M.

MAESTRICHT.--Taken by the Prince of Parma in 1579; reduced by the Prince of Orange, in 1632. Louis XIV took it in 1675. William, Prince of Orange, invested it in 1676; restored to the Dutch in 1678; besieged by the French, in 1748. In 1793, attacked by the French, who took it the following year; but in 1814, it was delivered up to the allied forces.

MAGENTA, BATTLE OF.--Fought June 4th, 1859, between the French and Austrians. The French gained a splendid victory, the Allies losing 12,000, the Austrians 15,000. The latter rapidly retreated and evacuated Milan. The battle of Magenta was begun by the Austrians, who, although in full retreat towards Pavia, were ordered to change their front, and attack the advanced guard of the Allies, who had crossed the Ticino at Buffalora. Suddenly 25,000 Austrians attacked a battalion of Zouaves, together with two battalions of grenadiers; a close and deadly fire was now exchanged. Then the Austrians charged with the bayonet. At 12 o’clock the French were retiring, having lost General Leclere, a colonel, a lieutenant colonel, and 12 officers, when reinforcements appearing on their left, they rallied and forced the Austrians to withdraw. The bold assault of General McMahon decided the victory; and for his brave conduct and efficient generalship, Napoleon conferred on him the rank of Marshal, with the title of Duke of Magenta. General Guyalai brought into the action 120,000 men; he left 20,000 of them wounded or dead on the battle-field: 7000 were taken prisoners; 5 flags, 4000 knapsacks, 12,000 muskets and 4 guns, fell into the hands of the French. During the battle of Magenta the bridge and the village of Magenta were taken and retaken seven times. It was only at half-past eight at night that the Austrians withdrew. Their retreat was slow and orderly.

MAIDA, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the French, commanded by General Regnier, and the British, under Major General Sir John Stuart. The French were nearly double the number of the British, yet the latter gained a most glorious victory on the “Plains of Maida,” a village of Calabria. The loss of the French was very great, July 4th, 1806. The British commander, from this victory, has historically received the name of the “Hero of the Plains of Maida.”

MAJOR.--This officer holds the rank between a Lieutenant Colonel and a Captain. A Major General is one who commands a division, next above rank to a Brigadier General.

MALAKOFF AND REDAN, ATTACK ON THE.--In the celebrated Crimean war. The following is a good description of the attack:

“General Pelissier divided his attacking force into three columns, numbering altogether about 25,000 men. The first, under General Mayran, was to assault the extreme left of the Russian line; the second, in the centre, led by General Brunet, was to turn the Malakoff on its proper left; while the third, under General d’Autemarre, was to operate upon its right. The Imperial Guard was held in reserve, and two batteries of artillery occupied the Mamelon. The signal for advance was to be three rockets fired from the Lancaster battery, which General Pelissier had chosen as his position of observation. By an unfortunate mistake, General Mayran mistook the flaming fuse of a bomb-shell for the rocket, and eager for the fray, led his division rapidly forward. It was now apparent that the enemy had full notice of our intended attack. Not only the batteries were fully armed, but the steamers were anchored so as to be able to pour their broadsides upon the French columns. Generals Saurin and De Failly, obedient to the commands of their General, dashed forward, followed at an impetuous pace by their troops. Then the Russians opened fire from their batteries and steamers, and a hurricane of shot and shell arrested the career of the brave French; and their leader, General Mayran, paid the penalty of his mistake, falling mortally wounded at their head. General Pelissier had now arrived upon the scene of action, and perceiving the error, at once ordered up reinforcements to the threatened division, which, strengthened by the addition of the voltigeurs of the Guard, some regiments of the line, and a battalion of grenadiers, was enabled to maintain its position under the orders of General De Failly, who succeeded to the command, though prevented by the deadly fire of the enemy from advancing further. The centre column, under General Brunet, had little better success than the other division. In fact, the unlucky mistake of Mayran, in precipitating the attack, had disordered the entire plan of advance, and aroused the Russians, and enabled them to concentrate their strength for defence. General Brunet himself was struck in the chest by a musket-ball; and his division was forced to retire to the trenches with great loss. General D’Autemarre, who commanded the left attack, no sooner saw the preconcerted signal, than he gave the word to advance, and the 5th Foot Chasseurs and the first battalion of the 19th regiment of the line, deploying to the left, along the crest of the ravine which there enters the town, carried the entrenchment which connects it with the Malakoff, and succeeded in entering the fortification. The sappers who accompanied the advance immediately planted ladders, the remainder of the regiments hurried forward, and the eagles of the French army waved aloft, encouraging the repulsed troops of the other divisions to renewed exertions.

While the French were thus straining every nerve against tremendous odds, and with fearful loss, to perform their parts in the achievements of the day, the English were none the less eager to win their laurels before the Great Redan. Sir George Brown, just returned from the Kertch expedition, was intrusted with the direction of the assaulting party, composed of detachments of the Light, Second, and Fourth Divisions. The plan of attack was, that the force should be divided into three columns; the Light Division to storm the right of the Redan at the re-entering angle; the Fourth Division was to attack the left flank of the fortification at a similar position; while the Second was to storm the apex of the Redan, as soon as the other divisions had established themselves in the work. Colonel Yea, of the 7th Fusiliers, led the storming party of the Light Division, composed of the 7th, 23rd, 33rd, and 34th. Colonel Shirley held the 19th, 77th, and 85th in reserve. The troops advanced in good order from the trenches, preceded by a covering party of Rifles, and dashed forward to the attack. They had, however, several hundred yards of broken ground to cross; and the enemy, well prepared for their reception, poured from every embrasure such a storm of shot and shell as effectually broke their ranks. Colonel Yea and the regimental officers gallantly endeavoured to animate their men to the assault, and led them fearlessly forward against the belching fire of the batteries. As the brave old colonel was cheering on his men, a shower of grape swept along, and he rolled in the agonies of death, struck at once in the head and stomach. His brave companions fell around him dead or wounded; and the regiments, unable to face such a sheet of fire, fell back disordered to the trenches, leaving nearly a third of their number on the field.

On the left attack, Sir John Campbell, with the Fourth Division, exhibited extraordinary courage, and led his men forward to the attack with tremendous energy. Here again was the tragedy of the Light Division repeated. The men were mowed down as they left the trenches, and Sir John, like Colonel Yea, fell cheering on his men. The loss was terrific. The Second Division, to whom had been reserved the duty of attacking the apex of the Redan, seeing the failure of the flank assaults, desisted from the attempt, and withdrew to the trenches, though having suffered considerably from the enemy’s fire.

The only success of the day was that achieved by the Third Division under General Eyre, who had been ordered by Lord Raglan to attack the Cemetery Batteries, at the head of the ravine leading to the Dockyard Creek. The brigade consisted of the 9th, 18th, 28th, and 44th regiments. Four volunteers from each regiment, under Major Fielden, of the 44th regiment, were selected to feel the way, and cover the advance. The 18th Royal Irish formed the storming party. They possessed themselves of the Cemetery with but little difficulty; and then four companies of the 18th dashed forward, so eager were they for the fray, and actually entered the town, and established themselves in the Russian houses. They were followed by the 9th, under Colonel Borton. The enemy’s batteries now opened a fierce fire on the daring handful of men; and although they could not drive them from their position, effectually prevented their retreat, from four o’clock in the morning until eight at night. During that time they suffered terribly from thirst, and some of the brave fellows actually crawled from the houses, reached the English lines, and returned with cans of water to their comrades. In this way a letter was convoyed asking for reinforcements; but General Eyre had already retired from the spot, and the two gallant regiments were left unsupported, to bear the brunt of the enemy’s fire until nightfall, when the remnant of them withdrew from their dangerous post, and rejoined the main body.

The failure of the English attack enabled the Russians to draw from the Redan reinforcements to repel the French under General D’Autemarre, who were so nearly redeeming the fortunes of the day at the Malakoff. Unable to contend against the forces now brought against them, the French were compelled to retire from the commanding position they had obtained. General Pelissier sent reinforcements; but it was impossible a single division, exposed to an appalling flank fire and an immensely superior force in front, could long sustain such an unequal contest. They fought bravely; but on that fatal day bravery availed but little, and they, too, added to the numbers of the defeated.

Such was the great disaster of the 18th of June, the anniversary of that day when the two nations, now brothers in defeat, were opposed to each other on the plains of Waterloo. Want of concert between the generals--and to Pelissier the blame is mainly due--resulted in a most disheartening repulse, and the loss of thousands of brave men; the English casualties amounting to no less than 251 killed (including 21 officers); 70 officers and 1130 men wounded; and 22 missing. The French loss must have been greater.”

MALPLAQUET, BATTLE OF.--The Allies under the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, gained this battle, September 11th, 1709, over the French, commanded by Marshal Villars. The armies of each consisted of nearly 120,000 choice men. It was attended with immense slaughter on both sides, the Allies losing 18,000 men, which terrible loss was but ill-repaid by the capture of Mons, which followed the victory.

MAMELON AND QUARRIES.--The capture of the Mamelon and the action of the Quarries, took place in the great siege of Sebastopol. The former was gallantly stormed and taken by our allies the French and the action of the Quarries redoubted to the indomitable pluck of British soldiers. The following is a good account of the action and capture of the fort:

“A third general bombardment opened on the 6th of June. At half-past two o’clock in the afternoon, the fire of 157 English and 300 French guns and mortars simultaneously opened upon the town. The Russian reply was feeble, and inflicted but little damage upon our batteries. A fierce cannonade was maintained by the Allies during that and the following day, and towards evening, on the 7th, a grand combined attack was made by the English on the Quarries, and by the French on the Mamelon. The former of these works, as the name implies, were pits from which stone had formerly been excavated for the buildings in the town, and occupied a position between the head of our advanced sap and the Great Redan, the most formidable work of Russian defence, and which in the general plan of attack had been apportioned to the English. The Mamelon, as it was specifically called--the general term _mamelon_, a rounded hill, describing its appearance--was the foremost of two similar eminences, at a short distance from each other. The one nearest the town was surmounted by the Malakoff tower and works, and was the most elevated and commanding position of the enemy’s line of defence, the Mamelon, or Mamelon Vert, as the French designated it, had long since lost all claim to the latter name, being excavated into trenches and rifle-pits, from which a most annoying fire was maintained upon the French lines. Our Allies had already made a very gallant though unsuccessful attempt at its capture; and it was under the cover of its guns that the Russian sortie of the 22nd of March was made.

It was then absolutely necessary that an endeavour should be made by the besieging army to carry these formidable works, which presented such obstacles to their advance; and accordingly the evening of the 7th of June was fixed for the assault. At about six o’clock, the French battalions, chosen for the assault, consisting of the Algerine Zouaves, detachments of the 61st, 7th, and 50th regiments of the line, and of the Chasseurs-à-Pied, and Imperial Guard, about 1200 men in all, moved up to the front, closely followed by the reserve or working party, to follow the attacking column, and secure possession of the works. This second column, commanded by General Brunet, comprised a battalion of the Chasseurs-à-Pied, and the 11th, 24th, 69th, and 16th regiments of the line. General Bosquet was entrusted with the entire direction of the assault.

Our attacking force was composed of detachments from the Light and Second Divisions. About 400 men from the 18th, 7th, 47th, 49th, were told off to lead the assault, under the immediate command of Colonel Shirley, of the 90th regiment. The working parties were selected from remaining regiments of the Light Division; the main body remaining under arms in reserve.

Immediately the signal rockets took their flight towards the town, the attacking columns darted forward. The active French troops swarmed up the sides of the Mamelon, and in a few moments were in hand-to-hand contest with the Russian defenders. With an unusual supineness the batteries of the town offered no impediment to the advance. It might be that the fierce bombardment to which for twenty-four hours they had been exposed, had temporarily silenced them. Whatever might be the cause, but little opposition was sustained by, and scarcely any loss inflicted on the attacking columns, who reached the parapet on the crown of the hill at a rapid pace. Here the enemy made a stand, and for a brief space struggled bravely to maintain their position. It was, however, but an ineffectual effort. The French fought with the utmost daring; and the enemy giving way before the impetuous onslaught, retreated down the hill, the French in eager pursuit. In the valley, however, the Russians received large reinforcements from the Malakoff Tower on the opposite eminence, and a fierce fire was opened on the French from the batteries of the Malakoff. Then the tide of battle turned; and the hitherto assailants, out-numbered, were driven up the hill, contesting every foot of ground. Some of the Zouaves, with characteristic daring, evading the attacking force, pressed onwards, and, as on the previous occasion, positively entered the Malakoff, and spiked some of the guns. Our allies, unable to bear the vigorous charge and overwhelming numbers of the enemy, who now pressed upon them, were forced to relinquish the hold they had obtained upon the Mamelon, and retreated over the brow of the hill, reluctantly relinquishing the advantage they had gained. The French, after a brilliant attack, were driven back by the reinforced defenders of the hill, and the Russians were once more masters of the Mamelon.

General Bosquet, however, was not the man to accept a repulse as a final defeat. Reforming the column in the trenches at the foot of the hill, and sending fresh troops to their assistance, he prepared for a second assault. This time the French, eager to retrieve their disaster, rushed forward with emulous bravery, and again the hill side was covered with the advancing columns, pressing onwards to the attack. Trench after trench was carried and in a few moments the assailers again occupied the topmost parapet. The Russians fought desperately; but no courage could withstand the fierce valour of the French. The enemy were hurled down the hills, and our allies, mad with excitement, rushed after them, in a rapid bayonet charge, covering the ground with the killed and wounded, and driving the flying enemy to the refuge of the Malakoff. Meanwhile the working party in their rear had speedily thrown up parapets and breastworks on the Russian side; and although the guns from the town and the shipping in the harbour played vigorously upon the hill, they were enabled to hold their important acquisition.

Farther to the right, the French had also attacked and carried, after considerable resistance, a line of works leading to and defending Careening Bay, and connected with the works of the Mamelon, known as the White Works. A number of guns were taken, and the French were thus in possession of an access to the great harbour, and enabled to throw up works commanding the shipping.

We have thus far related the varying fortunes of the French attack. Let us now turn to the English assault on the Quarries. Simultaneously with the advance of our allies, Colonel Campbell threw his small force into the Russian works, experiencing but trifling opposition; and congratulating himself upon having so easily achieved his object. Advancing beyond the Quarries towards the Redan, there is no doubt the adventurous English might even have entered that great work itself, so great was the confusion among the Russians, caused by the attack on the Mamelon, had they been in sufficient force to warrant such a feat. The enemy, however, soon mustered their strength, and Colonel Campbell was forced, after a stubborn resistance, to yield his position. Three times did the small British force retreat from the Quarries, and as many times they retook them with the bayonets. At length they were enabled to throw up an earthwork, which ensured their possession of this important position. In one of the Russian attacks, an instance of individual prowess occurred, which obtained for the performer of it the rare honour of being named, though a non-commissioned officer, in Lord Raglan’s despatch. The assailing party had wavered a little before the sharp fire from the British muskets, when Lance-Corporal Quin, of the 47th, darted out of the work towards a Russian officer and four men, who had advanced somewhat in front of the main body of the enemy. With the butt-end of his musket he brained one of the soldiers, bayoneted a second and the other two precipitately fled from the doughty corporal. Then collaring the officer, and administering a gentle stimulant with the point of his bayonet to quicken his advance, he dragged him a prisoner into the work, in less time than we have occupied to tell the tale.

The enemy’s loss must been very great, judging by that which the victors sustained in the two attacks. The French lost about 60 officers, and 2000 men killed and wounded; and the British, 35 officers, and 365 rank and file.”

MARSHAL, FIELD.--This rank is of modern date in the British army. It is the highest military rank in the army.

MARSTON MOOR, BATTLE OF.--This battle was the beginning of the misfortunes of Charles I of England--fought July 3rd, 1644.

“The Scots and Parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging York, when Prince Rupert, joined by the Marquis of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege. Both armies drew up on Marston Moor, to the number of 50,000, and the victory seemed long undecided between them. Rupert, who commanded the right wing of the Royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who now first came into notice, at the head of a body of troops which he had taken care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was victorious; he pushed his opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second engagement, and a second victory; the Prince’s whole train of artillery was taken, and the Royalists never after recovered the blow.”

MERIDA.--_In Spain._--Taken by the French in January, 1811. Near here the British army, under Lord Hill, defeated the French, under General Girard, after a severe engagement October 28th, 1811. The British took Merida from the French, July 1812, after a severe encounter,--General Hill himself leading the combined armies of Britain and Spain.

MILAN.--French expelled from it by Charles V, of Germany, 1525. Seized again by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799; regained by the French, May 31, 1800. Napoleon crowned with the Iron crown, at Milan, May 26, 1805. (See _Longbeards_ or _Longobards_). This city, celebrated for the Milan decrees against all continental intercourse with England, issued by Napoleon, December 17th, 1807. Here an insurrection occurred against the Austrians, March 18th, 1848, which resulted in a battle, and flight of the viceroy and troops.

