CHAPTER I
.
SIGNAL CORPS MATERIAL.
The spent runner who hurled himself through the gate of ancient Athens and with his dying breath gasped out the news of the brilliant success of the Athenian troops against the Persian at Marathon in the year 490 B. C. was the first famous soldier of a signal corps; but since then the exploits of the bearers of military tidings have filled the pages of legend and story. Just as other branches of military science have been brought to a high perfection in modern times, so in equal degree has the art of military signaling progressed in efficiency.
Where the ancient athlete once exhausted his strength in bearing military messages long distances in the field, the modern Mercury uses the wireless phone. In Civil War days the pony express rider brought from some desperate stand the story of the lack of ammunition; to-day the ammunition-supply organization is in constant touch with the front by means of telegraph or the long-distance telephone. In the Indian campaigns in our own West messages from beleaguered parties were sometimes conveyed by signal smokes; the "lost battalion" in the Argonne sent news of its plight by carrier pigeon.
Modern warfare has indeed retained the old, but it has also developed the new, in transmitting military tidings. So important is this branch of fighting that it is put in the hands of a specialized organization, which in the American Army is known as the Signal Corps. The Signal Corps not only had charge of the operation of the various communicating devices in 1917 and 1918 in the field of operations (except latterly in the air), but it also had charge of the manufacture of the equipment for this work.
The production of signaling equipment was far greater than the uninformed person would imagine. As an instance, there was one special type of telephone wire, a form unknown to commercial use before the war, which, before November 11, 1918, was being produced at the rate of 20,000 miles a month, at a cost of $5,650,000 per month, requiring the complete capacity of the day and night operation of all fine wire machinery in the United States, except that which was working on Navy contracts. Many other production activities of the Signal Corps were carried through on a similar scale.
Until after the Civil War, the operation of large units of troops was greatly handicapped by the limitations of military signaling as then known. A force could not be effective in combat that could not be readily reached in all quarters by runners or riders or by visual signals. The development of the telegraph and telephone and the invention of radio changed all this, so that in the great war armies stretched out on fronts 100 miles or more in length with every part of them in immediate touch with every other part through the exact and complete systems of signaling on the field.
Military signals to-day include the telephone, the telegraph, radio telegraphy and telephony, the buzzer, the buzzerphone, panels, pyrotechnics, flags, smoke signals, pigeons, dogs, mounted orderlies, and runners. Each of these means of signaling is an adjunct to the others; when one fails, another is employed to get the message through. Some have special uses for branches of the service with peculiar requirements. The radiophone is especially suited for communicating from airplanes. Artillery fire is directed by wire and wireless communication. Trained pigeons are sometimes able to get messages through when all other means of communication have failed.
The Army did not have a great quantity of signaling equipment when it went to war with Germany, but what it did have was good. The American punitive expedition in Mexico, where long lines of communication over rugged country were required, had given opportunity for testing modern signal apparatus in the field. Many of the signaling devices used by the American Expeditionary Forces were, at least in type, in common use by the civilian population; yet the procurement of this equipment offered heavy difficulties. This was because the Army was much more exacting than was commercial demand as to the quality of material used. For instance, a telephone instrument for use in the field hardly can be compared with the telephone in a business man's private office. The field set demands stronger connections, better insulation against the dampness of outdoor work, and more rugged construction to withstand rough usage by an army on the march.
One of the larger tasks of the Signal Corps in France was that of providing facilities for communication for the service of supply. The first Signal Corps officers sent to France soon realized that the forthcoming American Army could not depend upon the French telegraph and telephone systems in the various zones of operation, because those systems were already overburdened by the uses of the French government. Consequently, it became necessary to set up our own telegraph and telephone systems, extending them from the ports of debarkation through the various bases and zones up to the battle regions. The magnitude of the system which finally was constructed is shown in the fact that on November 11, the date of the armistice, there were in France 96,000 miles of American telegraph and long-distance telephone circuits. This wire was all used by the service of supply and by the various Army bases behind the front.
Yet in the field of fighting the requirements for wire were even greater. At one time during the height of the operations it was evident that the time was not far distant when the Signal Corps would need 68,000 miles a month of what was known as outpost wire, for use simply in connecting up the telephone and telegraph systems carried along by the troops in their advances.
Outpost wire was entirely a development of the war against Germany. The original telephone system used at the front had been the single telephone wire grounded to complete the circuit. But all the armies in France perfected their listening instruments to such a degree that they could hear conversations conducted on the grounded telephone circuits, the sounds being detected in the earth itself. Consequently, it became necessary to carry forward with troops two-wire telephone circuits, thus doing away with ground connections. Even then care had to be taken that the insulation of this double wire was perfected, lest the impulses enter the ground through gaps in the insulation. Wireless for outpost communication was equally impracticable, since the enemy could easily listen in and hear radio phone messages.
Outpost wire insured secret communication at the front. Outpost wire was a twist of two wires, each single wire being made up of seven fine wires, four of them of bronze, and three of them of hard carbon steel. These were stranded together, coated, first with rubber and then with cotton yarn, and finally paraffined. The wire was produced in six colors--red, yellow, green, brown, black, and gray--for easy identification in the field, each unit employing its own color.
The wastage of outpost wire was enormous. In an advancing movement it was folly to undertake to pick up the wire. The abandoned miles of it had to be left in the field to be salvaged later by the clean-up
## parties.
The proposition of producing 68,000 miles of outpost wire every month staggered the wire manufacturers of the country. There were not enough braiding machines to complete such an order, and new ones had to be built before such a quantity of outpost wire could be attained.
In addition to the various means of communication, the Signal Corps was also called upon to supply in large quantities such other articles as wire reel carts, flag staffs, field glasses, photographic equipment, chests, tools, meteorological apparatus, and wrist watches.
In the production of its supplies, the Signal Corps was confronted with the same obstacles of inadequate industrial capacity, dearth of raw materials, and congestion of railroad transportation, that embarrassed almost every line of military production. To meet these difficulties the Signal Corps organized an elaborate inspection force which not only checked the work at the various factories for quality and rate of production, but was also constantly on hand to help the harassed manufacturer out of his difficulties as they arose. The Signal Corps never slept. At night and on holidays there was at least one officer on the job in Washington to receive telegrams or long-distance telephone messages and to be ready to act quickly in any emergency.
From the production standpoint, signal equipment was divided into several general classifications: (1) telephone and telegraph apparatus; (2) radio apparatus; (3) line-construction materials; (4) batteries; (5) wire and cables; (6) field glasses; (7) wire carts; (8) photographic supplies, pigeons, and pigeon supplies; and (9) chests, kits, and tools, mechanical signals, electric signals, meteorological apparatus, and wrist watches.
TELEPHONES AND TELEGRAPHS.
In the early days of the conflict the construction of signal materials in the United States was devoted to such basic supplies as wire, cable, tools, and the standard types of telephone equipment, such as telephone sets and switchboards. The first great task in France was to install the lines of communication for the service of supply, a system that required American equipment because it was planned to operate it with American-trained telegraph and telephone operators.
