentini= (Urbania). Was a famous sopranist, one of the last of his class; he won favour from many, including the Emperor Napoleon, who showered benefits upon him. He not only sang magnificently, but composed arias to suit his own voice and special style.

1766. =Joseph Weigl= (Eisenstadt). Wrote one famous work, _Schweizer Familie_, and many others of less import, numbering thirty-one in all, besides ballets.

1767. =Henri Berton= (Paris). Wrote many operas. He is interesting, moreover, as an early instance of a composer penning his own libretti. His music was often written in conjunction with others, such as Cherubini, Méhul, and Spontini.

1768. =Elizabeth Billington= (London). Was a prima donna of exceptional compass. During a long and varied career she appeared on the boards of many an operatic stage in Europe; her successes were, however, largely won in England.

1770. =Ludwig von Beethoven= (Bonn), 1770-1827. Beethoven’s single opera, _Fidelio_, was produced at Vienna in 1806.

1771. =Ferdinand Paer= (Parma). Was an Italian composer of many operas, both serious and comic; his _Eleanor_ seems to have inspired Beethoven’s _Fidelio_.

1773. =C. S. Catel= (l’Aigle). Wrote many operatic works for the Paris Opera. His music was looked upon by the French public as “academic” because he held a professorship at the Conservatoire; hence it stood condemned before trial and had little chance. Catel was associated with Cherubini in the composition of one opera.

1774. =G. L. P. Spontini= (Majolate), 1774-1851. One of the most interesting personalities in the history of opera. Although he wrote Italian opera for Naples, his great successes were achieved in the field of French grand opera, of which he remains one of the shining ornaments. His chief operas are _La Vestale_ (1807), _Ferdinand Cortez_ (1809), _Olympia_ (1821), _Alcidor_ (1825); none are now performed.

1774. =C. E. F. Weyse= (Altona). Was a composer of Danish opera, whose works, however, have not penetrated beyond the country for which they were written. He seems to have been one of the earliest to introduce the Scandinavian Volkslied to the stage.

1775. =F. A. Boieldieu= (Rouen). Is world known by his opera, _La Dame Blanche_, produced in Paris in 1825, one of many works, but the only one at all known to fame. He spent eight years in Russia writing operas and ballets for that country, but his greatest achievements belong to his second Parisian period.

1775. =Nicolo Isouard= (Malta). Is another composer of works for the Parisian houses, no less than thirty-four operas standing to his credit. Isouard and Boieldieu were in keen rivalry, to their great advantage, since both put forth their best work.

1780. =Angelica Catalani.= Was the possessor of a voice of wonderful flexibility, with a speciality for chromatic scales. For the period at which she flourished, she probably made more money than any other artist. Her greatest success seems to have been as “Susanne” in Mozart’s _Nozze di Figaro_.

1782. =D. F. E. Auber= (Caen). Was one of the greatest masters of opera comique; his melodious style and piquant orchestration are models of their kind, and have secured a lasting vogue for his works, the best known of which are _Masaniello_ (1828), _Fra Diavolo_ (1830), _Le Chevale de Bronze_ (1835), _Le Domino Noir_ (1837), _Les Diamants de la Couronne_ (1842).

1782. =Conradin Kreutzer= (Mösskirch). Wrote a number of successful operas, his powers as a composer of attractive arias being considerable. His fairy opera, _Der Verschwender_, may still occasionally be heard in Germany.

1784. =Louis Spohr= (Brunswick), 1784-1859. Is a composer mostly known in England by his sacred music and his violin compositions. His claims as a writer of operas must not, however, be overlooked, his _Faust_ being in the van with regard to Romanticism in opera. His _Jessonda_ also met with considerable favour, and its overture often gains a hearing in our concert rooms.

1784. =Francesco Morlacchi= (Perugia). Was chorus-master of the Italian Opera at Dresden, for which town he wrote a large number of works, successful in their day, but now never heard. He mostly excelled in the composition of light, sparkling, and superficial music.

1786. =Carl Maria von Weber= (Eutin), 1786-1826. Besides many early works, which call for no special mention, Weber’s operatic productions include _Der Freischütz_, _Euryanthe_ (1823), and _Oberon_ (1826).

1786. =Henry Rowley Bishop= (London). Was a most prolific writer of operas for the London theatres, eighty-two of such works standing to his name; many of these, however, do not merit the term “opera” as we understand it to-day. Bishop was most effective in his choruses and his writing for the voice generally.

1787. =M. E. Carafa= (Naples). Wrote thirty-five operas, which met with great success in Italy; he is now a forgotten composer.

1790. =Alberico Curioni= (Naples?). Was a famous tenor singer who met with great success in London, notably in the opera _Medea_.

1790. =Nicola Vaccaj= (Tolentino). Wrote many Italian operas, particularly for Venice. One at least of his works was also presented in London, where he lived for a short time.

1791. =Giacomo Meyerbeer= (Berlin), 1791-1864. Is a very notable figure in the annals of opera, and his best works still survive in the repertoires of the leading houses. These are _Robert le Diable_ (1831), _Les Huguenots_ (1836), _Le Prophète_ (1849), _L’Étoile du Nord_ (1854), _Dinorah_ (1859), and _L’Africaine_ (1864).

1791. =L. J. F. Hérold= (Paris). Is best known by his _Zampa_ and _Le Pré aux Clercs_, both of which are frequently before the public.

1791. =P. J. Lindpaintner= (Coblenz). Wrote twenty-eight operas, mostly forgotten now. The best seems to be _Der Vampyr_.

1792. =G. A. Rossini= (Pesaro), 1792-1868. Is world known, if only for his _William Tell_ music. From his enormous list of operatic works, the following may be selected for mention: _Tancredi_ (1813), _L’Italiani in Algeri_ (1813), _Il Barbiere di Siviglia_ (1816), _La Cenerentola_ (1817), _La Gazza Ladra_ (1817), _Semiramide_ (1823), _Mosé in Egitto_ (1818), _Guillaume Tell_ (1829).

1794. =Luigi Lablache= (Naples). Was a magnificent bass singer who delighted Europe. He excelled in both serious and comic parts, and was a well-equipped artist.

1795. =G. B. Rubini= (Romano). Was equally celebrated as a tenor of the first rank. His greatest successes were attained in Rossini’s and Bellini’s operas.

1796. =Giovanni Pacini= (Catania). Wrote a large number of operas, of which the best is _Saffo_ (Naples, 1840). His works total eighty specimens of opera alone, but most are written upon the pattern of Rossini.

1796. =Heinrich Marschner= (Zittau). Was a powerful composer of romantic opera. _Hans Heiling_ is especially fine, while mention must also be made of _Templer und Jüdin_ and of _Der Vampyr_. His operas are conceived in a kindred spirit to that of Weber’s.

1797. =Franz Schubert= (Vienna), 1797-1828. Schubert’s importance as a writer of opera is small as compared with his achievement in other fields—such as song and symphony. The chief in degree are _Fierrabras_ and _Alfonso und Estella_.

1797. =Saverio Mercadante= (Altamura). Wrote a number of operas on the Italian model, of which _Il Guiramento_ (Milan, 1837) is the finest.

1797. =Lucy Elizabeth Vestris= (London). Made a great impression as a singer upon the opera habitués of her day. She was the original “Fatima” in the production of _Oberon_.

1797. =Gaetano Donizetti= (Bergamo). Wrote a very large number of operas, which present such opportunities to vocalists as to be frequently produced to-day. The chief ones in the modern repertoire are _Lucia di Lammermoor_ (1835), _Lucretia Borgia_ (1833), _L’Elisir d’Amore_, _La Fille du Régiment_ (1840), _Linda di Chamounix_ (1842), _La Favorita_ (1840), _Don Pasquale_.

1798. =Giudetta Pasta= (Como). Was an Italian singer of great charm and ability; in Rossini’s operas she appears to have been almost unequalled.

1798. =K. G. Reissiger= (Belzig). A prolific composer, produced many operas of an “academic” class, which have not survived their day.

1799. =J. F. F. E. Halévy= (Paris). Wrote a vast number of French operas, the best known of which is _La Juive_.

1800. =Antonio Tamburini= (Faenza). Was a baritone singer and a member of the famous “Puritani” quartet, which delighted both London and Paris for so many years. He excelled in his interpretation of the baritone parts of operas of the Rossini school.

1801. =Vincenzo Bellini= (Catania). This famous opera composer is still known by the frequent performance of his best works—_La Somnambula_ (1831), _Norma_ (1831), _I Puritani_ (1835). More might have come from this composer, had he not died at the early age of thirty-four.

1802. =John Barnett= (Bedford). Was an English composer of a number of operas and of music for stage pieces. He has the credit of the first real English opera since Arne’s _Artexerxes_ in his _Mountain Sylph_, produced in 1835. This is his best known work, but he wrote other operas, such as _Fair Rosamund_ (1837) and _Farinelli_ (1839).