MILITIA.--Supposed to have been introduced into England by King Alfred. The English volunteers and militia, a splendid body of men, who have more than once materially assisted Government in times of necessity. The Canadian Volunteers are a body of men almost equal to the soldiers of the line; and during the late Fenian excitement, have shown to the whole world that a brave man delights to defend his hearth and home, and that “_dulce est mori pro patriâ_.”

MINDEN, BATTLE OF.--Fought, August 1st, 1759, between the English, Hessians and Hanoverians, on the one side, and the French on the other. The Allies were commanded by Prince Ferdinand, and under him Lord George Sackville. The Allies gained a complete victory, and pursued the French to the very ramparts of Minden. Lord Sackville, who commanded the Allied cavalry, for some disobedience of orders, on his return to England was tried by court martial and dismissed the service, but was afterwards restored.

MOCKERN, BATTLES OF.--Between the French, under Eugène Beauharnois, and the allied Russian and Prussian army, which was signally defeated with great loss, April, 1813. There was another bloodier battle fought here, October 14th, 1813, between the same contending armies; five times Mockern was taken and retaken during this conflict.

MOHATZ, BATTLES OF.--_In Hungary._--Here, in 1526, Louis, King of Hungary, was defeated by the Turks, under Solyman II, with the loss of 22,000 men. Another battle was fought here between the Christians, commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine, and the Turks, who were defeated with the loss of 10,000 men, A.D. 1687.

MOHILON, BATTLE OF.--Between the Russians, under the celebrated Prince Bagration, and the French, under Marshal Davoust. This was one of the most bloody engagements in the campaign of 1812. The Russians were totally defeated, with immense loss in killed and wounded; fought, July 23rd, 1812.

MOLWITZ, BATTLE OF.--Between the Prussians and Austrians. The Prussians were commanded by Frederick III, who obtained a great and important victory. An immense number of killed and wounded on the side of the Austrians was the result of this sanguinary battle. Austria being at the time in alliance with Great Britain, the consequence of the victory seriously affected the interest of that country. Fought, April 10th (March 30th), 1741.

MONTEBELLO, BATTLE OF.--Fought May 20th, 1859, between the Austrians and French. “On the 20th May, a severe action was fought at Montebello, which lasted six hours. The Austrians appear, in the first instance, to have taken Montebello from the French, and to have been afterwards expelled by the French. A desperate hand to hand conflict took place in the village, which had to be carried, house after house. The Austrians, after the battle, evacuated Casteggio, and retired along the Creatisma road.”

MONTE VIDEO.--Taken by storm, by the British force, under Sir Samuel Auchmuty, February 3rd, 1807, with a terrible loss of nearly two-thirds of his army. It was evacuated, July 7th, same year, in consequence of the severe repulse of the British at Buenos Ayres.

MONTEREAU, BATTLE OF.--Fought, February 18th, 1814, between the Allied army and the French, the latter commanded by Napoleon himself. In this desperate engagement, the Allies were defeated with great loss in killed and wounded. This battle was one of the last ever gained by Napoleon. Four months after he was ruined at Waterloo.

MOODKEE, BATTLE OF.--_In India._--Between the British and Sikhs. The advanced guard of the British was attacked by the Sikh forces, but the latter were repulsed and driven back three miles, losing great numbers of men and 15 pieces of cannon, December 18th, 1845. Sir Robert Sale was mortally wounded in this battle, being in his sixty-fifth year. Lady Sale signalized herself during the two memorable retreats from Afghanistan.

MORGARTEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the Swiss and Austrians. The Swiss numbered 1300, the Austrians 20,000. Fought, November 15th, 1315. “The 15th November, 1315, dawned; the sun darted his first rays on the shields and armour of the advancing host; and this being the first army ever known to have attempted the frontiers of the Cantons, the Swiss viewed its long line with various emotions. Montfort de Tettnang led the cavalry into the narrow pass of Morgarten, and soon filled the whole space between the Mountain (Mount Sattel) and the lake. Fifty men, on the eminence above Morgarten, raised a sudden shout, and rolled down heaps of rocks and stones among the crowded ranks. The confederates on the mountain, perceiving the impression made by this attack, rushed down in close array, and fell upon the flank of the disordered column. With massy clubs they dashed in pieces the armour of the enemy, and dealt their blows and thrusts with long pikes. The narrowness of the defile admitted of no evolutions, and a slight frost having injured the road, the horses were impeded in all their motions; many leaped into the lake; all were startled; and at last the whole column of soldiers gave way, and suddenly fell back on the infantry; and these last, as the nature of the country did not allow them to open their files, were run over by the fugitives, and many of them trampled to death. A general rout ensued, and Duke Leopold was, with much difficulty, rescued by a peasant, who led him to Winterthur, where the historian of the times saw him arrive in the evening, pale, sullen and dismayed.”

MORTAR.--A short gun of an extraordinary large bore and close chamber, used for throwing bomb shells. The mortar was first made in England in 1543.

MOSCOW, BURNING OF.--Entered by the French, September 4th, 1812. “At length Moscow, with its domes, and towers, and palaces, appeared in sight; and Napoleon, who had joined the advance guard, gazed long and thoughtfully on that goal of his wishes. Murat went forward, and entered the gates with his cavalry; but as he passed through the streets, he was struck by the solitude which surrounded him.

Nothing was heard but the heavy tramp of his squadrons as he passed along, for a deserted and abandoned city was the meagre prize, for which such unparalleled efforts had been made. As night drew its curtains over the splendid capital, Napoleon entered the gates, and immediately appointed Mortier governor. In his directions, he commanded him to abstain from all pillage. For this, said he, you shall be answerable with your life. Defend Moscow against all, whether friend or foe. The bright moon rose over the mighty city, tipping with silver the domes of more than 200 churches, and pouring a flood of light over 1000 palaces, and the dwellings of 300,000 inhabitants. The weary army sunk to rest; but there was no sleep for Mortier’s eyes.

Not the gorgeous and variegated palaces and their rich ornaments, nor the parks and gardens, and oriental magnificence that everywhere surrounded him, kept him wakeful, but the ominous foreboding that some dire calamity was hanging over the silent capital. When he entered it, scarcely a living soul met his gaze, as he looked down the long streets; and when he broke open the buildings, he found parlors, and bedrooms, and chambers all furnished and in order, but no occupants. The sudden abandonment of their homes, betokened some secret purpose yet to be fulfilled. The midnight moon was sailing over the city, when the cry of “Fire!” reached the ears of Mortier; and the first light over Napoleon’s falling empire was kindled, and the most wondrous scene of modern time commenced,--the burning of Moscow. Mortier, as governor of the city, immediately issued his orders, and was putting forth every exertion, when, at day-light, Napoleon hastened to him. Affecting to disbelieve the reports that the inhabitants were firing their own city, he put more rigid commands on Mortier to keep the soldiers from their work of destruction.

The marshal simply pointed to some iron covered houses that had not yet been opened, from every crevice of which smoke was issuing like steam from the sides of a pent up volcano. Sad and thoughtful, Napoleon turned toward the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the Czars, whose huge structure rose high above the surrounding edifices.

In the morning, Mortier, by great exertions, was enabled to subdue the fire. But the next night, at midnight, the sentinels on watch, on the lofty Kremlin, saw below them the flames bursting through the houses and palaces, and the cry of “Fire!” “Fire!” passed through the city. The dread scene had now fairly opened. Fiery balloons were seen dropping from the air, and lighting upon the houses; dull explosions were heard on every side from the shut up dwellings, and the next moment a bright light burst forth, and the flames were raging through the apartments. All was uproar and confusion. The serene air and moonlight of the night before, had given way to the driving clouds, and a wild tempest that swept with the roar of the sea over the city. Flames arose on every side, blazing and crackling in the storm, while clouds of smoke and sparks, in an incessant shower, went driving toward the Kremlin. The clouds themselves seemed turned into fire, rolling in wrath over devoted Moscow. Mortier, crushed with the responsibility thus thrown over his shoulders, moved with his young guard amid this desolation, blowing up the houses, and facing the tempest and the flames, struggling nobly to arrest the conflagration. He hastened from place to place amid the blazing ruins, his face blackened with the smoke, and his hair and eyebrows seared with the fierce heat. At length, the day dawned, a day of tempest and of flame; and Mortier, who had strained every nerve for 36 hours, entered a palace, and dropped down with fatigue.

The manly form and stalwart arm, that had so long carried death into the ranks of the enemy, at length gave way, and the gloomy marshal lay and panted in utter exhaustion. The day was one of tempest; and when night again enveloped the city it was one broad flame, wavering to and fro in the blast.

The wind had increased to a perfect hurricane, and shifted from quarter to quarter, as if on purpose to swell the sea of fire, and extinguish the last hope. The fire was approaching the Kremlin, and already the roar of the flames and the crash of the falling houses, and the crackling of burning timbers, were borne to the ears of the startled Emperor.

He arose and walked to and fro, stopping and convulsively gazing on the terrific scene. Murat, Eugène, and Berthier rushed into his presence, and on their knees besought him to flee; but he still clung to that haughty palace, as if it were his empire. But at length the shout, “The Kremlin on fire!” was heard above the roar of the conflagration, and Napoleon reluctantly consented to leave. He descended into the street with his staff, and looked about for a way of egress, but the flames blocked every passage. At length they discovered a postern gate, leading to the Moskwa, and entered it, but they had only entered still further into the danger. As Napoleon cast his eyes around the open space, girdled and arched with fire, smoke, and cinders, he saw one single street yet open, but all on fire.

Into this he rushed, and amid the crash of falling houses, and raging of the flames, over burning ruins, through clouds of rolling smoke, and between walls of fire, he pressed on; and at length, half suffocated, emerged in safety from the blazing city, and took up his quarters in the imperial palace of Petrousky, nearly three miles distant.

Mortier, relieved from his anxiety for the Emperor, redoubled his efforts to arrest the conflagration. His men cheerfully rushed into every danger. Breathing nothing but smoke and ashes,--canopied by flame, and smoke, and cinders,--surrounded by walls of fire that rocked to and fro, and fell with a crash amid the blazing ruins, carrying down with them red hot roofs of iron,--he struggled against an enemy, that no boldness could awe, or courage overcome.

Those brave troops had heard the tramp of thousands of cavalry, sweeping battle without fear, but now they stood in still terror, before the march of the conflagration, under whose burning footsteps was heard the incessant crash of falling houses, and palaces, and churches. The continuous roar of the raging hurricane, mingled with that of the flames, was more terrible than the thunder of artillery; and before this new foe, in the midst of this battle of the elements, the awe-struck army stood powerless and affrighted. When night descended again on the city, it presented a spectacle, the like of which was never seen before, and which baffles all description: the streets of fire, the heavens a canopy of fire, and the entire body of the city a mass of fire, fed by a hurricane that whirled the blazing fragments in a constant stream through the air. Incessant explosions, from the blowing up of stores of oil, and tar, and spirits, shook the very foundations of the city, and sent volumes of smoke rolling furiously toward the sky. Huge sheets of canvas, on fire, came floating, like messengers of death, through the flames; the towers and domes of the churches and palaces, glowed with red-hot heat over the wild sea below, then tottering a moment on their bases, were hurled by the tempest into the common ruin.

Thousands of wretches, before unseen, were driven by the heat from the cellars and hovels, and streamed in an incessant throng through the streets. Children were seen carrying their parents,--the strong the weak,--while thousands more were staggering under loads of plunder, they had snatched from the flames. This, too, would frequently take fire in the falling shower, and the miserable creatures would be compelled to drop it and flee for their lives. Oh, it was a scene of woe and fear indescribable! A mighty and close packed city of houses, and churches, and palaces, wrapt from limit to limit in flames, which are fed by a whirling hurricane, is a sight this world will seldom see. But this was all within the city. To Napoleon, without, the spectacle was still more sublime and terrific. When the flames had overcome all obstacles, and had wrapped everything in their red mantle, that great city looked like a sea of fire, swept by a tempest that drove it into vast billows.

Huge domes and towers, throwing off sparks like blazing firebrands, now towered above these waves, and now disappeared in their maddening flow, as they rushed and broke high over tops, and scattered their spray of fire against the clouds. The heavens themselves seemed to have caught the conflagration, and the angry masses that swept it, rolled over a bosom of fire. Columns of flame would rise and sink along the surface of the sea, and huge volumes of black smoke suddenly shoot into the air, as if volcanoes were working below.

The black form of the Kremlin alone towered above the chaos, now wrapped in flame and smoke, and again emerged into view, standing amid the scene of desolation and terror, like virtue in the midst of a burning world, enveloped but unscathed by the devouring elements. Napoleon stood and gazed upon this scene in silent awe. Though nearly three miles distant, the windows and walls of his apartment were so hot, that he could scarcely bear his hand against them. Said he, years afterwards, “It was the spectacle of a sea and billows of fire, a sky and clouds of flame; mountains of red rolling flame, like immense waves of the sea, alternately bursting forth, and elevating themselves to skies of fire, and then sinking into the ocean of flame below. Oh! it was the most grand, the most sublime, the most terrific sight the world ever beheld.”

MOSKWA, BATTLE OF.--Also called the battle of _Borodino_, which see.

MUSKET.--First used at the siege of Anasitti, 1414. Introduced generally into the British army, and bows and arrows laid aside, 1521.

MUNCHENGRATZ AND GITSCHIN, BATTLES OF.--Fought, 28th June, 1866, between the Austrians and the Prussians. The _Times’_ correspondent, with the Prussian army, gives the following account of these battles:

“The Prussian leader calculated that if he made a demonstration of a careless march towards Munchengratz by the highroad and railway, the Austrians, who might be on the Mushey Berg, would lie there quiet till the heads of his columns had passed their position in order that their artillery might take the marching troops in reverse, and that he might himself in the meantime turn their position. By the same bait he also hoped to hold his adversaries on the Kaczowberg until their retreat was cut off. To effect this double object, the seventh division was to move from Turnau by a road on the south side of the Iser, whereby the village of Wschew crosses the road from Podoll to Sobotka, at Zdiar. It was then to take the Austrians on the Mushey Berg in rear--for this hill slopes gently on its reverse side towards a rivulet which forms the little lake of Zdiar. The division was afterwards to push on over the hill and strike the road from Munchengratz to Furstenbruck, between the village of Bossin and the former place. On the right bank of the river General Herwarth was to advance from Huhnerwasser on Munchengratz, cross the Iser, and occupy the town, throwing out at the same time a division to his left, which by Mohelnitz should take in reverse the defenders of the Kaczowberg. The divisions of Horne and Manstein were to push down the main road from Podoll, while strong reserves closed down to Podoll. A division of infantry was to cross at Huberlow and attack the Kaczowberg in front, while a division of cavalry kept the communications open between the divisions on the right bank of the river. A strong division of cavalry was also sent from Turnau to scour the country to Jicin in the direction of Josephstadt.

About eight o’clock this morning, Prince Charles, with General Von Voigts-Retz, his chief of the staff, and General Stuhltnahl, his Quarter-master-General, came down to the bridge of Podoll, and almost immediately the Jagers, who formed the advanced guard of Horne’s division, crossed the bridge, but not before an opening cannonade in the direction of Munchengratz told that Bittenfeld was already engaged. On a hill upon the northern bank there was a convenient spot from which to see the whole theatre of the combat, and here the Prussian staff went to watch the course of the action.

Attention was called towards Munchengratz, where the progress of Bittenfeld’s attack could be traced by the puffs of white smoke which rose from the discharges of the artillery. The Prussian cannonade was seen to be slowly advancing, and that of the Austrian to be retiring, while a heavy cloud of black smoke rising close beside the town showed that the Austrians had retired from the right bank of the river and had burned the bridge. For a short time the fight was stationary, but in about a quarter of an hour a bright flash of flame and a much heavier smoke rising from the Austrian line told that an ammunition waggon had exploded. Their battery then ceased firing and rapidly retired, while a quick advance of the Prussian cannonade showed that Bittenfeld’s pioneers had quickly thrown their bridge, and that his corps was across the Iser. But the Austrians did not go far, for in a short time they were again in action in the direction of the Jung Bunzlau Road, and one battery was drawing off towards Furstenbruck. It then seemed that Bittenfeld had halted; the cannonade ceased in this direction. The heads of the Prussian columns were some way past the hill, and were pushing steadily towards Munchengratz, when the well-known puff of smoke rising from the dark firs on the Mushey Berg plateau showed that the Austrians had opened fire upon them. The battery on the hill did not appear to be more than four guns, and at first they fired slowly, nor did they do much execution. Their shells, projected from so great a height, went straight into the ground, and did not ricochet among the troops; but they were well aimed, and in most cases burst at the proper moment, and every now and then a man went down. A squadron of Uhlans was directed to pass close along the foot of the Mushey Berg, so that the guns on the plateau could not be depressed sufficiently to hurt them, and were to gain a steep path which leads to the summit between the highest point and Bossin, while an infantry brigade was to support the movement; but before this plan could be carried into execution the Seventh Division was heard engaged on the reverse side, and the Austrian battery quickly limbered up and retired. The guns were not intercepted by the Seventh Division; but here General Franscky made 600 prisoners from the infantry which was on the hill to support the battery. While the Seventh Division was still engaged behind the Mushey Berg, four Austrian guns appeared on the summit of the hill, between Bossin and Wessely, and opened fire against the Prussian columns, who were now again advancing over the plain. But Franscky was pushing towards them, and his artillery threatened to enfilade them, so that they soon had to retire. The Seventh Division then struck the road between Munchengratz and Bossin, and attacked the latter village. Bittenfeld had already pushed towards it from Munchengratz, and supported this attack. The first round of Franscky’s artillery set fire to a house, which began to burn fiercely, and the flames were soon communicated to the next, for most of the cottages in this country are built of wood, which, dried in the hot summer sun, readily takes fire. After a sharp skirmish, the Austrians were driven from the village and retired in the direction of Furstenbruck, and they left here 200 prisoners; and General Herwarth von Bittenfeld had already captured 200.

