Part 7

We have here the principal stars and constellations of the Northern Hemisphere, the North Pole being at the centre of the circle. We come now in the order of our description to the twelve constellations of the zodiacal belt, which makes the circuit of the sky, inclined at 23° to the Equator, and of which the ecliptic, the apparent path of the sun, forms the centre line.

The name of zodiac, given to the zone of stars which the sun traverses during the course of the year, comes from ζώδια, _animals_, an etymology which is due to the species of figures traced on this belt of stars. Animals, in fact, predominate in these figures. The entire circumference of the sky has been divided into twelve parts, which have been named the twelve signs of the zodiac; our ancestors called them the “houses of the sun,” or “the monthly abodes of Apollo,” because the day star visits them each month, and returns every spring to the beginning of the zodiacal city. Two memorable Latin verses of the poet Ausonius present to us these twelve signs in the order in which the sun travels through them, and this still appears the easiest method of learning them by heart.

Sunt _Aries_, _Taurus_, _Gemini_, _Cancer_, _Leo_, _Virgo_, _Libraque_, _Scorpius_, _Arciteneus_, _Caper_, _Amphora_, _Pisces_;

or, in English, the Ram ♈︎, the Bull ♉︎, the Twins ♊︎, the Crab ♋︎, the Lion ♌︎, the Virgin ♍︎, the Balance ♎︎, the Scorpion ♏︎, the Archer ♐︎, Capricornus ♑︎, Aquarius ♒︎, and the Fishes ♓︎. The signs placed beside these names are a vestige of the primitive hieroglyphics which described them: ♈︎ represents the horns of the Ram, ♉︎ the head of the Bull; ♒︎ is a stream of water, etc.

If we now know our northern sky, if its most important stars are sufficiently noted down in our mind, with the reciprocal relations which they preserve among themselves, we have no more confusion to fear, and it will be easy to recognize the zodiacal constellations. This zone may be of use to us as a line of division between the north and the south. Here is a description of it:

The Ram, which, moving in front of the herd, and regulating, so to say, the march, opens the series. This constellation has in itself nothing remarkable; the brightness of its stars indicates the base of one of the horns of the leader of the sheep; it is but of the second magnitude. After the _Ram_ comes the Bull. Admire on a fine winter’s night the charming Pleiades which scintillate in the ether; not far from them shines a fine red star—this is the _eye_ of the Bull—Aldebaran, a star of the first magnitude and one of the finest of our sky. We now arrive at the Twins, whose heads are marked by two fine stars of the second magnitude, situated a little above a star of the first magnitude—_Procyon_, or the Little Dog; _Cancer_, or the Crab, a constellation very little conspicuous (its most visible stars are but of the fourth magnitude, and occupy the body of the animal); the _Lion_, a fine constellation, marked by a star of the first magnitude, _Regulus_, by one of the second, β, and by several others of the second and third magnitudes arranged in a trapezium; the _Virgin_, indicated by a very brilliant star of the first magnitude; _Spica_, situated in the neighborhood of a star, also of the first magnitude, Arcturus, which is found on the prolongation of the tail of the Great Bear; the _Balance_ (Libra), indicated by two stars of the second magnitude, which would exactly resemble the Twins if they were nearer to each other; the _Scorpion_, a remarkable constellation; a star of the first magnitude, of a fine red color, marks the _Heart_ (Antares), in the middle of two stars of the third magnitude, above which are three bright stars arranged in a diadem; _Sagittarius_, the Archer, of which the arrow, indicated by three stars of the second and third magnitudes, is pointed toward the tail of the Scorpion; _Capricornus_, a constellation not conspicuous, which is recognized by two stars of the third magnitude very near each other, and representing the base of the horns of the hieroglyphic animal; _Aquarius_, indicated by three stars of the third magnitude arranged in a triangle, of which the most northern occupies a point on the equator; _Pisces_, the _Fishes_, composed of stars, barely conspicuous, of the third to fourth magnitudes, situated to the south of a large and magnificent quadrilateral—the Square of Pegasus—of which we have already spoken.

We have now enumerated the zodiacal constellations in the order of the direct motion (from west to east) of the sun, moon, and planets which traverse them. They marked at the epoch of their formation, the monthly passage of the sun into each of them. The distribution of the stars in figurative groups was the first truly hieroglyphical writing; it was engraved on the firmament in indelible characters.

