Part 12

The term elliptical nebulæ has been applied to those of an elliptical or elongated shape. This form is probably due in many cases to the effect of perspective, their real shape being circular, or nearly so. Perhaps the most remarkable object of this class is the well-known “nebula in Andromeda,” known to astronomers as 31 Messier. It can be just seen with the naked eye, on a clear moonless night, as a hazy spot of light near the star Nu Andromedæ, and it is curious that it is not mentioned by the ancients, although it must have been very visible to their keen eyesight in the clear Eastern skies. It was, however, certainly seen so far back as 905 A. D., and it is referred to as a familiar object by the Persian astronomer, Al-Sûfi, who wrote a description of the heavens about the middle of the Tenth Century. Tycho Brahe and Bayer failed to notice it, but Simon Marius saw it in December, 1612, and described it “as a light seen from a great distance through half-transparent horn plates.” It was also observed by Bullialdus, in 1664, while following the comet of that year. It has frequently been mistaken for a comet by amateur observers in recent years. Closely northwest of the great nebula is a smaller one discovered by Le Gentil in 1749, and another to the south, detected by Miss Caroline Herschel in 1783. The great nebula is of an elliptical shape and considerable apparent size. The American astronomer, Bond, using a telescope of 15 inches aperture, traced it to a length of about four degrees, and a width of two and a half degrees. A beautiful photograph taken by Dr. Roberts in December, 1888, shows an extension of nearly two degrees in length, and about half a degree in width, or considerably larger than the apparent size of the full moon. Bond could not see any symptom of resolution into stars, but noticed two dark rifts or channels running nearly parallel to the length of the nebula. In Dr. Roberts’s photograph these rifts are seen to be really dark intervals between consecutive nebulous rings into which the nebula is divided. Dr. Roberts says: “A photograph which I took with the 20-inch reflector on October 10, 1887, revealed for the first time the true character of the great nebula, and one of the features exhibited was that the dark bands, referred to by Bond, formed parts of divisions between symmetrical rings of nebulous matter surrounding the large diffuse centre of the nebula. Other photographs were taken in 1887, November 15; 1888, October 1; 1888, October 2; 1888, December 29; besides several others taken since, upon all of which the rings of nebulosity are identically shown, and thus the photographs confirm the accuracy of each other, and the objective reality of the details shown of the structure of the nebula.” Dr. Roberts adds: “These photographs throw a strong light on the probable truth of the _Nebular Hypothesis_, for they show what appears to be the progressive evolution of a gigantic stellar system.”

The largest telescopes have hitherto completely failed to resolve this wonderful object into stars. Dr. Huggins, however, finds that the spectrum is _not_ gaseous, so that if the nebula really consists of stellar points, they must be of very small dimensions.

The question may be asked, What is the probable size and distance of this wonderful nebula? and could it be an external universe?

The temporary star which appeared near the nucleus of the nebula in August, 1885, was of the seventh magnitude. I find that our sun, if placed at the distance indicated by a parallax of 1/200th of a second, would be reduced to a star of about the eleventh magnitude, or four magnitudes fainter than the temporary star appeared to us. That is to say, the star would have been—with the assumed distance—about forty times brighter than the sun. With any greater distance, the star would have been proportionately brighter, compared with the sun. This seems improbable, and tends to the conclusion that the nebula is _not_ an external galaxy, but a member of our own sidereal system, a system which probably includes all the stars and nebulæ visible in our largest telescopes. Dr. Common, indeed, suggests that it may be comparatively near our system. He says: “It is difficult to imagine that such an enormous object, as the Andromeda nebula must be, is not very near to us; perhaps it may be found to be the nearest celestial object of all beyond the Solar System. It is one that offers the best chance of the detection of parallax, as it seems to be projected on a crowd of stars, and there are well-defined points that might be taken as fiducial points for measurement,” and he adds: “Apart from the great promise this nebula seems to give of determining parallax, there is a fair presumption that in the course of time the rotation of the outer portion may perhaps be detected by observation of the positions of the two outer detached portions in relation to the neighboring stars.”