1802. =Louis Niedermeyer= (Nyon). Had the misfortune to produce several operas which were mostly failures. He had, however, original ideas as to orchestration, and is worthy of remembrance for his gifts of melody.

1803. =Adolphe Charles Adam= (Paris). Wrote grand opera, ballet music, and opera comique, being only remembered for the last-named, for which he had real talent. His best work is _Le Postillon de Longjumeau_ (1836).

1803. =G. A. Lortzing= (Berlin). Wrote many operas still popular in Germany; one indeed, _Peter the Shipwright_, has met with considerable success in this country. He wrote upon a model which Sullivan so excellently employed in his light operas.

1803. =Hector Berlioz= (Grenoble), 1803-69. An eccentric genius among musicians. Wrote operas such as _Les Troyens_ and _Benvenuto Cellini_, which contain fine music, but which have never pleased the public, and which remain practically unperformed.

1804. =Julius Benedict= (Stuttgart). Although a German, is always looked upon as an English composer, his life having been spent in this country. He is best known by his often-performed _Lily of Killarney_, which dates from 1862. Benedict died in 1885.

1804. =Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient= (Hamburg). Must always remain a person of interest to musicians, in that she created the part of Leonora in Beethoven’s _Fidelio_ upon its revival in 1822, when that work really gained a fair hearing. She was also an early exponent of Wagnerian parts (Senta, Venus, etc.).

1804. =Michael I. Glinka= (Novospaskoi). Is the earliest of Russian opera composers to be known outside his own country, and he is important, not only for his compositions of _Life for the Czar_ and _Russlan_, but also in that he founded a school of Russian opera which has brought forth much fruit.

1805. =Luigi Ricci= (Naples). Wrote a large number of operas, very famous in their day, but now forgotten.

1805. =Manuel Garcia= (Madrid). The wonderful centenarian: claims notice as the trainer of those fine operatic artists, Jenny Lind and Catherine Hayes.

1806. =Henrietta Sontag= (Coblenz). Was a charming and gifted soprano of European reputation, who delighted all hearers, and seems to have combined a charming personality with great artistic attainments.

1807. =J. A. Tichatschek= (Weckelsdorf). Was a Bohemian tenor who made for himself a great reputation in all the grand operas of the greater masters. He was also the original “Rienzi” and “Tannhäuser.”

1808. =A. L. Clapisson= (Naples). Was a graceful composer of many operas which pleased in their day, but which have had no continuance of popular favour.

1808. =Michael William Balfe= (Dublin), 1808-1888. Is the best known of English opera writers of his period, and his _Bohemian Girl_ (1843) is familiar to all. Other of his successes are _The Siege of Rochelle_ (1835), _The Maid of Artois_ (1836), _Blanche de Nevers_ (1863), _Il Talismano_ (1874).

1808. =Michael A. A. Costa= (Naples). Was best known as a conductor, more especially of the Italian opera in England. He wrote a few forgotten specimens, but is mainly of importance as a wielder of the bâton. Costa died in 1884.

1808. =P. L. P. Dietsch= (Dijon). Was also a conductor. His chief claim to fame seems to have been that he purchased the libretto of Wagner’s _Flying Dutchman_, and clothed it with absolutely forgotten music.

1808. =Albert Gnsar= (Antwerp). Wrote a number of comic operas for Paris. They seem to have been works of elegance and grace, without special distinction.

1808. =Marie Felicita Malibran= (Paris). Performed in opera at the age of five. She seems to have had no rivals as a singer, and excelled in all parts which she undertook. She created an indelible impression upon all that were fortunate enough to hear her.

1809. =Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy= (Hamburg), 1809-1847. The claims of Mendelssohn as a writer of opera are not serious, and are confined to a few early and incomplete works. The best, musically, is the fragment of _Lorelei_.

1809. =F. Ricci= (Naples). Like his brother Luigi, wrote operas which have not survived their generation.

1809. =J. H. Hatton= (Liverpool). Is better known as a writer of songs than of operas. He wrote, however, a good deal of incidental music for the stage, as well as one real opera.

1810. =Robert Schumann= (Zwickau), 1810-56. Schumann’s one contribution to the field of opera is his _Genoveva_, which is seldom heard, in spite of many unquestionable beauties.

1810. =Otto Nicolai= (Königsberg). Was a capable composer and conductor. He is chiefly known to fame by his masterpiece, _The Merry Wives of Windsor_, which was produced in Berlin in 1849.

1810. =Félicien C. David= (Cadenet). A French composer of operas; is not to be confused with Ferdinand David the violinist, and friend of Mendelssohn. Félicien wrote grand operas for Paris, and his greatest success seems to have been _Lalla Rookh_ (1862).

1811. =P. J. A. Varney= (Paris). Is one of the minor lights of French Opera, his works, which are of small importance, being in the light style.

1811. =C. Ambroise Thomas= (Metz), 1811-96. Was one of the greatest representatives of modern French opera, who possessed real talent for writing for the stage. He learnt much from both Gounod and Hérold, and is best known by his operas _Mignon_ (1866) and _Hamlet_ (1868).

1812. =F. von Flotow= (Bentendorf). Is the composer of _Martha_, an ever-popular light opera; the music of this, as of his many other works, is by no means exalted, but pleases by its melodious and tuneful attractiveness.

1812. =Giulia Grisi= (Milan). Was one of the most famous operatic artists of last century, and the soprano of the “Puritani” quartet (Grisi, Rubini, Tamburini, and Lablache). Like so many artists of that period, her great achievements were in the works of Rossini.

1812. =Cavaliere Mario= (Cagliari). Was an even greater tenor, who eventually married Grisi. Like his wife he was the idol of the English and French capitals for many seasons.

1812. =Fanny Persiani= (Rome). Was yet another singer of Rossinian opera. She was a fine actress as well as a vocalist, and commanded universal admiration.

1813. =Enrico Petrella= (Palermo). Produced an Italian opera practically every year for many years. This composer has been dead for nearly thirty years, and his operas seem to have shared the same fate.

1813. =Richard Wagner= (Leipsic), 1813-83. The names and dates of Wagner’s chief operas are:—_Rienzi_ (Dresden) 1842; _The Flying Dutchman_ (Dresden) 1843; _Tannhäuser_ (Dresden) 1845; _Lohengrin_ (Weimar) 1850; The Ring:—(1) _Rheingold_ (Munich) 1859; (2) _Die Walküre_ (Munich) 1870; (3) _Siegfried_ (Bayreuth) 1876; (4) _Gotterdämmerung_, (Bayreuth) 1876; _Tristan und Isolde_ (Munich) 1865; _Die Meistersinger_ (Munich) 1868; _Parsifal_ (Bayreuth), 1882.

1813. =Giuseppe Verdi= (Roncole) 1813-1901. Verdi’s operas are very numerous: these may perhaps be specially mentioned:—_I Lombardi_, 1843; _Ernani_, 1844; _Rigoletto_, 1851; _Il Trovatore_, 1853; _La Traviata_, 1853; _Un Ballo in Maschera_, 1857; _Aïda_, 1871; _Otello_, 1887; _Falstaff_, 1893.

1813. =A. S. Dargomizhsky= (Toula). Is of considerable importance in the development of national Russian opera; of his works we may mention _The Roussalka_ (1856) and _The Stone Guest_, only performed three years after his death, in 1872.

1813. =G. A. Macfarren= (London). So well known as a theorist; essayed many operas, of which _Robin Hood_ was the most successful. Other of his works are _The Devil’s Opera_ and _Helvellyn_.

1813. =E. J. Loder= (Bath). Was an English writer of operas, the best of which is the _Night Dancers_ (1846).

1814. =Emma Albertazzi= (London). An English prima donna who married an Italian. She sang in all the chief houses of opera, but was a poor and indifferent actress.

1814. =W. V. Wallace= (Waterford). Is known to all by his tuneful, if ordinary, _Maritana_. He wrote better works, and his _Lurline_ may be mentioned.

1815. =G. Hippolyte Roger= (Saint-Denis). Was a great French tenor, for whom Ambroise Thomas, Auber, Clapesson and others wrote operas. He unfortunately lost an arm, and had to give up the stage.

1817. =Carlo Pedrotti= (Verona). Wrote Italian operas, of which mention may be made of _Tutti in Maschera_ and _Il Favorito_.

1817. =Aimé Maillart= (Montpellier). Won the Grand Prix de Rome, and wrote operas which had some measure of success.

1817. =Francesco Lamperti= (Savona). A great teacher of singing, whose pupils include Albani, Mariani, and Shakespeare.

1818. =C. F. Gounod= (Paris), 1818-93. Besides the evergreen _Faust_ (1859), Gounod’s other successes include _The Mock Doctor_, _Philémon and Baucis_, _Mireille_, and _Romeo and Juliet_, all of which are often heard.

1818. =J. Sims Reeves= (Woolwich). In his palmy days was often heard in opera, the tenor parts of many melodious operas in favour at the time exactly suiting his methods and style.