The zodiac has played a great part in the ancient history of every nation—in the formation of the calendar, in the appointment of public festivals, and in the constitution of eras. The zodiac of Denderah, discovered by the French _savants_ in Egypt at the end of the Eighteenth Century, was at first believed to have an antiquity of 15,000 years; but it is now proved that it is necessary to deduct from that number of years half the cycle of precession—that is to say, nearly 13,000 years—which brings down the date of this sculpture to 2,000 years before our epoch; and this in fact corresponds with the evidence of archæology. It is remarkable that all the ancient zodiacs and calendars which have been preserved to us begin the year with the constellation of the Bull, as we have already noticed. The zodiac of the Elephanta Pagoda (Salsette) has at the head of the procession the sign of the sacred Bull, the ox Apis, Mithra—of which the promenade of the fat ox, which is still performed in the environs of Paris, is a vestige. The ceiling of a sepulchral chamber at Thebes shows the Bull at the head of the procession. The zodiac of Esne, the astronomical picture discovered by Champollion in the Ramesseum of Thebes, carries us back to the same origin, between two and three thousand years before our era; Biot supposes the date of this to be the year 3285, the vernal equinox passing through the Hyades on the forehead of Taurus. Father Gaubil has proved that from ancient times the Chinese have referred the beginning of the apparent motion of the sun to the stars of Taurus; and we have a Chinese observation of the star η of the Pleiades as marking the vernal equinox in the year 2357 before our era. Hesiod sings of the Pleiades as ruling the labors of the year, and the name of Vergilia, which the ancient Romans gave them, associates them with the beginning of the year in spring.

[Illustration: Fig. 11]

Without entering into any details of the different zodiacs which have been preserved to us from the most ancient and diverse nations, a glance at those which are reproduced here will lead us to appreciate the part which they have played in ancient religions. Several zodiacal signs have become veritable gods. The zodiac represented by Fig. 11 was engraved, in the Thirteenth Century, on an Arabic magic mirror, and dedicated to the sovereign prince Aboulfald, “Victorious Sultan, Light of the World,” if we are to believe the bombastic inscription which encircles it. Fig. 12 shows an ancient Hindoo zodiac. Fig. 13 shows a Chinese zodiac stamped upon a talisman, even now in use. The twelve signs differ from ours; they are: the Mouse, the Cow, the Tiger, the Rabbit, the Dragon, the Serpent, the Horse, the Ram, the Ape, the Hen, the Dog, and the Pig. Fig. 14 represents a Chinese medal, on which we see the constellation _Teou_, the Great Bear[9] (which they call the Bushel), the Serpent, the Sword, and the Tortoise. This is a talisman intended to give courage; it appears that it is in great demand among the Chinese, and is as well circulated as the medals of the Immaculate Conception are in France.

[Illustration: Fig. 12.—Ancient Hindoo Zodiac]

Of all the zodiacal constellations, that of the Bull has played the principal rôle in ancient myths; and in this constellation it was the sparkling cluster of the Pleiades which appears to have regulated the year and the calendar among all the ancient nations. The Mosaic deluge itself, referred to 17 Athir (November), in commemoration of an important inundation, had its date coincident with the appearance of the Pleiades.[10]

[Illustration: Fig. 13.—Chinese Zodiac, from a Talisman

Fig. 14.—Chinese Medal, showing the Great Bear]

But we forget the stars. If our descriptions have been carefully followed, the reader will now know the zodiacal constellations as well as those of the north. There remains but little to do to know the entire sky. But there is an indispensable addition to be made to what precedes. The circumpolar stars are perpetually visible above the London horizon; at any time of the year when we wish to observe them it is sufficient to turn to the north, and we shall always find them, either above the pole star or below it, to one side or the other, and always maintaining among themselves the relations which we have employed to find them. The stars of the zodiac do not resemble them from this point of view, for they are sometimes above the horizon, sometimes below. It is necessary, then, to know at what epoch they are visible. For this purpose it will be sufficient to remember the constellation which is found in the middle of the sky at _nine o’clock in the evening_ on the first day of each month—that, for example, which crosses at that moment a line descending from the zenith to the south. This line is the _meridian_, of which we have already spoken; all the stars cross it once a day, moving from east to west—that is to say, from left to right. In indicating each of the constellations which pass at the hour indicated, we also give the centre of the visible constellations.