With the occupation of the village of Bossin ended the combat of Munchengratz, in which, by a series of strategic movements, with little fighting, and slight loss--for the Prussian killed, wounded, and missing do not number 100--Prince Frederick Charles has gained about twelve miles of country, and has taken 1000 prisoners, has turned the strong position of the Kaczowberg, and has effected his secure junction with the corps of General Bittenfeld.

The corps of General von Schmitt marched yesterday from the neighbourhood of Podoll to Sobotka, and there, striking the road from Munchengratz to Gitschin, General von Schmitt changed the direction of his march to the left, and advanced towards Gitschin. He moved with his two divisions at some distance apart--that of General von Werder, or the Third Division, as it is named in the muster-roll of the army, led the way. Von Werder’s advanced guard consisted of the 2nd battalion of Jagers, and the 3rd battalion of the 42nd Regiment. In rear of these followed the three battalions of the regiment of the late King of Prussia, the two remaining battalions of the 42nd, and one battalion of the 14th Regiment, with one six-pounder and two four-pounder field-batteries.

A strong Austrian force held the wood behind the first ravine, with its sharpshooters hidden behind the trunks of the fir-trees, with the view of compensating for the inferiority of their rifle to the Prussian needle-gun. Behind each marksman two soldiers were placed, whose only duty was to load their rifles and hand them to the picked men to whom the firing was intrusted. The Austrian artillery was placed behind the wood, so that it could bring a cross fire on the opening in the front through which the _chaussée_ passes, and strike heavily on the Sobotka bank of the ravine and the open country beyond. As the Prussian advanced guard approached the ravine, the Austrian batteries opened fire upon them, and the marksmen from behind the trees also soon commenced a biting fire. The Jagers and the men of the 42nd quickly spread out as skirmishers, and, regardless of the withering fire to which they themselves were exposed, showered bullets from their quickly loaded arms against the defenders of the wood, while some of their artillery quickly brought into action tried to silence the Austrian guns. But the fight was unequal, the sharpshooters behind the trees could rarely be seen, and the fire of the Prussians did not tell much upon their concealed enemies, nor were their guns in sufficient force to engage successfully the more numerous Austrian pieces. The Jagers from among the trees were aiming well; the men of the 42nd were falling fast, and it seemed that the defenders would be able to hold the wood. But the rest of the Prussian division was coming up; more artillery was already in action; and the Austrian gunners began to fire with less effect. The regiment of the King of Prussia soon arrived. The Prussian soldiers, unable to make much impression with their fire on the riflemen in the trees, were already anxious to come to close quarters, and then General von Werder sent his men forward to take the woods with the bayonet. They were carried, but not without loss, for the Austrians retired from tree to tree, and only when pressed beyond the last skirt of the wood retired under cover of their guns and reserves to take up a position on the further brow of the next ravine. The musketry fire recommenced. The opponents stood on either bank of the hollow, and poured volley after volley into each other’s ranks, while the artillery, from positions on the flanks of both lines, sent their shells truly among their adversaries’ infantry. But here the needle-gun had more success, for the Austrians stood up clear against the sky, and soon the white uniforms began to go down quickly. No troops so ill-armed could have stood before the murderous fire which the Prussians directed against the opposite line. The Austrians did all that men could do; but, after losing fearfully, were obliged to fall back and take up their third position in the village of Lochow.

It was now about seven o’clock in the evening; the combat had already lasted almost two hours, but here it was renewed more fiercely than ever. The Prussians, encouraged by their success--brave soldiers and bravely led--eagerly came to the attack. With hearts as big and with officers as devoted, the Austrians stood with a desperate calmness to receive them. On both sides the fighting was hard; but at any distance the Austrian rifle had no chance against the needle-gun; and at close quarters the boyish soldiers of the Kaiser could not cope with the broad-shouldered men of Pomerania, who form the _corps d’armée_, one division of which was here engaged. Yet for three-quarters of an hour the little village of Lochow was held, and the continuous rattle of the rifles and the heavy cannonade of the guns remaining almost stationary told the determination of the assault and the stoutness of the defence. But the Austrians were slowly forced from house to house and from orchard to orchard, and had to retreat to their last vantage ground on the top of the Gitschin bank of the fourth ravine.

And here both sides re-engaged in the fight with the utmost fury. The defenders felt that this was their last standing-point, and on its maintenance depended the possession of Gitschin; the assailants knew that success here would almost certainly bring them to the object of all their exertions. The Prussian line soon formed on the top of the opposite bank to that held by the Austrians, and then began to fire rapidly against the brow where the Austrians stood. The latter returned the fire, but from necessity more slowly; still their guns smote the Prussian troops heavily, and the shells, bursting in front of the assailants’ line, caused many casualties. But the Pomeranians were highly excited, and it is said that a heavy mass of the Prussians dashed down the road and rushed up the opposite slope with their rifles at the charge. There a fierce struggle ensued. The strong men of Pomerania pressed hard against their lighter opponents, and pushed them beyond the brow of the slope on to the level plain; yet the lithe and active Austrians fought hard, and strove to drive their bayonets into the faces of their taller antagonists; but strength and weight told, for their more powerful adversaries urged them back foot by foot till a gap was clearly opened in the defenders’ line. The musketry bullets had also told sharply on the Austrians, and they were obliged to retire. They drew off across the plain towards Gitschin, but not in rout. Slowly and sullenly they drew back, suffering awful loss in the open plain where the needle-gun had a fair range; but they fought for every yard of ground, ever turning to send among the advancing Prussians shots which were often truly aimed, but which formed no sufficient return for the showers of bullets which were rained upon themselves. For long the plain was the scene of the advancing combat, and it was not till near midnight that General von Werder occupied Gitschin. In the town the Austrians did not stand; they held some houses at the entrance for a short time, but these were carried, and then they retired rapidly towards the south. In their haste they left their hospitals; and here, as well as in Lochow, Von Werder’s division took a large number of prisoners.”

MUTINY:--A memorable mutiny in the British fleet, for an advance of wages April 15th, 1797; Of the Nore June, 1797; Of Admiral Mitchell’s fleet at Bantry Bay December, 1801; Great Indian mutiny, begun March 27th, 1857.

MYCALE, BATTLE OF.--Fought, September 22nd, 479 B.C., between the Greeks and Persians. The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men. They were completely defeated, many thousands of them killed, their camp burned, and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops, and sailed to Samos with an immense booty.

N.

NAAS, BATTLE OF.--A desperate engagement between a body of the King’s forces, consisting of the ancient Britons and the Armagh militia. The insurgent Irish, who had just begun the Great Rebellion of 1798, were 3000 strong, and were defeated with the loss of 300 killed and some hundreds wounded. Fought, May 24th, 1798.

NARVA, BATTLE OF.--This was the celebrated battle in which Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated by the renowned Charles XII of Sweden. Fought, November 30th, 1700. The Russians amounted to 70,000 men, while the Swedes had only 20,000. The enemy lost 30,000 in killed, whilst as many surrendered to the conqueror.

NASEBY, BATTLE OF.--Between Charles I of England and the Parliamentary army, under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main body of the Royal army was commanded by Lord Astley. Prince Rupert led the right wing, Sir Marmaduke Langdale the left, and the King himself headed the body of reserve. The forces of the Parliament gained the victory, the Royalists being obliged to abandon the field, losing all their cannon and baggage and 5000 men made prisoners. Fought, June 14th, 1645.

NAVY OF ENGLAND.--What the British Navy has done, and the number of vessels captured by it, is shown in the following table:--

-------------------------------------------------------- In the French War, ending 1802. ------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+------- FORCE. | French.| Dutch. |Spanish.| Other | Total. | | | |Nations.| ------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+------- Of the Line | 45 | 25 | 11 | 2 | 83 Fifties | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 Frigates | 133 | 31 | 20 | 7 | 191 Sloops, &c. | 161 | 32 | 55 | 16 | 264 +--------+--------+--------+--------+------- Total | 341 | 89 | 86 | 25 | 541 ------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------

------------------------------------------------------------------ In the French War, ending 1814. ------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+------- FORCE. | French.|Spanish.| Danish.|Russian.|American.| Total. | | | | | | ------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+------- Of the Line | 70 | 27 | 23 | 4 | 0 | 124 Fifties | 7 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 9 Frigates | 77 | 36 | 24 | 6 | 5 | 148 Sloops, &c. | 188 | 64 | 16 | 7 | 13 | 288 +--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+------- Total | 342 | 127 | 64 | 17 | 19 | 569 ------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+-------

NAVARINO, BATTLE OF.--Fought on the 20th October, 1827. “The atrocities which marked the warfare between the Greeks and Turks were so shocking to humanity, that the Sovereigns of Europe felt themselves bound to interfere, and a treaty for the pacification of Greece was signed in London, on the 6th of July, 1827, by the representatives of England, France, and Russia. In consequence of this, the allied fleets in the Mediterranean prepared to force the combatants to consent to an armistice, and blockaded the Turkish fleet in the harbour of Navarino. Ibrahim Pacha, the Turkish commander in the Morea, paying but little attention to the remonstrances of the allied Admirals, the united fleets sailed into harbour, on the 20th of October, under the command of Sir Edward Codrington, to intimidate him into submission. A shot fired by a Turkish vessel was the signal for a general engagement, which lasted four hours. It terminated in the almost utter annihilation of the Turkish fleet, with comparatively little loss to the allied squadrons. The independence of Greece was virtually achieved by this brilliant victory, and was further secured by the arrival of a small military force from France; the Turkish government, however, refused submission, and war was commenced against Russia. The events of this war, though not properly belonging to English history, demand a brief notice; in the first campaign the Turks made an obstinate resistance, and gained some advantages over their opponents; but in the following year (1829), the Russian arms were everywhere successful; the passages of the Balkan were forced; Adrianople, the second city in the empire, was captured, and the Sultan forced to consent to terms of peace, dictated almost at the gates of Constantinople. The demands of Russia were, however, less exhorbitant than might have been expected under the circumstances, but there is reason to believe that this moderation was inspired by a dread of provoking the jealousy and resentment of England.”

NEVILL’S CROSS, BATTLE OF.--Fought October 17th, 1346, between the Scots and English. More than 15,000 of the Scots were slain.

“Philippa, Edward’s Queen, took upon her the conduct of the field, and prepared to repulse the enemy in person: accordingly, having made Lord Percy general under her, she met the Scots at a place called Nevill’s Cross, near Durham, and offered them battle. The Scots King was no less impatient to engage; he imagined that he might obtain an easy victory against undisciplined troops, and headed by a woman. But he was miserably deceived. His army was quickly routed and driven from the field. 15,000 of his men were cut to pieces; and he himself, with many of his nobles and knights, were taken prisoners, and carried in triumph to London, A.D. 1346.”

Another historian says:--

“Some years after his return home, King David burst into England at the head of an army. Edward was absent in France, and David thought to avail himself of the opportunity. It turned out a dear business to him. Marching southward as far as Durham, he laid waste the country with fire and sword. At a place called Nevill’s Cross, an English army came up. A Scottish knight, seeing their archers gathering in a vast cloud, and knowing well the bitter shower which that cloud would discharge, said to the King, “Give me but 100 horse, and I will disperse them all.” The conceited and headstrong King gave no heed. The archers commenced their deadly practice without interruption. Three hours of the arrow sleet, three hours of furious charging by the English horse, and the Scots were a rout of fugitives. Their King was taken prisoner and convoyed to London. Mounted on a tall black horse that he might be seen by all the people, the son of Robert the Bruce was conducted to the Tower.”

NEWARK, BATTLE OF.--This battle was fought March 21st, 1644, between the army of the Parliament and the Royal forces, under Prince Rupert. He was defeated, and here afterwards Charles I put himself into the hands of the Scotch army.

NEWBURY, BATTLES OF.--The first battle, fought September 20th, 1643, was between the Parliamentary army and that of Charles I. It lasted till midnight, and among the slain was Lucius Carey, Viscount Falkland. A second battle was fought here next year, October 10th, and the result, as the first, was equally dubious, both sides claiming victory.

NEW ORLEANS, BATTLE OF.--(See _Orleans_.)

NIAGARA FORT.--_Upper Canada._--“The Fort of Niagara was a place of great importance, and served to command all the communication between the northern and western French settlements. The siege was begun with vigour, and promised an easy conquest; but General Prideaux was killed in the trenches by the bursting of a mortar, so that the whole command of the expedition devolved upon General Johnson, who omitted nothing to push forward the vigorous operations of his predecessor, to which also he added his own popularity with the soldiers under him. A body of French troops, who were sensible of the importance of this fort, attempted to relieve it; but Johnson attacked them with intrepidity and success; for in less than an hour their whole army was put to the rout. The garrison soon after perceiving the fate of their countrymen, surrendered prisoners of war.”

NICOPOLIS, BATTLE OF.--Between the Christian powers, under Sigismund, King of Hungary, and the Turks. This battle, fought A.D. 1396, is celebrated as the first fought between the Cross and Crescent. The Christians triumphed; the Turks lost 20,000 in slain, and 20,000 in wounded and prisoners.

NILE, BATTLE OF THE.--Fought, August 1st, 1798, between the fleets of England and France. The French fleet arrived at Alexandria August 1st, 1798, and Admiral Brueys, not being able to enter port, which time and neglect had ruined, moored the ships in Aboukir Bay, in a strong and compact line of battle; the headmost vessel, according to his own account, being as close as possible to a shoal on the north-west, and the rest of the fleet forming a kind of curve along the line of deep water, so as not to be turned by any means in the south-west.

The advantage of numbers, both in ships, guns, and men, was in favour of the French. They had 13 ships of the line and 4 frigates, carrying 1196 guns, and 11,230 men. The English had the same number of ships of the line, and one 50 gun ship, carrying 1012 guns, and 8068 men. The English ships were all seventy-fours; the French had three 80 gun ships, and one three-decker of 120.

During the whole pursuit it had been Nelson’s practice, whenever circumstances would permit, to have his captains on board the _Vanguard_, and explain to them his own ideas of the different and best modes of attack, and such plans as he proposed to execute on falling in with the enemy, whatever their situation might be. There is no possible position, it is said, which he did not take into consideration. His officers were thus fully acquainted with his principles of tactics; and such was his confidence in their abilities, that the only thing determined upon, in case they should find the French at anchor, was for the ships to form as most convenient for their mutual support, and to anchor by the stern. “First gain your victory,” he said, “and then make the best use of it you can.” The moment he perceived the position of the French, that intuitive genius with which Nelson was endowed displayed itself; and it instantly struck him that where there was room for an enemy’s ship to swing there was room for one of ours to anchor. The plan which he intended to pursue, therefore, was to keep entirely on the outer side of the French line, and station his ships, as far as he was able, one on the outer bow and another on the outer quarter of each of the enemy’s. Captain Berry, when he comprehended the scope of the design, exclaimed with transport, “If we succeed, what will the world say?” “There is no _if_ in the case,” replied the Admiral; “that we _shall_ succeed is certain--who may live to tell the story is a very different question.”

As the squadron advanced, they were assailed by a shower of shot and shell from the batteries on the island, and the enemy opened a steady fire from the starboard side of their whole line, within half gunshot distance, full into the bows of our van ships. It was received in silence; the men on board every ship were employed aloft in furling sails, and below in tending the braces, and making ready for anchoring;--a miserable sight for the French, who, with all their skill and all their courage, and all their advantages of number and situation, were upon that element on which, when the hour of trial comes, a Frenchman has no hope. Admiral Brueys was a brave and able man; yet the indelible character of his country broke out in one of his letters, wherein he delivered it as his private opinion that the English had missed him, because, not being superior in force, they did not think it prudent to try their strength with him. The moment was now come in which he was to be undeceived.