Now, there were numerous styles of commercial telephone equipment manufactured in the United States. The plan, therefore, was adopted of allowing the various manufacturing concerns to bid on a tentative production schedule, giving an exclusive contract to the lowest bidder in each type of apparatus. This exceptional policy was adopted in order to avoid multiplicity of types of equipment to be used abroad. If many makes were adopted in each type they would necessitate the procurement of many types of spare parts and replacement materials.
The concerns which produced the telephone equipment for the American Expeditionary Forces were the Western Electric Co., of Kansas City; the Kellogg Switchboard & Supply Co., of Chicago; the Stromberg-Carlson Telephone Manufacturing Co., of Rochester; the Frank Black Co., of Chicago; and the Reliable Electric Co., of Chicago.
At the signing of the armistice there were 282 American telephone exchanges in France, with 14,956 telephone lines reaching 8,959 stations. The 282 exchanges ranged from the small four-line monocord unit, such as may be seen in any business office, to the standard American multiple board of the city telephone exchange. Of these latter there were over 30 in use by the American Expeditionary Forces when the armistice was signed.
[Illustration: MULTIPLEX PRINTING TELEGRAPH. SCHOOL OF RADIO AND MULTIPLEX TELEGRAPHY.]
[Illustration: SIGNAL CORPS SCHOOL FOR TELEPHONE ELECTRICIANS, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, INSTRUMENT AND SWITCHBOARD REPAIR CLASS.]
[Illustration: FIELD WORK WITH UNDAMPED WAVE TRANSMITTER AND TRENCH ANTENNA.]
[Illustration: SIGNAL CORPS EQUIPMENT INSTALLED IN A DUGOUT.
Left to right--S. C. field telephone, type "EE-4;" field service buzzer; signal lamp (projector), type "EE-6"; S. C. radio set, SCR-76 and S. C. radio set, SCR-54A.]
The special telephones adopted for use in the field were different from any in commercial use in America. The Signal Corps had developed certain special instruments combining both telephone and telegraphic principles. The field telephone, model 1917, for instance, was a telephone which included a telegraph buzzer on its telephone circuit. This instrument was used when great secrecy in communication was required. The messages were sent in telegraphic code, the buzzers being heard by the receiver. Another instrument was known simply as the buzzer. This was an instrument which utilized the telephone receiver for telegraphic messages. It was a supreme development for use over defective lines. An instrument closely related to the buzzer, but which gave even greater secrecy, was known as the buzzerphone. The buzzerphone was put into production just before the close of hostilities.
The mobile switchboard in most general use by our troops at the front was developed originally by the French and was known as the monotype. It was designed in units and could be extended to accommodate up to 12 trunk lines leading away from the board. This apparatus was the "central" of the front-line dugouts. It could be put into operation in a few minutes and was easily carried by a soldier.
The switchboard of the dugouts was the only telephone equipment not of American design used by the American Expeditionary Forces. It was put into production in the autumn of 1917 in three American plants, under the general policy of the Signal Corps to contract with more than one factory for the production of any important device.
Another type of field switchboard when packed for transit resembled a salesman's trunk. It was used in the camps and provided for 40 lines. This board was being constantly redesigned as field needs developed. A new type of camp switchboard was coming into heavy production at the end of hostilities.
Still a third type of portable switchboard was built in units resembling the units of a sectional bookcase and was set up in the same way.
The telegraph apparatus of the lines of communication in the S. O. S. was designed along purely commercial lines. It included the latest type of printing telegraph equipment, the apparatus first adopted being the multiplex printing telegraph as used by the Western Union Telegraph Co. Later, the Morkrum printing telegraph was also adopted.
At the close of hostilities 133 complete telegraph stations with full equipment were in operation in the service of supply. The peak load of this service, just prior to the armistice, was 47,555 telegrams, averaging 60 words each, sent from these stations in a single day. The daily average in the final weeks of the fighting was 43,845 telegrams.
RADIO.
At the outbreak of the war, the field radio equipment in active use by the Army was limited to two sets, both of comparatively high power. On the other hand the allied forces had developed a complicated and extensive use of radio sets of small power, many of them operated from airplanes, and the Signal Corps found itself confronted with the task of developing an entire new line of complicated electrical apparatus, and putting it into large quantity production in the shortest possible time. The progress made is indicated by the fact that at the signing of the armistice the number of types of complete sets on which development work had been carried out was 75. Of these approximately 25 were in quantity production. When it is remembered that each of these sets consisted of hundreds of parts, many of which required careful study and experimentation as well as design, the magnitude of the problem is appreciated.
The initial step in the reorganization of this branch of the Signal Corps' work consisted in the establishment of a radio section in Washington and a corresponding section in France. The former was charged with the design of apparatus and the preparation of manufacturing drawings and specifications, while the latter served as the first hand observer of actual service requirements and approved all equipment before it was used in the field. An important auxiliary of the development organization in Washington was the radio laboratories established at Camp Alfred Vail, where all necessary technical facilities, such as model shops, drafting rooms, research laboratories, a completely equipped flying field, etc., were maintained. With this engineering organization and the production organization which handled all Signal Corps equipment, the work here detailed was carried out.
Shortly after the declaration of war, the French government sent to this country a distinguished commission which included the foremost radio experts, who were thoroughly familiar with the latest military developments. Technical information and samples of radio apparatus were also obtained from British sources. With this beginning, the engineering work naturally divided itself into two general problems--first, to duplicate the approved foreign designs, and then to create designs for new types of apparatus which would be superior to any in service. Work on these two groups of problems was prosecuted simultaneously with the result that there were soon in production American equivalents of a number of French and British sets, together with improved original types of American radio apparatus.
[Illustration: RADIO RECEIVING SET, SCR-54, USING CRYSTAL DETECTOR.]
[Illustration: REAR PANEL VIEW, RADIO TELEPHONE GROUND SET. TYPE SCR-67.]
[Illustration: RADIO TELEGRAPH TRANSMITTING SET IN CASE.]
[Illustration: RADIO TELEGRAPH TRANSMITTING SET WITH CASE REMOVED.]
Probably the most noteworthy technical development during the war, in so far as radio communication is concerned, was the extensive use made of vacuum tubes. These "bottles," which make practical use of the electrons of the new physics and which are sometimes called audions or pliotrons, are literally marvels in the realms of engineering, and their applications are as yet hardly realized. One form was used for the reception of signals prior to the war; but the military developments, particularly in France, had so progressed that when this country entered the war they were used both for receiving and transmitting signals, and most of the more important sets depended on them. To meet this demand the services of the three foremost vacuum-tube engineering organizations of the country were enlisted, and under the direction of the Signal Corps radio engineers the progress toward satisfactory design and construction of the required types was rapid. Within less than six months standardized tubes were turned out by the quantity production method at rates sufficient to insure the requisite supply. Work was continued, however, on the development of still better types of tubes. The improvements that have been made from time to time have been incorporated in the tubes being produced on a large scale, so that tubes of recent manufacture are a great improvement over those made a year ago.