On January 1 Taurus passes the meridian at 9 o’clock in the evening; notice Aldebaran, the Pleiades. On February 1 the Twins (Gemini) are not yet there; we see them a little to the left. March 1, Castor and Pollux have passed; Procyon to the south, the little stars of the Crab (Cancer) to the left. April 1, the Lion, Regulus. May 1, β of the Lion, Berenice’s Hair. June 1, Spica of the Virgin, Arcturus. July 1, the Balance (Libra), the Scorpion. August 1, Antares, Ophiuchus. September 1, Sagittarius, Aquila. October 1, Capricornus, Aquarius. November 1, Pisces, Pegasus. December 1, Aries, the Ram.

Our general review of the starry sky must now be completed by the stars of the southern heavens.

Below Taurus and Gemini, to the south of the zodiac, you notice the giant Orion, who raises his club toward the forehead of the Bull. Seven brilliant stars are here distinguished; two of them, α and β, are of the first magnitude; the five others are of the second magnitude, α and γ mark the shoulders, κ the right knee, β the left knee; δ, ε, ζ mark the belt or girdle. Below this line is a luminous train of three stars, very near each other; this is the Sword. Between the western shoulder and Taurus is seen the Shield, composed of a row of small stars. The head is marked by a little star (λ) of the fourth magnitude.

On a fine winter’s night turn toward the south, and you will immediately recognize this giant constellation. The four stars, α, γ, β, κ, occupy the angles of a great quadrilateral. The three others, δ, ε, ζ, are crowded in an oblique line in the middle of this quadrilateral; α, at the northeast angle, is named _Betelgeuse_ (not Beteigeuse, as some books print it); β, at the southeast angle, is called _Rigel_.

The line of the Belt, produced both ways, passes to the northeast near _Aldebaran_, the Eye of the Bull, which we know already, and to the southeast near _Sirius_, the finest star of the sky, which we shall soon consider.

It is during the fine nights of winter that this constellation shines in the evening above our heads. No other season is so magnificently constellated as the months of winter. While nature deprives us of certain enjoyments in one way, it offers us in exchange others no less precious. The marvels of the heavens present themselves from Taurus and Orion in the east to Virgo and Boötes on the west. Of eighteen stars of the first magnitude which are counted in the whole extent of the firmament, a dozen are visible from nine o’clock to midnight, not to mention some fine stars of the second magnitude, remarkable nebulæ, and celestial objects well worthy of the attention of mortals. It is thus that nature establishes a harmonious compensation, and while it darkens our short and frosty days of winter, it gives us long nights enriched with the most opulent creations of the sky.

The constellation of Orion is not only the richest in brilliant stars, but it conceals for the initiated treasures which no other is known to afford. We might almost call it the California of the sky.

To the southeast of Orion, on the line of the Three Kings, shines the most magnificent of all the stars, _Sirius_, or α of the constellation of the Great Dog. This star of the first magnitude marks the upper eastern angle of a great quadrilateral, of which the base near the horizon of London, is adjacent to a triangle. This constellation rises in the evening at the end of November, passes the meridian at midnight at the end of January, and sets at the end of March. It played the greatest part in Egyptian astronomy, for it regulated the ancient calendar. It was the famous Dog Star; it predicted the inundation of the Nile, the summer solstice, great heats and fevers; but the precession of the equinoxes has in 3,000 years moved back the time of its appearance by a month and a half, and now this fine star announces nothing, either to the Egyptians who are dead or to their successors.

The _Little Dog_, or Procyon, is found above the Great Dog and below the Twins (Castor and Pollux), to the east of Orion. With the exception of α Procyon, no brilliant star distinguishes it.

_Hydra_ is a long constellation, which occupies a quarter of the horizon, under Cancer, the Lion, and the Virgin. The head, formed of four stars of the fourth magnitude, is to the left of Procyon, on the prolongation of a line drawn from that star to Betelgeuse. The western side of the great trapezium of the Lion, like the line from Castor and Pollux, points to α, of the second magnitude. This is the Heart of Hydra; we remark the asterisms of the second class, Corvus the Crow, and Crater the Cup.

_Eridanus_, _Cetus_, _Piscis Australis_, and the _Centaur_ are the only important constellations which remain to be described. We find them, in the order which we have indicated, to the right of Orion. Eridanus is a river composed of a train of stars winding from the left foot of Orion and losing itself below the horizon. After following long windings, it ends with a fine star of the first magnitude, α Eridani, or Achernar. This is the river into which Phaeton fell when he unskilfully directed the Chariot of the Sun. It was placed in the sky to console Apollo for the death of his son.