1818. =A. N. Serov= (Petersburg). Serov was a Russian composer who admired and followed Wagner; his works have their place in the annals of opera in his country.

1819. =Jacques Offenbach= (Cologne). A prolific composer of some seventy specimens of opera bouffe and operetta; in light works such as these he achieved almost unexampled success, and enjoyed immense popularity.

1820. =Jenny Lind= (Stockholm). This name is fresh in the memory of all, although its gifted possessor went the way of all flesh some thirty years ago. As a singer she commanded universal admiration, while as a woman she was looked up to and respected by all. Her triumphs in operatic soprano parts were such as to be seldom equalled.

1820. =Franz von Suppé= (Spalato). Was the German equivalent of Offenbach—a prolific writer of comic opera.

1821. =C. A. F. Echert= (Potsdam). Wrote an opera at the age of ten, and others at a later date. He won more fame, however, as a conductor, holding important posts in this capacity at Paris, Vienna, and Berlin.

1821. =M. F. P. Viardot-Garcia= (Paris). A young sister of Malibran, attained considerable celebrity as a singer and actress; she appeared not only in works of the Rossini school, but in the operas of Meyerbeer, Gluck, and others.

1821. =Italo Gardoni= (Parma). Was a tenor singer of repute, who to a considerable extent took the place of Mario; he sang frequently in London.

1822. =Apolloni.= Was an Italian composer who wrote operas upon the early Verdi model, achieving one great success in _L’Ebreo_.

1822. =Luigi Arditi= (Crescentino). Although he composed a few operas, is more widely remembered as a conductor, he having wielded the bâton during many operatic seasons both in England and abroad.

1822. =César Franck= (Liége). His merits seem only now beginning to be recognized as a composer; wrote a small number of operas, of which the music appears to have been heard only in the concert room.

1822. =F. M. V. Massé= (Lorient). Wrote some operas in the style of Auber with very great success. A number of later works, some of which have been produced at Covent Garden, have been less favourably received.

1823. =Edouard Lalo= (Lille). The writer of some excellent violin music; includes among his writings one work, _Le Roi d’ Ys_, which is often to be heard.

1823. =L. E. E. Reyer= (Marseilles). Is yet another French composer of opera, chiefly known by his _Sigurd_, produced in 1884.

1823. =Marietta Alboni= (Cesena). Was a world-renowned contralto, who created a furore in London. She was set up as a sort of rival attraction to Jenny Lind, who was performing at another theatre, and was powerful enough to hold her own.

1824. =Peter Cornelius= (Mainz). Wrote a number of operas, of which _The Barber of Bagdad_ seems to have been a kind of forerunner of _Die Meistersinger_, and is enormously in favour in Germany.

1824. =Friedrich Smetana= (Leitomischl). Is the father of Bohemian opera, and his work, _The Bartered Bride_, paved the way for a series of national operas which are dear indeed to the hearts of the Bohemians. He is important, also, as the model upon which Dvŏràk framed much of his work.

1825. =F. R. Hervé= (Houdain). Wrote a very large number of French operettas of a very light trend, which are hardly likely to go down to posterity.

1826. =Mathilde Marchesi= (Frankfort). An eminent soprano vocalist, whose influence has been widely felt in the operatic world, not only by her performances, but also by her teaching. Her _Ecole de Chant_ and vocal exercises are world known.

1826. =Ivar Hallström= (Stockholm). A Swedish composer of operas; has produced works of a distinctly national impress.

1827. =Marie Carvalho= (Marseilles). A French vocalist; was at one time in the first rank of artists of the grand opera and the opera comique. She specially excelled in her interpretations of the soprano characters of the Gounod operas.

1828. =Antonio Cagnoni= (Godiasco). Wrote a number of Italian operas of moderate quality; his attentions were mostly confined to opera buffa.

1828. =Ferdinand Poise= (Nîmes). Wrote a number of charming light works, somewhat in the style of his master Adam. Paris was the scene of his labours.

1829. =Anton Rubinstein= (Wechwotynecz). Bears a name well known in many musical fields: in opera he was hardly great, his music being non-dramatic in character. He wrote _The Demon_ and a few “sacred operas.”

1829. =Ciro Pinsuti= (Siena). Is indeed popular as a writer of songs; it is not so well known that he includes amongst his larger works operas that have been produced at La Scala, Milan, and elsewhere.

1830. =Karl Goldmark= (Keszthely). The most famous opera by this composer is _The Queen of Sheba_, produced at Vienna in 1875; subsequent and less successful productions include _Merlin_ (1886) and _The Cricket on the Hearth_ (1896).

1830. =Edouard Lassen= (Copenhagen). Another writer of melodious songs; produced three successful operas. He also succeeded Liszt as conductor at Weimar.

1830. =Edmund Kretschmer= (Ostritz). Had at one period a reputation as a composer of opera, which recent years have failed to maintain.

1831. =T. C. J. Tietjens= (Hamburg). One of the most brilliant and successful _prime donne_ of the nineteenth century; she excelled alike in light opera and grand opera, in secular music and in sacred. Her early death in 1877 was lamented by all who had heard her beautiful and artistic interpretations of the masterpieces of opera and of oratorio.

1832. =A. C. Lecocq= (Paris). A prolific composer of light French pieces in the manner of Offenbach. Not to be reckoned with as serious music, his compositions are notable for their sprightliness, vivacity, and verve.

1834. =Pierre L. L. Benoit= (Harlebeke). Is a Flemish composer and an apostle of a Flemish school of composition which he endeavours to form. Among his many works are operas and dramatic pieces.

1834. =A. P. V. Borodine= (S. Petersburg). Is well known as a chemist and an opera writer. His music, national in character, is best study from an operatic point of view in _Prince Igor_. Borodine’s music is also well known in the concert hall. He died in 1887.

1834. =A. Ponchielli= (Paderno). Although he died as long ago as 1886, must be classed as a composer of the young Italian school. His chef d’œuvre, _La Gioconda_, often obtains a hearing.

1834. =Charles Santley= (Liverpool). Famous alike on the stage and in the concert hall; while his attentions have been latterly confined to oratorio. His was a familiar figure on the Covent Garden stage some forty years ago.

1835. =Filippo Marchetti= (Bologna). A member of the Italian school of composers. Wrote many operas, _Ruy Blas_ achieving great success.

1835. =César A. Cui= (Vilna). Has built up a reputation for himself amongst Russian composers for his works of every description, and he has an important place amongst those who have developed opera in Russia. _William Ratcliff_ and _Le Flibustier_ deserve special mention.

1835. =C. C. Saint-Saëns= (Paris). One of the most versatile and gifted of modern French composers; has enriched the world by a few operas and by the sacred drama _Samson et Dalila_, which is often heard in English concert rooms. More recent efforts include _Henry VIII._ and _Phryne_.

1836. =Emil Hartmann= (Copenhagen). Is one of the few operatic composers of Denmark. His music is not heard in England.

1837. =Ernest Guiraud= (New Orleans). A contemporary and co-worker of Délibes; wrote _Piccolino_ and other pieces.

1837. =F. C. T. Dubois= (Rosney). The famous French organist; has also achieved certain success with his operas and ballets.

1837. =Joseph Huber= (Sigmaringen). A disciple of the German school. Wrote two operas, popular in their day.

1838. =Georges Bizet= (Paris). Is never likely to be forgotten so long as _Carmen_ attains to a tithe of its present popularity. This bright and sparkling work is deservedly in the front rank of favourite operas. Bizet wrote several unimportant operas before _Carmen_, but his early death prevented his giving to the world any successor to that famous opera.

1838. =Zelia Trebelli= (Paris). A _prima donna_ of high rank. She made her début at Madrid, and was successful in Germany and in London, where her appearances in Italian opera were very frequent.

1838. =Frederic Clay= (Paris). The composer of the popular “I’ll sing thee songs of Araby.” Wrote several light operas for Covent Garden and other English houses.

1839. =C. P. L. Délibes= (St. Germain du Val). Wrote bright and sparkling music, and was most successful in the ballet. Everyone is familiar with his _Sylvia_, and among his operas are _Lakmé_ and _Le Roi l’a dit_.

1839. =Carlos Gomez= (Compinos). Was a Brazilian composer, whose opera _Il Guarany_ was performed at Covent Garden.

1839. =V. de Goncieres= (Paris). Has produced several grand operas, none of which have met with continued success.

1839. =Edward Napravnik= (Königgratz). Was for a time the conductor of opera in Petersburg, and also wrote many national operas and songs.

1839. =Joseph Rheinberger= (Vaduz). Famous as a writer of organ music, and of achievements in almost all branches of composition; ventured also into the operatic field with his work _Die Sieben Raben_.

1840. =Hermann Goetz= (Königsberg). Was a short-lived composer, whose opera, _The Taming of the Shrew_, showed the possession of extraordinary gifts.

1840. =P. Tchaïkovsky= (Votinsk). This gifted and versatile composer is known in England only by his _Eugene Oniegin_, so far as opera is concerned.

