Part 35

For the philosophy see A. Ruge's _Aus fruherer Zeit_, vol. iv. (Berlin, 1867); Haym (as above); F. A. Trendelenburg (in _Logische Untersuchungen_); A. L. Kym (_Metaphysische Untersuchungen_) and C. Hermann (_Hegel und die logische Frage_ and other works) are noticeable as modern critics. Georges Noel, _La Logique de Hegel_ (Paris, 1897); Aloys Schmid, _Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Hegelschen Logik_ (Regensburg, 1858). Vera has translated the _Encyklopadie_ into French, with notes; C. Benard, the _Asthetik_. In English J. Hutcheson Stirling's _Secret of Hegel_ (2 vols., London, 1865) contains a translation of the beginning of the _Wissenschaft der Logik_; the "Logic" from the _Encyklopadie_ has been translated, with Prolegomena, by W. Wallace (Oxford, 1874). W. Wallace also translated the third part of the _Encyklopadie in Hegel's Philosophy of Mind_ (1894); R. B. Haldane the _History of Philosophy_ (1896); E. B. Speirs, lectures on the _Philosophy of Religion_ (1895); J. Sibree, lectures on _The Philosophy of History_ (1852); B. Bosanquet, _Philosophy of Fine Art_, Introduction (1886); W. Hastie, _The Philosophy of Art_ (1886); S. W. Dyde, _The Philosophy of Right_ (1896). Other recent expositions and criticisms in addition to those mentioned above are W. T. Harris, _Hegel's Logic_ (1890); J. B. Baillie, _Origin and Significance of Hegel's Logic_ (1901), and _Outline of the Idealistic Construction of Experience_ (1906); P. Barth, _Die Geschichtsphilosophie Hegels_ (1890); J. A. Marrast, _La Philosophie du droit de Hegel_ (1869); L. Miraglia, _I Principii fondamentali e la dottrina eticogiuridica di Hegel_ (1873); _Hegel's Philosophy of the State and History_ (Germ. Phil. Classics, 1887); G. Bolland, _Philosophie des Rechts_ (1902), and _Hegels Philosophie der Religion_ (1901); E. Ott, _Die Religionsphilosophie Hegels_ (1904); J. M. Sterrett, _Studies in Hegel's Philosophy of Religion_ (1891); M. Ehrenhauss, _Hegels Gottesbegriff_ (1880); E. Caird, Hegel (1880); A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, _Hegelianism and Personality_ (1893); Millicent Mackenzie, _Hegel's Educational Theory and Practice_ (1909), with biographical sketch; J. M. E. McTaggart, _Commentary on Hegel's Logic_ (1910). (J. H. Mu.)

HEGEMON OF THASOS, Greek writer of the old comedy, nicknamed [Greek: Phake] from his fondness for lentils. Hardly anything is known of him, except that he flourished during the Peloponnesian War. According to Aristotle (_Poetics_, ii. 5) he was the inventor of a kind of parody; by slightly altering the wording in well-known poems he transformed the sublime into the ridiculous. When the news of the disaster in Sicily reached Athens, his parody of the _Gigantomachia_ was being performed; it is said that the audience were so amused by it that, instead of leaving to show their grief, they remained in their seats. He was also the author of a comedy called _Philinne_ (_Philine_), written in the manner of Eupolis and Cratinus, in which he attacked a well-known courtesan. Athenaeus (p. 698), who preserves some parodic hexameters of his, relates other anecdotes concerning him (pp. 5, 108, 407).

Fragments in T. Kock, _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, i. (1880); B. J. Peltzer, _De parodica Graecorum poesi_ (1855).

HEGEMONY (Gr. [Greek: hegemonia], leadership, from [Greek: hegeisthai], to lead), the leadership especially of one particular state in a group of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual city-states, e.g. by Athens and Sparta, at different times to a position of predominance (_primus inter pares_) among other equal states, coupled with individual autonomy. The reversion of this position was claimed by Macedon (see GREECE: _Ancient History_, and DELIAN LEAGUE).

