D.

DAMASCUS.--Taken by the Saracens, 633. Again by the Turks in 1006, and was destroyed by Tamerlane in 1400.

DANTZIC.--It surrendered to the French, after a siege of four months, May 5th, 1807; and, by the treaty of Tilsit, was restored to its former independence under the protection of Russia and Saxony. It was besieged by the Allies in 1812, and surrendered to them January 6th, 1814. By the treaty of Paris it reverted to its former status.

DARDANELLES, PASSAGE OF THE.--This was achieved by the British fleet under Sir John Duckworth, February 19th, 1807; but the admiral was obliged to repass them--which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2nd following. The castles of Sestos and Abydos hurled down rocks, each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships.

DARTMOUTH.--Burnt by the French, in the reign of Richard I and Henry IV. Prince Maurice took it in 1643, but it was retaken by General Fairfax, by storm, A.D. 1646.

DELHI.--Once the great capital of the Mogul empire. In 1738, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindostan, he entered Delhi, and 100,000 of the inhabitants were put to the sword. In 1803, the Mahrattas aided by the French, got possession of the place; but they were afterwards defeated by General Lake. This city has been the scene of much commotion in the course of its history.

The following is a short account of the storming of Delhi, in the last great mutiny:

“Until the latter end of August, the British troops before Delhi are rather to be considered as an army of observation, than as a besieging force. Their inferiority in numbers and artillery was barely counter-balanced by their superior discipline, courage and physical strength. These advantages enabled them, indeed, to maintain their ground, but not to assume the offensive.

Toward the close of August, however, a re-inforcement of European and Sikh troops, under Brigadier Nicholson, arrived from the Punjab, and, on the 25th of that month, the rebels were defeated at Nujuffghur, with great slaughter, and the loss of thirteen guns. A few days later a heavy siege-train was received from Ferozepore, and breaching batteries were constructed on the north side of the city. The siege may be said to have commenced on the 7th September, and by the evening of the 13th, the engineers reported two practicable breaches--one near the Cashmere, the other near the Water bastion. Arrangements were, therefore, at once made for an assault, to take place at daybreak on the following morning.

The first column, commanded by Brigadier Nicholson, advanced under a tremendous fire, and, applying their scaling-ladders, carried the Cashmere bastion, and established themselves in the main-guard. Almost simultaneously, the second column, under Brigadier Jones, stormed the Water bastion, and effected a junction with their comrades inside the walls.

A third column, under Colonel Campbell, awaited the blowing open of the Cashmere gate to join the assault. They had not long to wait. Lieutenants Salkeld and Home, of the engineers, accompanied by three sergeants carrying the powder-bags, walked up to the gateway in broad daylight, and, while exposed to a heavy fire of musketry, coolly fastened the bags to the iron spikes of the gate. In the performance of this heroic exploit, Lieutenant Salkeld was severely wounded, and two of the sergeants killed upon the spot; but the train was lighted, and the gate blown open with a tremendous crash.

As the smoke cleared away, the storming party sprang through the ruins with a British cheer; and the three columns uniting, made themselves master of the whole line of works, from the Water bastion to the Cabul gate; and before nightfall were in possession of Skinner’s house, the Church, the College, and the adjacent grounds. This brilliant success, however, was not achieved without great loss of life.

Of the European soldiery, eight officers and 162 rank and file were killed, with 52 officers and 510 rank and file wounded; of the Sepoys, 413 were placed _hors de combat_, of whom 103 were slain outright. The total number of casualties thus amounted to 1145, or one-third of the entire assaulting force. Among the mortally wounded was Brigadier Nicholson, whose death was justly deplored as a national calamity.

Simultaneously with these main attacks, a diversion was made by a fourth column, consisting of Sikhs, Ghoorkas, and Cashmerians, on the suburbs of Kishengunge and Pahareepore. But, in spite of their most strenuous efforts, these troops failed to overcome the desperate resistance offered by the enemy, and, in the end, were compelled to retreat, though not ingloriously.

The day following the assault was consumed in shelling the palace, and in battering the magazine. A breach was effected, and, at daylight on the 16th, a storming party dashed forward with such impetuosity that the rebel artillerymen dropped their lighted port-fires and fled, leaving undischarged six guns of large calibre commanding the breach and loaded with grape. On the 17th, the British troops became masters of the Bank, formerly the palace of the Begum Sumroo, and shortly afterwards, of the Jumma Musjid, or principal mosque. Heavy guns were now brought to play upon the palace and the bridge of boats, and, by the evening of the 20th, the rebels entirely evacuated the city and its suburbs. Then was seen the extent of the damage sustained by the former capital of the Mogul dynasty. Whole streets had been laid in ruins; dead bodies tainted the air in all directions; the inhabitants, reduced to beggary, were crouching, terror-stricken, in obscure lurking-places. But the British soldier is merciful in victory, as he is irresistible in battle. To armed rebels, no mercy was shown; but women and children, and the defenceless citizens, were spared and protected.

The venerable descendant of Timour--venerable only by reason of his gray hairs and extreme old age--had fled, with his principal Begum, two sons, and a grandson, to the tomb of his ancestor, Hoomavoon, son of the mighty Baber. He was discovered and seized by captain Hodson, of the 2nd European Fusiliers. His own life, and that of his queen, were respected--but the princes were led out and shot, and their dead bodies publicly exposed at the kotwalee, or mayor’s court.

General Wilson, whose health failed him in the hour of victory, now resigned the command to Brigadier Penny, C.B., a veteran of approved gallantry. Colonel Burn, whose father so gallantly defended Delhi against Jeswunt Rao Holkar, in 1803, was appointed military commandant within the city, and measures were successfully taken to re-establish order, and to afford protection to well-disposed and peaceful citizens. Two movable columns, consisting each of 1600 infantry, 500 cavalry, three troops of horse artillery, and eighteen guns, were told off, and ordered to follow up the retreating enemy without delay. One of these, commanded by Colonel Greathed, of the 84th, came up with a rebel force strongly posted near Bolundshuhur, and, after a spirited engagement, utterly discomfited them with the loss of two guns, a vast quantity of ammunition, and 100 men.”

DEMERARA AND ESSEQUIBO.--Founded by the Dutch but taken by the British, under Major General White, April 22nd, 1796. Restored in 1802. Again surrendered to the British, under General Grinfield and Commodore Hood, September 20th, 1803. They are now British colonies.

DENNEWITZ, BATTLE OF.--In this battle a remarkable victory was obtained by Marshal Bernadotte, Prince of Denmark--who afterward became Charles XIV of Sweden--over Marshal Ney, September 6th, 1813. The loss of the French exceeded 16,000 men and two eagles, while the loss of the opposite army was inconsiderable.

DETTINGEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the British, Hanoverian, and Hessian army, commanded by George II of England in person and the Earl of Stair, on the one side, and the French army, commanded by Marshal Noailles and the Duke of Grammont, on the other side. The English army amounted to 52,000 men, the French to 60,000 strong. The French having passed a defile which they should have guarded, the British and Allies bravely sustained the impetuous charge of the French cavalry, so that they were obliged to give way, and recross the Mayne, with the loss of 5000 men. Fought June 16th, 1743.

DIEPPE.--_In France._--This town was bombarded by an English fleet, under Admiral Russell, and laid in ashes, July 1694. Again bombarded by the British, September 14th, 1803.

DIZIER ST.--_In Champagne._--One of the most memorable sieges in modern history. This town sustained a siege for six weeks against the army of Charles V, Emperor of Germany, A.D. 1544. A battle was fought here between the armies of the Allies on the one side, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, on the other, in which he was defeated with great loss, January 27th, 1814.

DONNINGTON, BATTLE OF.--_In Lincolnshire, England._--Fought between the Royalists, commanded by Colonel Cavendish, and the forces of the Parliament--the latter defeated, 1643. The battle of Donnington, in Gloucestershire, was fought in 1645, when the Royalists, under Lord Aston, were defeated by Colonel Morgan. This victory led to the surrender of the King’s garrison at Oxford.

DRAGOON.--Name supposed to have been derived from dragon. The first regiment of dragoons in England was raised A.D. 1681.

DRESDEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the allied army, under the Prince of Schwarzenberg, and the French army, commanded by Napoleon, August 26th and 27th, 1813. The Allies were 200,000 strong. They attacked the position of Napoleon, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an error of General Vandamme. They were defeated with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia. Vandamme pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and he and all his staff made prisoners. In this battle, General Moreau received his mortal wound, while in conversation with the Emperor of Russia.

DROGHEDA.--_In Ireland._--Cromwell took this city by storm, and put the governor and all the garrison to the sword, August 14th, 1649. More than 3000 men, mostly English, perished, one individual--a lieutenant--alone escaping. Cromwell also murdered every man, woman, and child of the citizens that were Irish!

DRUM.--A martial instrument--the invention of which is ascribed to Bacchus. Being an oriental invention, it was introduced into Europe by the Moors, A.D. 713.

DUMBLANE OR DUNBLANE, BATTLE OF.--Called also the Battle of Sheriffmuir.--Fought between the Royalist army, and the Scotch rebels, November 12th, 1715. The Duke of Argyle, who commanded the Royalists, had in his army 4000 veteran troops; the Earl of Mar, who commanded the rebels, 8000, but all newly raised. The loss was equal on both sides, and each claimed the victory. The Highland foot behaved most gallantly.

DUNBAR, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Scottish and English army, in which John Baliol was defeated by the Earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued by Edward I, April 27th, 1296. Another battle was fought here between the Scots and the English, under Cromwell, who obtained a great victory, September 3rd, 1650.

DUNDALK.--Edward Bruce, being defeated in his unfortunate invasion of Ireland, was beheaded here, in 1318, and with him 6200 Scots invaders, lost their lives. The walls and fortifications were destroyed in 1641.

DUNGAN HILL, BATTLE OF.--_In Ireland._--Fought between the English and Irish armies. The former commanded by Colonel Jones, who signally defeated the insurgent Irish, of whom 6000 were slain, while the loss of the English was inconsiderable. Fought July 10th, 1647.

DUNKIRK.--Taken by the English and French from the Spaniards, June 24th, 1658. Sold by Charles II, for £500,000, to Louis XIV, in 1662. The English attempted to besiege this place, but the Duke of York, who commanded, was defeated by Hoche, and forced to retire with loss, September 7th, 1793.

DUNSINANE, BATTLE OF.--Celebrated by Shakespeare. Fought between Macbeth, the thane of Glamis, and Seward, earl of Northumberland. Macbeth was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, when he was slain, 1057.

DURHAM, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the English and Scottish armies, October 17th, 1316. See _Nevill’s Cross_.

E.

EBRO.--Scene of a signal defeat of the Spaniards, by the French, November 23rd, 1808. Scene also of several movements of the allied forces during the Peninsular War.

ECKMUHL, BATTLE OF.--Fought, April 22nd, 1809, between the main armies of France and Austria. The French army was commanded by Napoleon, and the Austrian by the Archduke Charles. Napoleon, by one of his masterly movements, broke through the Imperial army, and completely routed them.

EDGEHILL, BATTLE OF.--Fought, October 23rd, 1642, between the Royalists and the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war. Charles I was present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded the Royalists and the Earl of Essex the Parliamentarians. The Earl of Lindsay, one of Charles’ Generals, who commanded the foot forces, was mortally wounded and taken prisoner. The King’s army lost 5000 men, dead on the field of battle, with vast numbers of wounded and prisoners; but the great loss on the other side prevented them from making all they could of the victory.

ENSIGN.--A flag or banner. The lowest commissioned officer in an infantry regiment--he who carries the flag or colors--hence the name; derived from the French.

ENGHIEN, BATTLE OF.--Fought, August 3rd, 1692, between the British, under William III, and the French, under Marshal Luxembourg, who were victorious. William had put himself at the head of the confederate army in the Netherlands, and leagued himself with the Protestant powers upon the continent against the ambition of Louis XIV, and in the end he triumphed.

ENLISTMENT OF SOLDIERS AND SEAMAN.--None enlisted are to be sworn in before a magistrate in less than twenty-four hours, and then they are at liberty to withdraw, upon returning enlistment or bounty money and 21s. costs. All enlistment is now voluntary.

ENNISKILLEN.--_Ireland._--It made an obstinate defence against the army of Elizabeth; then against James II, 1689--1500 Enniskillens met General McCarty with a force of 6000 men--defeated him, with a loss of 3000 men, and took all the rest--losing only twenty men, July 1689. The Enniskillen dragoons were raised here.

ESSLING, BATTLE OF.--Fought, May 22nd, 1809, between the armies of France and Austria, commanded by Napoleon and the Archduke Charles,--a dreadful conflict, which began on May 21st, and continued on the 22nd. Napoleon was defeated with the loss of 30,000 men--but the Austrians lost 20,000. This was the most severe check that Napoleon had ever yet experienced, which rendered his army’s retreat very difficult.

EUPATORIA.--_Crimea._--Famous in the Crimean war. The following is an account of its capture by the Allies:

“About 25,000 Turks, under Omer Pacha, the veterans for the most part of the army of the Danube, had occupied the town, and strongly entrenched themselves, assisted by a small force of English and French, and supported by the presence of a naval squadron, under the command of Captain Hastings, of the _Curaçoa_. For some days previous to the 16th of February, large bodies of Russians had been observed in the vicinity; and on the morning of that day, a strong force of artillery, supported by bodies of cavalry and infantry, estimated at about 40,000 men, opened a smart fire upon the town, at a distance of 1200 yards, subsequently advancing nearer. The small squadron, under Captain Hastings, was enabled to do good service; the _Valorous_ pitching shells and shot among the enemy on the left; and the _Viper_, an active little gun-boat, smartly seconding her efforts on the left. The enemy’s infantry approached to the right of the town, through the cemetery. As they advanced from the burying-ground, they were met by a vigorous fire of musketry from the entrenchments. The _Furious_ had detached a rocket-party, which coming round among the windmills to the right of the town, met the advancing Russians with a succession of volleys. The enemy advanced to within twenty yards of the ditch, and then fell into confusion. Selim Bey, the leader of the Egyptian contingent, seizing the opportunity, threw forward his brigade in a rapid charge with the bayonet upon the disordered columns, but fell mortally wounded at the head of his men. Unable to stand the terrific fire to which they were exposed, and yielding before the vigorous charge of the Egyptians, the Russians gave way, and the repulse was complete. The artillery limbered up their guns, and with the cavalry, drew leisurely from the spot. The enemy’s loss must have been immense, considering the short time the skirmish lasted, as the ground was strewed with the bodies of the slain, who were quickly despoiled by the ever ready Bashi-Bazouks, and left stark naked in their blood. The loss to the defenders of the town was 101 killed, and 286 wounded. The Turkish artillery suffered greatly from the enemy’s fire, nineteen men being killed in one battery. Thus did Omer Pacha initiate his campaign in the Crimea.”

EURYMEDON, BATTLE OF.--One of the most celebrated battles in Grecian history, when Cimon destroyed the fleet of the Persians at Cyprus, and the land forces also at the River Eurymedon, B.C. 470.

EVESHAM, BATTLE OF.--Fought, August 4th, 1265, between Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I, and Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester--in which the Barons were defeated, and Montfort slain. This victory broke up the confederation of the Barons against the King.

EXETER.--When held by the Danes King Alfred invested and took it A.D. 894. Sweyn besieged it 1003. Again besieged by William the Conqueror, 1067. Surrendered to King Stephen, 1136. Besieged by Sir William Courtenay, 1469. Lastly assaulted by Perkin Warbeck 1497.

EXPEDITIONS OF THE BRITISH. PRINCIPAL ONES.

France near Port l’Orient October 1, 1746 Cherbourg August 7, 1758 St. Malo September, 1758 Ostend May, 1798 Zuyder Zee September, 1799 Egypt March, 1801 Copenhagen September, 1807 Walcheren July, 1809 Bergen-op-Zoom March, 1814

EYLAU, BATTLE OF.--Fought, February 8th, 1807, between the French and Russians.--It was one of the most terrible and bloody in Napoleon’s wars. Napoleon lost 15,000 men, and the Russians 20,000, in slain alone. Both armies were dreadfully crippled by this battle, and both had to retire.