1841. =Antonin Dvŏrák= (Kralup). The Bohemian composer’s operas are hardly as successful as his chamber music and his symphonies.

1841. =Victor Nessler= (Baldenheim). Wrote popular operas for Germany. Their music is not of high rank, but such works as _Der Trumpeter von Säkkingen_ enjoy great popularity.

1841. =Franco Faccio= (Verona). Is an obscure composer of Italian opera, whose compositions display no particular originality.

1841. =Pauline Lucca= (Vienna). A soprano vocalist who appeared in operas of Meyerbeer and others. Alike in Germany, Russia, and England, she seems to have aroused the keenest interest and excitement. Her voice was one of extended compass and of a sympathetic quality.

1841. =Emmanuel Chabrier= (Ambert). Wrote some operas, the best of which was _Le Roi malgré lui_.

1842. =Carl Millōcker= (Vienna). Composer of Singspiel.

1842. =Heinrich Hofmann= (Berlin). Wrote music dramas and operas, and sought to compose light works on the grand opera plan, omitting all dialogue.

1842. =Jules F. E. Massenet= (Montand). Is one of the most famous living composers of French opera, many of whose works may be heard in this country. _Hérodiade_, _Manon_, _Le Cid_, _Esclamonde_, _Werther_, and other works testify to his ability and industry, and he is a factor to be reckoned with in the development of opera in France.

1842. =Arrigo Boito= (Padua). Is the composer of _Mefistofele_ and of the unheard _Nero_.

1842. =Edmund Audran= (Lyons). Was a famous composer of comic opera, producing many light works in Paris and in London.

1842. =A. S. Sullivan= (London). Composed the opera _Ivanhoe_. He was also practically the originator of a charming form of comedy opera. He died in 1900.

1843. =Christine Nilsson= (Wexio). A Swedish soprano, and yet another of that brilliant band of gifted singers who delighted the habitués of the opera a few decades back.

1843. =Adelina Patti= (Madrid). First appeared in England in opera in 1861. Her successes were all made in Italian opera, with music of the florid type. Her appearances before the public are still frequent.

1843. =Hans Richter= (Raab). Is one of the greatest of conductors, and the greatest living authority upon Wagner, whose pupil and friend he was. Dr. Richter conducts the German performances at Covent Garden, and was responsible for the first production of the _Ring_ at Bayreuth in 1876.

1844. =F. Cellier= (London). Wrote light operas after the style of Sullivan, whose manner he successfully caught.

1844. =Rimsky-Korsakoff= (Tichwin). In the van of modern Russian musicians. In opera he created some successes, notably in _The May Night_. His last opera (the 15th) is entitled _The Golden Cock_.

1844. =Emile Paladilhe= (Montpellier). A member of the younger French school; chiefly known by his _Patrie_.

1846. =H. C. A. G. Serpette= (Nantes). Has also written French operas, but of a lighter style, pertaining to the Buffo character.

1846. =Ignaz Brüll= (Prossnitz). Has written a very large number of operas, the best known of which, _The Golden Cross_, has been produced in England by the Carl Rosa Company. His operas are of the German school.

1847. =Augusta Holmes= (Paris). Is one of the few women writers of opera.

1847. =Alexander Mackenzie= (Edinburgh). Has produced operas with the Carl Rosa Company, and has also unheard works in his desk awaiting a favourable opportunity for production.

1847. =Amalie Materna= (St. Georgen). A famous soprano of German opera, and a great Wagnerian singer, her impersonations of Brünnhilde being specially fine.

1847. =Joseph Maas= (Dartford). Was a good tenor vocalist, and an indifferent actor. Although often heard upon the stage, he was more appreciated in concert work.

1848. =Luigi Mancinelli= (Orvieto). Is the popular conductor of Italian opera at Covent Garden. As a composer he is also known, both of opera and of oratorio.

1849. =B. L. P. Godard= (Paris). Wrote much music in many styles. His operas did not attain to the popularity of his chamber music or pianoforte pieces.

1850. =Albani= (Chambly). Whose real name is Marie Lajeunesse, is familiar to all concert goers of the present day. Her operatic successes during the two last decades of the nineteenth century were many, and she sang well such parts as “Isolde” and “Elsa.”

1850. =Zdenko Fibich= (Bohemian). Has written operas of the type popularized in his country by Smetana.

1850. =Robert Planquette= (Paris). Composed the evergreen _Cloches de Corneville_, so dear to the heart of the Frenchman. His operettas are bright and sparkling.

1850. =Anton Siedl= (Pesth). A Wagnerian conductor of power. He has conducted on the Continent, in England, and in America.

1851. =A. Goring Thomas= (Ratton). This composer of so many favourite songs, wrote the operas _Esmeralda_ and _Nadeshda_, from which excerpts are frequently heard.

1851. =Vincent d’Indy= (Paris). Is a prominent modern French composer; his _Fervaal_ is a fine dramatic work.

1851. =Tamagno= (Turin). A celebrated operatic tenor, whose fees of £400 per night in America are said to have created a record for male vocalists. Tamagno died in 1905.

1851. =Jan Blockx= (Belgian composer). Is the director of the Flemish School of Music in Antwerp; he has written several operas, of which mention may be made of _Princesse d’Auberge_.

1852. =Frederick Cowen= (Jamaica). The well-known song-writer and conductor has made several essays on opera with more or less success.

1852. =C. V. Stanford= (Dublin). Is one of the strongest hopes of the English school of opera composition; his various efforts, although hardly crowned with unqualified success, are almost all noteworthy and distinctly great in achievement.

1852. =Frederick Corder= (London). Composed _Nordisa_ for the Carl Rosa Company.

1852. =Jean de Reszke= (Warsaw). One of the greatest of operatic tenors, whose interpretations of the Wagner rôles has seldom been equalled.

1852. =Barton McGuckin= (Dublin). Tenor vocalist of repute.

1854. =Engelbert Hamperdinck= (Siegburg). The composer of the popular _Hansel and Gretel_.

1855. =E. de Reszke= (Warsaw). Brother of the famous tenor, and an almost equally great baritone; excels in such parts as “Sachs” (_Meistersinger_), etc.

1857. =Alfred Bruneau= (Paris). An extremely modern French composer, whose striking works create much discussion.

1858. =Giacomo Puccini= (Lucca). Is an Italian composer whose works are now enjoying very great popularity, quite a number of them being constantly before the public.

1858. =R. Leoncavallo= (Naples). Is another member of the Italian school, and the composer of _Pagliacci_.

1859. =T. J. Paderewski= (Podolia). The world-renowned pianist; has also composed a fairly successful opera.

1860. =Gustave Charpentier= (French school). Has written _Louise_, a familiar and popular work across the Channel.

1864. =Richard Strauss= (Munich). The modern writer of symphonic poems; has produced operas. He is a conductor of the Royal Berlin Opera House.

1864. =Pietro Mascagni= (Leghorn). Is the composer of the tuneful _Cavalleria Rusticana_ and other works.

Among other contemporary composers and singers of opera may be mentioned:—

_Composers._

Eugene d’Albert H. Bunning Cilea Coronaro Hamish McCunn A. Catalani Delius G. Dupont C. Debussy Dupais Enna F. d’Erlanger Filasi Ernest Ford Franchetti Glazounow Gilson Giordano Galli Edward German J. Holbrooke Kienzl F. Leoi I. de Lara Laparra Leroux A. Messager McAlpin McLean Edward Naylor Orefice Reznicika E. Solomon Max Schillings Miss E. Smyth Somerville W. Stenhammer Spinelli Tasca Tinel Siegfried Wagner Amherst Webber F. Weingartner

_Conductors._

Signor Campanini Herr Lohse Mottl Mahler Frigara Eckhold Signor Mugnone A. Messager E. Goosens W. van Norden Nikisch Panizza Percy Pitt T. Beecham

_Singers._

M. Alvarez M. Ancona Suzanne Adams Signor Anselmi Fraulein Alten L. Arens Signor Ballisini Marie Brema A. Black Mdlle. Bauermeister Madame Eames Olive Fremstad Madame Frease Green M. Gilibert Madame Giachetti McHinckley M. Hérold Walter Hyde M. Journet Alice Nielsen Agnes Nicholls Madame Nordica Mdlle. Olitzka Plancon Van Rooy Reinl Herr Reiss Russ Madame Sembrich Herr Burrian David Bispham Signor Caruso Madame Calvé John Coates M. Cotreuil Herr Cornelius Madamede Cisneros Fraulein Destinn Van Dyck Dani Mdlle. Donalda Fraulein Delsarta M. Dufriche Signor Dalmorés Knupfer-Egli Selma Kurz Kirkby Lunn Zelie de Lussan M. Lafitte M. Maurel Marian McKenzie John McCormack Madame Melba Charles Manners Fanny Moody Joseph O’Mara Blanche Marchesi Thomas Meux Madame Norelli Signor Sammarco Salignac Scotti M. Saleza Madame Sobrino M. Seveilhac Madame Saltzmann-Stevens M. Slezak Fraulein Ternina Edna Thornton Madame Tettrazini Vignas Madame Wittich C. Whitehill Gleeson White

Appendix B.