A French brig was instructed to decoy the English. By manœuvring so as to tempt them towards a shoal lying off the island of Beguieres; but Nelson either knew the danger, or suspected some deceit, and the lure was unsuccessful. Captain Foley led the way in the _Goliath_, out-sailing the _Zealous_, which for some minutes disputed this post of honour with him. He had long conceived that, if the enemy were moored in line of battle in with the land, the best plan of attack would be to lead between them and the shore, because the French guns on that side were not likely to be manned, nor even ready for action. Intending, therefore, to fix himself on the inner bow of the _Guerrier_, he kept as near the edge of the bank as the depth of water would admit; but his anchor hung, and, having opened his fire, he drifted to the second ship, the _Conquérant_, before it was cleared, then anchored by the stern, inside of her, and in ten minutes shot away her masts. Hood, in the _Zealous_, perceiving this, took the station which the _Goliath_ intended to have occupied, and totally disabled the _Guerrier_ in twelve minutes. The third ship which doubled the enemy’s van was the _Orion_, Sir J. Saumarez; she passed to windward of the _Zealous_, and opened her larboard guns as long as they bore on the _Guerrier_; then passing inside the _Goliath_, sunk a frigate which annoyed her, hauled toward the French line, and, anchoring inside between the fifth and sixth ships from the _Guerrier_, took her station on the larboard bow of the _Franklin_ and the quarter of the _Peuple Souverain_, receiving and returning the fire of both. The sun was now nearly down. The _Audacious_, Captain Gould, pouring a heavy fire into the _Guerrier_ and the _Conquérant_, fixed herself on the larboard bow of the latter, and when that ship struck, passed on to the _Peuple Souverain_. The _Theseus_, Captain Miller, followed, brought down the _Guerrier’s_ remaining main and mizen masts, then anchored inside the _Spartiate_, the third in the French line.

While these advanced ships doubled the French line, the _Vanguard_ was the first that anchored on the outer side of the enemy, within half pistol shot of their third ship, the _Spartiate_. Nelson had six colours flying in different parts of the rigging, lest they should be shot away--that they should be struck, no British Admiral considers as a possibility. He veered half a cable, and instantly opened a tremendous fire, under cover of which the other four ships of his division, the _Minotaur_, _Bellerophon_, _Defence_ and _Majestic_, sailed on ahead of the Admiral. In a few minutes every man stationed at the first six guns in the fore part of the _Vanguard’s_ deck was killed or wounded--these guns were three times cleared. Captain Louis, in the _Minotaur_, anchored next ahead, and took off the fire of the _Aquilon_, the fourth in the enemy’s line. The _Bellerophon_, Captain Darby, passed ahead, and dropped her stern anchor on the starboard bow of the _Orient_, seventh in the line, Bruey’s own ship of one hundred and twenty guns, whose difference in force was in proportion of more than seven to three, and whose weight of ball, from the lower deck alone, exceeded that from the whole broadside of the _Bellerophon_. Captain Peyton, in the _Defence_, took his station ahead of the _Minotaur_ and engaged the _Franklin_, the sixth in the line, by which judicious movement the British line remained unbroken. The _Majestic_, Captain Wescott, got entangled with the main rigging of one of the French ships astern of the _Orient_, and suffered dreadfully from that three-decker’s fire; but she swung clear, and closely engaging the _Heureux_, the ninth ship in the starboard bow, received also the fire of the _Tonnant_, which was the eighth in the line. The other four ships of the British squadron, having been detached previous to the discovery of the French, were at a considerable distance when the action began. It commenced at half-after six, about seven the night closed, and there was no other light than that from the fire of the contending fleets.

Trowbridge, in the _Culloden_, then foremost of the remaining ships, was two leagues astern. He came on sounding, as the others had done. As he advanced, the increasing darkness increased the difficulty of navigation, and suddenly, after having found eleven fathoms’ water, before the lead could be hove again, he was fast a-ground; nor could all his own exertions, joined to those of the _Leander_ and _Mutiné_ brig, which came to his assistance, get him off in time to bear a part in the action. His ship, however, served as a beacon to the _Alexander_ and _Swiftsure_, which would else, from the course they were holding, have gone considerably further on the reef, and must inevitably have been lost. These ships entered the bay and took their stations, in the darkness, in a manner still spoken of with admiration by all who remember it. Captain Hallowell, in the _Swiftsure_, as he was bearing down, fell in with what seemed to be a strange sail. Nelson had directed his ships to hoist four lights horizontally at the mizen peak as soon as it became dark, and this vessel had no such distinction. Hallowell, however, with great judgment, ordered his men not to fire. “If she was an enemy,” he said, “she was in too disabled a state to escape; but, from her sails being loose, and the way in which her head was, it was probable she might be an English ship.” It was the _Bellerophon_, overpowered by the huge _Orient_. Her lights had gone overboard, nearly two hundred of her crew were killed or wounded, all her masts and cables had been shot away, and she was drifting out of the line towards the lee-side of the bay. Her station at this important time was occupied by the _Swiftsure_, which opened a steady fire on the quarter of the _Franklin_ and the bows of the French Admiral. At the same instant Captain Ball, with the _Alexander_, passed under his stern, and anchored within sight on his larboard quarter, raking him, and keeping a severe fire of musketry upon his decks. The last ship which arrived to complete the destruction of the enemy was the _Leander_. Captain Thompson, finding that nothing could be done that night to get off the _Culloden_, advanced with the intention of anchoring athwart-hawse of the _Orient_. The _Franklin_ was so near her ahead, that there was not room for him to pass clear of the two; he therefore took his station athwart-hawse of the latter, in such a position as to rake both.

The two first ships of the French line had been dismasted within a quarter of an hour after the commencement of the action; and the others in that time suffered so severely, that victory was already certain. The third, fourth and fifth were taken possession of at half-past eight. Meantime Nelson received a severe wound on the head from a piece of langridge shot. Captain Berry caught him in his arms as he was falling. The great effusion of blood occasioned an apprehension that the wound was mortal. Nelson himself thought so; a large flap of the skin of the forehead cut from the bone, had fallen over the eye; and, the other being blind, he was in total darkness. When he was carried down, the surgeon, in the midst of a scene scarcely to be conceived by those who have never seen a cockpit in time of action, and the heroism which is displayed amid its horrors--with a natural but pardonable eagerness, quitted the poor fellow then under his hands, that he might instantly attend the admiral. “No!” said Nelson, “I will take my turn with my brave fellows.” Nor would he suffer his own wound to be examined, till every man who had been previously wounded was properly attended to. Fully believing that the wound was mortal, and that he was about to die, as he had ever desired, in battle and in victory, he called the chaplain, and desired him to deliver what he supposed to be his dying remembrance to Lady Nelson; he then sent for Captain Louis on board, from the _Minotaur_, that he might thank him personally for the great assistance he had rendered to the _Vanguard_; and, ever mindful of those who deserved to be his friends, appointed Captain Hardy from the brig to the command of his own ship, Captain Berry having to go home with the news of the victory. When the surgeon came in due time to examine the wound (for it was in vain to entreat him to let it be examined sooner), the most anxious silence prevailed; and the joy of the wounded men, and of the whole crew, when they heard that the hurt was superficial, gave Nelson deeper pleasure than the unexpected assurance that his life was in no danger. The surgeon requested, and, as far as he could, ordered him to remain quiet; but Nelson could not rest. He called for his secretary, Mr. Campbell, to write the despatches. Campbell had himself been wounded, and was so affected at the blind and suffering state of the Admiral that he was unable to write. The chaplain was sent for; but before he came, Nelson, with his characteristic eagerness, took the pen, and contrived to trace a few words, marking his devout sense of the success which had already been obtained. He was now left alone; when suddenly a cry was heard on the deck that the _Orient_ was on fire. In the confusion he found his way up, unassisted and unnoticed; and, to the astonishment of every one, appeared on the quarter-deck, where he immediately gave order that boats should be sent to the relief of the enemy.

It was soon after nine that the fire on the _Orient_ broke out. Brueys was dead; he had received three wounds, yet would not leave his spot; a fourth cut him almost in two. He desired not to be carried below, but to be left to die upon deck. The flames soon mastered his ship. Her sides had just been painted, and the oil-jars and paint-buckets were lying on the poop. By the prodigious light of this conflagration, the situation of the fleets could now be perceived, the colours of both being clearly distinguishable. About ten o’clock the ship blew up, with a shock which was felt to the very bottom of every vessel. Many of her officers and men jumped overboard, some clinging to the spars and pieces of wreck with which the sea was strewn; others swimming to escape from the destruction which they momently dreaded. Some were picked up by our boats; and some, even in the heat and fury of the action, were dragged into the lower ports of the nearest British ships by the British Sailors. The greater part of her crew, however, stood the danger to the last, and continued to fire from the lower deck. This tremendous explosion was followed by a silence not less awful; the firing immediately ceased on both sides; and the first sound which broke the silence was the dash of her shattered masts and yards falling into the water from the vast height to which they had been exploded. It is upon record, that a battle between two armies was once broken off by an earthquake:--such an event would be felt like a miracle: but no incident in war produced by human means, has ever equalled the sublimity of this coinstantaneous pause, and all its circumstances.

About seventy of the _Orient’s_ crew were saved by the English boats. Among the many hundreds who perished were the Commodore, Casa Bianca, and his son, a brave boy only ten years old. They were seen floating on a shattered mast when the ship blew up. She had money on board (the plunder of Malta) to the amount of six hundred thousand pounds sterling. The masses of burning wreck which were scattered by the explosion, excited for some moments apprehensions in the English which they had never felt from any other danger. Two large pieces fell into the main and foretops of the _Swiftsure_, without injuring any person. A port-fire also fell into the main-royal of the _Alexander_; the fire which it occasioned was speedily extinguished. Captain Ball had provided, as far human foresight could provide, against any such danger. All the shrouds and sails of his ship, not absolutely necessary for its immediate management, were thoroughly wetted, and so rolled up, that they were as hard and as little inflammable as so many solid cylinders.

The firing recommenced with the ships to leeward of the centre, and continued till about three. At daybreak the _Guillaume Tell_ and the _Généreuse_, the two rear ships of the enemy, were the only French ships of the line which had their colours flying: they cut their cables in the forenoon, not having been engaged, and stood out to sea, and two frigates with them. The _Zealous_ pursued; but, as there was no other ship in a condition to support Captain Hood, he was recalled. It was generally believed by the officers that, if Nelson had not been wounded, not one of these ships could have escaped; the four certainly could not, if the _Culloden_ had got into action; and, if the frigates belonging to the squadron had been present, not one of the enemy’s fleet would have left Aboukir Bay. These four vessels, however, were all that escaped; and the victory was the most complete and glorious in the annals of naval history. “Victory,” said Nelson, “is not a name strong enough for such a scene;” he called it a conquest. Of thirteen sail of the line, nine were taken and two burnt; of the four frigates, one was sunk; another the _Artemise_ was burnt in a villainous manner by her captain, M. Estandlet, who having fired a broadside at the _Theseus_, struck his colours, then set fire to the ship, and escaped with most of his crew to shore. The British loss in killed and wounded amounted to 895. Westcott was the only captain who fell: 3105 of the French, including the wounded, were sent on shore by cartel, and 5225 perished.

Thus ended this eventful battle, which exalted the name of Nelson to a level at least with that of the celebrated conqueror, whose surprising success at the head of the French armies had then begun to draw the attention of the civilized world. The first words of his despatches on this memorable occasion prove his gratitude to that Providence which had protected him:--“_Almighty God has blessed his Majesty’s arms._”

NISBET, BATTLE OF.--Fought, May 7th, 1602, between the English and Scotch armies,--10,000 of the latter were left dead on the field and in the pursuit.

NORTHALLERTON, BATTLE OF.--_Or the Standard._--A furious engagement fought in Yorkshire, England, August 22nd, 1137, between the Scottish and English armies. This battle received the latter name from a high crucifix which was erected by the English on a waggon and was carried along by the troops. (See _Standard, Battle of_)

NORTHAMPTON, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Duke of York and Henry VI of England. Henry was defeated, and made prisoner, after a bloody fight, which took place July 19th, 1460.

NOIR, BATTLES OF.--First, fought, August 15th, 1799, between the French army commanded by Joubert, and the Russians, under Suwarrow. The French were defeated with immense slaughter,--10,000 being left dead on the battlefield, among whom was their General, Joubert, and several distinguished officers. A second battle was fought, January 8th, 1800, between the Austrian and French armies, when the latter a second time were signally defeated.

NUMANTIA, SIEGE OF.--Celebrated in the life of Scipio Africanus. He besieged the city with 60,000 men, the Numantines had only 4000 able to bear arms, but for 14 years it bravely withstood all attempts, till at last it fell, and every soul preferred to perish rather than fall into the hands of the Romans.

O.

ORLEANS.--_France._--Besieged by John Talbot, the Earl of Salisbury, October 12th, 1428; relieved, and the siege raised by the Maid of Orleans--Joan of Arc--from which circumstance she received her name.

ORLEANS NEW.--The British made an attack on New Orleans, December, 1814; they were repulsed by the Americans, under General Jackson, with great loss January, 7th, 1815. The American troops were entrenched behind a large number of cotton bales, and the British were obliged to advance in an open and exposed plain for more than a mile, during which they were literally mowed down by the shot from the cotton batteries. Some of the bravest Peninsular heroes fell here and met a soldier’s grave.

ORTHES, BATTLE OF.--Fought, February 27th, 1814, between the British and Spanish armies, on the one side, and the French on the other. The Allies were commanded by Wellington--the French by Soult. In this memorable engagement the Allies gained a complete victory.

OSTROLENKA, BATTLE OF.--Between the Poles and Russians. It was one of the most sanguinary and desperate battles fought between the two countries, and took place May 26th, 1831. On both sides the slaughter was immense, but the Poles remained masters of the field.

OTTERBURN, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 31st, 1388. The following is a graphic account of this engagement:--

“One of the Scotch inroads into England, in the time of Robert II, led to the famous battle of Otterburn, or “Chevy Chase.” This was considered, by the judges of fighting in those days, to have been the best fought, and, for the numbers engaged, the most severe of all the battles of that age. There was not a man, knight or squire, that did not acquit himself gallantly, fighting hand to hand with his enemy. It was about the time of Lammas, when the moor men were busy with their hay harvest, that the Earl of Douglas rode into England to drive a prey. The warders on the walls of Newcastle and Durham saw, rising in all directions, thick columns of smoke. This was the first intimation of the presence of the Scots. In their return homeward they halted three days before Newcastle, where they kept up an almost continual skirmish. The Earl of Douglas had a long combat with Sir Henry Percy, and took his pennon. “Hotspur, I will carry this pennon into Scotland,” said the Douglas, “and fix it on the tower of my castle of Dalkeith, that it may be seen from far.” “That shall you never, Earl of Douglas,” said Hotspur; “be assured you shall never have this pennon to boast of.” “I will fix your pennon before my tent,” said Douglas, “and shall see if you will venture to take it away.”

The Scots resumed their march homeward. They encamped at Otterburn, “upon the bent so brown,” and Douglas declared his resolution to wait there for two or three days, and see if the Percy would come to recover his pennon. On the evening of the second day the Scots were supping, some, indeed, had gone to sleep, when a loud shout of “Percy! Percy!” was heard, and the English were upon them. It was a sweet moonlight evening in August, clear and bright, and the breeze blew soft and fresh. The Scots, though somewhat taken by surprise, rose to the fight cool and “siccar,” as at Bannockburn itself. The lances crossed, and many on both sides went down at the first shock. Douglas, shouting his war cry, ordered his banner to advance. Percy, eager to encounter the Douglas, advanced his banner also. The two banners met, and many valiant deeds of arms were done around them. But the English were three to one, and the Scots were beginning to be forced back.

Seeing this, the Earl of Douglas seized a battle-axe with both hands and dashed into the midst of the enemy, his men following close. He struck right and left, and cut a lane deep into the battalion of the English. At last three spears were thrust against him all at once. One struck him on the shoulder, one on the breast, and the stroke glanced off his armour down into his groin; the third struck him in the thigh. With these three strokes he was borne to the earth, and as soon as he fell a battle-axe hewed deep into his head. The English marched over him without knowing who he was.

Sir John Sinclair, cousin to the Earl, knelt beside him, supported his bloody head, and asked, “Cousin, how fares it with you?” “Indifferently,” said he. “Thanks be to God, there are but few of my ancestors who have died in their beds. I bid you revenge my death, for my heart grows every moment more faint. Lift up my banner, which is on the ground, from the death of the valiant squire who bore it. Shout ‘Douglas!’ and tell neither friend nor foe but what I am with you.” Having spoken thus he expired. His orders were obeyed. They cast a mantle over his body, took his banner from the dead hand of the squire, raised it, and shouted, “Douglas!” The Scots came thronging up to the cry. They levelled their lances, and pushed with such courage that the English were soon driven beyond the spot where the Douglas lay. Again the shout of “Douglas!” rose more vehement and loud. The Scots in a dense mass renewed the onset, bore the enemy before them, and broke them so completely that they never rallied again. Percy himself was made prisoner. He and his pennon, too, had to go to Scotland.