HEGESIAS OF MAGNESIA (in Lydia), Greek rhetorician and historian, flourished about 300 B.C. Strabo (xiv. 648), speaks of him as the founder of the florid style of composition known as "Asiatic" (cf. TIMAEUS). Agatharchides, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Cicero all speak of him in disparaging terms, although Varro seems to have approved of his work. He professed to imitate the simple style of Lysias, avoiding long periods, and expressing himself in short, jerky sentences, without modulation or finish. His vulgar affectation and bombast made his writings a mere caricature of the old Attic. Dionysius describes his composition as tinselled, ignoble and effeminate. It is generally supposed, from the fragment quoted as a specimen by Dionysius, that Hegesias is to be classed among the writers of lives of Alexander the Great. This fragment describes the treatment of Gaza and its inhabitants by Alexander after its conquest, but it is possible that it is only part of an epideictic or show-speech, not of an historical work. This view is supported by a remark of Agatharchides in Photius (_cod._ 250) that the only aim of Hegesias was to exhibit his skill in describing sensational events.

See Cicero, _Brutus_ 83, _Orator_ 67, 69, with J. E. Sandys's note, _ad Att._ xii. 6; Dion. Halic. _De verborum comp._ iv.; Aulus Gellius ix. 4; Plutarch, _Alexander_, 3; C. W. Muller, _Scriptores rerum Alexandri Magni_, p. 138 (appendix to Didot ed. of Arrian, 1846); Norden, _Die antike Kunstprosa_ (1898); J. B. Bury, _Ancient Greek Historians_ (1909), pp. 169-172, on origin and development of "Asiatic" style, with example from Hegesias.

HEGESIPPUS, Athenian orator and statesman, nicknamed [Greek: Krobylos] ("knot"), probably from the way in which he wore his hair. He lived in the time of Demosthenes, of whose anti-Macedonian policy he was an enthusiastic supporter. In 343 B.C. he was one of the ambassadors sent to Macedonia to discuss, amongst other matters, the restoration of the island of Halonnesus, which had been seized by Philip. The mission was unsuccessful, but soon afterwards Philip wrote to Athens, offering to resign possession of the island or to submit to arbitration the question of ownership. In reply to this letter the oration De _Halonneso_ was delivered, which, although included among the speeches of Demosthenes, is generally considered to be by Hegesippus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, however, favour the authorship of Demosthenes.

See Demosthenes, _De falsa legatione_ 364, 447, _De corona_ 250, _Philippica_ iii. 129; Plutarch, _Demosthenes_ 17, _Apophthegmata_, 187D; Dionysius Halic. _ad Ammaeum_, i.; Grote, _History of Greece_, ch. 90.

HEGESIPPUS (fl. A.D. 150-180), early Christian writer, was of Palestinian origin, and lived under the Emperors Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Like Aristo of Pella he belonged to that group of Judaistic Christians which, while keeping the law themselves, did not attempt to impose on others the requirements of circumcision and Sabbath observance. He was the author of a treatise ([Greek: hypomnemata]) in five books dealing with such subjects as Christian literature, the unity of church doctrine, paganism, heresy and Jewish Christianity, fragments of which are found in Eusebius, who obtained much of his information concerning early Palestinian church history and chronology from this source. Hegesippus was also a great traveller, and like many other leaders of his time came to Rome (having visited Corinth on the way) about the middle of the 2nd century. His journeyings impressed him with the idea that the continuity of the church in the cities he visited was a guarantee of its fidelity to apostolic orthodoxy: "in each succession and in every city, the doctrine is in accordance with that which the Law and the Prophets and the Lord [i.e. the Old Testament and the evangelical tradition] proclaim." To illustrate this opinion he drew up a list of the Roman bishops. Hegesippus is thus a significant figure both for the type of Christianity taught in the circle to which he belonged, and as accentuating the point of view which the church began to assume in the presence of a developing gnosticism.

HEGESIPPUS, the supposed author of a free Latin adaptation of the _Jewish War_ of Josephus under the title _De bello Judaico et excidio urbis Hierosolymitanae_. The seven books of Josephus are compressed into five, but much has been added from the Antiquities and from the works of Roman historians, while several entirely new speeches are introduced to suit the occasion. Internal evidence shows that the work could not have been written before the 4th century A.D. The author, who is undoubtedly a Christian, describes it in his preface as a kind of revised edition of Josephus. Some authorities attribute it to Ambrose, bishop of Milan (340-397), but there is nothing to settle the authorship definitely. The name Hegesippus itself appears to be a corruption of Josephus, through the stages [Greek: Iosepos], Iosippus, Egesippus, Hegesippus, unless it was purposely adopted as reminiscent of Hegesippus, the father of ecclesiastical history (2nd century).

Best edition by C. F. Weber and J. Caesar (1864); authorities in E. Schurer, _History of the Jewish People_ (Eng. trans.), i. 99 seq.; F. Vogel, _De Hegesippo, qui dicitur, Josephi interprete_ (Erlangen, 1881).