Financial Aid Granted to Operatic Schemes from State or Municipal Funds.

(Drawn from the Government return made in pursuance of the Address of the House of Commons of March 2nd, 1903.)

-----------+------------+--------------------+---------------------- COUNTRY. | TOWN. | AMOUNT. | COMMENTS. -----------+------------+--------------------+---------------------- Argentine |Buenos Ayres| Nil. |Municipal taxation Republic | | | exempted to | | | performing Companies | | | at the Opera. Austria and| Vienna | Free Theatre given:|Opera House cost Hungary | | deficit made good | £509,795 to build. | | from the Emperor’s| | | Civil list. | | Buda-Pesth | £24,208 and £250 |An additional grant | | for salaries. | from the Sovereign | | | of £13,334. | Prague | £3,750. |(For the Czech Theatre | | | for 1903). Bavaria | Munich | Municipality keeps | A sum of £12,500 goes | | up the Court | to the general | | Theatre. | upkeep of the | | Prince Regent | Court Theatre and | | Theatre (New Opera| Residency Theatre | | House) free | in Munich from the | | electric lighting| Royal Civil list. | | up to £1,125. | | Würtemberg | Deficit, averaging | House used for | | £15,000, made | dramatic as well as | | good by the King | operatic purposes. | | of Würtemberg. | | | | Belgium | | | Subsidies granted to | | | composers of from | | | 500 to 1,500 francs | | | per act on approved | | | operas; also of | | | from 60 to 250 | | | francs per | | | performance. | Brussels | Théâtre Royale de | Rent free, but many | | la Monnaie, | conditions imposed. | | £5,600. | | Antwerp | Subsidy varied | | | according to | | | requirements. | | | | Bulgaria | | Nil. | | | Central | San José | 1897, French Opera, £4,000. America-- | | 1898, Italian Opera, £1,200. Costa Rica | | 1899, Nil. | | 1900, Italian Opera, £920. | | 1901-2, Nil. | | 1903, Italian Opera, £480. | | | Guatemala | Guatemala | A varying amount. | | | | Salvador | San | Amounts varying | Free use of the | Salvador | from £277 to | National Theatre. | | £6,068 for various| | | kinds of opera | | | during the last | | | 12 years. | | | | Chili | Santiago | An amount, about | Rent free: the same | | £5,000, “if the | company apparently | | municipality is | visits Chili | | satisfied with | annually from | | the performances.”| Europe. | | | Denmark | Copenhagen | Deficit on Royal | | | paid from State | | | Theatre accounts.| | | | Egypt | Cairo and | £E5,000 for 36 | | Alexandria| operas and 24 | | | comedies. | | | £E4,000 for the | | | Cairo Opera House| | | and another | | | theatre for | | | upkeep. | | | | France | Paris | Opera, £32,000. | Rent free. | | Opera Comique, | | | £12,000. | | | | Germany | Berlin | £54,000 from the | State contributes to | | Crown for the | the upkeep and | | Opera House and | repairs. | | the Play House. | | | | Great | | Nil. | Britain | | | | | | Greece | | Nil. | Small amounts | | | occasionally granted | | | from Municipal Funds | | | in various towns. | | | | | | Italy | Rome | Nil. | £2,400, withdrawn | | | in 1898. | | | | Milan | La Scala receives | | | £3,900 for 50 | | | performances. | | | | | Turin | Municipal Orchestra| Previous subsidy | | lent for operatic| withdrawn. | | purposes. | | | | | Naples | £3,200 for the | | | San Carlo House. | | | | | Venice | Varying amounts on | | | special occasions.| | | | Norway | Christiania| About £1,100 granted per | | annum to the National | | Theatre (not exclusively | | for opera). | | Peru | Lima | Occasional grants to | | travelling companies | | for opera. | | Portugal | Lisbon | San Carlos Opera House | | rent free. | | Russia | Petersburg | Details unavailable. | and | In 1902 the sum of about | Moscow | £300,000 was granted by | | the Emperor to the three | | Imperial Theatres in | | these cities. | | | Warsaw | Nil. | Former subsidy | | | withdrawn. | | | | Riga | Nil. | Managed by a “Guild.” | | | | Odessa | Opera House maintained | | by Municipality. | | | | | | Saxony | Coburg and | £3,778 to the Ducal| Rent free. | Gotha | Court Theatre. | | | | | Dresden | £31,000 paid by the King, | | and any deficit made | | good (£15,000 in 1903). | | | | | Many other towns grant | | free use of the theatre, | | and sometimes of the | | Municipal orchestra, the | | scenery, dresses, etc. | | | Servia | Belgrade | Royal National | Used for opera | | Theatre receives | and drama. | | £1,720 per annum.| | | | Spain | | Nil: various “schools of | | music” and orchestras | | receive Municipal aid. | | | Sweden | Stockholm | Royal Theatre (mainly | | opera) receives £3,330 | | from the Crown, and | | £3,330 from the State; | | also various other amounts. | | | Switzerland| Berne | £280 to the theatre orchestra. | | | | Basle | £1,000 for musical institutions | | and the theatre orchestra. | | | | Geneva | £6,480 for the theatre and | | classical concerts. | | | | United | | Nil. States | | | | Uruquay | Montevideo | A subsidy given to an annual | | performance of Italian Opera. | | | | Venezuela | | Nil. | | -----------+------------+-----------------------------------------

NOTE.—As a grant, when made, is often given both for the drama and for operatic purposes, and sometimes for the support of musical functions generally, such as concerts and band performances, it is difficult to arrive at the actual figures for opera alone. But the above quotations will afford a general idea as to the conditions obtaining with regard to subsidies in the various countries to which reference is made.

Appendix C.

Glossary of Terms mainly used in Opera.

=Act.= The larger sub-divisions into which operas are divided. Older operas were usually in five acts, modern ones more often in three; some, as Wagner’s _Rheingold_, in one only.

=Act Tune= or =Curtain Tune=. An old form of instrumental intermezzo, composed for performance between the acts. They were written for operas from about 1650 to 1750, by such composers as Locke and Purcell.

=Air= or =Aria=. An operatic scene for a single voice; they were of many kinds, with titles defining the class to which they belonged in the operas of Handel’s day. Among these titles may be mentioned the “Aria all Unisono,” “Aria Cantabile,” “Aria Concertante,” “Aria da Capo,” “Aria di Bravura,” “Aria d’Imitazione,” “Aria di Mezzo Carattere,” “Aria di Portamento,” “Aria Grande,” “Aria Parlante.”

=Arietta.= A short aria, of less pretension than any of the foregoing.

=Ballad Opera.= A form of English opera in which old and well-known songs were used instead of new music; there was little concerted music. The best example is the _Beggar’s Opera_.

=Ballet.= An entertainment of dancing, always a constituent feature of operas of a certain period.

=Bolero.= A Spanish dance, often introduced into the ballet.

=Cadenza.= Vocal flourishes very common in the operas of the Bellini, Rossini, and early Verdi school.

=Castrati.= Male sopranos, the breaking of whose voices was prevented by artificial means.

=Cavatina.= A melodious air. Faust’s solo, “Salve dimora,” is so named.

=Chitarrone.= A long-stringed, double-necked lute, used by Monteverde in _Orfeo_.

=Choragos.= The leader of the chorus in Greek drama.

=Chorale.= A German hymn-tune. Effective use is made of chorales in Meyerbeer’s _Huguenots_.

=Coloratura.= Highly ornamented vocal music, used in such places as the “Aria Concertante.”

=Comic Opera.= Opera of a light nature, with a humorous story. Not to be confounded with Opera Comique.

=Concerted Numbers.= The Finales and other parts of operas of the older school. When several characters are upon the stage, and the music describes a series of events or some development of the story.

=Curtain Tune.= See Act Tune.

=Da Capo.= A form of Aria much used by Scarlatti, in which the second part of the air was followed by a repetition of the first.

=Divertissement.= A short ballet, or an instrumental intermezzo.

=Ensemble.= A collection of most or all of the principal characters in an opera upon the stage at the same time.

=Entree.= See Overture.

=Entr’acte.= Music composed for performance between the acts.

=Entrepreneur= (Fr.). The organizer or director of a series of performances.

=Falsetto.= A false, artificial use of the voice, employed by men mostly for singing alto parts.

=Fanfare.= A flourish of trumpets used in many operas (_Fidelio_, _Tannhäuser_, etc.).

=Finale.= The conclusion of an opera, or of an act thereof; in early operas often a duet or trio, but later on a concerted number, often of very great dignity. It was first largely used by Logroscino, and has since become an important feature of many operas.

=Glockenspiel.= A small set of bells played from a keyboard; used by Mozart in _Zauberflöte_ and by Wagner in the _Walküre_.