Thus the dead Douglas won the field. The Scots laid the body of their leader in a coffin, which they placed on a car, and began their march home. They came without interruption to Melrose, and there, in the fair abbey, the Douglas was laid. The banner, about which his dying charge had been given at Otterburn, was hung above the place of the warrior’s rest.”

OUDENARDE, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 11th, 1708, between the Allies, commanded by Marlborough, and Prince Eugene and the French. The French were defeated, and completely routed, with great loss. The result of this victory was, that the French King entered into a negotiation for peace.

OULART, BATTLE OF.--Fought, May 27th, 1798, between a body of 3000 Irish insurgents and the King’s troop, a small number. In this engagement the North Cork Militia were cut to pieces--the Lieut. Colonel, one Sergeant and three Privates alone remaining.

OURIQUE, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 25th, 1139. Alfonso, Count of Portugal, encountered five Saracen Kings and an immense army of Moors on the plains of Ourique. After a glorious victory, he was hailed King by his soldiers on the spot. He afterwards entered Lisbon in triumph, and overthrew the Moorish dominion in Portugal. This was, perhaps, the greatest battle recorded in the History of Portugal.

P.

PALESTRO, BATTLE OF.--Fought, 29th May, 1859, between the Austrians and the French.

“On the 29th May, was fought the battle of Palestro. The Austrian avant-garde, 1500 strong, occupied the villages of Palestro and Vinzaglio. They were carried by the Allies at the point of the bayonet, and two cannons, the first captured since the opening of the war, were taken. The next morning the Austrians advanced to retake Palestro. Having cannonaded the village, a body of Austrians advanced to cut off the communication between the Piedmontese troops and the river. Perceiving this, the Zouaves, who had arrived during the night, threw themselves, in spite of a murderous fire, on the Austrians, take eight guns and put the Austrians to flight. During this engagement the King of Sardinia headed an attack on a battery. The Emperor of the French, a few days afterwards, complimenting him on his bravery, told him that if he wished to be King of Italy, he must take rather more care of his august person. This engagement inspired the Austrians with a great dread of the Zouaves, whom they call the _quei terribili zuai_.”

PAMPELUNA, BATTLE OF.--Taken by the French on their invasion of Spain; invested by the British; hence very bloody engagements, July 27th and 29th, 1813. It surrendered to the British same year.

PARMA, BATTLES OF.--The confederates, England, France and Spain, fought against the Emperor of Austria, June 29th, 1734. Both sides claimed the victory. A second battle, called the great battle of Parma, in which the French, under Marshal McDonald, were defeated by the celebrated Suwarrow, with the loss of 20,000 men and four Generals, July 12th, 1799.

PATAY, BATTLE OF.--This battle was fought, June 10th, 1429. Joan of Arc was present in this battle. The French signally defeated the English; the consequence of which was that Charles VII of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was crowned July 17th, same year--Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full armour and holding the sword of state.

PAVIA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, February 24th, 1525, between the French and Imperialists, when the former were defeated and their King, Francis I, after fighting with heroic bravery and killing seven men with his own hand, was obliged to surrender himself a prisoner of war. He wrote to his mother a letter acquainting her with the melancholy news in these expressive words--“_Tout est perdu, Madame, hors l’honneur._”

PEAFFENDORF, BATTLE OF.--Fought, August 15th, 1760, between the Imperialists and Prussians; the Austrians were totally defeated by the King of Prussia, who, by this victory, prevented the Austrian army from forming a junction with the Russians.

PHALANX.--This word originally signified a battalion or squadron. The Greek Phalanx consisted of 8000 men, in a square battalion, with shields joined and spears crossing each other. The celebrated Phalanx of Epaminondas, or the Theban Phalanx, was wedge shaped, and by it he achieved his two great victories. The modern square is based on the Grecian Phalanx, which was itself, as well as the Roman Orb, taken from the Theban. The renowned Macedonian Phalanx of Alexander the Great’s father, Philip, was instituted B.C. 360. This consisted of 16,000 picked men divided into four equal parts of 4000 each. They performed their evolutions upon the enomoty or single file, whether it were required to extend or deepen the line, and there was an interval between every two sections for the convenience of manœuvring.

PHARSALIA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, May 12th, 48 B.C., between Julius Cæsar and Pompey.

“The battle commenced about daybreak, and before noon the army of Pompey was utterly defeated. Pompey himself, early in the battle, seemed entirely to have lost his presence of mind, and fled in despair to his tent, there to await the result. Cæsar, determined to make the most of his advantage, notwithstanding the weariness of his troops, did not permit the pursuit to slacken till the army of Pompey was entirely scattered. A considerable body of them had taken refuge in an adjacent mountain. By cutting off all hope of succor, Cæsar induced them to surrender. He received their submission with the greatest gentleness, and forbade his soldiers from offering violence to their vanquished countrymen. This was the most complete victory Cæsar ever obtained. His loss did not exceed 200, while that of Pompey was 10,000, and 24,000 surrendered themselves prisoners of war. On passing over the battle field, so thickly strewn with Romans, Cæsar is said to have been affected even to tears, while he exclaimed to one near him, “They would have it so.”

PHILIPPI, BATTLE OF.--Fought, October, 42 B.C., between Octavius Cæsar and Marc Antony, on the one side, and Brutus and Cassius on the other.

“In the meantime, Brutus and Cassius, the principal conspirators against Cæsar, having retired into Greece, persuaded the Roman students at Athens to declare for the cause of freedom. In Syria and Macedonia they succeeded in raising large armies, and soon found themselves in a condition to support a contest on which the empire of the world depended. While at Sardis, Brutus and Cassius are said to have had a serious misunderstanding, the effect of a jealousy which had been industriously raised between them. But no bad consequences arose from it, for immediately joining their armies, they hastened to oppose Antony and Octavius, who were rapidly advancing to meet them. Once more the empire of the world was about to be decided by a single battle. It was a time of fearful suspense. Should the arms of Brutus be successful, the Roman people might again form a free republic. On the other hand, should Octavius triumph, they had to fear a worse tyranny than ever had been exercised by Julius Cæsar. Brutus and Cassius took their station each on a little hill near the city of Philippi. Behind them was the sea, by which they might obtain supplies, and between them and the plain on which the Triumviri had encamped their army, was an impassable morass. In this favorable position, it was their policy to delay a battle as long as possible. On the contrary, the Triumviri, not being able to obtain supplies by sea, and conscious that their army could not long be sustained by the resources of the surrounding country, were eager immediately to engage. A road was constructed by them through the morass which separated the armies. The tall reeds of the morass having concealed the soldiers while making the road, Brutus and Cassius were in some measure taken by surprise when the enemy advanced over it, and the impatience of their own soldiers prevented a longer delay.

A battle therefore ensued. Antony led his forces against that part of the army commanded by Cassius, and in a short time put his cavalry to flight. Cassius did all that the courage of a single man could do to rally his troops, but in vain. Supposing the battle to be entirely lost, and determined not to fall into the hands of the enemy, he returned into his tent and killed himself. Brutus still kept possession of the camp, and did all in his power to encourage his men. Still he determined for the present to avoid seeking another battle. His design was to starve the enemy, whom he know to be in great want of provisions. After a respite of twenty days, he was, however, forced to give in to the impatience of his men, and try the fate of a battle. In the engagement that followed, wherever Brutus commanded in person, he had the advantage. But the troops of Cassius being seized with a panic, communicated their terror to the rest, and soon the whole army gave way. In the midst of his bravest officers Brutus fought with undaunted courage. The son of Cato, and the brother of Cassius, fell fighting at his side. At last, however, yielding to the necessity of the case, Brutus fled. Octavius and Antony, secure of the victory, thought only of getting Brutus into their power. He was on the point of being overtaken, when Lucilius, his friend, determined to save his life by the sacrifice of his own. Giving himself up to a band of Thracians, he told them he was Brutus, and requested to be conducted into the presence of their General. Antony seeing the Thracians approach, and being informed of the prisoner’s capture, prepared himself for an interview with his enemy. But Lucilius, advancing with a cheerful air, said, “It is not Brutus that is taken. Fortune has not yet had the power to commit so great an outrage upon virtue. As for my life, it is well lost in preserving his honor. Take it, for I have deceived you.” Antony, struck with such fidelity, pardoned him, and gave him his friendship. Meanwhile Brutus, with a few friends had escaped over a rivulet, and night coming on, they concealed themselves under a rock. An officer whom Brutus had sent out to ascertain the extent of their defeat, did not return, and he rightly judged that he had fallen into the hands of the enemy. Before the first battle, Brutus had told Cassius that if he was defeated, he would not fall alive into the power of Octavius, and he now prepared to end his misfortunes with his life. After calling to mind with great tenderness many of his friends, who had fallen in the battle, he bade farewell to all present, one by one, saying aloud, that he was happy in never having been betrayed by any one whom he had trusted as a friend. Soon after, falling upon his sword, he expired in the forty-third year of his age.”

PIGEON HILL.--Famous as the scene of a skirmish between the British Regulars and Volunteers and the Fenian bandits, who attempted to invade Canada during the past summer. The following gives honor to whom honor is due, and is written by a gentleman who can be relied on:

“If any evidence were required, more than we possess, of the essentially weak and contemptible character of the Fenian organization, the circumstances attending the operations of Her Majesty’s forces and our own volunteers on Saturday, June 9th, in the neighborhood of Pigeon Hill, would furnish it. As one who accompanied that expedition, and had an opportunity of observing all that passed, I shall be happy to furnish you with a few details. I arrived at St. Armand’s Station between 11 and 12 o’clock, just at the moment that two waggons from Pigeon Hill arrived, bringing five Fenian prisoners, who had been taken that morning by different parties, whose names I need not mention, as I cannot give all with accuracy. I must confess that my astonishment was great when I saw them. Three were little scamps--such as one sees about the streets of all great cities, as news-boys, &c. One was a tolerably stout, resolute looking-fellow, the other a mild-looking young man, much better dressed, who, I am sorry to say, stated himself to have been born in Yorkshire, though hailing from Montpelier, Vt. Shortly after they were lodged in the guard-house, another prisoner, an able-bodied hard-looking customer, about 28 or 30 years of age, was brought in. He had a tremendous black eye, which he told me he received in a brawl with his own companions the night previous. Leaving these in the custody of the St. Armand volunteers, the column of attack started for Pigeon Hill about 2 P.M. The Granby and Waterloo volunteers, commanded by Captain Millar, formed the advance guard, being followed by two 12-pounder Armstrong guns of Captain Balfour’s battery, with their complements of artillerymen, commanded by Captain Phipps, R.A. These were followed by two companies of the Rifle Brigade, under Major Nixon, who, I understand, commanded the whole column, and two companies of the 25th regiment--another company of that regiment forming the rear guard. Between the main body and the rear guard, the supply waggon and a farmer’s waggon, carrying the Surgeon’s apparatus and medical comforts, were placed.

The officers and men were in the highest spirits, only fearing lest the redoubtable Fenians should seek shelter too promptly in Uncle Sam’s dominions, the line being only half a mile from their camp. The day was very fine, a bright sun, tempered by a cool breeze, having dried up the roads, and made marching pleasant. And I may here remark a circumstance creditable to the pluck and training of our volunteers, that, although several soldiers of the line and rifles were knocked up, and obliged to fall out, the volunteers, though forming the advance guard and obliged to keep in advance of the powerful artillery horses, had not a man who manifested the least fatigue. At Holt’s Corner a short halt took place, and a prisoner was brought up from the south road, leading to Highgate, by a farmer I understood, of the name of Reynolds, who with his son and hired man, had just captured him while reconnoitering. He was mounted upon a handsome horse, and had rather a gentlemanly and refined appearance. He was speedily dismounted, being succeeded in his saddle by Captain Hallowes of the 25th Regiment, and conducted to the rear in charge of a guard from that regiment. Another prisoner was met squatted in a single waggon between the feet of two farmers of Stanbridge who had captured him--a very low and unintellectual type of humanity. Just before the column reached Pigeon Hill there was a cry, “Incline to the right,” and that splendid body of horsemen, the Guides, under Captain D. L. Macdougall, dashed past in single file, and took their place in front. They had no opportunity that day, more is the pity, to “flesh their maiden swords” upon any considerable body of the Fenians. But they rode round by the Cook’s Corner road, and thus, at a later period of the day, cut off the retreat of some who would have escaped, and took two of the scoundrels prisoners. If the Fenians had a good sight of them, they must have felt inclined to keep out of their way. In turning to the right at the tavern at Pigeon Hill, the whole column descended the hill on the road leading directly to the line--the artillery taking the lead. The guns were placed in position on a high point overlooking the whole valley, and about half-a-mile within the line. One company of the 25th remained with the guns, and the remainder of the infantry, in two lines, with the rifles thrown out in front as skirmishers, descended into the valley in the direction of the woods, which were about three-fourths of a mile distant. The last red coat disappeared among the trees, and we remained in anxious expectation awaiting the result. Meantime the farmer’s family before whose door the guns were placed, and who had suffered sore annoyance for several days from the constant demand of the ragamuffins for food, gladly brought to their deliverers such simple refreshment as could be hastily prepared. Presently a single rifle shot was heard, echoing loudly through the woods--two more followed, then a dropping fire of twenty-five or thirty shots and all was silent.

At the first report the whole party sprang to their feet, the gunners placed themselves by their pieces, and the officers of artillery prepared to point them upon any body of the enemy that might break cover. And much were all disappointed when the firing ceased.

Presently the red coats emerged from the woods, marched across a small clearing and disappeared in the woods beyond. After waiting some time longer and the sun beginning to approach the horizon, the horses were put to the guns and waggons and preparations were made for returning to St. Armand. One company of the 25th regained their comrades on the hill. The rest of the force made their way by the Cook’s Corner road back to Pigeon Hill, with the exception of one company of the Rifles, which was detached towards Frelighsburg. The rest of the force reached St. Armand’s Station between 9 and 10 o’clock at night.

The result of this expedition was unsatisfactory, though all concerned did their duty with the utmost alacrity and zeal. But when there was really no enemy to fight, no great victory could be achieved.

It was generally supposed that 2 Fenians only were killed and 16 captured, but I have been since informed that 4 bodies were found in the woods on Sunday.

Thus ended most ingloriously to those concerned in it this base attempt to desecrate, by unlawful invasion, the soil of Canada, _and to detach from their allegiance to their rightful Sovereign a contented, happy and loyal people_. I may add, in conclusion, that the inhabitants were most active in searching for and arresting straggling Fenians and bringing them into head-quarters.”

PINKEY, BATTLE OF.--Fought, September 10th, 1547, between the English, under the Earl of Hertford Protector, and the Scots, when the latter were totally defeated. Few victories have been achieved with less loss to the victors; the English loss was no more than 200, whilst the Scots lost the enormous number of 20,000.

PISTOL.--The smallest sort of fire arms. First used by the English cavalry, A.D. 1544.

PLAINS OF ABRAHAM.--_See Quebec._

PLASSY, BATTLE OF.--Fought, June 23rd, 1757, between the British, under Lord Clive, and the native Hindoos, under Surajah Dowlah. The Hindoo army consisted of 70,000 men, whilst the British did not exceed 3000, yet the Surajah was signally defeated. This battle laid the foundation of the British power in India.

PLATÆA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, September 22nd, B.C. 479, between Mardonius, General of the Persians, and the Lacedæmonians and Athenians under Pausanias. The Persian army consisted of 300,000 men, 3000 of which only remained alive after the battle. The Grecians lost only 91 Spartans, 52 Athenians, and 16 Tegeans. Pausanias received one-tenth of all the immense plunder for his uncommon valour, and the rest were rewarded each according to his respective merit.

PLATTSBURG, EXPEDITION TO.--The British squadron against Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, was designed under General Sir George Prevost, but it was abandoned, after a severe defeat of the naval squadron of England on the Lake, September 11th, 1814.

