Part 21

In the 12th and 13th centuries literature maintained a high level in Spain. Abraham bar Hiyya, known to Christian scholars as Abraham Judaeus (d. about 1136), was a mathematician, astronomer and philosopher much studied in the middle ages. Moses ben Ezra, of Granada (d. about 1140), wrote in Arabic a philosophical work based on Greek and Arabic as well as Jewish authorities, known by the name of the Hebrew translation as _'Arugath ha-bosem_, and the _Kitab al-Mahadarah_, of great value for literary history. He is even better known as a poet, for his _Diwan_ and the _'Anaq_, and as a hymn-writer. His relative Abraham ben Ezra, generally called simply Ibn Ezra,[11] was still more distinguished. He was born at Toledo, spent most of his life in travel, wandering even to England and to the East, and died in 1167. Yet he contrived to write his great commentary on the Pentateuch and other books of the Bible, treatises on philosophy (as the _Yesodh mora_), astronomy, mathematics, grammar (translation of Hayyuj), besides a Diwan. The man, however, who shares with Ibn Gabirol the first place in Jewish poetry is Judah Ha-levi, of Toledo, who died in Jerusalem about 1140. His poems, both secular and religious, contained in his Diwan and scattered in the liturgy, are all in Hebrew, though he employed Arabic metres. In Arabic he wrote his philosophical work, called in the Hebrew translation _Sepher ha-Kuzari_, a defence of revelation as against non-Jewish philosophy and Qaraite doctrine. It shows considerable knowledge of Greek and Arabic thought (Avicenna). Joseph ibn Migash (d. 1141 at Lucena), a friend of Judah Ha-levi and of Moses ben Ezra, wrote Responsa and Hiddushin (_annotations_) on parts of the Talmud. In another sphere mention must be made of the travellers Benjamin of Tudela (d. after 1173), whose Massa'oth are of great value for the history and geography of his time, and (though not belonging to Spain) Pethahiah, of Regensburg (d. about 1190), who wrote short notes of his journeys. Abraham ben David, of Toledo (d. about 1180), in philosophy an Aristotelian (through Avicenna) and the precursor of Maimonides, is chiefly known for his _Sepher ha-qabbalah_, written as a polemic against Karaism, but valuable for the history of tradition.

Maimonides.

Maimonists and anti-Maimonists.