=Gong=, or =Tam-Tam=. A bronze plate struck with a stick; used by Meyerbeer.

=Grand Opera.= Opera on serious or tragic subjects, with no spoken dialogue, and with everything conceived upon a large and dignified scale. Generally used to denote French Opera.

=Harpsichord.= One of the forerunners of the pianoforte, and the accompanying instrument used in the earliest operas.

=Imbroglio.= A confused passage, where conflicting things are going on at the same time, as in the street scene of _Die Meistersingers_.

=Impresario= (Italian). Has the same meaning as Entrepreneur.

=Intermezzo.= A short, light musical play, originally introduced between the acts of Grand Opera. The term is now usually applied to an instrumental interlude.

=Leit-motif=, or guiding-theme. The distinctive piece of melody, harmony, or scoring associated with one character upon the stage, or with a definite idea. Its use was perfected by Wagner.

=Libretto.= The “book,” or words of an opera.

=Lied.= German for air.

=Liederspiel.= Play of songs. This corresponds with the English ballad opera.

=Masque.= An early form of opera which made much of dancing and of scenic effects.

=Opera Buffa= (French, Opera Bouffe). A light opera of very little dignity, but full of humour and comicality. It corresponds somewhat with the English term, “Comic opera.”

=Opera Comique.= A stage play, often of serious character, mainly set to music, but in which there is spoken dialogue. Beethoven’s _Fidelio_ and Weber’s _Der Frischütz_ are in this class.

=Operetta.= A short opera, generally of a light character.

=Overture.= The preliminary orchestral introduction to an opera. It varies much in character, length, and importance; according to its character and construction it is not only called overture, but introduction (intrada), entrée, Vorspiel, prelude.

=Pasticcio= (a pie). A collection of songs, duets, etc., from various sources, woven together to form a pleasing entertainment.

=Potp-ourri.= A collection of the favourite airs of an opera worked up into a piece for a solo instrument—generally the pianoforte.

=Recitative.= The less melodious and less definitely rhythmic vocal portions of an opera. A kind of musical declamation.

=Recitativo Secco.= Simple recitation supported only by slight chords. (Much used by Mozart.)

=Recitativo Stromentato.= Accompanied recitative, the orchestral part having individual interest and importance.

=Ritornello.= An instrumental interlude between scenes, or during the course of a scene.

=Romantic Opera.= A class of opera dealing with legendary or supernatural subjects rather than classic themes. Its application is chiefly to operas of the Weber-Marschner school.

=Scena.= A long and important operatic solo, often in several movements, for a solo voice. It may consist of recitative or of aria portions, or both, but should be dramatic in its construction.

=Scenario.= A synopsis of the plot and scenes of the libretto of an opera.

=Secco.= (_See_ Recitative.)

=Singspiel.= The German form of opera comique, with both music and spoken dialogue.

=Tessitura.= The _range_ of a vocal composition—_i.e._, as to whether it lies high or low in the compass of the voice.

=Transcription.= The more modern name for Pot-pourri.

=Tremolo.= A rapid reiteration of the same note; much used on the stringed instruments for dramatic purposes.

=Vaudeville.= A short operetta (French), usually of a frivolous nature.

=Vorspiel= (German). _See_ Overture.

=Zwickenspiel= (German). An intermezzo or interlude.

Appendix D.

List of Instruments used in the Orchestras of Composers of different periods of Opera.

1. The first real Italian opera, _Euridice_, by Peri (1600)—

1 Chitarone 1 Lira Grande 1 Viol di Gamba 1 Theorbo 3 Flutes

2. Monteverde’s _Orfeo_ (1608)—

2 Gravicembali (Clavicembali) 2 Contrabassi da Viola 10 Viole di Brazzo 1 Arpa Doppia 2 Violini Piccioli alla Francese 2 Chitarroni 2 Organo di Legno 1 Regal 3 Bassi da Gamba 4 Tromboni 2 Cornetti 1 Flautino (Flageolet) 1 Clarino (Soprano Trumpet) 3 Trombe Sordini (Muted Trumpets)

Except for the smaller number of strings this orchestra is pretty well as large as a modern full operatic orchestra, but its constitution and effect are absolutely different, and of course in the present day hardly producible. The gambas were used to accompany Orpheus, the violas Euridice, the guitars Charon, the organs Apollo, and the trombones Plato.

3. Gluck’s _Alceste_ (1767)—

2 Flauti Traversi 2 Oboe 2 Corni 3 Tromboni 2 Fagotti 2 Trombe Strings

This, of course, is an approximation to the modern orchestra, but we must notice the absence of clarionets and percussion instruments.

4. Mozart’s _Figaro_ (1786)—

2 Flutes 2 Oboes 2 Clarionets 2 Bassoons 2 Horns 2 Trumpets Tympani Strings

This is the ordinary orchestra of the “classical period” of music.

5. Weber’s _Oberon_ (1826)—

The same orchestra as Mozart’s, with the addition of anotherp air of horns and of three trombones.

6. Rossini’s _William Tell_ (Overture), 1829—

1 Piccolo 2 Flutes 2 Oboes (Cor Anglais) 2 Clarionets 4 Horns 2 Bassoons 2 Trumpets 3 Trombones Timpani Cymbals Triangle Big Drum Strings (with 5 solo Celli)

7. Meyerbeer, _Les Huguenots_ (1836)—

2 Flutes (Piccolos) 2 Oboes Cor Anglais 2 Clarionets 2 Bassoons 4 Horns 3 Trombones Ophicleide 2 Cornets 2 Trumpets Drums Bell Harp Bass Drum and Cymbals Strings

8. Wagner, _Tannhäuser_ (1845)—

3 Flutes (one changing to Piccolo) 2 Oboes 2 Clarionets 1 Bass Clarionet 2 Bassoons 2 Ventil Horns 2 Hand Horns 3 Trumpets 3 Trombones 1 Tuba 1 Pair Tympani Triangle Cymbals Tambourine Grosse Trommel Harp Strings

And in addition, upon the stage— 1 Cor Anglais 2 Piccolos 4 Flutes 4 Oboes 6 Clarionets 6 Bassoons 12 Horns 12 Trumpets 4 Trombones Triangle Cymbals Tambourine

9. Wagner, _Walküre_ (1856), performed 1870—

16 First Violins 16 Second Violins 12 Violas 12 Violoncellos 8 Double Basses 3 Flutes 1 Piccolo 3 Oboes 1 Cor Anglais 3 Clarionets 1 Bass Clarionet 3 Bassoons 8 Horns 2 Tenor Tubas 2 Bass Tubas 1 Contra Bass Tuba 3 Trumpets 1 Bass Trumpet 3 Trombones 1 Contra Bass Trombone 2 Pairs Drums 1 Triangle 1 Pair Cymbals 1 Rührtrommel 1 Glockenspiel 6 Harps

10. Wagner, _Parsifal_ (Prelude), 1882—

3 Flutes 3 Oboes Cor Anglais 3 Clarionets 1 Bass Clarionet 3 Bassoons 1 Double Bassoon 4 Horns 3 Trumpets 3 Trombones 1 Bass Tuba Drums Strings

Appendix E.

Bibliography of Opera.

The following are the chief works upon opera in the English language:—

=Edwards, H. S.=—The Lyrical Drama. =Matthew, J. E.=—Popular History of Opera. =Chesney.=—Stories of the Operas. =Edwards.=—The Prima Donna. =Louis, Alexander.=—The Opera Glass, or a view of 100 Operas. =Upton.=—Standard Operas. =Barker.=—The Opera Guide. =Spier.=—Stories of the Operas. =Guerber.=—Stories of Famous Operas. =Annesley.=—The Standard Opera Glass. =Sachs and Woodrow.=—Modern Opera houses and Theatres. =Mapleson.=—Mapleson Memoirs. =Arditi.=—My Reminiscences. =Fitzgerald.=—The Savoy Opera. =Apthorp.=—The Opera, Past and Present. =Elson.=—Critical History of Opera. =Lahee.=—Grand Opera in America. =Galloway.=—The Operatic Problem. =Lawrence Gilman.=—Aspects of Modern Opera. =Streatfield.=—The Opera. =Nights at the Opera.=—(Delamore Press.) =Opera.=—(Grove’s Dictionary.)

There is also a perfect mass of Wagner literature, including biographies (such as Mr. Ashton Ellis’ colossal work), essays, articles, books on the _Ring_ and other operas, books explanatory of the music, etc., etc.

Index.