As indicative of the extent and variety of the radio development work which was carried on, there is given below a partial list of the types of sets which were completely developed and placed in production during the war period:
LAND RADIO EQUIPMENT.
Spark sets, sending and receiving (three types). Continuous-wave Army radio telegraph sets (three types). Radio telephone set (one type). Tank radio telegraph set (one type). T. P. S. (earth telegraphy) (four types). Wavemeters. Battery-charging sets. Radio operating and repair trucks. Miscellaneous special equipment.
AIRPLANE RADIO EQUIPMENT.
Interphone sets (for use of two to five persons). Radio telephone sets (three types). Radio telegraph sets (three types). Direction-finding radio-receiving set (one type).
The magnitude of the production of special items involved may be gathered from such figures of expenditures as the following:
For vacuum tubes $1,650,600 For storage batteries 5,315,350 For dry batteries 602,470 For battery charging sets 1,524,400
These are, of course, only some of the items. The total production authorized was valued at approximately $45,000,000.
The remarkable development and improvement of military radio equipment which has taken place under the direction of the Signal Corps during the last 18 months will undoubtedly materially change the system of Army communications and even the tactical use of military equipment and personnel. A typical example of this development is the airplane radio telephone, described elsewhere, the use of which has made possible the "voice-commanded air squadron." The military value of an air squadron has been enormously increased by virtue of this device, which enables the squadron commander to direct the movements of the individual airplanes in any manner which circumstances may require.
Certain other radio devices recently perfected, the nature of which can not be revealed, will undoubtedly affect the tactical use of troops to such an extent as to make certain kinds of radio equipment as indispensable to the operations of military units as the rifle or the machine gun.
LINE EQUIPMENT.
The first requisition for line equipment for France called for the construction of 500 miles of telephone and telegraph main pole lines, carrying 10 copper telephone and telegraph wires. It was found that ship space could not be spared for poles in such quantity. Consequently a forestry unit was sent to France to get these poles from the French woodlands. All of the other materials for the 500 miles of line, together with materials for approximately 600 miles of extensions, were procured in the United States and shipped to France within six months after the requisition was received. This material was secured in such short time only by the cooperation of the large commercial companies in the United States, who literally stripped their warehouses bare of their supplies.
In the late summer of 1918 the American Government began anticipating the advance of the allied forces into Germany, and the Signal Corps put into production a reserve equipment for long distance line approximating 500 miles. Soon there was received from France a cablegram asking for the shipment of this material, and it was all floated before the armistice. However, as it turned out, this equipment was never required, since the terms of the armistice gave the American forces the German telephone and telegraph lines in the occupied territory.
This line equipment was all of a type standard in the United States. For the fighting zone special line equipment was required. Before the war with Germany American signal troops had set up their emergency telephone and telegraph lines on the standard "lance poles." These poles served admirably in open warfare, but proved to be impracticable for the static conditions of fighting in France. After a considerable supply of lance poles had been shipped abroad their production was curtailed. Thereafter the trench telephone and telegraph lines were supported on short stakes with special cross arms, in appearance the conventional telegraph poles in miniature. The enormous mileage of trench lines called for a great quantity of insulators and cross arms. The wastage of these fittings, due to their being exposed to artillery fire, became increasingly greater in the closing months of the war.
In wire itself, the American production was enormous. This production included the commercial type of copper line wire and the drop wire for connecting up individual telephones to the pole lines. Much commercial cable for connecting congested centers with branch switchboards was also required. Yet all of this wire used in the system within the Service of Supply was but a small quantity compared with the requirements in the fighting zone.
The production of double-conductor wire, or the so-called outpost wire of No Man's Land, which had relegated to the scrap heap the standard field wire of open warfare, necessitated an extraordinary effort. The wire had to be light enough for easy transportation and laying, strong enough to withstand the abrasions from traffic crossing it as it lay on the ground, and exceedingly well insulated. The first estimate was that an American Army in the field might use 1,000 miles per month of outpost wire. When the first American force actually went into action, in the spring of 1918, a reserve supply of 20,000 miles of outpost wire was in the American warehouses in France, with a vast quantity of cable in reserve. Cable, at first used in large quantities at the front, was invariably buried several feet underground and abandoned at every change of headquarters.
As the fighting grew more intense and covered a wider and wider area, the wastage of outpost wire became enormous. The demand of our forces for cable dropped to a negligible quantity, but wire requirements rose. Outpost wire became the main dependence of ourselves and the allies for all communication in the active sectors. A higher quality of wire was specified. So great was the destruction of wire that by July, 1918, the original estimate of 1,000 miles per month to be supplied by American factories had jumped to 20,000 miles.
As a substitute for outpost wire to fill the immediate needs the familiar twisted drop wire, with which the ordinary telephone is connected with the main circuit, was adopted. Our field officers liked drop wire, its only objectionable feature being its relative bulk. All available drop wire in the United States was shipped across, and its manufacture was pushed until the new type of outpost wire could be produced.
The Signal Corps supplied the mounting needs of the American Expeditionary Forces through August and September, 1918, with the available drop wire plus the growing production of the new outpost wire. In early August all the wire makers in America were summoned to a conference, in which the Signal Corps made known the necessity of pushing production. The result was an expansion which reached a total production of 40,000 miles of outpost wire in November.
Just before the armistice was signed, the American Expeditionary Forces indicated that they would require 50,000 miles of outpost wire every month, beginning in January, 1919. This requirement had already been fully anticipated, since the American manufacturers had set for themselves a maximum production of 68,000 miles per month by August, 1919.
To secure this production every wire mill in the United States worked 24 hours per day. When the production was at its height, inquiries came from the allied governments, indicating that they would call on American wire makers for a quantity of wire equal to what the latter were already producing for the American Expeditionary Forces. In other words, this proposition called for the doubling of a production which had already attained great size. Yet, had the fighting continued, there is every reason to believe that the industry would have risen to the demand.
The production of outpost wire was an intricate operation. To fill the demand for 50,000 miles of outpost wire a month called for 300,000 miles of steel strand and 400,000 miles of bronze strand every month. The steel strand had to be given repeated heat treatments before it had acquired the necessary tensile strength.
ELECTRIC BATTERIES.
The American Expeditionary Forces consumed great quantities of electric batteries, the familiar dry battery of commerce being most used. Toward the end of the fighting arrangements were being made to establish in France a plant at which dry batteries would be assembled by French labor, utilizing parts made in America. The necessary apparatus and materials for the first operation had reached France prior to the armistice, but the plant was not in production at that time.
Storage-battery requirements of the American Expeditionary Forces were heavy and exacting. The storage battery was the only practicable source of electrical energy for the operation of small portable radio outfits. Field conditions required a storage battery that would not spill its contents, with a jar not easily broken, the whole equipment being as light as possible. A rubber composition jar was finally adopted.