F.

FALCZI, PEACE OF.--This celebrated peace was concluded between Russia and Turkey, July 2nd, 1711,--the Russians giving up Azof and all their possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. In the following year the war was renewed, and at last terminated in the peace of Constantinople, April 16th, 1712.

FALKIRK, BATTLE OF.--First battle fought between Edward I of England, and the Scots under William Wallace, July 22nd, 1298; and the second between the King’s forces and Prince Charles Stuart, the Pretender, January 18th, 1746. Both are described in the following extracts:

“Edward had been in Scotland for about a month. He had advanced as far as Kirkliston, ten miles west of Edinburgh. Symptoms of mutiny began to appear among his hungry soldiers. He was compelled to give orders for a retreat to Edinburgh, meaning to wait there till his fleet, laden with provisions, should arrive at Leith, and then to advance again.

Things stood thus, when two scoundrels, the Earl of Dunbar and the Earl of Angus, came at daybreak into the camp of the English, and gave information that Wallace lay in the forest of Falkirk, intending to attack the English in their quarters that very night. Edward was filled with joy at the tidings. “Thanks be to God,” he cried, “who hath hitherto delivered me from every danger! They shall not need to follow me, for I shall instantly go and meet them.”

In an hour’s time he had his army in motion for the west. That night they encamped on a moor near Linlithgow. Each man slept in his armour, each war-horse was kept ready bridled beside its rider. The king himself slept on the bare ground, like the meanest soldier in his army. In the middle of the night the sleeping king received a kick from his own charger, by which two of his ribs were broken. As soon as morning dawned the march was resumed. The king, wounded as he was, was among the first to mount.

Passing through the town of Linlithgow, they continued their march, and gained a rising ground at some distance beyond. There they halted, and the fighting Bishop of Durham said mass. While the ceremony was performing the sun rose, and his rays, glancing upon the array of spears, showed them the Scottish army taking their ground on the slope of a small hill not far from Falkirk. Wallace arranged his battle thus: His main force lay in his infantry, who fought with long spears, and carried short daggers and axes for close battle slung at the girdle. They were divided into four circular masses, or _schiltrons_, as they were called in the military language of the time. In these circles the spearmen stood compactly together, with their long spears stretched out, and forming a ring of steel. The spaces between circle and circle were occupied by the archers, tall yeomen from the forests of Selkirk and Ettrick. The cavalry, amounting to 1000 heavy armed horse, were placed in the rear. Among them were most of the nobles who had joined Wallace; but the jealousy which these proud barons felt towards him, and their selfish fear of losing their estates, made them less than half-hearted in the cause.

The English came on in three divisions, each division as strong as the whole Scottish army. At the first clash of spears the entire body of the Scottish cavalry, led by the traitor lords, turned bridle, and rode off the field without a blow given or taken. While the battle raged against the circles of spearmen, the English horse charged the Scottish archers. The brave foresters stood firm to meet the rush of 7000 of the finest cavalry ever present on a stricken field. But what could they, lightly armed as they were, do against mailed horse and steel-clad knights? They defended themselves so bravely with their short daggers that the very enemy admired them. But they died there to a man. After the battle the conquerors remarked their tall and handsome forms as they lay dead on the ground they had kept so well.

The four circles of the Scottish spearmen remained yet entire, standing up like a wall, with their spears, point over point, so thick and close together that no living man could pierce through. But the cloth-yard arrows from the great bows of England fell thick and deadly among them. The columns of archers advanced near and discharged their shafts in perfect security, the Scots having neither cavalry to scatter them by a charge, nor archers to reply to them. Drawing their arrows to the head, they shot with all their force into the circles, and quickly breached the living walls. Through the gaps made by the archers the English cavalry charged, and having once broken in made a dreadful slaughter. The battle was lost. One duty alone remained to the Scottish leader, and that was to save the remainder of his army from destruction by a retreat. Well and soldierly he did it. Retiring slowly, and himself with his best knights defending the rear, he was able to draw off the broken remains of his circles, and to gain the shelter of Torwood forest.”

_Second Battle._--“Being joined by Lord Drummond, Prince Charles invested the castle of Stirling, commanded by General Blakeney; but the rebel forces, being unused to sieges, consumed much time to no purpose. It was during this attempt that General Hawley, who commanded a considerable body of forces near Edinburgh, undertook to raise the siege, and advanced towards the rebel army as far as Falkirk. After two days spent in mutually examining each other’s strength, the rebels being ardent to engage, were led on, in full spirits, to attack the King’s army. The Pretender, who was in the front line, gave the signal to engage, and the first fire put Hawley’s forces into confusion. The horse retreated with precipitation, and fell upon their own infantry; while the rebels, following up the blow, the greatest part of the royal army fled with the utmost precipitation. They retired in confusion to Edinburgh, leaving the conquerors in possession of their tents, their artillery, and the field of battle.”

FEROZESHAH, BATTLE OF.--_India._--Between the Sikhs and British. The British attacked the entrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried by storm the first line of works, December 21st, 1845. Night coming on the operations were suspended till day-break next day, and their second line was carried and their guns captured; the Sikhs advanced to recapture the guns but were repulsed with great loss, and retreated towards the Sutlej, December 22nd, and re-crossed the river unmolested, December 27th.

FERROL, BRITISH EXPEDITION TO.--Upwards of 10,000 British landed, August, 1800, near Ferrol, commanded by Sir James Pulteney. Despairing of success, though they had gained the heights, they re-embarked and returned to England, by order of the General, and in opposition to the wishes and advice of his officers.

FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD.--Henry VIII embarked at Windsor to meet Francis I of France, at Ardres, May 31st, 1520. So much magnificence was displayed on the occasion, that the field received that name, by which it is now always known in history.

FIRE SHIPS.--Used first in the 16th century. The first use of them, in the English navy, was by Lord Effingham, in the engagement of the Armada, July, 1588.

FLAG.--Acquired its present form in the 6th century, in Spain; introduced, it is said, by the Saracens.

FLAT BUSH, BATTLE OF.--_Long Island, America._--Fought August 27th, 1776, between the British forces and American colonists, when the latter, after a desperate engagement, were compelled to retire, with the loss of 2000 men killed, and 1000 prisoners.

FLEURIS, BATTLE OF.--Fought, June, 17th, 1794, between the Allies, under the Prince of Cobourg, and the French revolutionary army, commanded by Marshal Jourdan. The Allies had 100,000 men, and having met the enemy on the plains of Fleuris, were signally defeated. Between 8000 and 10,000 were killed, wounded and taken prisoners, and Jourdan was able to form a junction with the French armies of the Moselle--the Ardennes and the north. In this memorable battle, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enemy’s army--an experiment which it is said very materially tended to their gaining the victory.

FLODDEN.--Fought on the 9th September, 1513, between the English and Scots. Underneath is a graphic account of the most disastrous battle that ever befell the Scottish arms.

“On the 22nd of August, 1513, James IV of Scotland, at the head of a gallant army, crossed the Tweed, for the purpose of revenging some injuries which he conceived himself to have received at the hands of the King of England, who was then pursuing hostilities in France. Immediately on his crossing that river, he laid siege to the castles of Etel and Ford, and spent much precious time in endeavouring to reduce those fortresses.