To find the Whale (Cetus), we may notice below the Ram a star of the second magnitude which forms an equilateral triangle with the Ram and the Pleiades; this is α of Cetus, or the Jaw; α, μ, ξ, and γ form a parallelogram which represents the head. The base, α, γ, may be produced to a star of the third magnitude, δ, and to a star of the neck marked ο. This star is one of the most curious in the heavens. It is named the Wonderful, _Mira Ceti_. It belongs to the class of variable stars. Sometimes it equals in brightness stars of the second magnitude, sometimes it becomes completely invisible.[11] Its variations have been followed since the end of the Sixteenth Century, and it has been found that they are reproduced periodically every 331 days on the average. The study of these singular stars presents us with curious phenomena.

Lastly, the constellation of the Centaur is situated below Spica of the Virgin. The star θ, of the second magnitude, and the star ι, of the third, mark the head and the shoulder. This is the only part of this figure which rises above our horizon. The Centaur contains the _nearest star_ to us (α) of the first magnitude, the distance of which is about twenty-five billions of miles. The feet of the Centaur touch the _Southern Cross_, formed of four stars of the second magnitude, always hidden below our horizon. It reigns in silence above the icy solitudes of the Southern Pole, where ships proceed only with difficulty. Further on, at the centre of the other hemisphere, is the southern celestial pole, which is not marked by any remarkable star.

It was from this region, Dante relates, that, having visited hell, inclosed in the centre of the earth, he went to the Mountain of Purgatory, and from there to the Heights of Paradise. These beautiful dreams have disappeared in the sunshine of modern astronomy.

We will complete these descriptions by a little astronomical chronology, which is not without interest. From a careful examination of the most ancient historical sources of classical astronomy, the following is the order in which the constellations appear to have been noticed, formed, and named, beginning with the most ancient:

Most Ancient Reference

The Great Bear _Job_ (ch. xxxviii. ver. 32) (Seventeenth Century before our era), _Homer_ (Ninth Century). Orion _Job_ (ch. ix. ver. 9), _Homer_, _Hesiod_. The Pleiades (the Hyades) _Job_ (ch. xxxviii. ver. 31), _Homer_, _Hesiod_. Sirius and the Great Dog _Hesiod_ mentions it. _Homer_ calls Sirius the Star of Autumn. Aldebaran (Taurus) _Homer_, _Hesiod_. Boötes, Arcturus _Job_ (ch. xxxviii. ver. 32), _Homer_, _Hesiod_. The Little Bear _Thales_ (Seventh Century), _Eudoxus_, _Aratus_. Draco (the Dragon) _Eudoxus_ (Fourth Century), _Aratus_ (Third Century). The Man on his Knees, or Hercules _Id._ The Branch and Cerberus[12] _Id._ Corona Borealis _Id._ Ophiuchus or Serpentarius _Id._ The Scorpion _Id._ Virgo and Spica _Eudoxus_ (Fourth Century), _Aratus_ (Third Century) Gemini (the Twins) _Id._ Procyon _Id._ Cancer (the Crab) _Id._ Leo (the Lion) _Id._ Auriga (the Charioteer) _Id._ Capella (the Goat, the Kids) _Id._ Cepheus _Id._ Cassiopeia _Id._ Andromeda _Id._ Pegasus (the Horse) _Id._ Aries (the Ram) _Id._ The Triangle _Id._ Pisces (the Fishes) _Id._ Perseus _Id._ Lyra _Id._ The Bird, or Cygnus (the Swan) _Id._ Aquila (the Eagle) _Id._ Aquarius _Id._ Capricornus _Id._ Sagittarius _Id._ Sagitta (the Arrow) _Id._ Delphinus (the Dolphin) _Id._ Lepus (the Hare) _Id._ Argo (the Ship) _Id._ Canobus (afterward written Canopus) _Id._ Eridanus _Id._ Cetus (the Whale) _Id._ Piscis Australis (the Southern Fish) _Id._ Corona Australis _Id._ The Altar _Id._ The Centaur _Id._ The Wolf (Lupus) _Id._ Hydra _Id._ Crater (the Cup) _Id._ Corvus (the Crow) _Id._ Libra (the Balance) _Manetho_ (Third Century B. C.) _Geminus_ (First Century) B. C.). The Hair of Berenice[13] _Callimachus_, _Eratosthenes_ (Third Century). Feet of the Centaur _Hipparchus_ (First Century B. C.). Propus (η of Gemini) _Hipparchus._ The Manger and Donkeys _Id._ The Little Horse (Equuleus) _Id._ The Head of Medusa _Id._ Antinous[13] Under the Emperor Adrian (130 A. D.). The Peacock (Pavo) _John Bayer_, 1603. Toucan _Id._ Grus (the Crane) _Id._ Phœnix _Id._ Doradus _Id._ The Flying Fish _Id._ Hydrus _Id._ Chamæleon _Id._ The Bee (Musca) _Id._ The Bird of Paradise (Apus) _Id._ Triangulum Australis _Id._ The Indian (Indus) _Id._ The Giraffe (Camelopardus) _Bartschius_, 1624. The Fly (Musca) _Id._ The Unicorn (Monoceros) _Id._ Noah’s Dove (Columba) _Id._ The Oak of Charles II _Halley_, 1679. The Southern Cross (already seen by the ancients) _Augustine Royer_, 1677. The Great and Little Cloud (Magellanic Clouds) _Hevelius_, 1690. The Fleur de Lys _Id._ The Greyhounds (Canes Venatici) _Id._ The Fox and Goose (Vulpecula et Anser) _Id._ The Lizard (Lacerta) _Id._ The Sextant of Urania (Sextans) _Id._ The Little Lion (Leo Minor) _Hevelius_, 1690. The Lynx _Id._ The Shield of Sobieski _Id._ The Little Triangle _Id._ Mount Mænalus _Flamsteed_, 1725. The Heart of Charles II (α Canum Venaticorum) _Id._ The Sculptor’s Workshop (Sculptor) _Lacaille_, 1752. The Chemical Furnace (Fornax) _Id._ The Clock (Horologium) _Id._ The Rhomboid Reticule (Reticulum) _Id._ The Engraver’s Pen _Id._ The Painter’s Easel (Pictor) _Id._ The Compass (Circinus) _Id._ The Air Pump (Antlia) _Id._ The Octant (Octans) _Id._ The Compass and Square _Id._ The Telescope (Telescopium) _Id._ The Microscope (Microscopium) _Id._ The Table Mountain (Mensa) _Id._ The Reindeer _Lemonnier_, 1774. The Solitaire (Indian Bird) _Id._ Le Messier _Lalande_, 1776. The Bull of Poniatowski _Poczobut_, 1877. The Honors of Frederick _Bode_, 1786. The Harp of the Georges _Hell_, 1789. The Telescope of Herschel _Bode_, 1787. The Electrical Machine _Id_, 1790. The Printer’s Workshop _Id._ The Mural Quadrant _Lalande_, 1795. The Air Balloon _Id._, 1798. The Cat _Id._, 1799.