The chief reliance of the American Expeditionary Forces was in storage batteries of European manufacture, which were to be used until American production got underway. When by the summer of 1918 America had perfected her own designs of radio equipment, the Signal Corps took up the matter of storage batteries for radio and decided upon types. This was in July, 1918. A conference of battery manufacturers was called and the orders were allocated among practically all the storage-battery plants in the United States that were in a position to undertake quantity production. The end of hostilities stopped this production on the eve of heavy deliveries.
FIELD GLASSES.
When the war began, the Signal Corps had the duty of providing field glasses for all branches of the Army, issuing them to noncommissioned officers and selling them at cost to commissioned officers engaged in combat. The first estimates showed that these glasses would be needed by the tens of thousands, whereas the manufacturing facilities in the United States had turned them out merely by the hundreds.
The optical-glass industry had never been developed in America, our field glasses being supplied with lenses of European glass, and principally German glass. In 1914 the imports of optical glass were $641,000 in value. The following year they were almost nothing. The advance of the German army toward Paris encompassed the glass plants of Belgium and many of those of France. England needed the entire output of her own glass factories.
In the autumn of 1914 the American optical-instrument makers began to develop an optical-glass industry, largely stimulated by the possibility of obtaining heavy orders at high prices from the British, French, and Russian governments. The most important work was done by the Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., of Rochester, N. Y.; the Spencer Lens Co., of Buffalo, and the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co., of Pittsburgh. They were aided by the United States Bureau of Standards and by the geophysical laboratory of the Carnegie Institution. The Bureau of Standards established a laboratory at Pittsburgh where experiments were conducted with 30-pound pots of glass.
Optical glass differs greatly from ordinary glass. It must be clear, without striae, and there must be no strains in it, resulting from the final stirring and cooling. It must give a high transmission of light.
About the time of America's declaration of war the American experiments had produced glass suitable for optical instruments. This glass, however, was being turned out in quantities quite insufficient to meet the demand during the first few months.
In addition to the difficulties surrounding the glass supply, there was only a limited number of establishments capable of manufacturing field glasses after the glass was procured. These concerns were located principally in Rochester, N. Y., where they had been manufacturing a wide variety of optical instruments, including opera glasses, camera lenses, scientific and educational apparatus, battery commanders' telescopes, marine glasses, microscopes, and gun sights. In order to meet the war requirements of America for field glasses, these factories had to install large quantities of new equipment and to run day and night. The equipment consisted of lens-grinding apparatus, lathes, dies, and automatic screw machinery.
In addition to the Rochester factories there was a concern in Denver, Colo., the Weiss Electrical Instruments Co., which in a smaller way had been manufacturing surveyors' levels and other engineering apparatus. The Talbot Reel & Manufacturing Co., of Kansas City, had been making fishing reels in a small plant about 30 feet square. This factory was purchased in 1917 by Mr. L. Harris, who, after finishing a contract for gun sights for the Ordnance Department, built a factory especially for the production of Army field glasses and reached the quantity manufacture of these instruments before the armistice came. The chief center of supply, however, continued to be Rochester, where the plants of Bausch & Lomb, the Gundlach-Manhattan Optical Co., and the Crown Optical Co. are located. These factories expanded many times, and the output of field glasses went beyond what the executives at the outset of the enterprise imagined could be possible.
The Bausch & Lomb Co. was started in Rochester about 50 years ago by J. J. Bausch, who was born in Germany. The plant developed gradually, making a full line of spectacle lenses and optical instruments. The Carl Zeiss Works, of Jena, Germany, had a financial interest in the plant, and Bausch & Lomb had a financial interest in the Zeiss plant. This connection, however, was dissolved in 1915, when Bausch & Lomb took on contracts for the manufacture of field glasses for the British, French, and Russian governments.
Before 1914 this concern had never manufactured more than 1,800 pairs of field glasses in a year. The output was speeded up until in November, 1918, a total of 3,500 pairs was being produced each week, while the development was aiming toward an output of 5,500 pairs of glasses per week beginning in January, 1919. At the date of the armistice the Bausch & Lomb factory had a floor space of 32 acres and employed 6,000 men and women.
The Gundlach-Manhattan Co., which had made camera lenses chiefly, was eventually able to produce 600 pairs of field glasses a week. The Crown Optical Co. was not so rapid in its expansion; and in late 1917 the Navy Department commandeered it and thereafter operated it in charge of Lieut. Commander L. C. Scheibla. Under naval management the output of this factory increased so that the Signal Corps was able to obtain from it about 1,200 pairs of high quality field glasses each week, the plant continuing also to supply the needs of the Navy.
Out of a situation that seemed impossible at the outset the Signal Corps built up an industry within a comparatively few months which provided all the field glasses that were necessary in the operations of the American Expeditionary Forces. Often to keep the optical factories equipped with sufficient workmen the Signal Corps obtained the furlough of drafted men with experience in this line so that they might go to work making field glasses.
All Army organizations except Artillery were supplied with a six-power glass having an angular field that took in a view 150 yards wide at a distance of 1,000 yards. The glasses were of the prismatic type with individual focus for each eye. Each glass was provided with a leather carrying case and shoulder strap. On the top of the case a compass was mounted.
The Artillery organizations were supplied with eight-power field glasses, all of which were purchased in France.
The total requirements of the American Expeditionary Forces for field glasses of the six-power type during the period of hostilities were approximately 100,000 pairs. The total shipments from America were approximately 106,000 pairs.
MISCELLANEOUS SUPPLIES.
The Signal Corps took up with three concerns--the Hampden Watch Co., the Illinois Watch Co., and the Elgin Watch Co.--the matter of providing wrist watches for the Army. A 7-jewel movement was adopted as standard for issue to troops and a 15-jewel movement for sale to officers. A waterproof case was adopted, bearing the serial number of the movement on the outside, the case being so constructed as to require a special tool to gain access to the movement.
The production of wire carts for the Signal Corps did not exceed 25 per year prior to 1917. The demand for these carts, which were hard to build, increased at such a rate that during the autumn of 1918 the matter of procuring them was one of the most serious production problems faced by the Signal Corps.
The Holmes Automobile Co., of Canton, Ohio, abandoned the production of automobiles and in September, 1918, turned over its entire plant to the production of wire carts. Other manufacturers were the George B. Marx Co., of Brooklyn; the J. G. Brill Co., of Philadelphia; the American Instrument & Tool Co., of New York; and the Wesel Manufacturing Co., of Brooklyn. In all, 721 wire carts were manufactured and 327 shipped overseas.
A total of 2,402 tool chests for the Signal Corps was produced during the war period. The plan eventually adopted was to split up the orders for tools among the various manufacturers and to give the manufacture of the empty chests to prison labor at Fort Leavenworth, where the tools were to be shipped and packed in the chests. This plan, however, required the construction of a special building at Fort Leavenworth, and in the meantime the assembling of tool chests was conducted at the Signal Corps supply depot at Philadelphia and at the port of embarkation. The armistice stopped the construction of the assembling factory at Fort Leavenworth.