Whilst such was the course pursued by the King, the Earl of Surrey concentrating the strength of the northern counties, soon raised an army of 26,000 men; and marching through Durham, received there the sacred banner of St. Cuthbert. He was soon after joined by Lord Dacre, Sir William Bulmer, Sir Marmaduke Constable, and other northern Barons; and on proceeding to Alnwick, was met by his son, Lord Thomas Howard, Lord Admiral of England, with a reinforcement of 5000 men. On advancing with this united force, Surrey dispatched Rouge Croix Herald to carry his challenge to the King of Scots, which was couched in the usual stately terms of feudal defiance. It reproached him with having broken his faith and league, which had been solemnly pledged to the King of England, in thus invading his dominions--and offered him battle on the succeeding Friday, if he would be content to remain so long in England and accept it. Lord Thomas Howard added a message, informing the King, that, as High Admiral, and one who had borne a personal share in the action against Andrew Barton, he was now ready to justify the death of that pirate, for which purpose he would lead the vanguard, where his enemies, from whom he expected as little mercy as he meant to grant them, would be sure to find him. To this challenge, James instantly replied, that “he desired nothing more earnestly than the encounter, and he would abide the battle on the day appointed.” As to the rude accusation of broken honour which had been brought against him, he desired his herald to carry a broad denial of the statement. “Our bond and promise,” he observed, “was to remain true to our royal brother, so long as he maintained his faith with us. This he was the first to break; we have desired redress, and have been denied it; we have warned him of our intended hostility--a courtesy which he has refused to us; and this is our just quarrel, which, with the grace of God, we shall defend.” These mutual messages passed on the 4th of September; and on the day appointed, Surrey advanced against the enemy. By this time, the distress for provisions, the incessant rains, and the obstinacy of the King in waiting upon his pleasures, and his observation of the punctilios of chivalry, the hours which might have been spent in

## active warfare, had created dissatisfaction in the soldiers, many

of whom deserted, with the booty they had already collected; so that in a short time the army was much diminished in numbers. To accept the challenge of his adversary, and permit him to appoint a day for the encounter, was contrary to the advice of his best councillors; and he might have recollected, that in circumstances almost similar, two great masters in war, Douglas and Randolph, had treated a parallel proposal of Edward III with a sarcastic refusal. He had the sagacity, however, to change his first encampment for a stronger position on the hill of Flodden, one of the last and lowest eminences which detach themselves from the range of the Cheviots; a ground skillfully chosen, inaccessible on both flanks, and defended in front by the river Till, a deep sluggish stream, which ran between the armies.

On advancing and reconnoitering the spot, Surrey, who despaired of being able to attack the Scots without exposing himself to the probability of defeat, again sent a herald to request the King to descend from the eminence into the plain. He complained, somewhat unreasonably, that James had “putte himself into a ground more like a fortress or a camp, than any indifferent field for battle to be taxed;” but James would not even admit the messenger into his presence. So far all had succeeded and nothing was required on the part of the King but patience. He had chosen an impregnable position, had fulfilled his agreement by abiding the attack of the enemy; and such was the distress of Surrey’s army in a wasted country, that to keep it longer together was impossible. He attempted, therefore, a decisive measure, which would have appeared desperate, unless he had reckoned upon the carelessness and inexperience of his opponent. Passing the Till on the 8th of September, he proceeded on its east side to Barmoor wood, two miles distant from the Scottish position, where he encamped for the night. His march was concealed from the enemy by an eminence on the east of Ford; but the manœuvre being executed without observation or interruption, evinces a shameful negligence in the Scottish commanders. Early on the morning of the 9th, he marched from Barmoor wood in a north-westerly direction; and then turning suddenly to the eastward, crossed the Till with his vanguard and artillery at Twisel bridge, not far from the confluence of the Till and the Tweed--whilst the rear division, under Surrey in person, passed the river at a ford. Whilst these movements were taking place the Scottish King remained unaccountably passive. His veteran officers remonstrated. They showed him, that if he advanced against Surrey, when the enemy were defiling over the bridge with their vanguard separated from the rear, there was every chance of destroying them in detail, and gaining an easy victory. The Earl of Angus, whose age and experience gave great weight to his advice, implored him either to assault the English, or to change his position by a retreat, ere it was too late; but his prudent counsel was only received by a cruel taunt. “Angus,” said the King, “if you are afraid, you may go home;” a reproach which the spirit of the old Baron could not brook. “My age,” said he, “renders my body of no service, and my counsel is despised; but I leave my two sons and the vassals of Douglas in the field; may the result be glorious, and Angus’s foreboding unfounded!”

The army of Surrey was still marching across the bridge, when Borthwick, the master of the artillery, fell on his knees before the King, and solicited permission to bring his guns to bear upon the columns, which might then be done with the most destructive effect; but James commanded him to desist on peril of his head, declaring that he would meet his antagonist on equal terms in a plain field, and scorned to avail himself of such an advantage. The counsel of Huntly was equally ineffectual; the remonstrance of Lord Lindsay of the Byres was received by James with such vehement indignation, that he threatened on his return to hang him up at his own gate. Time ran on amidst these useless altercations, and the opportunity was soon irrecoverable. The last divisions of Surrey’s force had disentangled themselves from the narrow bridge; the rear had passed the ford; and the Earl, marshalling his army with the leisure his enemy allowed him, placed his entire line between James and his own country. He was thus enabled, by an easy and gradual ascent, which led to Flodden, to march upon the rear of the enemy; and without losing his advantage for a moment, he advanced against them in full array, his army being divided into two battles, and each battle having two wings. On becoming aware of this, the King set fire to the temporary huts and booths of his encampment, and descended the hill, with the object of occupying the eminence on which the village of Brankston is built. His army was divided into five battles, some of which had assumed the form of squares, some of wedges; and all were drawn up in line, about a bow-shot distant from each other. Their march was conducted in complete silence; and the clouds of smoke which arose from the burning camp, being driven in the face of the enemy, mutually concealed the armies; so that when the breeze freshened, and the misty curtain was withdrawn, the two hosts discovered that they were within a quarter of a mile of each other. The arrangement of both armies was simple. The van of the English, which consisted of 10,000 men, divided into a centre and two wings, was led by Lord Thomas Howard; the right wing being intrusted to his brother, Sir Edmund, and the left to Sir Marmaduke Constable. In the main centre of his host Surrey himself commanded; the charge of the rear was given to Sir Edward Stanley; and a strong body of horse, under Lord Dacre, formed a reserve. Upon the part of the Scots, the Earls of Home and Huntly led the advance; the King, the centre; and the Earls of Lennox and Argyle, the rear; near which was the reserve, consisting of the flower of the Lothians, commanded by the Earl of Bothwell. The battle commenced at four in the afternoon, by a furious charge of Huntly and Home upon the portion of the English advance under Sir Edmund Howard; which, after some resistance, was thrown into confusion, and totally routed. Howard’s banner was beaten down; and he himself escaped with difficulty. Lord Thomas Howard, dreading the consequences of a defeat, dispatched a messenger to his father, Lord Surrey, entreating him to extend his line with all speed, and strengthen the van by drawing up a part of the centre on its left. The manœuvre was judicious, but it would have required too long a time to execute; and at this critical moment, Lord Dacre galloped forward with his cavalry to the support of his advance. Nothing could have been more timely than this assistance; he not only checked the career of the Scottish Earls, but drove back the division of Huntly with great slaughter; whilst Home’s men, imagining they had already gained the victory, began to disperse and pillage. Dacre and the Admiral then turned their attack against another portion of the Scottish advance, led by the Earls of Crawford and Montrose, who met them with levelled spears, and resolutely withstood the charge. Whilst such was the state of things on the right, a desperate contest was carried on between James and the Earl of Surrey in the centre. In his ardour, the King forgot that the duties of a commander were distinct from the indiscriminate valour of a knight: he placed himself in the front of his lances and billmen, surrounded by his nobles, who, whilst they pitied the gallant weakness of such conduct, disdained to leave their sovereign unsupported. The first consequence of this was so furious a charge upon the English centre, that its ranks were broken, and for a while the standard of the Earl of Surrey was in danger; but by this time Lord Dacre and the Admiral had been successful in defeating the division led by Crawford and Montrose, and wheeling towards the left, they turned their whole strength against the flank of the Scottish centre, which wavered under the shock, till the Earl of Bothwell came up with the reserve, and restored the day in this quarter. On the right, the divisions led by the Earls of Lennox and Argyle were composed chiefly of the Highlanders and Isle-men, the Campbells, Macleans, Macleods, and other hardy clans, who were dreadfully galled by the discharge of the English archers. Unable to reach the enemy with their broadswords and axes, which formed their only weapons, and not very amenable to discipline, their squadrons began to rush fiercely forward, eager for closer fight, and thoughtless of the fatal consequences of breaking their array. It was to little purpose that La Motte and the French officers with him attempted by entreaties and blows to restrain them; they neither understood their language nor cared for their violence, but threw themselves sword in hand upon the English. The squares of English pikemen stood to their ground; and though for a moment the shock of the mountaineers was terrible, its force once sustained, became spent with its own violence, and nothing remained but a disorganisation so complete that to recover their ranks was impossible. The consequence was, a total rout of the right wing of the Scots, accompanied by a dreadful slaughter, in which the Earls of Lennox and Argyle were slain. Yet, notwithstanding this defeat on the right, the centre, under the King, still maintained an obstinate and dubious conflict with the Earl of Surrey. No quarter was given on either side; and the combatants were disputing every inch of ground, when Stanley, without losing his time in pursuit of the Highlanders, drew back his division and impetuously charged the rear of the Scottish centre. It was now late in the evening, and this movement was decisive. Pressed on the flank by Dacre and the Admiral--opposed in front by Surrey, and now attacked in the rear by Stanley, the King’s battle fought with fearful odds against it; but James continued by his voice and his gestures to animate his soldiers, till he fell pierced with an arrow, and mortally wounded in the head by a bill, within a few paces of the English Earl, his antagonist. The death of their sovereign seemed only to animate the fury of the Scottish Nobles, who threw themselves into a circle round the body, and defended it till darkness separated the combatants. At this time Surrey was uncertain of the result of the battle; the remains of the enemy’s centre still held the field; Home with his borderers hovered on the left; and the commander allowed neither pursuit nor plunder, but kept a strict watch during the night. When the morning broke, the Scottish artillery were seen standing deserted on the side of the hill, their defenders had disappeared; and the Earl ordered thanks to be given for a victory which was no longer doubtful.