The spiral nebulæ are wonderful objects, and were discovered by the late Lord Rosse with his great six-foot telescope. Their character has been fully confirmed by photographs taken by Dr. Roberts. One of the most remarkable of these extraordinary objects is that known as 51 Messier. It lies about three degrees southwest of the bright star Eta Ursæ Majoris—the star at the end of the Great Bear’s tail. It was discovered by Messier while comet-hunting on October 13, 1773. Telescopes of moderate power merely show two nebulæ nearly in contact, but Lord Rosse saw it as a wonderful spiral, and his drawing agrees fairly well with a photograph taken by Dr. Roberts in April, 1889. The nebula has also been photographed by Dr. Common. Dr. Roberts says: “The photograph shows both nuclei of the nebula to be stellar, surrounded by dense nebulosity, and the convolutions of the spiral in this as in other spiral nebulæ are broken up into star-like condensations with nebulosity around them. Those stars that do not conform to the trends of the spiral have nebulous trails attached to them, and seem as if they had broken away from the spirals.” A tendency to a spiral structure in the smaller nebula is also visible on the original negative. Dr. Huggins finds that the spectrum is _not_ gaseous.

The nebula known as 99 Messier is of the spiral form. It lies on the borders of Virgo and Coma Berenices, near the star 6 Comæ. In large telescopes it somewhat resembles a “Catherine wheel.” D’Arrest and Key thought it resolvable into stars. It has been photographed by M. Von Gothard.

Among the clusters and nebulæ, we may class the Magellanic Clouds, or Nubeculæ in the Southern Hemisphere, as they consist of stars, clusters, and nebulæ.

Among the so-called nebulæ are many objects which, when examined with telescopes of adequate power, are seen to be resolved into myriads of small stars; their comparative isolation from surrounding objects impresses us forcibly with the idea that they form, as it were, families of stars connected by some physical bond of union. Of these clusters, as they are called, we have naked-eye examples in the Pleiades and the “Bee-Hive” in Cancer. Others may be partially seen with a good opera-glass or binocular, but most of them require telescopes of considerable power to view them to advantage. They are of various forms and of all degrees of condensation. Some are comparatively large and irregular, others small and compressed, with the component stars densely crowded. Many are of such uniform shape as to have received the name of globular clusters. These have been aptly termed “balls of stars,” and are among the most interesting objects in the stellar heavens.

The most remarkable object of this class visible in the Northern Hemisphere is that known as 13 Messier. It lies between the tolerably bright stars Zeta and Eta Herculis, nearer the latter star. It may be seen with an opera-glass as a hazy-looking star of about the sixth magnitude, with a star on each side of it. Examined with a powerful telescope, it is resolved into numerous small stars. Sir William Herschel estimated them at 14,000, but the real number is probably much less. Assuming the average magnitude of the components at twelve and a half, I find that an aggregation of 14,000 stars of this brightness would shine as a star of about the second magnitude, or a little fainter.

Another object of the globular class, but less resolvable, is that known as 92 Messier, which lies between the stars Eta and Iota in Hercules, nearer the latter. Sir William Herschel’s telescopes showed it as seven or eight minutes of arc in diameter. It is considerably brighter at the centre. The larger components are easily visible in moderate-sized telescopes, but even Lord Rosse’s giant instrument failed to resolve the central blaze. There is no doubt, however, that it consists wholly of small stars, as the unerring eye of the spectroscope shows a stellar spectrum, similar to that of the neighboring 13 Messier.

[Illustration: Fig. 17.—The Region of Boötes and Hercules]

Another fine example of the globular class is 5 Messier, which lies closely north, preceding the fifth magnitude star, 5 Serpentis. It is considerably compressed at the centre. Sir William Herschel counted 200 stars, but failed to resolve the central nebulosity. Messier, its discoverer, found it visible with a telescope only one foot long.

Another fine object is 3 Messier, in Boötes. Admiral Smyth describes it as “a brilliant and beautiful globular aggregation of not less than 1,000 small stars.” It is beyond the power of small telescopes, but it was resolved by Buffham, even in the centre, with a 9-inch reflector.

Numerous fine examples of the globular class are found in the Southern Hemisphere, which indeed seems to be richer in these marvelous objects than the northern sky. Of these the most interesting are those known as Omega Centauri and 47 Toucani. Omega Centauri, from its great apparent size—about two-thirds of the moon’s diameter—and its visibility to the naked eye, may perhaps be considered as the most remarkable object of its kind in the heavens. It shines as a hazy star of the fourth magnitude, and I have often so seen it in the Punjab sky. Its large size and globular form are clearly visible in a binocular field-glass, but, of course, its component stars are far beyond the reach of such an instrument. Sir John Herschel, observing it with his large telescope at the Cape of Good Hope, found it a “truly astonishing object. All clearly resolved into stars of two magnitudes, viz., thirteen and fifteen, the larger lying in lines and ridges over the smaller;... the larger form rings like lace-work on it.” If we take the average magnitude of the components at thirteen and a half, the apparent brightness of the cluster would imply that it contains about 15,000 stars.