The Signal Corps produced a suitable number of gas alarm signals known as strombos horns. This equipment consisted of an alarm horn operated by air pressure acting against a diaphragm and thereby producing a loud and distinct chatter. Compressed air was supplied in small steel cylinders connected to each horn by hose. The air tanks were charged behind the lines from a portable air compressor which could pump into several cylinders at once. The horns were manufactured by the Klaxon Co., of Newark, N. J., the cylinders by the Harrisburg Pipe & Pipe Bending Co., Harrisburg, Pa., and the air compressors by the Ingersoll-Rand Co., of New York.
Flag kits were not used to any great extent by the American Expeditionary Forces, although large quantities of these were produced in this country.
The Signal Corps originally had jurisdiction over all war photography, either of land or air, except for a small amount conducted by the engineers in connection with their own operations; but later aerial photography became a branch of the Military Aeronautics and Aircraft Bureaus. After that the Signal Corps was charged with taking all photographs of historical nature or other interest.
In connection with this work two types of cameras were necessary--still cameras and motion-picture cameras. Later in the war there was being developed a new motion-picture camera which was expected to be the ideal type for use in the field.
It was with great difficulty that a sufficient number of photographic lenses was obtained for the use of military cameras, since the large lens factories of America were tied up with other war orders. A campaign was conducted by the leading newspapers and magazines of the country which resulted in the Government's securing from amateur photographers a large number of high-grade lenses, mostly of foreign manufacture.
The Signal Corps scattered its camera operators broadcast over the country, photographing cantonments and other war activities to the most minute details. These photographs and films were then made public in newspapers, periodicals, and motion-picture theaters throughout the United States, with the result that the people saw with their own eyes how their soldiers were preparing themselves for the defense of the Nation.
An interesting development of war photography was the production of motion pictures showing the training of soldiers. Many pictures were taken to show graphically on the screen the different chapters of the Army drill regulations. These pictures will have a future use to the Government in training soldiers efficiently in the shortest possible time.
The Signal Corps photographers also developed a new kind of history of the war, a history written entirely in pictures for future generations to scan.
PIGEONS.
Although nearly every European army for 40 years has trained the carrier pigeon to be a field messenger, the American Army never adopted the bird until 1917. In a single year the Signal Corps established hundreds of pigeon lofts in this country and overseas and bought and trained more than 15,000 pigeons for service in France. In actual use on the field the pigeons delivered more than 95 per cent of the messages intrusted to them, flying safely through the heaviest shell and gas barrages.
The standard pigeon loft adopted by the Signal Corps had a unique trap arrangement which permitted the entry but not the exit of returning pigeons, and an electrical alarm which automatically notified the attendants of an arrival. Such lofts, however, were of the stationary type and not practicable for use in France. For the American Expeditionary Forces the Signal Corps purchased mobile lofts. It was found that pigeons would come home as well to mobile lofts, which were constantly changing position, as they would to stationary lofts. The first mobile lofts built in the United States were top-heavy, but this defect was overcome by increasing their width and adding heavier wheels. They were all built by the Trailmobile Co., of Cincinnati, Ohio.
Civilian pigeon fanciers were appealed to and urged to breed young birds to stock the Government lofts. The Signal Corps distributed small aluminum bands to be put on the legs of squeakers, as the newly-hatched pigeons are called, which were intended for sale to the Government. The uniform price of $2 per bird was paid, and over 10,000 youngsters were bought for stocking purposes.
Tons of pigeon feed were purchased and shipped to Europe. Some of this grain, such as millet, Argentine corn, pop corn, hemp seed, and Canada peas, was hard to obtain; but nevertheless the supply was well maintained. It was shipped in hermetically sealed containers to prevent it from becoming mildewed.
The American Army copied the French and English models of willow and reed baskets to hold the birds. One type of basket was carried on the back of the soldier and contained small corselets in which the pigeons were securely fastened. Corselets were suspended from the sides of the basket by elastic contrivances permitting considerable joggling without injury to the birds. All of these baskets were made by the A. L. Randell Co., of Chicago.
Message books were manufactured in accordance with a French model. After the message had been written, it was placed in an aluminum capsule which was fitted in a holder of aluminum. This holder was attached to the pigeon's leg by means of aluminum bands. These bands were found to break easily, and pure copper bands were later substituted. The message holders were manufactured by Thomas A. Gey, of Norristown, Pa.
Thousands of items of supply were included in the supply schedules of the Signal Corps. In the following lists some of the more important items are shown, the production indicated in each case being that between April 6, 1917, and November 11, 1918.
_Telephone equipment._ ----------------------------------------------+-----------+---------- | Produced. | Floated | | overseas. ----------------------------------------------+-----------+---------- Batteries, dry | 970,171 | 396,427 Bells: | | Extension | 865 | 470 Vibrating | 13,756 | 12,934 Blocks, connecting | 6,500 | 6,500 Cabinets, wire chief, testing | 225 | 225 Coils: | | Induction | 255 | 50 Repeating | 801 | 801 Condensers | 10,205 | 6,788 Cords: | | For telephones | 5,000 | 5,000 For switchboards | 23,539 | 11,890 Fuses, for monocord switchboard | 670,000 | 341,000 Receiver diaphragms | 2,700 | 2,050 Receivers, telephone | 12,950 | 9,354 Repeaters, telephone | 362 | 362 Staples, insulated | 912,300 | 809,800 Switchboards: | | Camp, 40-line | 111 | 68 Commercial types | 304 | 304 Switchboard, telephone, monotype | 14,462 | 13,264 Telephones: | | Artillery type (W. E. 1375) | 66,544 | 46,123 Camp | 38,456 | 32,668 Commercial types | 2,669 | 1,514 Telephone offices, truck | 1 | 1 ----------------------------------------------+-----------+---------- _Telegraph equipment._ ----------------------------------------------+-----------+---------- Buzzers, service | 3,983 | 3,478 Connectors, stud | 8,027 | 8,027 Disks, cipher | 6,157 | 6,157 Keys | 1,830 | 1,830 Relays | 1,672 | 1,147 Sounders | 1,998 | 1,998 Switchboard, telegraph | 1,321 | 550 Telegraph office, truck | 1 | 1 Typewriters | 920 | 880 Vibroplex, transmitter | 470 | 420 ----------------------------------------------+-----------+---------- _Radio equipment._ ----------------------------------------------+-----------+ | Total | produced. ----------------------------------------------+-----------+ Airplane interphone set | 4,263 Airplane radio telegraph receiving set | 7,029 Airplane radio telegraph transmitting set | 3,971 Airplane radio telephone set | 3,186 Amplifiers | 1,250 Battery charging sets | 455 Ground radio telegraph receiving set | 8,052 Ground radio telegraph transmitting set | 2,637 Ground radio telephone set | 527 Storage batteries | 227,139 T. P. S. receiving sets | 2,510 T. P. S. transmitting sets | 1,995 T. P. S. two-way set | 2,010 Vacuum tubes | 446,818 Wavemeters | 8,042 ----------------------------------------------+-----------+ _Photographic equipment._ ----------------------------------------------+-----------+---------- |Production.