The loss of the Scots, in this fatal battle, amounted to about 10,000 men. Of these a great proportion were of high rank; the remainder being composed of the gentry, the farmers and landed yeomanry, who disdained to fly when their sovereign and his nobles lay stretched in heaps around them. Among the slain were thirteen Earls--the King’s natural son, the Archbishop of St. Andrews--the Bishops of Caithness and the Isles--the Abbots of Inchaffray and Kilwinning--and the Dean of Glasgow; besides fifteen Lords and chiefs of clans. The body of James was found on the morrow amongst the thickest of the slain, and recognised by Lord Dacre, although much disfigured by wounds. It was carried to Berwick, and ultimately interred at Richmond.”

FONTAINBLEAU, PEACE OF.--Concluded between France and Denmark, in 1670. Treaty of ditto between the Emperor of Germany and Holland, signed November 8th, 1785. Second Treaty of ditto, between Napoleon and the Royal Family of Spain, October 27th, 1807. Concordat of ditto, between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII, January 25th, 1813. Entered by the Austrians, February 17th, 1814. Napoleon here resigned his imperial dignity, and bade farewell to his army, April 5th, 1814.

FONTENOY.--Fought, April 30th, 1745,--according to others, May 11th, 1745--between the French, commanded by Count Saxe, and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the Duke of Cumberland. “The French entered upon the war with great alacrity. They besieged Fribourg, and in the beginning of the succeeding campaign invested the strong city of Tourney. Although the Allies were inferior in number, and although commanded by the Duke of Cumberland, yet, they resolved, if possible, to save the city by hazarding a battle. They accordingly marched against the enemy, and took post in sight of the French, who were encamped on an eminence, the village of St. Antoine on the right, a wood on the left, and the town of Fontenoy before them. This advantageous situation did not repress the ardour of the English, who began the attack at two o’clock in the morning, and pressing forward, bore down all opposition. They were for nearly an hour victorious, and confident of success, while Saxe, a soldier of fortune, who commanded the French army, was at that time sick of the same disorder of which he afterwards died. However, he was carried about to all the posts in a litter, and assured his attendants that, notwithstanding all unfavourable appearances, the day was his own. A column of the English, without any command, but by mere mechanical courage, had advanced upon the enemy’s lines, which, opening, formed an avenue on each side to receive them. It was then that the French artillery on the three sides began to play on this forlorn body, which, though they continued for a long time unshaken, were obliged at last to retreat. This was one of the most bloody battles that had been fought in this age; the Allies left on the field 12,000 men, and the French bought their victory with nearly an equal number of slain.”

FORT DU QUESNE.--_United States._--Famous in the French war of Canada with the English. The following extract well describes the expedition:

“Braddock, who had been recommended to this service by the Duke of Cumberland, set forward upon this expedition in June, and left the cultivated parts of the country on the 10th, at the head of 2200 men, directing his march to that part of the country whence Major Washington had retreated the year before. Being at length within ten miles of the French fortress he was appointed to besiege, and marching forward through the forest with full confidence of success, on a sudden his whole army was astonished by a general discharge of arms, both in front and flank, from an enemy that still remained unseen. It was now too late to think of retreating; the troops had passed into the defile which the enemy had artfully permitted them to do before they offered to fire. The vanguard of the English therefore, fell back in consternation upon the main body, and the panic soon became general. The officers alone disdained to fly, while Braddock himself still continued to command his brave associates, discovering at once the greatest intrepidity and imprudence. An enthusiast to the discipline of war, he disdained to fly from the field, or to permit his men to quit their ranks, when their only method of treating the Indian army was by precipitate attack, or an immediate desertion of the field of battle. At length Braddock, having received a musket shot through the lungs, dropped, and a total confusion ensued. All the artillery, ammunition, and baggage of the army was left to the enemy, and the loss sustained by the English amounted to 700 men. The remnant of the army, in this emergency, was saved by the courage and ability of Washington, who first here appears conspicuously on the theatre of this world’s great events.”

FORT ERIE.--_Canada._--This fortress was taken by the American General Brown, July 3rd, 1814. Defended by only 170 men, no wonder it yielded to the Americans with 4000 strong. On the 15th August, General Drummond tried to retake it, but failed. September 17th the besieged made a sortie but were driven back, each side losing 600 men. Evacuated by the Americans, who blew up to the fort November 5th, 1814.

FORT NIAGARA.--_Canada._--Captured by Sir William Johnston. In the war of 1813 it was surprised and captured by the Canadians.

FREDERECKSHALL.--Rendered memorable by the death of Charles XII of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon ball before its walls, and while in the trenches leaning against the parapet examining the works. He was found in that position with his hand on his sword and a prayer

## book in his pocket.--December 11th, 1718. It is now generally

believed that some traitor shot the King with a pistol.

FRENCHTOWN.--_Canada._--This town was taken from the British by the American General Winchester, January 22nd, 1813. Retaken by the British forces under General Proctor immediately afterwards, when the American commander and the whole of his troops were made prisoners of war.

FRIEDLAND, BATTLE OF.--Fought, June 14th, 1807, between the allied Russian and Prussian armies on the one side and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, who signally defeated them, with the lose of eighty pieces of ordnance and 50,000 men. This victory led to the peace of Tilsit.

FUENTES DE ONORE, BATTLE OF.--Napier thus describes this great battle: “On May 2nd, 1811, Messina crossed the Agueda with 40,000 infantry, 5000 cavalry, and about thirty pieces of artillery, to relieve Almeida. He expected every day to be superseded in his command, and he wished to make a last effort for his own military character. Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, of which force only 1200 were cavalry. He, however, determined to fight rather than give up the blockade of Almeida; after much fighting night came on and put an end to the battle. Next day Messina was joined by Bessières, with a body of the Imperial Guard, and on the 5th the enemy made the grand attack. The battle raged throughout a vast plain, and in all the Peninsular War there was never so dangerous an hour for England. The fight lasted till evening, when the lower part of the town was abandoned by both sides--the British keeping the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a cannon shot from the stream.” Fought, May 5th, 1811.

G.

GALWAY.--_Ireland._--In 1690, Galway declared for King James, but it was invested and taken by General Ginckel, immediately after the memorable battle of Aughrim, July 12th, 1691.