PODULTZ, BATTLE OF.--Fought, June 28th, 1866, between the Austrians and the Prussians. The Prussians everywhere were victorious. The needle gun of their army was decidedly superior to any other weapon used. The following is the _Times_ account:

“On the northern side of Gitschin and on the Turnau road the Austrians had taken up a position to cover the town against the Prussians, advancing from the direction of Turnau. As the Prussians advanced they saw the village of Podultz close to the road, and on their right, standing at the top of the gentle ascent by which the road rises to the top of the lower spur, on the other side of the road and about 300 yards from it, nearer to the advancing division by 200 yards than Podultz, the village of Diletz, lying in the plain, while high on their right they could see the chimneys of Brada above the thick fir wood which, lying on the hill side, in front of that village, runs down nearly to Podultz, and traced by the different colours of the foliage the ground occupied by its orchards. The three villages and the fir wood were held by Austrian and Saxon troops, supported by seven battalions of artillery, which were placed both on the spur and on the Brada Hill, while behind the spur were hidden three of Austria’s finest cavalry regiments--the Hussars of Radetzky, of Lichtenstein, and of the Austrian Regiment the King of Prussia. As soon as the Prussians came within range the Austrian batteries opened upon them; the Prussian guns replied, and, under cover of their artillery, the columns advanced to the attack of the position. The 8th and 48th Regiments advanced against the village of Diletz, which was garrisoned by the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Saxon battalions, and where, as the prisoners report, the King of Saxony himself took part in the fight. The 12th and 18th Regiments advanced against the village of Podultz. Both attacking columns were exposed to a very hot fire, but after a severe struggle both villages were carried, though that of Podultz, set on fire by a shell, was burning when the Prussians occupied it. General Edelsheim, who commanded the Austrian cavalry, with a desperate valour, attacked the burning village, but the horses would not face the flames, and the Prussian infantry, from behind the blazing houses, fired on the disordered squadrons and killed many troopers. After taking Podultz, the 12th and 18th Regiments pushed past Brada, leaving it to their right, and made for the Lochow Road, in order to cut off the retreat of the Austrians, who were retiring from Lochow on Gitschin. The Austrian cavalry charged the advancing Prussians, but the latter received them without forming square, and the horsemen recoiled, broken by their steady fire. The Austrian troops in Brada, and the Saxons and Austrians in Diletz were quite separated by the capture of the village of Podultz, and the former were almost entirely taken; the latter were cut off from retreat in large numbers, for Von Werder was pressing towards Gitschin, the roads were crowded, and the little river formed on the right of the broken allies a wide extent of marshy ground, which it was almost impossible to cross. The loss of the Saxons between Diletz and Gitschin was tremendous; they fell thickly, and the ground was covered with corpses. The Prussians suffered much, but they fought most bravely, and, with only four regiments, and half as many guns as their opponents, carried a very strong position held by a much superior force; for the Prussians had in the field but 16,000 men, and the allied strength is estimated at 30,000. Under a crushing fire they advanced to the attack of Podultz and Diletz, and the vacancies in the muster-roll show how fearfully they suffered; but every man who fell on the Prussian side was trebly avenged, and a long broad track of fallen enemies marks the line of march of the four regiments who so well fought and won Diletz.

The field of Diletz is almost more thickly strewn with killed and wounded. Here the Prussians lie more thickly than at Lochow, for the more numerous artillery of the defenders ploughed with terrible effect through the dense columns of the assailants as they advanced to the attack. But between Diletz and Gitschin the ground is covered with broken arms, knapsacks, shakos, and fallen men, who are mostly either Saxons or Austrians, for here the needle-gun was more used than artillery.

The Prussians took 7000 prisoners in the two combats, and many officers: and the Austrian loss in killed and wounded is estimated at 3000, so that yesterday evening has withdrawn 10,000 soldiers from under the Austrian colours.”

POICTIERS, 1356.--“Ten years after the victory of Crecy, a similar event took place in one of the south-west districts of France, at Poictiers, the capital of Poiteau. Edward “the Black Prince,” now in the prime of his early manhood, regarding his country as at war with France, sallied forth from the Gascon province in the summer of 1356, on a ravaging expedition, to do his enemy all the damage in his power. He left Bourdeaux with about 12,000 men; ascended the Garonne as far as Agen, and then, turning to the left, entered central France, and overran the fertile provinces of Limousin, Querci, Auvergne, and Berri. It was harvest-time, and everywhere the harvest was seized, the towns plundered, and all captives able to pay a ransom were carried to Bourdeaux. One account states that the English army sent off no fewer than 5000 cartloads of plunder to Bourdeaux. This employment doubtless had its attractions for the army; but its commander seems to have forgotten that he was invading and exasperating a powerful kingdom, whose people and sovereign might be expected to take vengeance for such an inroad as this.

Philip of Valois was now dead, and John, his son, a high-spirited but indiscreet prince, had succeeded him. Hearing of young Edward’s performances in Limousin and Berri, “he instantly declared with an oath,” says Froissart, “that he would forthwith set out after him, and would fight him whenever he could find him. He therefore issued forth a general summons to all his nobles and vassals of every kind, that they should set forth to meet him on the borders of Touraine and Blois, for he was determined to fight the English.”

He soon marched from Paris, having with him a considerable body of troops, and went to Chartres to be nearer the enemy, and to gain quicker intelligence of his proceedings. Here he rested some days, and “great crowds of knights and men at arms daily joined him, from Auvergne, Berri, Burgundy, Lorraine, Hainault, Picardy, and other provinces.” But as yet neither of these two Princes seems to have been well informed of the other’s movements.

“The Prince,” says Froissart, “having with him 2000 men-at-arms and 6000 archers, rode on at his ease, having all things at his command. They found Auvergne, which they were now overrunning, very rich and teeming with abundance; and when they entered any town, they rested there for some days to refresh themselves, consuming what they pleased, and destroying the rest, whether of corn, wine, or other provisions.” “They kept advancing, and found plenty everywhere, for the provinces of Berri, Poiteau, Touraine and Maine,” says Froissart, “were very rich, and full of provisions for an army.”

At Bourges they were stopped by the strength of the place; having no means of besieging a fortified town, they passed on, and came to another town, the name of which Froissart does not give, but which, he says, had great plenty of wines and provisions. This they carried by storm, and here they remained three days.

And now tidings were brought to the Prince that the King of France was at Chartres with a large army, and that all the passes and towns on the north of the Loire were manned and well defended. He therefore held a council of war, in which it was resolved to return at once to Bourdeaux, doing the enemy what damage was possible on the road. But the castle of Romorontin delayed their retreat, the Prince making it a point of honour not to be foiled by so small a place, and wasting therefore three days before it. This delay enabled the French army to reach him. The King of France, having now a large force, had set forward from Chartres, had crossed the Loire at Blois, and was rapidly marching on the city of Poictiers. Both of the chiefs seem to have been in the dark as to the exact position of the other--John, imagining the English to be far before him, and Edward similarly deeming the French to be in his rear. At last, at Chauvigny, on the Vienne, the two armies came in sight of each other, or rather, learned each other’s proximity by an encounter of outposts. A party of French knights falling in with two of Edward’s captains and a party of sixty men, pursued them until they came to the main body of the English, and here, not retreating, the greater part of the assailants were either slain or captured. From the prisoners, the Prince learned that the King of France was close by with his army, and that he could not retreat without fighting him. He called in immediately all foragers; and ordered every man to keep under his standard. Four experienced Captains, with 200 horse, were sent out to reconnoitre the French positions. They were not long before they fell in with it, and captured some stragglers. They soon perceived the whole plain to be covered with troops. Their approach alarmed the French, who, instead of entering Poictiers, turned towards the English army, and as it was late encamped for the night in the open fields. The English detachment returned to the Prince, and told him that the French “were in immense numbers.” The Prince replied, “God help us! we must begin to consider how we can best receive them.”

The next day was Sunday. The French king ordered a solemn mass in his pavilion, and he and his four sons communicated. There then assembled around him the great Lords, the Duke of Orleans, the Duke of Bourbon, the Earl of Ponthieu, the Constable of France, the Marshal of France, and a great body of Lords and famous knights. They were long debating; at last it was resolved “that each Lord should display his banner, advance into the plain, and push forward in the name of God and St. Denis.” It is already tolerably clear, that this great army had _no General_.

“Then might be seen all the nobility of France, richly dressed out in shining armour, with banners and pennons gallantly displayed; for all the flower of the French nobility was there.” By the advice of the Constable and marshals, the army was divided into three battalions, each consisting of 16,000 men-at-arms. Nearly 50,000 spears then, a large proportion doubtless mounted, were arrayed against 2000 English lances, and 4,000 archers, with a few irregulars. Michelet says: “There were the King’s four sons, 26 Dukes or Counts, and 140 knights-bannerets--a magnificent spectacle; but the army was none the better for all that.”

The King sent forward three knights to reconnoitre the English army. They returned, and Sir Eustace Ribeaumont said, “Sir, we have examined the English closely; they amount, according to our estimate, to about 2000 men-at-arms, 4000 archers, and 1500 footmen. They are posted very strongly; and have fortified their position as well as they can. They are on a hill, which is only approachable by one road or lane; so narrow that only four men can ride abreast.”

The French were now on the point of moving forward to the attack, when the Cardinal de Perigord came up at a full gallop, and making a low reverence, entreated the King to listen to him a moment. “You have here,” he said, “all the flower of your kingdom against a mere handful of English; you may have them on other terms than by a battle. Let me go to the Prince, and remonstrate with him on the dangerous situation he is in.” The King said, “It is very agreeable to us; but make haste back again.”

The Cardinal set off at full speed; and was admitted to the Prince, whom he found on foot in the midst of his army. He said, “Fair son, if you have well considered the great army of the King of France, you will allow me to make up matters between you, if I possibly can.” The Prince said, “Sir, save my own honour, and that of my army, and I will agree to any reasonable terms.” The Cardinal then returned to the French camp, and saw the King; and all that day he rode from one army to the other, trying to bring about an agreement. Many proposals were made, the Prince offered to give up all the towns and castles which he had taken; to release all his prisoners without ransom; and to engage not to take up arms against the King of France for the next seven years. But John refused the offer; demanding that Edward, with an hundred of his knights, should surrender themselves prisoners. “The Prince and his army,” says Froissart, “disdained to accept any such conditions.” Another account says, that Edward exclaimed, “England shall never have to pay a ransom for me!”

Thus Sunday was spent; and the battle was necessarily deferred till the morrow. The English, however, had well employed their time in still further strengthening their positions. But they were short of provisions; and could the French have stooped to defer the attack, and to be content with cutting off all supplies, Edward and his whole force must have submitted themselves before the termination of another week. But such a course would have been humbling to the pride of France. A certain triumph seemed in the power of the French commanders, and they could brook no delay.

Edward, therefore, made up his mind for a struggle for life or liberty on the Monday morning. He remained on the defensive; except that he detached a body of 300 men-at-arms, and as many archers, with orders to make a circuit, and get into the flank and rear of the Duke of Normandy’s battalion; the position of which he could survey from his hill.

“And now,” says Froissart, “the whole army of the Prince, including every one, did not amount to more than 8000; while the French had upwards of 60,000 combatants, among whom were more than 3000 knights. The Prince, seeing all hope of an accommodation at an end, addressed his captains and men, saying:--

“Now, my gallant follows! what though we be but a small body when compared with our enemies; let us not be cast down on that account; for victory is not always with the greater numbers, but God gives it to whom he pleases. If the day shall be ours, great will be the honour of it: if not, I have a father, and you all have friends, who will be sure to avenge our deaths. Stand fast, therefore, and fight like men; and if it please God, you shall see me play the part of a true knight.”

And now came on the French, and soon it was seen that here, as in many other battles of the time, the English bow was a most formidable weapon. The battalion of the French marshals entered the lane by which the English position must be approached; and now the archers began to ply their weapons “in such sort that the horses, smarting under the pain of their wounds, would not advance, but turned about, threw their masters, and created a general confusion. And if a few of the French struggled through and came in sight of the Prince’s battalion, a small party or two of English knights, who waited for them, instantly attacked them and slew them, or made them prisoners.

Thus, in a short time, this battalion of the marshals was defeated. The front line was driven back in confusion on the division immediately behind it. This, unable to advance, began to give ground, impelled by the crowd of fugitives pressing back upon it. But in retreating, this battalion fell back upon the Duke of Normandy’s and soon confusion and terror spread through the whole army. The detachment which the Prince had placed over-night on the flank and rear of the Duke of Normandy’s battalion, now came forth from their ambuscade, and fell vehemently upon the already disordered ranks of the French; “and, in truth,” says Froissart, “the English archers shot so thickly and so well, that the French did not know which way to turn themselves to avoid the arrows.” And now, this battalion, which was broad enough in the front, grew thin and scanty in the rear, for the news of the repulse of the marshals had spread, and the men began to escape in crowds. Meanwhile the English on the hill, perceiving that the first battalion was beaten, and that the Duke of Normandy’s was in great disorder, gave the word, and the knights and men-at-arms were in a moment in their saddles.

“The day is ours,” said Sir John Chandos, and, giving a shout, the 2000 horse pushed down the hill, charging with vehemence the disordered battalion.

“Let us make for the King himself,” said Sir John to the Prince, “for I know that he will not fly, and we shall have him--if it please God.”

And now the battle grew hot; the French were so numerous, and in such disorder, that it was an arduous task that still remained. Edward charged the division of the Duke of Athens, broke it, and drove it before him;--then the battalion of Germans, under the Count of Salzburg, which was soon overthrown and put to flight. Meanwhile “the English archers, advancing with the cavalry, shot so well that none dared to stay within their reach.”

And now three of the King’s sons, the Duke of Normandy, the Earl of Poictiers, and the Earl of Touraine, with 800 lances which had never put spear in rest, took flight and rode off the field.

The King himself stood firm. “If one-fourth of his soldiers,” says Froissart, “had behaved as well as he did, the day would have been his own.” Again he says, “King John himself did wonders, he fought with a battle-axe, with which he defended himself bravely.” The English knew the value of such a prize, and they directed their chief efforts to his capture. The Earl of Tancarville was made prisoner close to him, as were the Earl of Ponthieu, and the Earl of Eu. A little further on, the Lord Charles d’Artois and many other knights were captured by the flank attack. “The English and Gascons poured so fast upon the King’s division that they broke all its ranks,” and now the last show of order was lost, and the whole field was one confused mass. Every one was pressing forwards, eager to seize the King; at last a young French knight, who had been banished and had entered the English service, entreated the king to surrender or he would lose his life. “To whom am I to surrender?” said John, “where is my cousin the Prince of Wales? Who are you?” “I am Denis de Morbeque, knight of Artois,” said the Frenchman, “surrender yourself to me and I will lead you to the Prince.” “Well,” said the King, giving him his glove, “I surrender myself to you.”

Sir John Chandos, who had remained by the Prince’s side all the day, had now advised him to raise his banner on an elevated point, and to pitch his tent, for there was no longer any French army in sight. Accordingly, the banner was raised, a small pavilion was pitched, wine was brought, the Prince took off his helmet, and the trumpets began to sound. But now the Prince addressed the Earl of Warwick and Lord Cobham, saying. “I pray you to mount your horses, and ride over the field, that I may know, if possible, what has become of the King.” These two lords immediately rode forth, and they soon perceived a great crowd of knights and men-at-arms, all striving with a great noise. More than ten knights were loudly claiming the honour of having taken the King. “The two lords then pushed through the crowd by main force, and ordered all to stand aside. They commanded, in the Prince’s name, all to keep their distance, on pain of death. They then, dismounting, approached the King with profound reverence, and conducted him peaceably to the Prince of Wales.” Edward received the King with a low obeisance, and comforted him as well as he was able, ordering wines and refreshments to be brought, which he presented to the King with his own hand. “In the evening a supper was spread in the Prince’s pavilion; and the King, his son Philip, with Bourbon, Artois, the Earl of Tancarville, Estampes, Granville, and others, were seated at an elevated table, while the Prince served the King with his own hands. The French princes, struck with Edward’s courtesy, declared that he would be one of the most gallant knights in Christendom, if it please God to grant him life.”

Meanwhile, the English horse continued its pursuit of the fugitives, up to the very gates of Poictiers. “There was such an horrible spectacle of men slaughtered and trampled down, as it is wonderful to think of. The frightened French, in crowds, surrendered the moment they caught sight of an Englishman.”

The report now given in to the Prince, showed that the King and one of his sons, and 17 Earls, besides a great number of Barons and knights, were prisoners; and that from five to six thousand lay dead on the field.[1] But the victors were troubled what to do with the crowds of captives of all ranks, who were _twice as numerous as themselves_. They concluded, at last, to ransom them on the spot, and even to take the pledges of those who had no money. As for the booty, it was immense; “there being quantities of gold and silver plate, rich jewels, and trunks full of gold and silver ornaments. As to fine armour, that was in such abundance as to be little regarded.”

The prince and his little army, now undisturbed, continued their march, and in a few days passed the Garonne, and arrived safely at Bourdeaux. “Great was the dismay at Paris, when the fugitives brought word that there was no longer a King nor Barons in France, but all were killed or taken.”

England, very naturally, rejoiced through all her coasts. The Prince, after a short stay, embarked for England with his illustrious prisoner, to whom, for greater ease and comfort, he assigned a separate vessel. He entered London with knightly courtesy, riding a small black horse, while the King of France, royally mounted on a white charger, rode by his side. The palace of the Savoy was made the residence of the captive monarch, and there king Edward and his Queen frequently visited him. John, however, was long detained in England, the enormous sum of 3,000,000 of gold crowns being demanded from France for his ransom. He finally consented to those hard terms; but on returning to his own kingdom, he found so much difficulty in persuading his people to raise this great ransom, that he finally resolved to return to his prison in Westminster. As true as he was brave, he nobly answered his council, who tried to persuade him to be guilty of a breach of his engagement, that “if honour were banished from every other abode, it ought at least to find a home in the breast of Kings.” He returned to his home in the Savoy; where, a few months after, he died. Edward III ordered his obsequies to be performed with royal magnificence, and sent his corpse, with a splendid retinue to France, where it found a place in the burial-place of the Kings, in the abbey-church of St. Denis.”