[Illustration: The Great Nebula in the Constellation Cygnus]

The other wonderful cluster is that known as 47 Toucani, which lies close to the smaller Magellanic Cloud. It is smaller in apparent size than Omega Centauri, but Dr. Gould, observing it at Cordoba, speaks of it as “one of the most impressive and perhaps the grandest of its kind in either hemisphere,” and he estimates its magnitude at four and a half, as seen with the naked eye. It is thus described by Sir John Herschel: “A most magnificent globular cluster. It fills the field with its outskirts, but within its more compressed part I can insulate a tolerably defined, circular space, of 90″ diameter, wherein the compression is much more decided, and the stars seem to run together, and this part, I think, has a pale pinkish or rose color, which contrasts, evidently, with the white light of the rest. The stars are equal, fourteen magnitude, immensely numerous and compressed.... Condensation in three distinct stages.... A stupendous object.” Sir John Herschel’s drawing of this cluster reminds one of a swarm of bees, and perhaps suggested to Tennyson the lines:

“Clusters and beds of worlds, and bee-like swarms Of suns and starry streams.”

There are other interesting specimens of the globular class in the Southern Hemisphere, but not of such large apparent dimensions as those already described. Of these may be mentioned 22 Messier, which lies about midway between the stars Mu and Sigma Sagittarii. It is described by Sir John Herschel as a fine globular cluster, with stars of two magnitudes, namely eleven or twelve, and fifteen or sixteen, the larger being visibly reddish, and he suggested that it consists of “two layers, or one shell over another.” Owing to the comparative brightness of the larger components, this cluster forms a good object for small telescopes. I saw the brighter stars well with a 3-inch refractor in the Punjab sky, but, of course, the greater portion of the cluster has a nebulous appearance in a telescope of this size.

Between Alpha and Beta Scorpii there is a condensed globular cluster. With small telescopes it very much resembles a telescopic comet, but with larger instruments its true character is revealed. Sir William Herschel considered it “the richest and most condensed mass of stars in the firmament.” In May, 1860, a “temporary star” of the seventh magnitude suddenly appeared in the centre, almost blotting out the cluster by its superior light. The star faded away before the end of June of the same year, and has not been seen with any certainty since. It has been suggested that this temporary star lay _between_ the cluster and the earth, but it seems to me much more probable that the outburst took place _in_ the cluster itself, and that it was possibly caused by a collision between two of the component stars, or by a swarm of meteors rushing with a high velocity through the cluster.

The beauty and sublimity of the spectacle presented by these globular clusters, when viewed with a powerful telescope, is such as can not be adequately described, and it has been said that when seen for the first time, “few can refrain from a shout of rapture.” The component stars, although distinctly visible as points of light, defy all attempts at counting them, and seem literally innumerable. Placed like a mass of glittering diamond-dust on the dark background of the heavens, they impress us forcibly with the idea that if each of these lucid points is a sun, the thousands which seem massed together in so small a space must be in reality either relatively close and individually small, or else the system of suns must be placed at a distance almost approaching the infinite.

The distance of these globular clusters from the earth is, however, certainly very great. Attempts to accurately determine their position in space have not been attended with success. As the component stars are at practically the same distance from the eye, we have no comparison stars to measure from, and their exact distance, therefore, remains unknown. We may, however, estimate their probable distance with some show of plausibility. We may assume that the stars of the Hercules cluster would, if concentrated in a point, shine as a star of about the fourth magnitude. As the components are of about the twelfth and thirteenth magnitudes, this would imply that the cluster consists of about 2,500 stars. With the data assumed, we may therefore conclude that the components of the Hercules cluster are suns of comparatively small size, separated by considerable distances, but apparently massed together by the effect of distance.

Among less condensed star clusters there are many interesting objects. The Pleiades have been already referred to. On a photograph of this remarkable group, taken at the Paris Observatory, over 2,000 stars can be counted of all degrees of brilliancy, from those visible without optical aid down to points of light so faint as to be invisible to the eye in the telescope with which they were photographed. Here we have a cluster of probably larger size than that in Hercules, probably at a greater distance from the earth, and with its larger components of considerably greater mass than our sun.

Near the bright star Pollux, I see a small cluster of stars of about the seventh and eight magnitudes, which, with a binocular field-glass, very much resembles the Pleiades as seen with the naked eye. A smaller cluster (known as 39 Messier) may be seen near the star Pi Cygni.

The well-known Chi Persei may be also seen with an opera-glass, but a telescope is necessary to show the component stars to advantage, and the larger the telescope the greater the number of faint stars in these wonderful objects.