| Shipped | | overseas. ----------------------------------------------+-----------+---------- Chemicals pounds | 50,723 | 41,881 Cameras: | | 4 by 5 speed graphic | 541 | 283 4 by 5 RB graflex | 310 | 237 6½ by 8½ cycle graphic | 280 | 249 Miscellaneous still | 40 | 40 Motion-picture | 470 | 145 Paper, photo, all sizes gross | 21,364 | 16,364 Do. rolls | 5,186 | 3,686 Lenses | 2,797 | 696 Tripods, M.P. | 558 | 147 Plates dozen | 68,873 | 48,873 Holders, plate | 28,298 | 18,298 Film, M.P. feet | 7,500,000 | 4,000,000 Film, still rolls | 48,814 | 28,814 ----------------------------------------------+-----------+---------- _Line construction material._ ----------------------------------------------+-----------+---------- Anchors, guy | 17,360 | 17,120 Belts, lineman's | 6,733 | 5,332 Bolts, lag screws, etc. | 1,139,648 | 1,137,928 Braces, cross-arm | 123,162 | 98,440 Brackets: | | Oak | 287,000 | 287,000 Pole, galvanized | 13,929 | 13,929 Transposition | 26,905 | 26,280 Cable: | | Telephone, circular loom feet | 662,978 | 396,250 Telephone, lead covered miles | 80,202 | 1,696 Cable compound pounds | 6,160 | 3,760 Carts, reel | 737 | 227 Clamps, guy | 39,250 | 26,000 Climbers, with straps pairs | 11,828 | 10,619 Cross arms | 38,500 | 38,500 Gloves, lineman's pairs | 849 | 748 Hangers, cable | 51,000 | 51,000 Insulators, for lance poles | 291,124 | 26,700 Insulators, glass | 1,158,836 | 1,158,836 Insulators, porcelain | 2,411,670 | 1,798,220 Knives, electrician's | 264,754 | 141,920 Knobs, wooden | 953,540 | 400,000 Marlin pounds | 4,527 | 1,427 Muslin, cable-splicers yards | 1,251 | 1,251 Nails, for insulators pounds | 36,000 | 36,000 Pikes, wire | 1,992 | 1,728 Pins, cross-arm | 807,653 | 477,400 Pliers, lineman's | 193,533 | 84,642 Poles, lance | 209,000 | 23,685 Reels, breast | 6,109 | 6,108 Sleeves, copper, splicing | 146,934 | 51,934 Solder pounds | 21,808 | 14,606 Tape: | | Friction do.| 106,042 | 90,318 Rubber do.| 20,523 | 16,713 Terminals, cable | 1,290 | 1,290 Wire: | | Stranded, messenger feet | 2,470,577 | 2,470,357 Telephone-- | | Copper, bare miles | 126,664 | 78,880 G.I. bare do.| 14,411 | 7,970 Single, insulated do.| 23,950 | 14,011 Twisted pair, Insulated do.| 75,022 | 45,457 Wire carts | 721 | 327 ----------------------------------------------+-----------+----------
CONCLUSION.
The reader who has come to this point has before him the picture of the Nation's industry at war--the whole teeming effort in its main outlines, its myriad ramifications, its boundless activity, its ten thousand enterprises, its infinite toil, its hosts of workers, its wonders of scientific achievement, its attainments, even its failures--in short that humming complex of work, planning, ambition, disappointment, triumph, shortcomings, ability, and driving force which was a mighty people concentrated with all of its powers upon a single objective.
It remains now to describe the place occupied by this effort in the whole strategic plan of the war against Germany. We did not go into the struggle as if we expected to fight a single-handed war. Whatever we did either with military personnel or with munitions we did with reference to what the nations associated with us were doing or could do in the same respects. The whole plan was coordinated more or less perfectly, and these international understandings and agreements touched and influenced even the most trivial of our enterprises.
The reader who has in mind the record set down on the preceding pages is now prepared to comprehend the force and extent of the international cooperation in the war and to judge how well America played her part in the general scheme. Let us go back, therefore, and review the history of these agreements.
For many months before America came into the struggle, England, France, and Italy had been engaged in grappling with the scientifically organized forces of German military autocracy. The world war had become a conflict of materials, almost as much as of men. All participants had mobilized their industrial resources in a manner and to an extent undreamed of in times of peace.
The allies had marshaled all available raw materials and factory production in their own lands, and still faced colossal deficiencies in supplies for their military programs. They had been forced to reach out into the markets of the world to meet these deficiencies. They had come to America and placed huge orders for raw materials and finished products. The normal capacity of America's peace-time production had been insufficient to meet their overwhelming needs.
In August, 1914, the total factory capacity in the United States for the manufacture of powder was 6,000,000 pounds a year. In April, 1917, under the stimulation of orders placed by the allies, the capacity had been increased more than sixty-fold. England, France, and Italy were taking this entire production and asking for more. They had absorbed our entire output. A huge stream of materials, supplies, and ammunition was flowing steadily from America to the front line trenches in France. The allied governments had moulded their military programs in reliance upon the continuation of this source of supply. Their troops were on the front and in contact with the enemy. Failure of supply meant disaster.
The flow of materials from America to the armies in France could not, under any circumstances, be interfered with or curtailed. This fact was promptly recognized by the United States, and the allied governments were assured that America's military program would be formulated and performed without interference with the allied programs of supply from this country.
America's industrial contribution to the war, as a nation, was to be over and above the industrial contribution to the allies then being made by our individual producers. This fundamental plank in the interallied platform of cooperation was laid down at the very commencement of America's preparation, and it was strictly adhered to until the end of hostilities.
A comprehensive cooperative plan for America's industrial participation in the war remained to be worked out. A survey had to be conducted of the new partner's strength and weakness in supply. A determination had to be made of what the allies could give to the new partner, and what they must receive from her. This was done by the Interallied Munitions Council sitting in Paris, by the foreign missions in Washington in conference with the War Department, and by the allied war ministries and Gen. Pershing abroad.
An analysis of the facts of the situation disclosed that:
A. The world over--
(1) There was a critical shortage of ocean tonnage which promised to become more critical as time passed on account of the success of German submarine operations.
B. In France and England--
(1) The output of factories was being seriously curtailed and limited by lack of raw materials and semifinished products.
(2) If an adequate supply of raw materials and semifinished products could be made available, the factories had a substantial surplus manufacturing capacity which could be placed at the disposal of the United States.
C. In the United States--
(1) A surplus of raw materials and semifinished products for transport to France and England could quickly be made available.