POLOTSK, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 30th, 1812, between the French Marshal, Oudinot, and the Russians under Wittgenstein. The Russians were defeated with great loss.

PONDICHERRY.--_India._--Settled by the French in 1674; taken by the Dutch in 1693; besieged by the British in 1748, and taken by our forces in January, 1761, but restored in 1763. Again taken in October, 1778, and restored in 1783. Again captured by the British, August 23rd, 1793, and finally in 1803.

PORTOBELLO.--_South America._--Taken from the Spaniards by Admiral Vernon, November 22nd, 1739. Again taken by the British, who destroyed the fortifications, in 1742.

PRAGA, BATTLES OF.--Fought, October 10th, 1794, between the Poles and Russians; 30,000 Poles were butchered in this battle by the merciless Suwarrow. A second battle, fought March 31st, 1831, between the same countries, resulted with defeat of the Russians who lost 4000 killed and wounded, and 6000 prisoners and 12 pieces of cannon.

PRESCOTT, BATTLE OF.--_Upper Canada._--Fought, November 27th, 1838, between the Canadian Rebels and the British, under Major Young, and on the following day by Lieut.-Colonel Dundas, who, after a desperate resistance, succeeded in dispersing the insurgents, several of whom were killed and many taken prisoners; the troops also suffered considerably. After the attack the remainder of the rebels surrendered. In these engagements the rebels were aided by the Americans, who invaded the Canadian territory in great numbers.

PRESTON, BATTLE OF.--Fought, November 12th, 1715, between the Scotch insurgents, under Forster, and the British, under General Willis. The first attack was successful, on the side of the Jacobites, but the Royal forces being augmented by the arrival of General Carpenter, Preston was invested on every side, and the Scots at length laid down their arms, and their nobles and leaders were secured. Some were shot as deserters, and others sent off to London, pinioned and bound together, to frighten their party.

PRESTON-PANS, BATTLE OF.--Fought, September 21st, 1745, between Prince Charles the Pretender and the Royal forces.

“In the meantime Sir John Cope, who had pursued the rebels through the Highlands, but had declined meeting them in their descent, being now reinforced by two regiments of dragoons, resolved to march towards Edinburgh and give the enemy battle. The young Adventurer, whose forces were rather superior, though undisciplined, attacked him near Preston-Pans, about twelve miles from the capital, and in a few minutes put him and his troops to flight. This victory, by which the King lost 500 men, gave the rebels great influence; and had the Pretender taken advantage of the general consternation, and marched directly for England, the consequence might have been fatal to freedom. But he was amused by the promise of succours which never came; and thus induced to remain at Edinburgh, to enjoy the triumphs of an important victory, and to be treated as a monarch.”

PULTOWA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 8th, 1709, between Charles XII of Sweden and Peter the Great of Russia. In this celebrated battle the Czar entirely defeated the Hero of Sweden, and forced him to flee to Turkey. This battle was lost on account of Charles having been wounded just before, being obliged to issue his orders from a litter, his soldiers thus having no opportunity of seeing their loved commander.

PULTUSK, BATTLES OF.--One between the Saxons and Swedes, in which the former were defeated, 1703; and the other between the French, under Napoleon, and the Russian and Prussian armies. Both sides claimed the victory, but it inclined in favour of the French.

PYRAMIDS, BATTLE OF THE.--Fought between the French and Turks, 1798. “The sight of the Pyramids, and the anxious nature of the moment, inspired the French General with even more than usual ardour; the sun glittered on those immense masses, which seemed to arise in height every step the soldiers advanced, and the army, sharing his enthusiasm, gazed, as they marched, on the everlasting monuments. “Remember,” said he, “that from the summit of those Pyramids forty centuries contemplate your actions.”

With his usual sagacity, the General had taken extraordinary precautions to ensure success against the formidable cavalry of the Desert. The divisions were all drawn up as before, in hollow squares six deep, the artillery at the angles, the general and baggage in the centre. When they were in mass, the two sides advanced in column, those in front and rear moved forward in their ranks, but the moment they were charged, the whole were to halt, and face outward on every side. When they were themselves to charge, the three front ranks were to break off and form the column of attack, those in the rear remaining behind, still in square, but three deep only, to constitute the reserve. Napoleon had no fears for the result, if the infantry were steady; his only apprehension was, that his soldiers, accustomed to charge, would yield to their impetuosity too soon, and would not be brought to the immovable firmness which this species of warfare required.

Mourad Bey, no sooner perceived the lateral movement of the French army, than, with a promptitude of decision worthy of a skilful general, he resolved to attack the columns while in the act of completing it. An extraordinary movement was immediately observed in the Mameluke line, and speedily 7000 horsemen detached themselves from the remainder of the army, and bore down upon the French columns. It was a terrible sight, capable of daunting the bravest troops, when this immense body of cavalry approached at full gallop the squares of infantry. The horsemen, admirably mounted and magnificently dressed, rent the air with their cries. The glitter of spears and cimeters dazzled the sight, while the earth groaned under the repeated and increasing thunder of their feet. The soldiers, impressed, but not panic-struck, by the sight, stood firm, and anxiously waited, with their pieces ready, the order to fire. Desaix’s division being entangled in a wood of palm-trees, was not completely formed when the swiftest of the Mamelukes came upon them; they were, in consequence, partially broken, and thirty or forty of the bravest of the assailants penetrated, and died in the midst of the square, at the feet of the officers: but before the mass arrived the movement was completed, and a rapid fire of musketry and grape drove them from the front round the sides of the column. With matchless intrepidity, they pierced through the interval between Desaix’s and Regnier’s divisions, and riding round both squares, strove to find an entrance; but an incessant fire from every front mowed them down as fast as they poured in at the opening. Furious at the unexpected resistance, they dashed their horses against the rampart of bayonets, and threw their pistols at the heads of the grenadiers, while many who had lost their steeds crept along the ground and cut at the legs of the front rank with their cimetars. In vain thousands succeeded, and galloped round the flaming walls of steel; multitudes perished under the rolling fire which, without intermission, issued from the ranks, and at length the survivors, in despair, fled towards the camp from whence they had issued. Here, however, they were charged in flank by Napoleon at the head of Dugua’s division, while those of Vial and Bon, on the extreme left, stormed the intrenchments. The most horrible confusion now reigned in the camp; the horsemen, driven in disorder, trampled under foot the infantry, who, panic-struck at the rout of the Mamelukes, on whom all their hopes were placed, abandoned their ranks, and rushed in crowds towards the boats to escape to the other side of the Nile. Numbers saved themselves by swimming, but a great proportion perished in the attempt. The Mamelukes, rendered desperate, seeing no possibility of escape in that direction, fell upon the columns who were approaching from the right, with their wings extended in order of attack; but they, forming square again with inconceivable rapidity, repulsed them with great slaughter, and drove them finally off in the direction of the Pyramids. The intrenched camp with all its artillery, stores, and baggage fell into the hands of the victors. Several thousands of the Mamelukes were drowned or killed; and of the formidable array which had appeared in such splendour in the morning, not more than 2500 escaped with Mourad Bey into Upper Egypt. The victors hardly lost 200 men in the action; and several days were occupied after it was over in stripping the slain of their magnificent appointments, or fishing up the rich spoils which encumbered the banks of the Nile.”

PYRENEES, BATTLE OF THE.--Fought, July 28th, 1813, between the British army, commanded by Wellington, and the French, commanded by Marshal Soult. The French were defeated, with great slaughter. After the battle of Vittoria, fought, June 21st, Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the British across the Ebro; a duty which he could not accomplish; for he was obliged to retreat into France, which was entered by the British, and he lost 20,000 men, in a series of engagements in the Pyrenees, which separate France from Spain, from July 25th to August 2nd, same year.

Q.

QUARTRE BRAS, BATTLE OF.--Fought, June 16th, 1815, between the French and English. The French were commanded by Marshal Ney, and the British by the Duke of Brunswick, the Prince of Orange, and Sir Thomas Picton. It was fought two days before Waterloo. The British fought, to maintain their position, with wonderful intrepidity, notwithstanding their inferiority in number, and the fatigue of marching all the preceding night. The gallant 42nd Regiment of Scotch Highlanders, or the Black Watch, suffered very severely in pursuit of a French division repulsed early in the morning, by cuirassiers being posted in ambush behind growing corn as high as the shoulders of the tallest men. In this battle, the Duke of Brunswick fell, whose death is alluded to in the well-known lines of Byron on the field of Waterloo.

QUEBEC.--Has been five times assaulted. Founded by the French in 1605. Reduced by the English, with all Canada, in 1626, and restored in 1632. Besieged again by the English, but without success, in 1711, but was taken, under Wolfe, September 13th, 1759. The following is a good account of the capture of the city, under the immortal Wolfe. Quebec was again besieged by the American General Montgomery, who was slain before it, December 31st, 1775, and the siege was raised early next year. Appended is also an account of the siege and death of the American General.

“Wolfe’s army, amounting to about 8000, was conveyed to the vicinity of Quebec by a fleet of vessels of war and transports, and landed, in two divisions, on the island of Orleans, on the 27th of June. The Marquis de Montcalm made vigorous preparations for defending Quebec. His armed force consisted of about 13,000 men, of whom six battalions were regulars, and the remainder well disciplined Canadian militia, with some cavalry and Indians. He ranged these forces from the River St. Charles, to the Falls of Montmorency, with the view of opposing the landing of the British.

“Wolfe first attempted the entrenchment of Montmorency, landing his troops under cover of the fire from the ships of war, but he was gallantly repulsed by the French. In consequence of this repulse, he sent dispatches to England, stating that he had doubts of being able to reduce Quebec during that campaign. His prospects, indeed, were not encouraging: the great stronghold kept up an incessant fire from its almost inaccessible position, bristling with guns, defended by a superior force, and inhabited by a hostile population. Above the city, steep banks rendered landing almost impossible; below, the country for eight miles was embarrassed by two rivers, many redoubts, and watchful Indians. A part of the fleet lay above the town, the remainder in the north channel, between the island of Orleans and Montmorency.

“Soon after this repulse, however, Wolfe roused his brave and vigorous spirit, called a council of war, and proposed, it is generally said, at the instigation of his second in command, General Townsend, to gain the heights of Abraham behind and above the city, commanding the weakest part of the fortress. The council acceded to this daring proposal, and their heroic commander commenced his preparations; in the meanwhile, making such active demonstrations against Montcalm’s position, that the French still believed it to be his main object.

“On the 11th of September, the greater part of the troops landed, and marched up the south shore opposite Quebec,--forded the river Etchemin--and embarked on board the men of war and transports which lay above the town. On the 12th, the ships of war sailed nine miles up the river, to Cap Rouge. This feint deceived Montcalm, and he detached De Bougainville, who, with his army of reserve, proceeded still farther up the river to prevent the English from landing. During the night, the English troops dropped silently down the river, with the current, in boats, and at four o’clock in the morning began to land.

“It is surprising how the troops contrived to land, as the French had posted sentries along the shore, to challenge boats and give the alarm. The first boat was questioned, when Captain Donald M‘Donald, one of Frazer’s Highlanders, who was perfectly well acquainted with the French language and customs, answered to “_Qui vive?_” which is their challenge, the word “_La France_”--when the sentinel demanded “_A quel régiment?_” the captain replied, “_De la Reine_,” which he knew by accident to be one of those commanded by De Bougainville. The soldier took it for granted that it was an expected convoy, and saying “_Passe_,” the boats proceeded without further question. One of the sentries more wary than the rest, running down to the water’s edge called out, “_Pourquoi est-ce que vous ne parlez pas plus haut?_” to which the captain answered in a soft tone of voice, “_Tais-toi, nous serons entendus_.” Thus cautioned, the sentry retired, and the boats proceeded without further altercation, and landed at the spot now celebrated as “Wolfe’s Cove.”

“General Wolfe was one of the first on shore, and on seeing the difficulty of ascending the precipice, observed familiarly to Captain M‘Donald, “I don’t believe there is any possibility of getting up, but you must do your endeavour.” Indeed the precipice here was so steep, that there seemed no possibility of scaling it, but the Highlanders, grasping the bushes which grew on its face ascended the woody precipice with courage and dexterity. They dislodged a small body of troops that defended a narrow path-way up the bank; and a few more mounting, the General drew up the rest in order as they arrived. With great exertion they reached the summit, and in a short time, Wolfe had his whole army drawn up in regular order on the plains above.

“Montcalm, struck with this unexpected movement, concluded, that unless Wolfe could be driven from this position, Quebec was lost. Hoping probably that only a detachment had as yet reached it, he lost his usual prudence and forbearance, and finding that his opponent had gained so much by hazarding all, he, with an infatuation for which it is difficult to account, resolved to meet the British army.

“He crossed the St. Charles on the 13th, sallying forth from a strong fortress without field artillery--without even waiting the return of Bougainville, who, with 2000 men, formed a corps of observation,--before he could concentrate his forces, advanced with haste and precipitation, and commenced a most gallant attack, when within about 250 yards of the English line. The English moved forward regularly, firing steadily, until within thirty or forty yards of the French, when they gave a general volley which did great execution. The English had only a light cannon, which the sailors had dragged up the heights with ropes. The sabre, therefore, and the bayonet decided the day. The agile Scotch Highlanders, with their stout claymores, served the purposes of cavalry, and the steady fire of the English Fusiliers compensated, in some degree, for the want of artillery.

“The heroism of Montcalm was as conspicuous as that of his illustrious opponent,--both headed their men,--both rushed with eagerness where the battle raged most fiercely. Often by their personal prowess and example did they change the fortune of the moment. Both were repeatedly wounded, but still fought on with enthusiasm. And, at last, both those gallant commanders fell mortally wounded, whilst advancing to the last deadly charge at the head of their respective columns.

“Wolfe was first wounded in the wrist. He immediately wrapped a handkerchief round his arm, and, putting himself at the head of his grenadiers, led them on to the charge. He was then struck with a second ball, but still pressed on, when, just as the enemy were about to give way, he received a third ball in the breast and groin, and sank. When they raised him from the ground, he tried with his faint hand to clear the death-mist from his eyes. He could not see how the battle went, and was sinking to the earth, when the cry “_They run!_” “_They run_;” arrested his fleeting spirit. “_Who run?_” asked the dying hero. “_The French_,” replied his supporter, “_they give way everywhere_.” “_What!_” said he, “_do they run already? now God be praised; I die happy!_” and so saying, the youthful victor breathed his last. Such was the death of Wolfe, at the early age of thirty-five, when but few men begin even to appear on the theatre of great events.”

DEATH OF GENERAL MONTGOMERY, ETC.

“The first Congress of what is now called “The United States,” met in Philadelphia, on the 5th of September, 1774. It is remarkable that one of their first objects, after obtaining their own independence, was to attempt to seize on the country they had assisted England to conquer. It is a singular fact that the money, which it was endeavoured to levy upon the New Englanders and their fellow-colonists, and which, in a great measure, caused the rupture, was for the express purpose of defraying the great expenses incurred by England in the capture of Canada.

Having resolved to invade Canada, the Americans entered it in the fall of 1775, in two directions--by Lake Champlain and by the sources of the Kennebec River. The first division, under General Montgomery, was very successful. After obtaining possession of Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and St. Johns, he advanced towards Montreal. His force was very considerable, while there were but few British soldiers in Canada. General Carleton, who succeeded General Murray in the military command, had been repulsed at Longueuil; so that Montgomery had only to take possession of the city, which he did on the 19th of November. The naval force in the river, and all the military stores and provisions, were surrendered into his hands, and General Prescott, with the volunteers and soldiers, became prisoners of war. Finding plenty of woollen cloth in the city, General Montgomery took the opportunity of new-clothing his troops, who had suffered much from the severity of the weather. The second division of the American army, under General Arnold, reached the St. Lawrence on the 9th of November. They had traversed, with dreadful fatigue, the forests and swamps in the District of Maine, and arrived at Point Levi, opposite Quebec, worn out and dispirited. Quebec was at this time defenceless; and had General Arnold been able to cross the river, that capital, and with it the territory of Canada, must have passed into the hands of the Americans. Fortunately all the shipping had been removed to the other side, and it was not until the 14th that he was able to cross over. He landed 500 men at Wolfe’s Cove, and waited near that place in the hope of being joined by Montgomery from Montreal. General Carleton, the British Governor, was at this time occupied, with his troops near Montreal, in endeavouring to repulse Montgomery. The latter wished to effect a junction with General Arnold, that they might unitedly attack the fortress. Perceiving that the safety of the country depended upon the possession of Quebec, Carleton effected a masterly movement to reach that place. In this, he was assisted by Captain Bouchette, R.N., who conveyed him through the American forces by night, in a canoe with muffled paddles. He arrived at the citadel of Quebec on the 19th, whilst the Americans thought him busily engaged with Montgomery, near Montreal.