GENERAL.--This rank has been given to commanders from very remote antiquity. In the French army, Montmorency was the first officer who was so called, in 1203. Cardinal Richelieu was the first who took the title _Generalissimo_, having coined the word when he assumed supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in 1629.

GENOA.--Bombarded by the French, in 1684, and by the British, in 1688 and 1745. Taken by the Imperialists, December 8th, 1746. Sustained a siege from the British fleet and Austrian army, when it capitulated, May, 1800. Surrendered to the French, after the battle of Marengo. Next surrendered to the combined English and Sicilian armies, April 8th, 1814, but was transferred to the Kingdom of Sardinia, in 1826. The city seized by insurgents, who, after a murderous struggle, drove out the garrison, and proclaimed a Republic, April, 1850, but in the end the insurgents surrendered to General Marmora.

GERMANIC CONFEDERATION.--When Napoleon determined that the German or Holy Roman Empire should no longer exist, but that a Confederation of States should be in its stead, the proposal was adopted by the Allied Sovereigns, in 1815, which has continued ever since.

GETTYSBURG.--_United States._--This battle was fought between the Confederates of the Southern States, and the Northern army. General Lee was defeated by the United States’ troops. This battle immediately followed the surrender of Vicksburg to General Grant. Fought on the 4th July, 1863.

GHENT.--Taken by the Duke of Marlborough, in 1706. Several times taken and retaken during the Napoleon wars. The peace of Ghent, between Great Britain and America, signed here, December 24th, 1814.

GHIZNEE, BATTLE OF.--The British, under Sir John Keane, attacked this place, and having blown up the gates, forced their way into the city, and succeeded in fixing the British colors on the towers, July 23rd, 1839. Ghiznee capitulated to the Affghans, March 1st, 1842. The following account gives the items of General Nott’s entering it, September 7th, 1842:

“GHIZNEE is situated on the base of a hill, which supports its rear or main post, and commands a most extensive plain, and it is in the midst of a rich, fertile country; it has ever held the most noble rank as a capital, and is capable of being rendered one of the most important fortifications in the Eastern nations; its adjacent hills are great, and border on Dora and Bameean; it covers the routes of the latter, as well as Loghar and Cabool; near the low hills which command the city, are several cemeteries, and ancient buildings; at a short distance is Rozah, in which stands the great sepulchre, and shrine of Mahmood, the once famed Emperor of Ghiznee; and of whom “Dow” speaks so much in his History of Hindostan.

The fortress in itself is of great importance; the town is walled round, and contains several thousand houses; the former principally of stone, and the latter of mud. It is surrounded by a deep trench; the main entrance, being the one blown up by Sir John Keane, is in ruins, and another was made to the right. In the centre of the town stands the citadel, which had three tiers; the lower one had been much improved since we possessed it, and a parade ground, or large square, had been formed, as a park for the ordnance. A river ran close by, which afforded good water, and rendered it almost complete. All remained quiet, till within a short distance from them, fortunately for us, as it enabled us to get up our baggage, and cattle; close to the rear of the column the road was very difficult, being over extensive fields of long grass, and the ditches very numerous and wide, in crossing which the cattle were continually falling, which greatly delayed us. General Nott directed the Light Battalion to proceed with the Quarter Master General, to take up an encampment opposite to Ghiznee, at a place some two and a half miles from the fortress, known as Sir John Keane’s garden. I accompanied this body, and as we proceeded, we discovered the enemy in the citadel, and a great number outside, preparing to advance. The Quarter Master General ordered a portion of his force to man a small hill, which commanded their approach, and left it in charge of Captain Adamson, of the 40th. The General dispatched, in another direction, the 16th Native Infantry, under Colonel McLaren, who were met by the enemy, and a smart action took place; fortunately, however, after having rallied for some time, the corps managed to get under cover, in a walled garden, about a mile from the fort, and kept them off in fine style; the Colonel, finding the enemy so numerous, feared a serious result, as the chances were, the General could not send him a re-inforcement before the whole of his ammunition would be expended, and a soldier without ammunition is not in the most enviable situation. The Quarter Master General’s party was attacked, but effected a complete mastery over them, and drove them back. The General, perceiving the situation of McLaren, dispatched the 3rd Regiment Light Cavalry, and two of Anderson’s guns, who got up just in time to save them, as they were getting short of shot; at length came up the General with the main body; the cavalry made a grand charge after those outside the town, and we lost a great number of our men, but not before leaving a greater number of the enemy lying on the field; during all this time those in possession of the citadel were not idle, but made some excellent play with their guns from the square I named, as being situated on the lower part of the citadel; but fortunately for us their knowledge of the art of gunnery was so shallow that they did little or no damage with their guns. One of the hills mentioned as adjacent to the fortress, was called Balloon Hill, from its peculiar form, and difficulty of ascent; this hill was literally crowded with rebels, and their colours were planted in every direction; they now began to emerge from the gates in great numbers, and finding, after the charge of the cavalry, that they had no chance of overpowering the front, Shooms-ood-Dien dispatched a large force round, to attack the rear of our columns. The General had, however, taken the necessary precaution, and reinforced the rear guard to 3000 men, with six guns, including the heavy battery. Perceiving the object the enemy had in view, he let fly a volley of grape to meet them, which had the desired effect, and left numbers of them dead on the ground, and the rest immediately made off; the next thing to be done was to got possession of Balloon Hill. This hill was so situated that it commanded all around it, and more particularly the square in the citadel, as it immediately covered it. The General directed the 40th and 16th to proceed at once and take the hill. The order was in itself easily given; my readers may imagine the position.

The guns from the citadel were in full play, the hill was in possession of, and covered by several hundreds of the enemy, both horse and foot; the ascent was considerable, and we were nearly two miles from it. However, it is not for Britons to look at difficulties in such a moment, for had we done so we should never have accomplished it; we set forward, and those in the fortress seeing our advance, opened a heavy fire upon us, which, Providence be thanked, showed us that they could not hit their mark, and we reached the foot of the hill with little loss. Those in possession leapt for joy, at the apparent opportunity of cutting us off. We commenced the ascent, throwing out skirmishers in every direction; our fire was kept up steadily as on a parade, and every ball seemed to find its desired billet; numbers fell, of course, but not near so many as we had been anticipating. We were obliged to halt half way to gain breath, and necessitated to keep up a heavy fire; we again advanced, and the enemy began to show symptoms of retiring, which greatly encouraged us, and we made a desperate effort, and sent a volley into them, charged, and at length they retired; we followed, and at last gained the summit. They rushed down the other side, and made off in the direction of Candahar, where they were met by a brigade sent round by the General for that purpose.

Having gained possession of the hill, those in the citadel began to pour the fire of artillery into us, but as usual without success, and in order to get out of sight we were ordered to lie down, that they might imagine we had evacuated our position; as we lay there, the balls were fast whistling over us, and the force under the command of the General was making a clean sweep of all those outside the walls, which, after he had effected, next repaired to the citadel. It was, however, found impracticable to storm the fortress that day; first, because the Sappers and Miners would not have time to complete their operations; and secondly, in consequence of the fatigued state of the troops. The 16th was to be left in charge of the hill, and the 40th were ordered to return to the encampment; this order was, if anything, even worse than the first, because all being comparatively quiet, we should, on retiring, be the only targets for them to fire at, and our utter destruction seemed inevitable; we, however, had to obey, and as was expected, no sooner did we come under cover of their guns than they opened a severe fire from all their pieces, but their firing was always either too far, or too short; and thus we reached camp in almost safety.

The followers had been all employed in pitching the tents, and the cooks (natives) had prepared our scanty meal; the 16th were left in possession of the hill; and the General ordered two guns, either under Captain Blood or Anderson, to proceed to the top of the hill, and dislodge them in the citadel, which, after some difficulty, was effected, and most ably did they accomplish their duty; they soon put a stop to them, and by their superior arrangement and management of artillery, disabled nearly all their guns. We had scarcely got well seated in our tents when we were suddenly surprised by the whizzing of a ball over the camp, which lodged in the officer’s mess tent of the 41st; after that came another and another, and they kept up a fine string of them, aiming most admirably. We soon discovered that they had a sixty-eight pounder, which before had remained quiet.