HEGIUS [VON HEEK], ALEXANDER (c. 1433-1498), German humanist, so called from his birthplace Heek in Westphalia. In his youth he was a pupil of Thomas a Kempis, at that time canon of the convent of St Agnes at Zwolle. In 1474 he settled down at Deventer in Holland, where he either founded or succeeded to the headship of a school, which became famous for the number of its distinguished alumni. First and foremost of these was Erasmus; others were Hermann von dem Busche, the missionary of humanism, Conrad Goclenius (Gockelen), Conrad Mutianus (Muth von Mudt) and pope Adrian VI. Hegius died at Deventer on the 7th of December 1498. His writings, consisting of short poems, philosophical essays, grammatical notes and letters, were published after his death by his pupil Jacob Faber. They display considerable knowledge of Latin, but less of Greek, on the value of which he strongly insisted. Hegius's chief claim to be remembered rests not upon his published works, but upon his services in the cause of humanism. He succeeded in abolishing the old-fashioned medieval textbooks and methods of instruction, and led his pupils to the study of the classical authors themselves. His generosity in assisting poor students exhausted a considerable fortune, and at his death he left nothing but his books and clothes.

See D. Reichling, "Beitrage zur Charakteristik des Alex. Hegius," in the _Monatsschrift fur Westdeutschland_ (1877); H. Hamelmann, _Opera genealogico-historica_ (1711); H. A. Erhard, _Geschichte des Wiederaufbluhens wissenschaftlicher Bildung_ (1826); C. Krafft and W. Crecelius, "Alexander Hegius und seine Schuler," from the works of Johannes Butzbach, one of Hegius's pupils, in _Zeitschrift des bergischen Geschichtsvereins_, vii. (Bonn, 1871).

HEIBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG (1791-1860), Danish poet and critic, son of the political writer Peter Andreas Heiberg (1758-1841), and of the famous novelist, afterwards the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard, was born at Copenhagen on the 14th of December 1791. In 1800 his father was exiled and settled in Paris, where he was employed in the French foreign office, retiring in 1817 with a pension. His political and satirical writings continued to exercise great influence over his fellow-countrymen. Johan Ludvig Heiberg was taken by K. L. Rahbek and his wife into their house at Bakkehuset. He was educated at the university of Copenhagen, and his first publication, entitled _The Theatre for Marionettes_ (1814), included two romantic dramas. This was followed by _Christmas Jokes and New Year's Tricks_ (1816), _The Initiation of Psyche_ (1817), and _The Prophecy of Tycho Brahe_, a satire on the eccentricities of the Romantic writers, especially on the sentimentality of Ingemann. These works attracted attention at a time when Baggesen, Ohlenschlager and Ingemann possessed the popular ear, and were understood at once to be the opening of a great career. In 1817 Heiberg took his degree, and in 1819 went abroad with a grant from government. He proceeded to Paris, and spent the next three years there with his father. In 1822 he published his drama of _Nina_, and was made professor of the Danish language at the university of Kiel, where he delivered a course of lectures, comparing the Scandinavian mythology as found in the _Edda_ with the poems of Ohlenschlager. These lectures were published in German in 1827.

In 1825 Heiberg came back to Copenhagen for the purpose of introducing the vaudeville on the Danish stage. He composed a great number of these vaudevilles, of which the best known are _King Solomon and George the Hatmaker_ (1825); _April Fools_ (1826); _A Story in Rosenborg Garden_ (1827); _Kjoge Huskors_ (1831); _The Danes in Paris_ (1833); _No_ (1836); and _Yes_ (1839). He took his models from the French theatre, but showed extraordinary skill in blending the words and the music; but the subjects and the humour were essentially Danish and even topical. Meanwhile he was producing dramatic work of a more serious kind; in 1828 he brought out the national drama of _Elverhoi_; in 1830 _The Inseparables_; in 1835 the fairy comedy of _The Elves_, a dramatic version of Tieck's _Elfin_; and in 1838 _Fata Morgana_. In 1841 Heiberg published a volume of _New Poems_ containing "A Soul after Death," a comedy which is perhaps his masterpiece, "The Newly Wedded Pair," and other pieces. He edited from 1827 to 1830 the famous weekly, the _Flyvende Post_ (The Flying Post), and subsequently the _Interimsblade_ (1834-1837) and the _Intelligensblade_ (1842-1843). In his journalism he carried on his warfare against the excessive pretensions of the Romanticists, and produced much valuable and penetrating criticism of art and literature. In 1831 he married the actress Johanne Louise Paetges (1812-1890), herself the author of some popular vaudevilles. Heiberg's scathing satires, however, made him very unpopular; and this antagonism reached its height when, in 1845, he published his malicious little drama of _The Nut Crackers_. Nevertheless he became in 1847 director of the national theatre. He filled the post for seven years, working with great zeal and conscientiousness, but was forced by intrigues from without to resign it in 1854. Heiberg died at Bonderup, near Ringsted, on the 25th of August 1860. His influence upon taste and critical opinion was greater than that of any writer of his time, and can only be compared with that of Holberg in the 18th century. Most of the poets of the Romantic movement in Denmark were very grave and serious; Heiberg added the element of humour, elegance and irony. He had the genius of good taste, and his witty and delicate productions stand almost unique in the literature of his country.

