CHAPTER II

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THE GREEK SCHOOLS.

_The Platonic Doctrine of Ideas._

IN speaking of the Foundation of the Greek School Philosophy, I have referred to the dialogue entitled _Parmenides_, commonly ascribed to Plato. And the doctrines ascribed to Parmenides, in that and in other works of ancient authors, are certainly remarkable examples of the tendency which prevailed among the Greeks to rush at once to the highest generalizations of which the human mind is capable. The distinctive dogma of the Eleatic School, of which Parmenides was one of the most illustrious teachers, was that _All Things are One_. This indeed was rather a doctrine of metaphysical theology than of physical science. It tended to, or agreed with, the doctrine that All things are God:--the doctrine commonly called _Pantheism_. But the tenet of the Platonists which was commonly put in opposition to this, that we must seek _The One in the Many_, had a bearing upon physical science; at least, if we interpret it, as it is generally interpreted, that we must seek the one Law which pervades a multiplicity of Phenomena. We may however take the liberty of remarking, that to speak of a Rule which is exemplified in many cases, as being "the One in the Many" (a way of speaking by which we put out of sight the consideration what very different kinds of things _the One_ and _the Many_ are), is a mode of expression which makes a very simple matter look very mysterious; and is another example of the tendency which urges speculative men to aim at metaphysical generality rather than scientific truth.

The Dialogue _Parmenides_ is, as I have said, commonly referred to Plato. Yet it is entirely different in substance, manner, and tendency {492} from the most characteristic of the Platonic Dialogues. In these, Socrates is represented as finally successful in refuting or routing his adversaries, however confident their tone and however popular their assertions. They are angered or humbled; he retains his good temper and his air of superiority, and when they are exhausted, he sums up in his own way.

In the _Parmenides_, on the contrary, everything is the reverse of this. Parmenides and Zeno exchange good-humoured smiles at Socrates's criticism, when the bystanders expect them to grow angry. They listen to Socrates while he propounds Plato's doctrine of Ideas; and reply to him with solid arguments which he does not answer, and which have never yet been answered. Parmenides, in a patronising way, lets him off; and having done this, being much entreated, he pronounces a discourse concerning the One and the Many; which, obscure as it may seem to us, was obviously intended to be irrefutable: and during the whole of this part of the Dialogue, the friend of Socrates appears only as a passive respondent, saying _Yes_ or _No_ as the assertions of Parmenides require him to do; just in the same way in which the opponents of Socrates are represented in other Dialogues.

These circumstances, to which other historical difficulties might be added, seem to show plainly that the _Parmenides_ must be regarded as an Eleatic, not as a Platonic Dialogue;--as composed to confute, not to assert, the Platonic doctrine of Ideas.

The Platonic doctrine of Ideas has an important bearing upon the philosophy of Science, and was suggested in a great measure by the progress which the Greeks had really made in Geometry, Astronomy, and other Sciences, as I shall elsewhere endeavor to show. This doctrine has been recommended in our own time,[1\A] as containing "a mighty substance of imperishable truth." It cannot fail to be interesting to see in what manner the doctrine is presented by those who thus judge of it. The following is the statement of its leading features which they give us.

[Note 1\A: A. Butler's _Lectures_, Second Series, Lect. viii. p. 132.]

Man's soul is made to contain not merely a consistent scheme of its own notions, but a direct apprehension of _real and eternal laws beyond it_. These real and eternal laws are things _intelligible_, and not things sensible. The laws, impressed upon creation by its Creator, and apprehended by man, are something equally distinct from the Creator {493} and from man; and the whole mass of them may be termed the World of Things purely Intelligible.

Further; there are qualities in the Supreme and Ultimate Cause of all, which are manifested in his creation; and not merely manifested, but in a manner--after being brought out of his super-essential nature into the stage of being which is below him, but next to him--are then, by the causative act of creation, deposited in things, differencing them one from the other, so that the things participate of them (μετέχουσι), communicate with them (κοινωνοῦσι).

The Intelligence of man, excited to reflection by the impressions of these objects, thus (though themselves transitory) participant of a divine quality, may rise to higher conceptions of the perfections thus faintly exhibited; and inasmuch as the perfections are unquestionably _real_ existences, and known to be such in the very act of contemplation, this may be regarded as a distinct intellectual apprehension of them;--a union of the Reason with the Ideas in that sphere of being which is common to both.

Finally, the Reason, in proportion as it learns to contemplate the Perfect and Eternal, desires the enjoyment of such contemplations in a more consummate degree, and cannot be fully satisfied except in the actual fruition of the Perfect itself.

These propositions taken together constitute the THEORY OF IDEAS. When we have to treat of the Philosophy of Science, it may be worth our while to resume the consideration of this subject.

In this part of the History, the _Timæus_ of Plato is referred to as an example of the loose notions of the Greek philosophers in their physical reasonings. And undoubtedly this Dialogue does remarkably exemplify the boldness of the early Greek attempts at generalization on such subjects. Yet in this and in other parts the writings of Plato contain speculations which may be regarded as containing germs of true physical science; inasmuch as they assume that the phenomena of the world are governed by mathematical laws;--by relations of space and number;--and endeavor, too boldly, no doubt, but not vaguely or loosely, to assign those laws. The Platonic writings offer, in this way, so much that forms a Prelude to the Astronomy and other Physical Sciences of the Greeks, that they will deserve our notice, as supplying materials for the next two Books of the History, in which these subjects are treated of. {494}

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