(2) It would be impossible, within less than a year, to build up additional manufacturing capacity in the United States sufficient to supply a large army.
The lack of ocean tonnage was recognized by all as the vitals of the problem. France, Italy, and the United States had comparatively little merchant tonnage. England's vast tonnage was suffering rapid depletion by submarine losses and was totally inadequate to meet allied needs. Ships were the biggest single deficiency in the interallied program.
The cooperative industrial program of the Allies and the United States had to be geared into the shipping problem. To do this the determination of what materials should be shipped from the United States had to be decided first on the basis of what economies could be effected in shipping space. If raw materials for aircraft occupied less cargo space than the finished product, the maximum utilization of available tonnage demanded the shipment to France of these raw materials to be made into the finished product there. If, on the other hand, finished nitrocellulose powder for artillery shell propellants, or finished picric acid for artillery shell explosives, occupied less cargo space than the raw component materials used in their production, the shipping shortage demanded manufacture of these explosives and propellants in the United States. Not a single ship could be freighted with an extra pound or cubic foot of cargo which by any effort could be saved.
The French Mission in the United States early recognized this fact and urged the manufacture in the United States of picric acid to be used as explosive in 75-millimeter and 155-millimeter shell, pointing out that the finished product occupied but one-nineteenth as much cargo space as the raw materials.
Gen. Pershing recognized the point, and in August, 1917, cabled as follows:
A joint French-American commission has examined the question of the production in France of powders and explosives and reports as follows: France must import by December 4 the greater part of the raw materials used in the manufacture of powders and explosives. The weight of raw materials required is 10 to 20 times the weight of the finished product. The shipping situation is such that by December the output of France will be limited by the amount of raw material produced in France or easily obtainable. * * * The present outlook is that in December the French output will not be more than half of the present output. To avoid calamity the United States must not only furnish powder and explosives for all of its own forces but must supply about half of the French requirements. It is therefore recommended: (A) that the United States Government furnish all powders and explosives needed for present contracts with French Government; (B) that the United States Government prepare to furnish by December 300 tons per month of explosives and 200 tons per month of powder for French consumption; (C) that study be immediately commenced for the purpose of adapting American powders to French cannon of different types, this study to be made both in the United States and in France by competent experts; (D) that the French Government put at the disposition of the American Government competent experts both in the manufacture and use of these powders in the guns. * * *
Subsequent computations made on this side of the ocean indicated that in the case of picric acid and other explosives this ratio between raw materials and finished product in bulk was too great, yet in principle these computations did not affect the desirability of shipping the finished product rather than the raw materials.
Again, Gen. Pershing cabled to the Chief of Staff in the United States urging the purchase of completed artillery, artillery ammunition, and airplanes abroad, in order that "saving of tonnage" might be effected, and pointing out the saving of cargo space resulting from the shipment to France of raw materials instead of finished products, saying:
Following is comparison in tonnage of the principal manufactured articles of ordnance obtained in Europe and the replacements in raw materials contracted for the same. All tonnage ratios shown are in favor of raw materials:
Field Artillery guns 1 to 7½ 155 millimeter howitzers and ammunition 1 to 1¼ 8 millimeter ammunition 1 to 3-3/16 Trench mortars 1 to 12-1/3 Grenades 1 to 4 In airplane production: Packed airplanes, in weight 1 to 2 Packed airplanes, in cubic capacity 1 to 2½ Packed airplanes in area covered by boxes on board ship 1 to 9
In the above comparison in the ammunition item, finished explosives are regarded as raw materials.
The Interallied Munitions Council, sitting in Paris and containing among its membership the best military and industrial brains at the command of the allied cause, including Gen. Pershing, Gen. Robertson, chief of the imperial general staff of Great Britain, and Gen. Foch, then chief of the general staff of the French Army, came to the same conclusion, and Gen. Bliss transmitted its findings in a memorable cable, a part of which was reproduced in the preface to this report.
Every mind was in accord. Tonnage must be saved. It could be saved and in vast amounts by calling upon the United States to supply the raw and semifinished materials, and upon the French and British war factories to utilize these raw and semifinished materials in the manufacture of the finished products.
But could this solution of the vital shipping question be dovetailed into the industrial situations of the various nations concerned? Could the United States supply the essential raw and semifinished materials in quantities equivalent to the amounts consumed in the manufacture of the finished product? Did the French and British factories, with these materials laid down in their yards, have available a sufficient manufacturing surplus to supply the needs of their own armies and also to produce in part for the armies of America?
The foreign missions were in Washington. They knew intimately the economic and industrial situations in their respective countries; they knew the military plans of their general staffs; they knew in what respects their programs of supply for their armies in the field needed assistance, and in what respects these programs could be met or exceeded. With this information available, they were prepared to furnish the answer as to the manufacturing capacities of allied Europe.
The British War Mission in Washington communicated to the War Department a cable from the British minister of armament, setting out the position of the British Government on reciprocal supply:
The British Government is willing as far as possible in matters of urgency to manufacture for use of the Americans any products necessary to the more speedy equipment of the Americans that the Americans consider they can obtain in England more promptly or better than in the United States. Furthermore, the situation as to manufacture of steel products is better than it has been. The British Government will help to its utmost ability without making actual and immediate replacement of raw material an indispensable condition when any order is given. On the other hand the general principle of replacements of raw materials as soon as possible should be observed. It has become more a question of furnishing supplies promptly to the allies than a mere question of replacing what has been furnished American troops; in other words, the needs of the allies should be considered as one, and England should manufacture for the allies anything that is necessary or best got that way, and America should in the general interest of the allies furnish as soon as convenient raw material to replace that used. * * *
Writing to Maj. Gen. Crozier, Chief of Ordnance, the French high commission urged the placement in France of orders for artillery and artillery ammunition and pointed out the existence of surplus factory capacity available for their production. The commission summarized the industrial situation in France in the following language:
Even in such remarkable technical conditions as yours, it takes time to realize such a program, to organize manufactures and to have men to direct them. You will take less time than we did in France, where the output of big guns was not adequate to our needs before the end of 1916. But time--more or less--had to be an essential factor, so that after careful consideration, it has been found that the only plan to be carried out in order to supply the first American divisions with material on their landing in France was to avail ourselves of the surplus capacity of production of the French factories, which had been since the beginning of the war very powerfully equipped and were able to turn out greater quantities than those corresponding to our supply of raw material.
The allies could deliver the artillery, artillery ammunition, and airplanes if America could deliver the raw and semifinished materials. America answered that she could and would produce and transport to Europe raw materials and semifinished products in amounts equivalent to the amounts consumed by allied factories in manufacturing the completed guns, shell, and airplanes.
The details remained to be worked out. The French high commission submitted statements showing the amounts of each component material consumed in French factories in the production of guns and ammunition of the various calibers. There were to be supplied by America 6 tons of steel for each 75-millimeter gun, 40 tons of steel for each 155-millimeter howitzer, and 60 tons of steel for each 155-millimeter gun, and proper proportionate amounts of necessary materials used in the manufacture of artillery ammunition.