The poetical works of Heiberg were collected, in 11 vols., in 1861-1862, and his prose writings (11 vols.) in the same year. The last volume of his prose works contains some fragments of autobiography. See also G. Brandes, _Essays_ (1889). For the elder Heiberg see monographs by Thaarup (1883) and by Schwanenflugel (1891).

HEIDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on a small plateau which stands between the marshes and moors bordering the North Sea, 35 m. N.N.W. of Gluckstadt, at the junction of the railways Elmshorn-Hvidding and Neumunster-Tonning. Pop. (1905), 8758. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a high-grade school, and tobacco and cigar manufactories and breweries. Heide in 1447 became the capital of the Ditmarsh peasant republic, but on the 13th of June 1559 it was the scene of the complete defeat of the peasant forces by the Danes.

HEIDEGGER, JOHANN HEINRICH (1633-1698), Swiss theologian, was born at Barentschweil, in the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, on the 1st of July 1633. He studied at Marburg and at Heidelberg, where he became the friend of J. L. Fabricius (1632-1696), and was appointed _professor extraordinarius_ of Hebrew and later of philosophy. In 1659 he was called to Steinfurt to fill the chair of dogmatics and ecclesiastical history, and in the same year he became doctor of theology of Heidelberg. In 1660 he revisited Switzerland; and, after marrying, he travelled in the following year to Holland, where he made the acquaintance of Johannes Cocceius. He returned in 1665 to Zurich, where he was elected professor of moral philosophy. Two years later he succeeded J. H. Hottinger (1620-1667) in the chair of theology, which he occupied till his death on the 18th of January 1698, having declined an invitation in 1669 to succeed J. Cocceius at Leiden, as well as a call to Groningen. Heidegger was the principal author of the _Formula Consensus Helvetica_ in 1675, which was designed to unite the Swiss Reformed churches, but had an opposite effect. W. Gass describes him as the most notable of the Swiss theologians of the time.

His writings are largely controversial, though without being bitter, and are in great part levelled against the Roman Catholic Church. The chief are _De historia sacra patriarcharum exercitationes selectae_ (1667-1671); _Dissertatio de Peregrinationibus religiosis_ (1670); _De ratione studiorum, opuscula aurea_, &c. (1670); _Historia papatus_ (1684; under the name Nicander von Hohenegg); _Manuductio in viam concordiae Protestantium ecclesiasticae_ (1686); _Tumulus concilii Tridentini_ (1690); _Exercitationes biblicae_ (1700), with a life of the author prefixed; _Corpus theologiae Christianae_ (1700, edited by J. H. Schweizer); _Ethicae Christianae elementa_ (1711); and lives of J. H. Hottinger (1667) and J. L. Fabricius (1698). His autobiography appeared in 1698, under the title _Historia vitae J. H. Heideggeri_.

See the articles in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ and the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; and cf. W. Gass, _Geschichte der protestantischen Dogmatik_, ii. 353 ff.