The greatest of all medieval Jewish scholars was Moses ben Maimon (Rambam), called _Maimonides_ by Christians. He was born at Cordova in 1135, fled with his parents from persecution in 1148, settled at Fez in 1160, passing there for a Moslem, fled again to Jerusalem in 1165, and finally went to Cairo where he died in 1204. He was distinguished in his profession as a physician, and wrote a number of medical works in Arabic (including a commentary on the aphorisms of Hippocrates), all of which were translated into Hebrew, and most of them into Latin, becoming the textbooks of Europe in the succeeding centuries. But his fame rests mainly on his theological works. Passing over the less important, these are the _Moreh Nebhukhim_ (so the Hebrew translation of the Arabic original), an endeavour to show philosophically the reasonableness of the faith, parts of which, translated into Latin, were studied by the Christian schoolmen, and the _Mishneh Torah_, also called _Yad hahazaqah_ ([Hebrew: id] = 14, the number of the parts), a classified compendium of the Law, written in Hebrew and early translated into Arabic. The latter of these, though generally accepted in the East, was much opposed in the West, especially at the time by the Talmudist Abraham ben David of Posquieres (d. 1198). Maimonides also wrote an Arabic commentary on the Mishnah, soon afterwards translated into Hebrew, commentaries on parts of the Talmud (now lost), and a treatise on Logic. His breadth of view and his Aristotelianism were a stumbling-block to the orthodox, and subsequent teachers may be mostly classified as Maimonists or anti-Maimonists. Even his friend Joseph ibn 'Aqnin (d. 1226), author of a philosophical treatise in Arabic and of a commentary on the Song of Solomon, found so much difficulty in the new views that the _Moreh Nebhukhim_ was written in order to convince him. Maimonides' son Abraham (d. 1234), also a great Talmudist, wrote in Arabic _Ma'aseh Yerushalmi_, on oaths, and _Kitab al-Kifayah_, theology. His grandson David was also an author. A very different person was Moses ben Nahman (Ramban) or Nahmanides, who was born at Gerona in 1194 and died in Palestine about 1270. His whole tendency was as conservative as that of Maimonides was liberal, and like all conservatives he may be said to represent a lost though not necessarily a less desirable cause. Much of his life was spent in controversy, not only with Christians (in 1293 before the king of Aragon), but also with his own people and on the views of the time. His greatest work is the commentary on the Pentateuch in opposition to Maimonides and Ibn Ezra. He had a strong inclination to mysticism, but whether certain kabbalistic works are rightly attributed to him is doubtful. It is, however, not a mere coincidence that the two great kabbalistic textbooks, the _Bahir_ and the _Zohar_ (both meaning "brightness"), appear first in the 13th century. If not due to his teaching they are at least in sympathy with it. The _Bahir_, a sort of outline of the _Zohar_, and traditionally ascribed to Nehunya (1st century), is believed by some to be the work of Isaac the Blind ben Abraham of Posquieres (d. early in the 13th century), the founder of the modern Kabbalah and the author of the names for the 10 Sephiroth. The _Zohar_, supposed to be by Simeon ben Yohai (2nd century), is now generally attributed to Moses of Leon (d. 1305), who, however, drew his material in part from earlier written or traditional sources, such as the Sepher Yezirah. At any rate the work was immediately accepted by the kabbalists, and has formed the basis of all subsequent study of the subject. Though put into the form of a commentary on the Pentateuch, it is really an exposition of the kabbalistic view of the universe, and incidentally shows considerable acquaintance with the natural science of the time. A pupil, though not a follower of Nahmanides, was Solomon Adreth (not Addereth), of Barcelona (d. 1310), a prolific writer of Talmudic and polemical works (against the Kabbalists and Mahommedans) as well as of responsa. He was opposed by Abraham Abulafia (d. about 1291) and his pupil Joseph Giqatilla (d. about 1305), the author of numerous kabbalistic works. Solomon's pupil Bahya ben Asher, of Saragossa (d. 1340) was the author of a very popular commentary on the Pentateuch and of religious discourses entitled _Kad ha-qemah_, in both of which, unlike his teacher, he made large use of the Kabbalah. Other studies, however, were not neglected. In the first half of the 13th century, Abraham ibn Hasdai, a vigorous supporter of Maimonides, translated (or adapted) a large number of philosophical works from Arabic, among them being the _Sepher ha-tappuah_, based on Aristotle's _de Anima_, and the _Mozene Zedeq_ of Ghazzali on moral philosophy, of both of which the originals are lost. Another Maimonist was Shem Tobh ben Joseph Falaquera (d. after 1290), philosopher (following Averroes), poet and author of a commentary on the Moreh. A curious mixture of mysticism and Aristotelianism is seen in Isaac Aboab (about 1300), whose _Menorath ha-Ma'or_, a collection of agadoth, attained great popularity and has been frequently printed and translated. Somewhat earlier in the 13th century lived Judah al-Harizi, who belongs in spirit to the time of Ibn Gabirol and Judah ha-levi. He wrote numerous translations, of Galen, Aristotle, Hariri, Hunain ben Isaac and Maimonides, as well as several original works, a _Sepher 'Anaq_ in imitation of Moses ben Ezra, and treatises on grammar and medicine (_Rephuath geviyyah_), but he is best known for his _Tahkemoni_, a diwan in the style of Hariri's _Maqamat_.