The program of industrial and economic cooperation between the United States and the allies thus took form. It used in the most efficient manner every nook and cranny of every available ship. It utilized to the utmost the surplus manufacturing capacity of France and England. It brought into the war at the earliest moment the resources of America in raw and semifinished materials. It spanned the period during which America could go forward with her gigantic mobilization of manufacturing power and later convince the Central Empires of the futility of further struggle.
With the program mapped out, reciprocal agreements for supply remained to be made. Orders were promptly placed.
The United States ordered from France a total of 5,854 pieces of field and trench artillery of various calibers, of which 3,834 were delivered to the American Expeditionary Forces prior to the armistice.
By August, 1917, more artillery ammunition was on order with the French Government than was fired by the American Expeditionary Forces from January 18, 1918, when the first complete American division entered the line, until November 11, 1918, when the end of hostilities was announced to the world. Of the amount ordered 10,000,000 rounds were delivered before firing ceased.
In aircraft equipment, the French factories also had a surplus capacity and delivered to Gen. Pershing up to November 11, 1918, a total of 4,881 finished airplanes.
By the terms of our agreement with the French Government, America obligated herself to supply the raw materials and component parts of the finished products delivered to our forces in France. This agreement America performed twice over. For every ton of raw materials and semifinished products America agreed to furnish to France, she furnished two tons. According to French statements, our replacement obligation in raw materials was 350,000 tons. America furnished over 800,000 tons.
In exchange for the artillery and artillery ammunition of French manufacture fired by Pershing, America supplied to France in metals alone over 700,000 tons of steel, 30,000 tons of pig iron, 5,000 tons of brass and spelter, and 50,000 tons of copper.
In addition, and for use in the artillery ammunition received from French factories, America manufactured and supplied to France in a finished state all the principal materials used in loading all shell delivered to the American Army. These materials consisted of smokeless powder, used as a propellant to drive the shell from the guns, and of picric acid, used as a high-powered detonative to burst over the enemy lines. The French used 12,000 tons of smokeless powder in our shell. America delivered an equivalent amount of finished powder. The French consumed 18,000 tons of picric acid in loading shell for American use. America supplied 18,500 tons.
In exchange for the finished airplanes, again America supplied the raw materials and component parts. For the framework of the French planes driven by American aviators, America furnished 34,500,000 feet of spruce, fir, and cedar, enough to manufacture over 16,000 finished planes; for the propellors, America furnished 7,000,000 feet of mahogany and walnut, enough for 40,000 propellors; 4,000 tons of aluminum, enough for thousands of planes; and dopes for painting airplane wings, and miscellaneous aircraft materials and supplies far in excess of the number of finished planes delivered to Gen. Pershing. Under special contract made in August, 1917, and in addition to the above, America furnished to France all materials for 5,000 finished planes and all parts for 8,500 finished airplane engines, which were to be assembled in France for the American Expeditionary Forces. The engine parts were in forgings and needed only to be machined. For the use of the French Government in machining these engine parts, America built and delivered the necessary equipment and machinery.
Thousands of additional smaller items of all kinds were supplied by the various governments to each other from day to day. No deficiency in the military programs of any of them was permitted to exist, if it could be made good by any of the others.
All of America's vast contribution to the allied program of supply was not only produced in America, but it was taken to France in army transports. From August, 1917, to November 11, 1918, an average of 2,000 tons of American materials for French factories left American ports every day aboard American army transports. Through a submarine-infested ocean, in which the Germans sank over 21,000,000 tons of dead-weight shipping, these materials were carried in army transports manned by American crews, and laid down at the doors of French factories.
By February, 1918, Gen. Pershing estimated that 2,000,000 tons of cargo space had been saved by the adoption of this program of international and reciprocal supply, a saving of more tonnage than was then available for the use of the American Expeditionary Forces. The Franco-American commission on explosives estimated a reduction of 75 per cent in cargo space in the shipment of explosives alone.
So the silent drama of international cooperation was carried out. The story of British and American mutual aid during the war is the same story in substance as that of Franco-American cooperation, with changes only in the figures. Economy of shipping was effected. British and French factory capacity was utilized. The vast reservoir of American raw materials and explosives was thrown against the enemy. International cooperation on a scale and in a spirit of cordial, mutual helpfulness, such as the world had never dreamed of, helped to equip 2,000,000 American soldiers in France.
And it was done, all of it, without curtailment of the huge stream of material which was flowing from America to the allies when the United States entered the war. France and England received ever-increasing quantities to the last day. The more than 800,000 tons of replacement materials for artillery, artillery ammunition, and airplanes delivered to America was over and above the millions of tons secured by the allies for their own use directly from American producers.
It was partly by reason of the adoption of this program and its complete performance that Gen. Pershing, after the armistice, could say:
During active operations extending from January, 1918, when our first division entered the line, until the close of hostilities on November 11, our troops were supplied with the equipment and ammunition necessary to carry their work to a successful conclusion.
Beyond all this, our Government, as part of the interallied program, created vast faculties for the manufacture of supplies which England, France, and Italy still required for their own needs and which a comprehensive consideration of the entire program, with particular reference to shipping, showed could be best produced in this country. Factories for the production of immense additional quantities of picric acid, powder, and other materials were built by our War Department to fill the deficiencies in the military programs of our associates in the war.
And beyond and behind all this America went forward with her own gigantic preparations for the conquest of the dark forces which threatened world civilization. It was this mobilization of her might almost as much as the effect of her immediate force which helped to convince the German general staff of the futility of further resistance and assisted to bring the war to an early end.
Transcriber's Notes:
P. 122 corrected table sum from 284,730 to 331,730.
P. 343 corrected table sum from 1,605,582 to 860,700.
P. 344 corrected table sum Total produced from 17,684,853 to 17,683,353 and Total manufactured from 125,800 to 123,800.
P. 350 corrected table sum from 1,818,182 to 1,818,172 and also 3,360,111 to 3,360,101.
P. 400 swapped title captions "FILLING HAND GRENADES WITH WHITE PHOSPHORUS" and "FILLING MUSTARD GAS SHELL AT EDGEWOOD ARSENAL" so the title agrees with the photo and the explanatory captions.
P. 451 corrected Hard bread Total Value from 3,614,365 to 3,614,865.
P. 493 corrected table Grand total from 20,520,251 to 20,520,254 and 22,799,263 to 22,799,266.
P. 505 corrected table sum from 4,043 to 3,443.
P. 513 corrected table Total from 9,203,577 to 9,203,575 and 305,909,719 to 305,909,715.
Simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors were silently corrected.
Anachronistic and non-standard spellings retained as printed.
Italics markup is enclosed in _underscores_.
Bold markup is enclosed in =equals=.
End of Project Gutenberg's America's Munitions 1917-1918, by Benedict Crowell