Adam, 85, 189, 207 Ambroise Thomas’s _Hamlet_, _Mignon_, 90 Arensky, 124 Aria from Gluck’s _Orfeo_, 50-51 —— Verdi’s _Aïda_, 73-74 Ariosti, 190 Arne, 93-94 Arne’s _Artaxerxes_, 93 Arrieta, 129 Arsani, 208 Auber, 87-88, 175, 207 Auber’s _Masaniello_, 87; _Fra Diavolo_, 88

Bach, 61 Balfe, 94-95 Balfe’s _The Siege of Rochelle_, 95; _Bohemian Girl_, 95, 187 Ballad Opera, 15, 94, 186 Ballet, 188-189 Bardi, Count, 33 Barnett’s _The Mountain Sylph_, 94 Bayreuth, 179, 180-183 —— Wagner’s theatre at, 103 Beethoven, 13, 14, 24, 27, 44, 55, 61, 76, 77, 99 Beethoven’s _Fidelio_, 55, 70, 84, 170, 177, 185 _Beggar’s Opera_, 91-93, 186 Bellini, 15, 72, 173 Bellini’s _La Sonnambula_, _Norma_, 72 Benda, 51 Benedict, 96 Benedict’s _The Lily of Killarney_, 96 Berlin, 178 Berlioz, 87, 175, 209 Bishop, Henry, 94, 157 Bizet, 89 Bizet’s _Carmen_, 89 Boieldieu, 85, 207 Boieldieu’s _La Dame Blanche_, 85 Boito, 130-132, 141 Boito’s _Nero and Orestiade_, 131; _Mefistofele_, 131, 173, 195 Borodin, 124, 125 Borodin’s _Prince Igor_, 125 Bruneau, 141, 143 Bruneau’s _L’Attaque du Moulin_, _L’Outragan_, _La Rêve_, _Messidor_, 143 Budapest, 178 Bunning, Herbert, 148 Bunning’s _Princess Osra_, 145, 148 Buononcini, 42, 45-46, 64, 154, 190

Caccini, 37, 39 Caldara, 41, 42, 207 Cambert, Robert, 42 Campion, 187 “Canzone” by Mozart, 52 Carl Rosa Opera Company, 159 Caruso, 204 Catalani, 204 Cavalli, 10, 40 Cavos, 123 César-Cui, 124, 125 César-Cui’s _Angelo_, _Ratcliff_, _The Flibustier_, 125 Cesti, 41 Charpentier, 144 Cherubini, 14, 63, 66, 84, 168, 175, 199 Cherubini’s _Ali Baba_, _Les Abencerages_, _Les deux Journées_, 84; _Water Carrier_, 159, 200 Chorale from Meyerbeer’s _Les Huguenots_, 86 Cilea, 134 Cilea’s _Adriana Lecouvreur_, 134, 188 Cimarosa, 51, 65, 207 Cimarosa’s _The Secret Marriage_, 65 Companies, opera, 154; travelling, 158 Composers, stories of, 209-211 Concerted Finale, Invention of, 12, 64 Contest, a notable, 65 Coperario, 187 Corder, 147 Corder’s Nordisa, 147 Cornelius, 79 Cornelius’ _The Barber of Bagdad_, 80 Covent Garden opera, 154, 157 Cowen, 147 Cowen’s _Harold_, _Signa_, _The Lady of Lyons_, 147; _Thorgrim_, 147, 159; _Pauline_, 159 Curiosities of opera, 189-198

_Da Capo_ Aria, Birth of, 11; weakness of, 21; reform of, 22 Dargomijsky, 124 Dargomijsky’s _The Stone Guest_, _The Water-Sprite_, 124 Debussy, 144 Debussy’s _Pelleas et Melisande_, 144 De Lara, 148 De Lara’s _Amy Robsart_, _Messaline_, _The Light of Asia_, 148 Délibes, Léo, 90 Délibes’ _Coppélia_, _Lakmé_, _Le Roi l’a dit_, 90 D’Indy, Vincent, 144 Donizetti, 15, 72, 173, 207 Donizetti’s _La Favorita_, _La Fille du Régiment_, _L’Elisir d’Amore_, 72; _Lucretia Borgia_, 72, 173; _Lucia di Lammermoor_, 174 Dresden, 179 Dubois, 144

Dvŏrák, 126, 128, 178 Dvŏrák’s _Demetrius_, _Der Bauer ein Schelm_, _King and Collier_, _Rusalka_, _Wanda_, 128; _Armida_, 128, 178

Early Russian composers, 123 Elgar’s _Apostles_, 117 Empiricism, Musical, 12 English Opera, 44-47, 91 Enterprise, Operatic, in England, 150

Farinelli, 203, 204 Fibich, 127, 178 Flotow, 79 Flotow’s _Martha_, 79 Franchetti, 134 French Opera, 42-43 French School, the, 81-90

Gade, 129 Galuppi, 64 German, Edward, 148 German Opera, 43-44 German School, the, 76-80 Giordano, 134 Giordano’s _Andrea Chenier_, 134 Glinka, 123, 127 Glinka’s _A Life for the Czar_, _Russia and Ludmilla_, 123 Gluck, 13-15, 20, 22-24, 31, 42, 48-51, 61, 63, 64-65, 71, 76, 83, 87, 98, 143, 175, 190, 207 Gluck’s _Armida_, _Iphigenia in Aulide_, _Paris and Helen_, 49; _Alceste_, 23, 49; _Orfeo_, 49, 177; _Iphigenia in Tauride_, 49, 65 Goetz, 80 Goetz’s _The Taming of the Shrew_, 80 Goldmark, 137 Goldmark’s _Cricket on the Hearth_, _The Queen of Sheba_, 137 Goring Thomas’s _Esmeralda_, _Nadeshda_, 97 Gounod, 88, 141 Gounod’s _Mireille_, _Romeo and Juliet_, _The Mock Doctor_, 88; _Philémon and Baucis_, 88, 196; _Faust_, 88, 95, 141, 170 Grand Opera, definition of, 70; in England, 156-162 —— French, 43, 63, 176 Graun, 77, 207 Grétry, 51, 82 Grieg, 129 Grisi, 208

Halèvy, 85, 207 Handel, 11, 43, 44-47, 64, 76, 154, 190, 191, 195, 202, 203, 207 Handel’s _Deidamia_, 45; _Rinaldo_, 45, 202 Harris, Sir Augustus, 157 Hasse, 43, 77, 207 Haydn, 61, 207 Hérold, 85, 175, 207 Hérold’s _Zampa_, 85 Hiller, 77, 78 Hiller’s _Der Dorfbarbier_, _Die Jagel_, 77 Humperdinck, 137 Humperdinck’s _Die Heirat wider Willen_, 139; _Hansel and Gretel_, 137, 138, 141

Innovations, musical, 20 Isouard, 85, 206 Italian Opera, 15, 39-42 Italian School, the, 63-75

Jenny Lind, 203 Jomelli, 64, 207 Jomelli’s _Armida_, 209

Keiser, 43, 76 Kelly, 94 Kreutzer, 79

Lablache, 204, 208 Lago, Señor, 157 Lalo, 90 Lalo’s _Le Roi d’Ys_, 90 Legrenzi, 41 Leipzig, 179 _Leit-motif_, the, 27, 28, 105, 107, 116, 135 Leoi, Franco, 148 Leoncavallo, 130, 133 Leoncavallo’s _I Pagliacci_, 133, 195; _Roland of Berlin_, 133 Librettists, 206 Lindpaintner, 78, 79 Liszt, 102, 103 Lock, 187 Logroscino, 12, 64 Lortzing, 78, 79 Lortzing’s _Peter the Shipwright_, 79 Lotti, 42 Ludvig II., King of Bavaria, 102, 103 Lully, 11, 42-43, 81, 98, 175, 176, 188, 199

MacCunn, Hamish, 147 MacCunn’s _Diarmid_, 148; _Jeanie Deans_, 148, 159 Macfarren, 96 Mackenzie, 145, 147 Mackenzie’s _The Cricket on the Hearth_, _The Troubadour_, 147 Malibran, 204 Manners, Charles, 160, 161 Marschner, 14, 60, 78, 79 Marschner’s _Der Vampyr_, _Hans Heiling_, _The Templar and the Jewess_, 79 Mascagni, 130, 131-132 Mascagni’s _Cavalleria Rusticana_, 132, 170, 206; _L’Amico Fritz_, _I Rantzau_, _Iris_, _William Ratcliff_, 133 Masque, the, 187 Massé, Victor, 90 Massé’s _Paul et Virginie_, 90 Massenet, 141, 142 Massenet’s _Esclarmonde_, _Hérodiade_, _Le Cid_, _La Jongleur de Notre Dame_, _La Navarraise_, _Le Roi de Lahore_, _Manon_, _Thaïs_, _Werther_, 142 McLean, Alick, 148 Méhul, 83 Méhul’s _Joseph_, _Uthal_, 83 Melody, Adoption of, 10 Melos, 16, 26, 30, 116; Modern, 117 Mendelssohn, 59, 60, 61 Mendelssohn’s _Lorelei_, _The Wedding of Camacho_, 60 Mercadante, 72 Merimée, 210 Messager André, 144 Metastasio, 207 Meyerbeer, 60, 85-87, 98, 101, 169, 173, 175, 176, 194, 207 Meyerbeer’s _Dinorah_, _L’Africaine_, _Le Huguenots_, _Le Prophète_, 87 Michael’s _Utal_, 195 Mixed language singing, 190 Monodic style, 38 Monsigny, 82 Monteverde, 9, 19, 20, 31, 39, 48, 71 Moody, Madame Fanny, 160 Moody-Manners Company, 158, 160 “Moresca” from Monteverde’s _Orfeo_, 39-40 Moussorgsky’s _Judith_, 125 Mozart, 13, 14, 24, 27, 44, 51-55, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 70, 76, 77, 78, 168, 205, 207 Mozart’s _Die Entfurhrung aus dem Serail_, _Idomeneo_, 54; _Don Juan_, 54, 205; _Magic Flute_, 54, 195; _The Marriage of Figaro_, 54, 177; _Cosi fan Tutte_, 177; _Zauberflöte_, 177, 196; _Don Giovanni_, 124, 170, 178, 195 Munich, 179 Musical comedy, 186 Musical empiricism, 12 Music, Emotional effect of, 34; an accessory, 5; polyphonic, 33 _Muzio Scevola_, 190