Meanwhile the literary activity of the Jews in Spain had its effect on those of France. The fact that many of the most important works were written in Arabic, the vernacular of the Spanish Jews under the Moors, which was not understood in France, gave rise to a number of translations into Hebrew, chiefly by the family of Ibn Tibbon (or Tabbon). The first of them, Judah ibn Tibbon, translated works of Bahya ibn Paqudah, Judah ha-levi, Seadiah, Abu'lwalid and Ibn Gabirol, besides writing works of his own. He was a native of Granada, but migrated to Lunel, where he probably died about 1190. His son Samuel, who died at Marseilles about 1230, was equally prolific. He translated the _Moreh Nebhukhim_ during the life of the author, and with some help from him, so that this may be regarded as the authorized version; Maimonides' commentary on the Mishnah tractate _Pirqe Abhoth_, and some minor works; treatises of Averroes and other Arabic authors. His original works are mostly biblical commentaries and some additional matter on the Moreh. His son Moses, who died about the end of the 13th century, translated the rest of Maimonides, much of Averroes, the lesser Canon of Avicenna, Euclid's _Elements_ (from the Arabic version), Ibn al-Jazzar's _Viaticum_, medical works of Hunain ben Isaac (Johannitius) and Razi (Rhazes), besides works of less-known Arabic authors. His original works are commentaries and perhaps a treatise on immortality. His nephew Jacob ben Makhir, of Montpellier (d. about 1304), translated Arabic scientific works, such as parts of Averroes and Ghazzali, Arabic versions from the Greek, as Euclid's _Data_, Autolycus, Menelaus (Hebrew: Milium) and Theodosius on the Sphere, and Ptolemy's _Almagest_. He also compiled astronomical tables and a treatise on the quadrant. The great importance of these translations is that many of them were afterwards rendered into Latin,[12] thus making Arabic and, through it, Greek learning accessible to medieval Europe. Another important family about this time is that of Qimhi (or Qamhi). It also originated in Spain, where Joseph ben Isaac Qimhi was born, who migrated to S. France, probably for the same reason which caused the flight of Maimonides, and died there about 1170. He wrote on grammar (_Sepher ha-galui_ and _Sepher Zikkaron_), commentaries on Proverbs and the Song of Solomon, an apologetic work, _Sepher ha-berith_, and a translation of Bahya's _Hobhoth ha-lebhabhoth_. His son Moses (d. about 1190) also wrote on grammar and some commentaries, wrongly attributed to Ibn Ezra. A younger son, David (Radaq) of Narbonne (d. 1235) is the most famous of the name. His great work, the _Mikhlol_, consists of a grammar and lexicon; his commentaries on various parts of the Bible are admirably luminous, and, in spite of his anti-Christian remarks, have been widely used by Christian theologians and largely influenced the English authorized version of the Bible. A friend of Joseph Qimhi, Jacob ben Me'ir, known as Rabbenu Tam of Ramerupt (d. 1171), the grandson of Rashi, wrote the _Sepher ha-yashar_ (hiddushin and responsa) and was one of the chief Tosaphists. Of the same school were Menahem ben Simeon of Posquieres, a commentator, who died about the end of the 12th century, and Moses ben Jacob of Coucy (13th century), author of the _Semag_ (book of precepts, positive and negative) a very popular and valuable halakhic work. A younger contemporary of David Qimhi was Abraham ben Isaac Bedersi (i.e. of Beziers), the poet, and some time in the 13th century lived Joseph Ezobhi of Perpignan, whose ethical poem, _Qe'arath Yoseph_, was translated by Reuchlin and later by others. Berachiah,[13] the compiler of the "Fox Fables" (which have much in common with the "Ysopet" of Marie de France), is generally thought to have lived in Provence in the 13th century, but according to others in England in the 12th century. In Germany, Eleazar ben Judah of Worms (d. 1238), besides being a Talmudist, was an earnest promoter of kabbalistic studies. Isaac ben Moses (d. about 1270), who had studied in France, wrote the famous _Or Zarua'_ (from which he is often called), an halakhic work somewhat resembling Maimonides' _Mishneh Torah_, but more diffuse. In the course of his wanderings he settled for a time at Wurzburg, where he had as a pupil Me'ir of Rothenburg (d. 1293). The latter was a prolific writer of great influence, chiefly known for his Responsa, but also for his halakhic treatises, hiddushin and tosaphoth. He also composed a number of piyyutim. Me'ir's pupil, Mordecai ben Hillel of Nurnberg (d. 1298), had an even greater influence through his halakhic work, usually known as the _Mordekhai_. This is a codification of halakhoth, based on all the authorities then known, some of them now lost. Owing to the fact that the material collected by Mordecai was left to his pupils to arrange, the work was current in two recensions, an Eastern (in Austria) and a Western (in Germany, France, &c.). In the East, Tanhum ben Joseph of Jerusalem was the author of commentaries (not to be confounded with the _Midrash Tanhuma_) on many books of the Bible, and of an extensive lexicon (_Kitab al-Murshid_) to the Mishnah, all in Arabic.