Those shots coming so fast, and lodging just in our midst, doing considerable damage, although we were nearly two miles from it, compelled the General to shift camp a mile further off, and we were at last out of the reach of the bull-dog; they most certainly in this distance did put us to the rout. This piece was called “Chuppa Jung,” of Persian manufacture, and as is usual in all the forts of importance in Asia, was placed in the citadel; and a most powerful piece it was.

The General now began to arrange his plans for storming and taking the fortress; the engineers were all busily employed in preparing for the operation; and as the day began to draw to a close, orders were issued for the troops to be in readiness to move just before daylight on the morrow. The night at length came on, and lights were ordered to be extinguished at eight P.M.; and at that hour all was darkness, and enveloped upwards of 20,000 souls.

All was at length prepared for the attack, and about half an hour before the day broke, the word was passed from tent to tent, to form up. Each rose in sadness, and many shook the hand of his comrade as for the last time; the cattle were dispatched with the powder, to ensure the explosion, and platforms had been carefully planted for the heavy battery to commence a breach. The troops were slowly and silently advanced, and arranged ready to storm immediately after the gates were blown up; and daybreak was to be the signal. At length the day dawned, and lo! what was our surprise when we saw floating on the highest tower the English colors. The sight relieved each heart as though we had a fortune. The enemy had during the night evacuated the citadel, having received certain orders to that effect from Caboul. Colonel McLaren, who had kept the hill, finding they had left it, took immediate possession, and placed “The Flag that braved a thousand years” on the highest point. Thus did Providence prevent the inevitable loss of some hundreds of our force, and never was a force more agreeably surprised than those at Ghiznee, on the 6th of September, 1842.”

GIBRALTAR.--A British fortress on the Straits of the same name. From the circumstance of its immense strength and impregnability, other great fortresses have also received its name, as Quebec, which is called the Gibraltar of America. The height of the wall is 1437 feet. Taken by the Saracens, in 712. In 1462, the King of Castile took the fortress and town from the Moors; and the English, under Sir George Brooke, the Prince of Hesse-Denmark, Sir John Leake, and Admiral Byng, bravely won it, July 24th, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannonade, to the British by the Governor, the Marquis de Salines, and has ever since continued one of the most brilliant gems in the coronet of England’s Queen. Long may she reign to wear it. The following are the different attacks which have been made upon it since the British took it. On the 11th October, 1704, the same year it was captured by the British, it sustained a siege from the Spaniards and French, who lost 10,000 whilst the British loss was only 400. Again the Spaniards attacked it in 1720, but were repulsed with great loss. In 1728, they again attacked it but were driven back with the loss of 5000 out of 20,000, while the English lost 300. After this came the memorable siege of the Spaniards and French, whose prodigious armaments astonished the whole of Europe. They were the most stupendous up to that time ever brought before any city or fortress. The siege continued from July, 1770, to February, 1783. The allied army amounted to 40,000 men. The Duke of Crillon had 12,000 of the best troops of France, 1000 pieces of artillery were brought to bear against the fortress, besides which there were forty-seven sail of the line all three-deckers, ten great floating batteries esteemed invincible, carrying 212 guns, an immense number of frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun and mortar boats; while small craft literally covered the bay. For weeks and weeks together 6000 shells were daily thrown into the town, and, on one single occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were expended by the enemy, yet in one single night were all these immense batteries destroyed by red-hot cannon balls, and their whole line of works annihilated by a sortie of the garrison, commanded by General Elliot, November 27th, 1781. The loss of the enemy in this memorable night alone, amounted to upwards of £2,000,000 sterling. The grand defeat by the garrison of only 7000 British, occurred September 13th, 1782. Since then the British have remained in peaceful possession.

GISORS, BATTLE OF.--_In France._--Fought between the armies of France and England, in which the former were signally defeated by Richard I, who commanding in person, and whose parole for the day was “Dieu et Mon Droit,” and from this it was made the motto of the Royal Arms of England, A.D. 1193.

GLENCOE, MASSACRE OF.--The McDonalds of Glencoe, were cruelly massacred, May 9th, 1691, merely for not surrendering in time after King William’s proclamation perpetrated by the Earl of Argyle’s regiment. 38 men besides women and children perished.

GOOJERAT, BATTLE OF.--_India._--Fought February 21st, 1849. Lord Gough with 21,000 men and 100 guns attacked the enemy, numbering 60,000 men, with 59 guns. The Sikh Chief was strongly posted between two river courses which protected his flanks, and yet allowed him good manœuvring space to retire either on the east or west side of the town of Goojerat, which afforded shelter and protection to his rear. The battle began at 7 A.M. After a severe engagement of nine hours, at 4 P.M. the enemy had been driven from every post and was in general retreat, which the field artillery and cavalry converted into a rout and flight. They were pursued for 15 miles, and next day another fresh force took up the direct pursuit. Some of the guns and the whole of the ammunition and camp equipage fell into the hands of the British. The Chief, Shere-Singh, escaped with only 8000 men out of 60,000. The loss on the side of the British was 100 killed and 900 wounded.

GOREE.--Taken by the English Admiral Holmes, in 1693--ceded to France 1678. Again taken by the British, 1758--1779--1800--and 1804.

GOREY, BATTLE OF.--Fought June 4th, 1798, between the King’s troops and the Irish rebels, in which, after a desperate battle, the King’s forces were routed with great slaughter. They lost several pieces of artillery, and retreated to Gorey and afterwards to Arklow.

GORGET.--An ancient breastplate. It was of great size, and gave rise to the modern diminutive breastplate which was in existence at the Restoration. It is now disused.

GRAMPIAN HILLS, BATTLE OF THE.--This was a celebrated engagement between the Scots and Picts--the former under Galgacus, and the latter under Agricola. Fought A.D. 79.

GRAND ALLIANCE.--Signed at Vienna between England and the States General--to which Spain and the Duke of Savoy afterwards acceded, May 12th, 1689.

GRANICUS, BATTLE OF.--Alexander the Great fought and won this battle against the Persians--B.C. 334. The Macedonian troops crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army, and totally defeated them. Alexander’s army was only 30,000 foot and 5000 horse and the Persian 600,000 foot, and 60,000 horse.

GRENADES.--A kind of bombshell invented in 1594. It is a small hollow globe or ball of iron, two inches diameter, and filled with fine powder and set on fire by a fusee at a touch-hole. The grenadiers were those soldiers who were armed with a pouch of hand grenades--established in France in 1667--and England in 1685. The latter word is applied now, according to Gay, to the tall soldiers--of which there is generally a company in every regiment.

GROCHOW, BATTLE OF.--_Near Praga, Warsaw._--Fought February 20th, 1831, between the Poles and Russians. After a bloody battle, which continued all day and almost all the next, the Poles remained masters of the field. The Russians retreated, having lost 70,000 men, and the Poles, 2000.

GUADALOUPE.--Taken by the English, in 1759, and restored 1763. Again taken in 1779, 1794, and 1810. At last, restored to France at the peace of 1814.

GUARDS.--The custom of having guards was introduced by Saul, King of Israel, B.C. 1093. Bodyguards instituted by Henry VII, 1485. Horse guards by Edward VI, 1550. The three regiments of the British service, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Foot Guards, were raised in 1660, and the command of them given to Colonel Russell, General Monk, and Lord Linlithgow. The Second, or the Coldstream, was the first raised. The Horse Grenadier Guards, first troop raised 1693, and second in 1702.

GUNPOWDER.--Invented by a Monk of Cologne, 1320. It has entirely revolutionized the art of war; consists of three ingredients, viz., charcoal, sulphur and saltpetre.

H.