HEIDELBERG, a town of Germany, on the south bank of the Neckar, 12 m. above its confluence with the Rhine, 13 m. S.E. from Mannheim and 54 m. from Frankfort-on-Main by rail. The situation of the town, lying between lofty hills covered with vineyards and forests, at the spot where the rapid Neckar leaves the gorge and enters the plain of the Rhine, is one of great natural beauty. The town itself consists practically of one long, narrow street--the Hauptstrasse--running parallel to the river, from the railway station on the west to the Karlstor on the east (where there is also a local station) for a distance of 2 m. To the south of this is the Anlage, a pleasant promenade flanked by handsome villas and gardens, leading directly to the centre of the place. A number of smaller streets intersect the Hauptstrasse at right angles and run down to the river, which is crossed by two fine bridges. Of these, the old bridge on the east, built in 1788, has a fine gateway and is adorned with statues of Minerva and the elector Charles Theodore of the Palatinate; the other, the lower bridge, on the west, built in 1877, connects Heidelberg with the important suburbs of Neuenheim and Handschuchsheim. Of recent years the town has grown largely towards the west on both sides of the river; but the additions have been almost entirely of the better class of residences. Heidelberg is an important railway centre, and is connected by trunk lines with Frankfort, Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Spires and Wurzburg. Electric trams provide for local traffic, and there are also several light railways joining it with the neighbouring villages. Of the churches the chief are the Protestant Peterskirche dating from the 15th century and restored in 1873, to the door of which Jerome of Prague in 1460 nailed his theses; the Heilige Geist Kirche (Church of the Holy Ghost), an imposing Gothic edifice of the 15th century; the Jesuitenkirche (Roman Catholic), with a sumptuously decorated interior, and the new Evangelical Christuskirche. The town hall and the university buildings, dating from 1712 and restored in 1886, are commonplace erections; but to the south of the Ludwigsplatz, upon which most of the academical buildings lie, stands the new university library, a handsome structure of pink sandstone in German Renaissance style. In addition to the Ludwigsplatz with its equestrian statue of the emperor William I. there are other squares in the town, among them being the Bismarckplatz with a statue of Bismarck, and the Jubilaumsplatz.

The chief attraction of Heidelberg is the castle, which overhangs the east part of the town. It stands on the Jettenbuhl, a spur of the Konigsstuhl (1800 ft.), at a height of 330 ft. above the Neckar. Though now a ruin, yet its extent, its magnificence, its beautiful situation and its interesting history render it by far the most noteworthy, as it certainly is the grandest and largest, of the old castles of Germany. The building was begun early in the 13th century. The elector palatine and German king Rupert III. (d. 1410) greatly improved it, and built the wing, Ruprechtsbau or Rupert's building, that bears his name. Succeeding electors further extended and embellished it (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate VII., figs. 78-80); notably Otto Henry "the Magnanimous" (d. 1559), who built the beautiful early Renaissance wing known as the Otto-Heinrichsbau (1556-1559); Frederick IV., for whom the fine late Renaissance wing called the Friedrichsbau was built (1601-1607); and Frederick V., the unfortunate "winter king" of Bohemia, who on the west side added the Elisabethenbau or Englischebau (1618), named after his wife, the daughter of James I. of Great Britain and ancestress of the present English reigning family. In 1648, at the peace of Westphalia, Heidelberg was given back to Frederick V.'s son, Charles Louis, who restored the castle to its former splendour. In 1688, during Louis XIV.'s invasion of the Palatinate, the castle was taken, after a long siege, by the French, who blew part of it up when they found they could not hope to hold it (March 2, 1689). In 1693 it was again captured by them and still further wrecked. Finally, in 1764, it was struck by lightning and reduced to its present ruinous condition.

[Illustration: Map of Heidelberg.]

Apart from the outworks, the castle forms an irregular square with round towers at the angles, the principal buildings being grouped round a central courtyard, the entrance to which is from the south through a series of gateways. In this courtyard, besides the buildings already mentioned, are the oldest parts of the castle, the so-called Alte Bau (old building) and the Bandhaus. The Friedrichsbau, which is decorated with statues of the rulers of the Palatinate, was elaborately restored and rendered habitable between 1897 and 1903. Other noteworthy objects in the castle are the fountain in the courtyard, decorated with four granite columns from Charlemagne's palace at Ingelheim; the Elisabethentor, a beautiful gateway named after the English princess; the beautiful octagonal bell-tower at the N.E. angle; the ruins of the Krautturm, now known as the Gesprengte Turm, or blown-up tower, and the castle chapel and the museum of antiquities in the Friedrichsbau. In a cellar entered from the courtyard is the famous Great Tun of Heidelberg. This vast vat was built in 1751, but has only been used on one or two occasions. Its capacity is 49,000 gallons, and it is 20 ft. high and 31 ft. long. Behind the Friedrichsbau is the Altan (1610), or castle balcony, from which is obtained a view of great beauty, extending from the town beneath to the heights across the Neckar and over the broad luxuriant plain of the Rhine to Mannheim and the dim contours of the Hardt Mountains behind. On the terrace of the beautiful grounds is a statue of Victor von Scheffel, the poet of Heidelberg.