Such are the constellations, ancient and modern, venerable or recent, into which the celestial sphere has been divided. The ancient names are respectable and respected, on account of their relations, known or unknown, with the origins of history and religion; the new ones must be ephemeral. It is useful to know them, because several stars celebrated under different titles have for their principal designation their position in these asterisms; but what we should wish would be to see them disappear.[14]

Many other substitutions have, however, been attempted. I have in my library a splendid folio of the year 1661, containing twenty-nine engraved plates, illuminated in gold and silver, among which are two which represent the sky delivered from the pagans and peopled with Christians. Instead of divinities more or less virtuous, in place of animals of forms more or less fantastic, we behold the elect—apostles, saints, popes, martyrs, sacred persons of the Old and New Testament—seated in the celestial vault, clothed in rich costumes of all colors, embroidered with gold, and carefully installed in the place of all the pagan heroes who for so many ages reigned in the sky.

The author of this metamorphosis was named Jules Schiller, and it was in the year 1627 that he introduced it, coupling his name with that of John Bayer. He began his dissertation by showing how the pagan constellations are opposed to Christian opinion and even to common-sense. He quoted the Fathers of the Church who expressly disapprove of them: Isodorus, who treats them as diabolical; Lactantius, who condemns the corruption of the human race; Augustine, who sends their heroes to hell, etc.

These constellations formed by chance, in the course of ages, without a fixed object; their inconvenient size, the uncertainty of their boundaries; the complicated designations, for which it was sometimes necessary to exhaust whole alphabets; the bad taste with which observers have introduced into the southern sky the frigid nomenclature of instruments used in science alongside mythological allegories—all these accumulated defects have often suggested plans of reform for the stellar divisions, and even the banishing of all configuration. But ancient customs are difficult to overcome, and it is very probable that, except the recently named groups, which we may now suppress, the venerable constellations will always reign.