HALIDON HILL, BATTLE OF.--Fought July 19th, 1333.--“The Scots were rash enough to attack the English as they held the top of a bold hill, at the foot of which lay a marsh. The English archers, posted on the face of the hill, shot down the Scots, almost at their leisure, while they struggled heavily through the spongy ground. Under the deadly arrow flight, the Scots dragged themselves through the bog, and attempted, all breathless and exhausted, to charge up the hill against the fresh troops of England. They were forced down with great slaughter. Many more were slain as they struggled back through the fatal bog. The bloody lesson, however, seems not to have been lost. Once and again King Edward made the savage apparition of war to pass through Scotland. But the Scots baffled him by following the wise policy of Bruce. He traversed a country completely deserted and laid waste. The inhabitants, with their cattle and all their property, had retired to the inaccessible fastnesses of the mountains. Every advanced column and detached party of the English was assailed, stragglers cut off, and alarms kept up. Famine and disease did the work. Captain Hunger was more than a match for Captain Sword. Edward made nothing by his invasions, though he marched through the country as far north as Inverness. He was compelled each time to fall back again on his own territory, with great loss of men from hardships and misery, and the harassing attacks of the Scots, who sallied out from every glen, forest, and mountain defile.”

HALYS, BATTLE OF.--This great battle was fought between the Lydians and Medes, on the banks of the river Halys. It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the sun. Fought, May 28th, B.C. 585.

HANAN, BATTLE OF.--Fought, October 29th, 1813, between a division of the combined armies of Austria and Bavaria, 30,000 strong, under General Wrede and the French, 70,000 strong. The latter were on their retreat from Leipsic when encountered by the Allies, and suffered severely, although at the end of the battle the Austrians had to retire.

HARLAW, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 24th, 1411, between the Earl of Mar, who commanded the Royal army, and Donald, the Lord of the Isles. Neither army gained the victory, it being a drawn battle. So many nobility and gentry were slain in this engagement that a Scottish historian declares, “more illustrious men fell in this one conflict alone than had fallen in foreign wars during many previous years.”

HASTINGS, BATTLE OF.--Fought, October 14th, 1066. In the beginning of summer, William embarked his powerful army of 60,000 men on board a fleet of 300 sail; and, after some small opposition from the weather, landed at Pevensey, on the coast of Sussex, tranquilly.

“Harold, who seemed resolved to defend his right to the crown, and retain that sovereignty which he had received from the people, who only had a right to bestow it, was now returning, flushed with conquest, from defeating the Norwegians, who had invaded the kingdom, with all the forces he had employed in that expedition, and all he could invite or collect in the country through which he passed. His army was composed of active and valiant troops, in high spirits, strongly attached to their king, and eager to engage.

On the other hand, the army of William consisted of the flower of the continent, and had long been inured to danger. The men of Britanny, Boulogne, Flanders, Poictou, Maine, Orleans, France, and Normandy, were all voluntarily united under his command. England never before nor ever since, saw two such armies drawn up to dispute its crown.

The day before the battle, William sent an offer to Harold to decide the quarrel between them by single combat, and thus to spare the blood of thousands: but Harold refused, and said he would leave it to the God of armies to determine. Both armies, therefore, that night pitched in sight of each other, expecting the dawning of the day with impatience. The English passed the night in songs and feasting; the Normans in devotion and prayer.

The next morning, at seven as soon as day appeared, both armies were drawn up in array against each other. Harold appeared in the centre of his forces, leading on his army on foot, that his men might be more encouraged, by seeing their king exposed to an equality of danger. William, fought on horseback, leading on his army, that moved at once, singing the songs of Roland, one of the famous chiefs of their country. The Normans began to fight with their cross-bows, which, at first, galled and surprised the English; and, as their ranks were closed, their arrows did great execution. But soon they came to closer fight, and the English with their bills hewed down their adversaries with great slaughter. Confusion was spreading among the ranks, when William, who found himself on the brink of destruction, hastened with a select band to the relief of his forces. His presence restored the suspense of battle; he was seen in every place, endeavouring to pierce the ranks of the enemy, and had three horses slain under him. At length, perceiving that the English continued impenetrable, he pretended to give ground, which, as he expected, drew the enemy from their ranks, and he was instantly ready to take advantage of their disorder. Upon a signal given the Normans immediately returned to the charge with greater fury than before, broke the English troops, and pursued them to a rising ground. It was in this extremity that Harold was seen flying from rank to rank, rallying and inspiring his troops with vigour; and though he had toiled all day, till near night-fall, in front of his Kentish men, yet he still seemed unabated in force or courage, keeping his men to the post of honour.

Once more, therefore, the victory seemed to turn against the Normans, and they fell in great numbers, so that the fierceness and obstinacy of this memorable battle was often renewed by the courage of the leaders, whenever that of the soldiers began to slacken. Fortune at length determined a victory that valour was unable to decide.

Harold, making a furious onset at the head of his troops against the Norman heavy armed infantry, was shot into the brains by an arrow; and his two valiant brothers, fighting by his side, shared the same fate. He fell with his sword in his hand, amidst heaps of slain.”

HAVRE-DE-GRACE.--Defended for the Huguenots by the English in 1562. Bombarded several times by the British Navy. Successfully attacked for three days from July 6th to 9th, 1759. Again bombarded in 1794 and 1795--and again by Sir Richard Strachan in 1798. Declared in a state of blockade 1803; and the attempts of the British to burn the shipping here signally failed, August 7th, 1804.

HERARA, BATTLE OF.--_In Arragon._--In this battle, Don Carlos of Spain, in his struggle for his hereditary right to the throne of that kingdom, encountered, at the head of 12,000 men, and defeated General Buerens, who had not half the number of the Queen’s troops. The loss of Buerens was about 1000 killed and wounded. Fought, August 24th, 1837.

HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE.--Vertot says that this battle, fought in 1429, received its name from the following ludicrous occasion. The Duc de Bourbon, in attempting to intercept a convoy on the road to the English Camp, before Orleans, was severely beaten. It was a convoy of salt-fish--and this action has ever since been called by the above name.

HOCHKIRCHEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the Prussian army, commanded by Frederick II, and the Austrians, commanded by Count Daun. The King was surprised in his camp and defeated by the Imperial General. In this battle, an illustrious Scotsman, Field-Marshal Keith, in the service of Prussia, was killed; and such was the respect and admiration which his name inspired, that Counts Daun and Lacy, the Austrian Generals, shed tears on beholding the corpse, and ordered its interment with military honours. Fought, October 14th, 1758.

HOCHENLINDEN, BATTLE OF.--Fought November 3rd, 1800, between the Austrian and French armies--the latter commanded by General Moreau. The Austrians were defeated with dreadful slaughter, losing 10,000 men in killed and wounded, and 10,000 more in prisoners. The forces of each army were nominally equal at the commencement of the battle.

HOMELDEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the Scots, headed by the Earl of Douglas, and the Percys, in which the Scots were defeated. Douglas and many of the nobility were taken prisoners in this battle. Fought in 1403.

HORATII AND CURIATII, COMBAT BETWEEN THE.--Fought B.C. 669. The forces of the two states met about five miles from Rome. While the armies were awaiting the signal for the battle, the Alban General, stepping into the space between them, proposed to decide the dispute by single combat. To this proposition Tullus agreed. There were in each army three twin brothers, all remarkable for their courage, strength, and activity, and to them it was resolved to commit the management of the combat. The Roman brothers were called Horatii and the Albans Curiatii. The champions met. Victory, which for a time, appeared doubtful, at last seemed to decide against the Romans. Two of their champions lay dead on the field, and the third seemed, by flight, to beg for mercy. Defeat was however only apparent. It soon became evident that this flight of the surviving Roman was pretence in order that, by separating his antagonists, he might have an opportunity of engaging them singly. Turning suddenly upon the foremost of the Curiatii, he laid him dead at his feet. The second instantly shared his fate. Fatigued and disabled by his wounds, the third slowly advanced to offer an easy victory. He was slain almost unresisting, while the conqueror exclaimed “Two have I already sacrificed to the Manes of my brothers; a third will I offer up to my country.”

HUSSAR.--This kind of soldier originated in Poland and Hungary, and as they, being light cavalry, were more suited for hasty attacks than a set battle, they are supposed to have taken their name from the _huzzas_ or shouts which they made at their first onset. Pardon says that they were oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers, &c., hanging on their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock’s feather. Introduced into the British service in the last century.