With the 13th century Hebrew literature may be said to have reached the limit of its development. Later writers to a large extent used over again the materials of their predecessors, while secular works tend to be influenced by the surrounding civilization, or even are composed in the vernacular languages. From the 14th century onward only the most notable names can be mentioned. In Italy Immanuel ben Solomon, of Rome (d. about 1330), perhaps the friend and certainly the imitator of Dante, wrote his diwan, of which the last part, "Topheth ve-'Eden," is suggested by the _Divina Commedia_. In Spain Israel Israeli, of Toledo (d. 1326), was a translator and the author of an Arabic work on ritual and a commentary on _Pirqe Abhoth_. About the same time Isaac Israeli wrote his _Yesodh 'Olam_ and other astronomical works which were much studied. Asher ben Jehiel, a pupil of Me'ir of Rothenburg, was the author of the popular Talmudic compendium, generally quoted as _Rabbenu Asher_, on the lines of Alfasi, besides other halakhic works. He migrated from Germany and settled at Toledo, where he died in 1328. His son Jacob, of Toledo (d. 1340), was the author of the _Tur_ (or the four Turim), a most important manual of Jewish law, serving as an abridgement of the _Mishneh Torah_ brought up to date. His pupil David Abudrahim, of Seville (d. after 1340), wrote a commentary on the liturgy. Both the 14th and 15th centuries in Spain were largely taken up with controversy, as by Isaac ibn Pulgar (about 1350), and Shem Tobh ibn Shaprut (about 1380), who translated St Matthew's gospel into Hebrew. In France Jedaiah Bedersi, i.e. of Beziers (d. about 1340), wrote poems (_Behinath ha-'olam_), commentaries on agada and a defence of Maimonides against Solomon Adreth. Levi ben Gershom (d. 1344), called Ralbag, the great commentator on the Bible and Talmud, in philosophy a follower of Aristotle and Averroes, known to Christians as Leo Hebraeus, wrote also many works on halakhah, mathematics and astronomy. Joseph Kaspi, i.e. of Largentiere (d. 1340), wrote a large number of treatises on grammar and philosophy (mystical), besides commentaries and piyyutim. In the first half of the 14th century lived the two translators Qalonymos ben David and Qalonymos ben Qalonymos, the latter of whom translated many works of Galen and Averroes, and various scientific treatises, besides writing original works, e.g. one against Kaspi, and an ethical work entitled _Eben Bohan_. At the end of the century Isaac ben Moses, called Profiat Duran (Efodi), is chiefly known as an anti-Christian controversialist (letter to Me'ir Alguadez), but also wrote on grammar (_Ma'aseh Efod_) and a commentary on the Moreh. In philosophy he was an Aristotelian. About the same time in Spain controversy was very active. Hasdai Crescas (d. 1410) wrote against Christianity and in his _Or Adonai_ against the Aristotelianism of the Maimonists. His pupil Joseph Albo in his _'Iqqarim_ had the same two objects. On the side of the Maimonists was Simeon Duran (d. at Algiers 1444) in his _Magen Abhoth_ and in his numerous commentaries. Shem Tobh ibn Shem Tobh, the kabbalist, was a strong anti-Maimonist, as was his son Joseph of Castile (d. 1480), a commentator with kabbalistic tendencies but versed in Aristotle, Averroes and Christian doctrine. Joseph's son Shem Tobh was, on the contrary, a follower of Maimonides and the Aristotelians. In other subjects, Saadyah ibn Danan, of Granada (d. at Oran after 1473), is chiefly important for his grammar and lexicon, in Arabic; Judah ibn Verga, of Seville (d. after 1480), was a mathematician and astronomer; Solomon ibn Verga, somewhat later, wrote _Shebet Yehudah_, of doubtful value historically; Abraham Zakkuth or Zakkuto, of Salamanca (d. after 1510), astronomer, wrote the _Sepher Yuhasin_, an historical work of importance. In Italy, Obadiah Bertinoro (d. about 1500) compiled his very useful commentary on the Mishnah, based on those of Rashi and Maimonides. His account of his travels and his letters are also of great interest. Isaac Abravanel (d. 1508) wrote commentaries (not of the first rank) on the Pentateuch and Prophets and on the Moreh, philosophical treatises and apologetics, such as the _Yeshu'oth Meshiho_, all of which had considerable influence. Elijah Delmedigo, of Crete (d. 1497), a strong opponent of Kabbalah, was the author of the philosophical treatise _Behinath ha-dath_, but most of his work (on Averroes) was in Latin.

Later writers.