Napoleon I., 199, 200 Naumann, 84 Naylor, Dr. Edward, 161 Neapolitan school, the, 64 Nepravnik, 127 Nessler, 140 Nessler’s _The Trumpeter of Sákkingen_, 140 Nicolai, 78, 79 Nicolai’s _Merry Wives of Windsor_, 79

Offenbach, 89 Offenbach’s _Orphée aux enfers_, 89; _Les Contes d’Hoffmann_, 90 Opera and politics, 199 “Opera Buffa,” 12, 64 “Opera Comique,” 15, 82, 83, 185 Opera House, Attempts to provide London with, 158; Covent Garden, 172; “La Scala,” Milan, 173; “San Carlo,” Naples, 173; “Académie Nationale de Musique,” Paris, 175; Vienna, 177; Hungarian, Budapest, 178; National Theatre, Prague, 178; Berlin, 178; Dresden, 179; Court Theatre, Munich, 179; Bayreuth, 180 Opera houses, the chief, 172-184 “Opera in Musica,” 1, 5 “Opero Seria,” 12 Operetta, 185 Opera, What is it? 1; derivation of term, 1; an artificial product, 2-3; hybrid, 4; defined, 5; growth of, 8; reformers of, 18; beginnings of, 42; logical commencement of, 37; early Italian, 39-42; early French, 42-43; early German, 43-44; early English, 44-47; small influence of great composers on, 61; Italian school of, 63-75; German school, 76-80; French school, 81-90; English, of eighteenth and part of nineteenth centuries, 91-97; chief modern composers of, 120; subsidized, 150; an educative quantity, 151; objections to subsidized, 151; English, 152; Covent Garden, 154; how to listen to and enjoy it, 163-171; in Russia, 183; in other European countries, 183; in Egypt and America, 184 Orchestra, use of, 10; definite shaping of, 14

Pacini, 72, 202 Paderewski, 127 Paisiello, 64 Paladihle, 144 Palazzo Bardi enthusiasts, 19, 33, 34 Paris, 175 Parry, Sir H., 145 “Pasticcio,” 190 Patti, Madame, 204 Pepusch, Dr., 92 Pergolesi, 12, 64 Pergolesi’s _La Serva Padrona_, 64 Peri, 34, 37, 39 Peri’s _Daphne_, 34; _Euridice_, 34, 35, 36, 42 Philidor, 82 Philip V. of Spain, 203 Piccini, 51, 64-65 Polish opera, 127 Ponchielli’s _La Gioconda_, 173 Porpora, 207 Prague, 178 Prima Donna, the, 207-208 _Prime donne_, 15, 72, 207 Puccini, 130, 135 Puccini’s _La Bohème_, _La Tosca_, _Manon Lescaut_, 135; _Madama Butterfly_, 135, 157 Purcell, 11, 44, 91 Purcell’s _Dido and Æneas_, _King Arthur_, 44 Rameau, 81-82, 175 Recitative, 69-71 _Recitativo Stromentato_, 71 Richter (Wagnerian conductor), 157 Ricordi, Messrs., 161 Rimsky-Korsakoff, 124, 125 Rimsky-Korsakoff’s _Pskowitjanka_, _The May Night_, 125 Romantic opera, 24, 56 Rome, 174 “Rose Softly Blooming” (song), 79 Rossi, 42 Rossini, 15, 25, 66-69, 71, 80, 173, 202, 206 Rossini’s _La Cenerentola_, _William Tell_, 71; _La Gazza Ladra_, 71, 173; _Otello_, 69, 71; _Tancredi_, 66, 174; _Semiramide_, _Mosè in Egitto_, _Zelmira_, 174; _The Barber of Seville_, 66, 174, 202, 211 “Rossinian Crescendo,” example of, 67-69 Rousseau, Jean Jaques, 82 Rousseau’s _Le Devin du Village_, 82, 209 Royal Opera Syndicate, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 161 Royalties, 206 Rubini, 208 Rubinstein, 123

Sacchini, 51, 64 Saint-Saëns, 141-142 Saint-Saëns’ _Ascanio_, _Henry VIII._, _L’Ancètre_, _Les Barbares_, _Proserpine_, and _Phryne_, 142 Scarlatti, Alessandro, 10, 12, 21, 27, 41, 43, 70, 118 Schillings, Max, 140 Schubert, 13, 59, 60, 61 Schubert’s _Alfonso and Estella_, _Fierabras_, 60 Schumann, 59, 60, 61 Schumann’s _Genoveva_, 60 Scribe, 207 Senesino, 202 Serov, 124 Shield, 94 Sinding, 129 Singers, Abuses by, 15; stories of, 207-208 Singspiel, 4, 5, 70, 77, 83, 97, 185 Slavonic opera, 122-128 Smetana, 127, 178 Smetana’s _Dalibor_, _Der Kuss_, _Libusa_, 128; _Bartered Bride_, 128, 178 Smith, Miss Emily, 148 Smith’s (Miss Emily) _Der Wald_, _The Wreckers_, 148 Somerville, 148 Spinelli, 134 Spinelli’s _A Basso Porto_, 134 Spohr, 14, 24, 78 Spohr’s _Faust_, 78; _Der Alchymist_, _Der Berggeist_, _Jessonda_, 79 Spontini, 14, 60, 63, 66, 84, 98, 169, 175, 176, 194, 196, 200, 205, 210 Spontini’s _Fernand Cortez_, _Olympia_, 85; _La Petite Maison_, 210; _La Vestale_, 85, 200, 210 Stage pieces, Progress in mounting of, 7 Stanford, 145, 146, 153 Stanford’s _Canterbury Pilgrims_, _Savonarola_, _Shamus O’Brien_, _The Veiled Prophet of Khorassan_, 146; _Much Ado about Nothing_, 147 Stereotyped casts, 191 Storace, 94 Strauss, 139, 179 Strauss’s _Feursnot_, _Guntram_, 139; _Elektra_, _Salome_, 139, 179 Sullivan, 97, 119, 158, 189 Sullivan’s _The Mikado_, 97; _Ivanhoe_, 97, 158 Sussmäyr, 70

Tamburini, 208 Tchaïkovsky, 124, 126, 189, 195 Tchaïkovsky’s _Eugene Oniegin_, _Joan of Arc_, _Mazeppa_, _The Enchantress_, _The Oprichnik_, 126 Thomas, Ambroise, 90, 119, 141 Thomas, Goring, 96 Titov, 123 Tomaschek, 127 Tonality, 9

Venice, 174 Verdi, 72-75, 80, 98, 119, 173, 207 Verdi’s _Ernani_, _Rigoletto_, _Il Trovatore_, _La Traviata_, 72; _Un Ballo in Maschera_, _Aïda_, 73; _Otello_, _Falstaff_, 74; _I Lombardi_, 173 Vienna, 177 Vivaldi, 41 Volkov, 123

Wagner, 15, 26, 73, 79, 85, 89, 98-115, 143, 157, 176, 179, 180, 189, 192; Influence of, 116-120; use of orchestra, 118; his harmony, 118; supernatural requirements, 194 Wagner’s _The Fairies_, 100; _Das Liebesverbot_, 100, 101; _Rienzi_, 101, 105; _Flying Dutchman_, 79, 102, 105, 159; _Parsifal_, 104, 113-115; _Tannhäuser_, 102, 106-107, 189, 209; _Lohengrin_, 102, 107-108, 159, 170, 200, 209; _The Ring_, 102, 103, 112-113, 157, 170, 202; _Die Meistersinger_, 102, 110-112, 157, 170, 202; _Tristan and Isolde_, 189, 170 Wagner, Siegfried, 140 Wallace, 96 Wallace’s _Maritana_, 96, 187 Weber, 13, 14, 24, 44, 56-59, 61, 66, 77, 78, 84, 89, 99, 157, 168, 179, 205 Weber’s _Der Freischütz_, 56, 70, 78, 84, 178, 185, 205; fragment from, 57-59; _Oberon_, 59, 157; _Euryanthe_, 59, 195 Weingartner, 140

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