The cluster known as 35 Messier, a little north of the star Eta Geminorum, is visible in an opera-glass, but a small telescope is required to see the component stars. A well-marked clustering tendency is visible among the brighter stars of the group, two, three, four, and sometimes five stars being grouped together in subordinate collections. Admiral Smyth says: “It presents a gorgeous field of stars from the ninth to the sixteenth magnitude, but with the centre of the mass less rich than the rest. From the small stars being inclined to form curves of three or four, and often with a large one at the root of the curve, it somewhat reminds one of the bursting of a sky-rocket.” This tendency to “stream” formation in the components of star clusters is also well marked in a photograph of the cluster 38 Messier (kindly sent to me by MM. Henry of the Paris Observatory). It was described by Webb as “a noble cluster arranged in an oblique cross,” and Smyth says: “The very unusual shape of this cluster recalls the sagacity of Sir William Herschel’s speculations upon the subject, and very much favors the idea of an attractive power lodged in the brightest part. For although the form is not globular, it is plainly to be seen that there is a tendency toward sphericity, by the swell of the dimensions as they draw near the most luminous part, denoting, as it were, a stream or tide of stars, setting toward the centre.”

Sir W. Herschel, speaking of a compressed cluster in Perseus, says “the large stars are arranged in lines like interwoven letters,” and Webb says “it is beautifully bordered by a brighter foreshortened pentagon.”

Observing with a 3-inch telescope in India, I noticed a beautiful cluster of stars, about 4° north of Gamma and Upsilon Scorpii, resembling in shape a bird’s foot, with remarkable streams of stars. This cluster is visible to the naked eye as a star of about the fifth magnitude.

Although these loosely associated star clusters do not show such evidence in favor of family connection as the more closely compacted globular clusters, still we can hardly escape from the conviction that their apparent aggregation is really due to some physical bond of union, and not merely the result of a fortuitous scattering of stars at different distances in the line of sight.

THE GREAT NEBULA OF ORION.—SIR ROBERT S. BALL

The telescope, ever an ally in the study of the heavens, is in this part of the science absolutely indispensable. In other branches of astronomy we can learn something without its aid. Indeed, many great astronomical discoveries were made long before the telescope was invented. But ere this memorable event in the history of science it was impossible for us to know anything of the existence of the nebulæ. It is indeed true that there is one of these objects which can be just detected by the naked eye. It lies in the constellation of Andromeda, where, on a clear and dark night, a faint spot of light can just be discerned by a good eye. But a mere glimpse gives us really no adequate notion of the true character of the object. It might only, so far as the naked eye discloses its nature, be a cluster of stars like that we have already discerned in Perseus, or like the similar group that, under the name of the Beehive, is comparatively familiar in the constellation of Cancer. With the single exception of the nebula in Andromeda, all the objects so called are entirely telescopic, yet how important a constituent the nebulæ form in the contents of the heavens will be shown by a look at some of the lists of these objects. There are now several thousands of nebulæ known, and their positions in the sky, as well as the details of their appearances, are set forth in the catalogues.

The most glorious constellation of stars in the firmament is undoubtedly that of Orion. This splendid group is seen in the south during the winter months, and toward the close of January it is situated in a very convenient position for observing early in the evening. The group is specially characterized by the number of unusually bright stars which it includes, and the three stars in the centre, forming the so-called Belt of Orion, is as well known a celestial figure as the sky contains. Directly under the belt are three much smaller stars nearly in a line, which points straight upward to the middle star of the belt. These three lower stars are usually known as the sword handle of Orion, this being the position which they occupied in the fanciful old sketches of the constellation. The three stars of the sword handle of Orion are plunged in the Great Nebula. This object can not be seen by the unassisted eye, though doubtless around the central star a little haziness is perceptible, and even the slightest telescopic aid will suffice to indicate that the central star of the sword handle is attended by a surrounding glow of light, which renders it quite unlike other stars. This can indeed be sufficiently shown with an ordinary opera-glass, one glance through which will awaken in the beholder a keen desire to study the object under more favorable conditions. But to do justice to the object, telescopes of large power are desirable.

To realize fully the magnificence of the Great Nebula, the observer who is being introduced to the object for the first time should not, strange to say, direct the telescope at the nebula; the instrument should rather be pointed at the heavens, just a little to the west of the nebula. The clock driving the equatorial should not be started, and the observer should take his seat and look through the eye-piece before the nebula has entered the field. He will see, no doubt, a few stars on the black background, which gradually pass in procession across his field of view. This is merely the ordinary diurnal journey of the heavens, by which all the objects move slowly from east to west; I ought rather to say _appear_ to move, for, of course, the motion on the heavens is only apparent, the fact being that it is the earth which is turning round.