The introduction of printing (first dated Hebrew printed book, Rashi, Reggio, 1475) gave occasion for a number of scholarly compositors and proof-readers, some of whom were also authors, such as Jacob ben Hayyim of Tunis (d. about 1530), proof-reader to Bomberg, chiefly known for his masoretic work in connexion with the Rabbinic Bible and his introduction to it; Elias Levita, of Venice (d. 1549), also proof-reader to Bomberg, author of the _Massoreth ha-Massoreth_ and other works on grammar and lexicography; and Cornelius Adelkind, who however was not an author. In the East, Joseph Karo (Qaro) wrote his _Beth Yoseph_ (Venice, 1550), a commentary on the _Tur_, and his _Shulhan 'Arukh_ (Venice, 1564) an halakhic work like the _Tur_, which is still a standard authority. The influence of non-Jewish methods is seen in the more modern tendency of Azariah dei Rossi, who was opposed by Joseph Karo. In his _Me'or 'Enayim_ (Mantua, 1573) Del Rossi endeavoured to investigate Jewish history in a scientific spirit, with the aid of non-Jewish authorities, and even criticizes Talmudic and traditional statements. Another historian living also in Italy was Joseph ben Joshua, whose _Dibhre ha-yamim_ (Venice, 1534) is a sort of history of the world, and his _'Emeq ha-bakhah_ an account of Jewish troubles to the year 1575. In Germany David Gans wrote on astronomy, and also the historical work _Zemah David_ (Prag, 1592). The study of Kabbalah was promoted and the practical Kabbalah founded by Isaac Luria in Palestine (d. 1572). Numerous works, representing the extreme of mysticism, were published by his pupils as the result of his teaching. Foremost among these was Hayyim Vital, author of the _'Ez hayyim_, and his son Samuel, who wrote an introduction to the Kabbalah, called _Shemoneh She'arim_. To the same school belonged Moses Zakkuto, of Mantua (d. 1697), poet and kabbalist. Contemporary with Luria and also living at Safed, was Moses Cordovero (d. 1570), the kabbalist, whose chief work was the _Pardes Rimmonim_ (Cracow, 1591). In the 17th century Leon of Modena (d. 1648) wrote his _Beth Yehudah_, and probably _Qol Sakhal_, against traditionalism, besides many controversial works and commentaries. Joseph Delmedigo, of Prag (d. 1655), wrote almost entirely on scientific subjects. Also connected with Prag was Yom Tobh Lipmann Heller, a voluminous author, best known for the _Tosaphoth Yom Tobh_ on the Mishna (Prag, 1614; Cracow, 1643). Another important Talmudist, Shabbethai ben Me'ir, of Wilna (d. 1662), commented on the _Shulhan 'Arukh_. In the East, David Conforte (d. about 1685) wrote the historical work _Qore ha-doroth_ (Venice, 1746), using Jewish and other sources; Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah, kabbalist and student of Luria, wrote _Qol be-ramah_, a commentary on the _Zohar_ and on the liturgy; Abraham Hayekini, kabbalist, chiefly remembered as a supporter of the would-be Messiah, Shabbethai Zebhi, wrote _Hod Malkuth_ (Constantinople, 1655) and sermons. In the 18th century the study of the kabbalah was cultivated by Moses Hayyim Luzzatto (d. 1747) and by Elijah ben Solomon, called Gaon, of Wilna (d. 1797), who commented on the whole Bible and on many Talmudic and kabbalistic works. In spite of his own leaning towards mysticism he was a strong opponent of the Hasidim, a mystical sect founded by Israel Ba'al Shem Tobh (Besht) and promoted by Baer of Meseritz. Elijah's son Abraham (d. 1808), the commentator, is valuable for his work on Midrash. An historical work which makes an attempt to be scientific, is the _Seder ha-doroth_ of Yehiel Heilprin (d. 1746). These, however, belong in spirit to the previous century.

Modernizing tendencies.

The characteristic of the 18th and 19th centuries is the endeavour, connected with the name of Moses Mendelssohn, to bring Judaism more into relation with external learning, and in using the Hebrew language to purify and develop it in accordance with the biblical standard. The result, while linguistically more uniform and pleasing, often lacks the spontaneity of medieval literature. It was Moses Mendelssohn's German translation of the Pentateuch (1780-1793) which marked the new spirit, while the views of his opponents belong to a bygone age. In fact the controversy of which he was the centre may fitly be compared with the earlier battles between the Maimonists and anti-Maimonists. One of the most remarkable writers of the new Hebrew was Mendelssohn's friend N. H. Wessely, of Hamburg (d. 1805), author of _Shire Tiphe'reth_, a long poem on the Exodus, _Dibhre Shalom_, a plea for liberalism, _Sepher ha-middoth_, on ethics, besides philological works and commentaries. A curious combination of new and old was Hayyim Azulai (d. 1807), a kabbalist, but also the author of _Shem ha-gedholim_, a valuable contribution to literary history.