General Carleton’s arrival at Quebec was hailed with great joy by the Canadians, who vied with the oldest British soldiers in preparations for defence. The force under his command amounted to only 1800 men. Not more than 350 were regulars--of whom 230 were Frazer’s Highlanders, who had settled in the country, and were re-embodied under Colonel McLean. The remainder were 450 seamen, and a gallant band composed of Canadian militia and artificers. The American Generals had now effected a junction of their forces, and summoned the fortress to surrender. This was at once rejected. After pushing the siege during the month of December, without any prospect of success, Montgomery determined upon making a night-attack. This intention soon became known to General Carleton, who made every preparation to defeat the enemy. The Governor, with the officers and gentlemen off duty, took up their quarters for several days at the Recollet Convent, where they slept in their clothes. During this month’s siege, the American riflemen kept up an unintermitting fire upon the sentinels, and threw from forty to fifty shells every night into the city. The inhabitants became so accustomed to the occurrences of a siege that they ceased to regard them with alarm, all joining cheerfully in bearing arms and performing the duty of soldiers. Two strong parties were formed on the 31st of December--one under Montgomery, the other under Arnold, whose local knowledge of Quebec was accurate. They were to advance from opposite sides and meet at the foot of Mountain street; then force Prescott gate and reach the Upper Town.

The besiegers approached the city with the most careful silence, aided by the raging of a furious storm. Advancing by the road which winds round the face of the rock, the army was crowded into the narrow pass which led to the gate. Notwithstanding every precaution the confused noise of the approaching troops rose above the conflict of the elements, and struck the watchful ear of the outer sentinel, who, receiving no answer to his challenge, roused the British guard. The party who defended the battery, consisted of Canadian militia, with nine British seamen to work the guns. They kept a close watch, and, as soon as the day broke, discovered the troops marching in the snow. Orders were given to make no movement; and the Americans, having halted at the distance of fifty yards, sent forward an officer to reconnoitre. On his return the troops marched forward with a quickness and precision deserving the highest praise. The English then opened a tremendous fire from the artillery which commanded the path; the groans which succeeded plainly revealed the enemy; and it was not until every sound in answer to their fire had died away, that they ceased their cannonade. The enemy having retired, thirteen bodies were found in the snow. Montgomery’s orderly sergeant, desperately wounded, but yet alive, was found and brought into the guard-room. On being asked if the General himself had been killed, he evaded the question by replying that he had not seen him for some time. This faithful sergeant died in about an hour afterwards. It was not ascertained that the American General had been killed, until General Carleton, anxious to learn the truth, sent to inquire if any of the prisoners would identify the body. An officer consenting accompanied the aide-de-camp to the “_Près de Ville_” guard, and pointed out the body, pronouncing over it a glowing eulogium on Montgomery’s bravery. His two aides-de-camp were also recognised among the slain. This brave man had fought by the side of Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham; but, marrying an American lady, the daughter of Judge Livingston, he imbibed the politics of his father-in-law’s family, and joined the cause of the colonists against the Mother Country. The excellence of his qualities and disposition procured him an uncommon share of private affection and esteem. After his death the Continental Congress ordered a magnificent cenotaph to be erected to his memory in St. Paul’s Church, N.Y. Thither his remains were removed in 1818, by the desire of his widow, and with the permission of the then British Governor, Sir John Sherbrooke. In the meantime, Arnold, who had been repulsed at the opposite side of the town, took the command, and attempted still to maintain his ground; but the dispirited state of his men rendered him unable to keep up more than an imperfect blockade at a distance of three miles, which he at last abandoned. In the whole attack upon Quebec the Americans lost about 100 killed and wounded, and six officers of Arnold’s division, inclusive of the loss at _Près de Ville_. The British had one officer and seventeen men killed and wounded. The number of those who surrendered was 426.”

QUEENSTON.--_Upper Canada._--This town, on the River Niagara, was taken by the United States troops in the American war of 1812, October 13th, but was retaken by the British, who defeated the Americans with loss. The following is a succinct account of the battle and death of general Brock, the Hero of Upper Canada:

WAR OF 1812 AND DEATH OF GEN. BROCK.

“The American Government assembled at the Niagara frontier a force of 6300 men; of this force, 3170 (900 of whom were regular troops) were at Lewiston, under the command of General Van Rensselaer. In the American reports this army is set down at 8000 strong, with 15 pieces of field ordnance. To oppose this force Major General Brock had part of the 41st and 49th regiments, a few companies of militia, and about 200 Indians, in all 1500 men; but so dispersed in different posts at and between Fort Erie and Fort George, that only a small number was available at any one point. Before daylight on the morning of the 13th of October, a large division of General Van Rensselaer’s army, numbering between 1300 and 1400, under Brigadier General Wadsworth, effected a landing at the lower end of the village of Queenston (opposite Lewiston), and made an attack upon the position, which was defended with the most determined bravery by the two flank companies of the 49th regiment, commanded by Captains Dennis and Williams, aided by such of the militia forces and Indians as could be collected in the vicinity. Captain Dennis marched his company to the landing place opposite Lewiston, and was soon followed by the light company of the 49th, and the few militia who could be hastily assembled. Here the attempt of the enemy to effect a passage, was for some time successfully resisted, and several boats were either disabled or sunk by the fire from the one-gun battery on the heights, and that from the masked battery, about a mile below. Several boats also were, by the fire from this battery, so annoyed, that falling before the landing place, they were compelled to drop down with the current and recross to the American side. A considerable force, however, effected a landing some distance above, and succeeded in gaining the summit of the mountain. No resistance could now be offered to the crossing from Lewiston, except by the battery at Vromont’s Point, half a mile below, and from this a steady and harassing fire was kept up, which did considerable execution.

At this juncture Sir Isaac Brock arrived. He had for days suspected this invasion, and on the preceding evening he called his staff together and gave to each the necessary instructions. Agreeable to his usual custom he rose before daylight, and hearing the cannonade, awoke Major Glegg, and called for his horse Alfred, which Sir James Craig had presented to him. He then galloped eagerly from Fort George to the scene of action, and with two Aides-de-Camp passed up the hill at full gallop in front of the light company, under a heavy fire of artillery and musketry from the American shore. On reaching the 18-pounder battery at the top of the hill, they dismounted and took a view of passing events, which at that moment appeared highly favourable. But in a few minutes a firing was heard, which proceeded from a strong detachment of American regulars under Captain Wool, who, as just stated, had succeeded in gaining the brow of the heights in rear of the battery, by a fisherman’s path up the rocks, which being reported as impossible, was not guarded. Sir Isaac Brock and his Aides-de-Camp had not even time to remount, but were obliged to retire precipitately with the twelve men stationed in the battery, which was quickly occupied by the enemy. Captain Wool having sent forward about 150 regulars, Captain Williams’ detachment of about 100 men advanced to meet them, personally directed by the General, who, observing the enemy waver, ordered a charge, which was promptly executed; but as the Americans gave way, the result was not equal to his expectations. Captain Wool sent a reinforcement to his regulars, notwithstanding which, the whole was driven to the edge of the bank. Here some of the American officers were on the point of hoisting a white flag with an intention to surrender, when Captain Wool tore it off and reanimated his dispirited troops. They now opened a heavy fire of musketry, and, conspicuous from his cross, his height, and the enthusiasm with which he animated his little band, the British Commander was soon singled out, and he fell about an hour after his arrival.

The fatal bullet entered his right breast, and passed through his left side. He had but that instant said, “_Push on the York Volunteers!_” and he lived only long enough to request that his fall might not be noticed, or prevent the advance of his brave troops, adding a wish which could not be distinctly understood, that some token of remembrance should be transmitted to his sister. He died unmarried, and on the same day, a week previously, he had completed his 43rd year. The lifeless corpse was immediately conveyed into a house close by, where it remained until the afternoon, unperceived by the enemy. His Provincial Aide-de-Camp, Lieutenant Colonel McDonell, of the militia, and the Attorney General of Upper Canada, a fine promising young man, was mortally wounded soon after his chief, and died the next day, at the early age of twenty-five years. Although one bullet had passed through his body, and he was wounded in four places, yet he survived twenty hours, and during a period of excruciating agony his thoughts and words were constantly occupied with lamentations for his deceased commander and friend. He fell, while gallantly charging up the hill, with 190 men, chiefly York Volunteers, by which charge the enemy was compelled to spike the 18-pounder in the battery there.

THE BATTLE OF QUEENSTON HEIGHTS.

At this time, about two in the afternoon, the whole British and Indian force thus assembled was about 1000 men, of whom 600 were regulars. In numbers the Americans were about equal--courage they had, but they wanted the confidence and discipline of British Soldiers. After carefully reconnoitering, General Sheaffe, who had arrived from Fort George, and who had now assumed the command, commenced the attack by an advance of his left flank, composed of the light company of the 41st, under Lieutenant McIntyre, supported by a body of militia and Indians. After a volley, the bayonet was resorted to, and the American right driven in. The main body now advanced under cover of the fire from the two 3-pounders, and after a short conflict forced the Americans over the first ridge of the heights to the road loading from Queenston to the Falls. The fight was maintained on both sides with courage truly heroic. The British regulars and militia charged in rapid succession, until they succeeded in turning the left flank of the enemy’s column, which rested on the summit of the hill. The Americans who attempted to escape into the woods were quickly driven back by the Indians; and many cut off in their return to the main body, and terrified by the sight of these exasperated warriors, flung themselves wildly over the cliffs, and endeavoured to cling to the bushes which grew upon them; but some, losing their hold, were dashed frightfully on the rocks beneath; while others, who reached the river, perished in their attempts to swim across it. The event of the day no longer appeared doubtful.

Major-General Van Rensselaer, commanding the American army, perceiving his reinforcements embarking very slowly, recrossed the river to accelerate their movements; but, to his utter astonishment, he found that at the very moment when their services were most required, the ardour of the unengaged troops had entirely subsided. He rode in all directions through the camp, urging his men by every consideration, to pass over. Lieutenant-Colonel Bloome, who had been wounded in the action and recrossed the river, together with Judge Peck, who happened to be in Lewiston at the time, mounted their horses and rode through the camp, exhorting the companies to proceed, but all in vain. Crowds of the United States militia remained on the American bank of the river, to which they had not been marched in any order, but ran as a mob; not one of them would cross. They had seen the wounded recrossing, they had seen the Indians; and they had seen the “Green Tigers,” as they called the 49th, from their green facings, and were panic struck. There were those to be found in the American ranks who, at this critical juncture, could talk of the Constitution, and the right of the militia to refuse crossing the imaginary line which separates the two countries. General Van Rensselaer having found that it was impossible to urge a single man to cross the river to reinforce the army on the Heights, and that army having nearly expended its ammunition, boats were immediately sent to cover their retreat; but a desultory fire which was maintained upon the ferry from a battery on the bank at the lower end of Queenston, completely dispersed the boats, and many of the boatmen relanded and fled in dismay. Brigadier-General Wadsworth was, therefore, compelled, after a vigorous conflict had been maintained for some time upon both sides, to surrender himself, all his officers, and 900 men, between three and four o’clock in the afternoon. The loss of the British army was 16 killed and 69 wounded; while that on the side of the Americans was not less than 900 men, made prisoners, and one gun and two colours taken, and 90 killed and about 100 wounded. But amongst the killed of the British army, the government and the country had to deplore the loss of one of their bravest and most zealous Generals, in Sir Isaac Brock, and one whose memory will long live in the warmest affections of every Canadian and British subject. The country had also to deplore the loss of the eminent services and talents of Lieutenant-Colonel McDonell, whose gallantry and merit rendered him worthy of his chief.

The gratitude of the people of Canada to the memory of Brock was manifested in an enduring form. They desired to perpetuate the memory of the hero who had been the instrument of their deliverance, and they were not slow in executing their design; and whilst his noble deeds were still fresh in the memory of all, the Provincial Legislature erected a lofty column on the Queenston Heights, near the spot where he fell. The height of the monument, from the base to the summit, was 135 feet; and from the level of the Niagara River, which runs nearly under it, 485 feet. The monument was a Tuscan column, on rustic pedestal with a pedestal for a statue; the diameter of the base of the column was 17½ feet and the abacus of the capital was surmounted by an iron railing. The centre shaft, containing the spiral staircase, was 10 feet in diameter.

On Good Friday, the 17th of April, 1840, a vagabond of the name of Lett, introduced a quantity of gunpowder into the monument with the fiendish purpose of destroying it, and the explosion, effected by a train, caused so much damage us to render the column altogether irreparable. Lett had been compelled to fly into the United States for his share in the rebellion of 1837, and well knowing the feeling of attachment to the name and memory of General Brock, which pervaded all classes of Canadians, he sought to gratify his malicious and vindictive spirit, and at the same time to wound and insult the people of Canada by this atrocious deed.

He afterward met with some meed of his deserts in the State Prison at Auburn, New York.

After the first monument had remained in the dilapidated condition, to which it was reduced, for some years, a new and beautiful column was a short time ago raised on its site. It is thus described: “Upon the solid rock is built a foundation 40 feet square and 10 feet thick of massive stone; upon this, the structure stands in a grooved plinth or sub-basement 38 feet square and 27 feet in height, and has an eastern entrance by a massive oak door and bronze pateras, forming two galleries to the interior 114 feet in extent, round the inner pedestal on the North and South sides of which, in vaults under the ground floor, are deposited the remains of General Brock, and those of his Aide-de-Camp, Colonel McDonell, in massive stone sarcophagi. On the exterior angles of the sub-basement are placed lions rampant 7 feet in height, supporting shields with the armorial bearings of the hero: The column is of the Roman composite order, 95 feet in height, a fluted shaft, 10 feet diameter at the base; the loftiest column known of this style; the lower part enriched with laurel leaves, and the flutes terminating on the base with palms.”

The height from the ground to the top of the statue is 190 feet, exceeding that of any monumental column, ancient or modern, known, with the exception of that on Fish-street Hill, London, England, by Sir Christopher Wren, architect, in commemoration of the great fire of 1666, 202 feet high, which exceeds it in height by 12 feet.”

QUESNOY, BATTLE OF.--Fought, September 11th, 1773, between the French and British, in which the British were defeated, with some loss. Taken by the Austrians in 1793, but recovered by the French the following year. It surrendered to Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, after the battle of Waterloo.

QUIBERON BAY.--A British force landed here in 1736, and was repulsed. In this Bay Admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over the French, under Conflans. This most perilous and important action defeated the French invasion, November 10th 1758. Taken by some French regiments in pay of the British, July 3rd, 1795; but on July 21st, retaken by the French Republicans. About 900 of the troops and near 1500 Royalist inhabitants effected their escape on board the ships.

R.

RAMILIES, BATTLE OF.--Between the English and Allies, commanded by Marlborough, on the one side, and the French, commanded by the Elector of Bavaria and the Marshal de Villeroy. The French, having no confidence in their Commander, were soon seized with a panic, and a general rout ensued. About 4000 of the Allied army were slain. Fought on Whitsunday, May 26th, 1706.

“The year following the victory of Blenheim was, for the most part, wasted in the struggles of Marlborough with his enemies at home, and with the dilatory and uncertain course of the allies of England abroad. He succeeded in forcing the French lines in Flanders; but the fruits of this great achievement were snatched from him by the constant backwardness of the Dutch Generals, who opposed every measure which was urged by him. So grieved was he by their continual opposition, that on one occasion, when the opportunity of a brilliant success was thus lost, he exclaimed, “I feel at this moment ten years older than I was four years ago.” In fact, towards the end of what he had hoped to make a glorious campaign, but which through this opposition had been lost in disputes, he fell seriously ill, and was obliged to retire for a time from active employment.

Meanwhile, the Imperial government had begun to show signs of jealousy and uneasiness that this great General should be employed in Flanders, and in the defence of Holland, instead of recovering the Austrian possessions on the Rhine, and liberating Lorraine. Pressing applications were made that the Duke, instead of prosecuting the war in Belgium, would return to the Moselle, and co-operate with the Imperial forces in that quarter. Taking his departure from the army at the end of October, 1705, Marlborough set out for Vienna, which he reached on the 12th of November. Here the Emperor Joseph created him a Prince of the Empire, and conferred on him the lordship of Mindelheim. But which gave him far more satisfaction, he succeeded in reconciling all differences, and in cementing the alliance, which seemed in danger of dissolution, between Austria, Prussia, and the Netherlands, against the ambitious designs of France. He then returned to the Hague, which he reached on the 11th of December, proceeding thence to London, which he reached early in the new year.

On the 25th of April, 1706, he again arrived at the Hague for the

## active duties of the approaching campaign. This year’s warfare

began at an earlier period than the previous ones, for the French General, with commendable zeal and activity, took the field in the spring, forced the German lines on the Motter, reduced Dreisenheim and Hagenau, and threatened the Palatinate. The Duke, therefore, left the Hague on the 9th May, the Dutch being now anxious to retain him with them, and offering him uncontrolled power over their forces. Accompanied by Overkirk, he passed through Rimemont, and reached Maestricht on the 12th. Here he reviewed the Dutch troops, and began to take measures for an attack on Namur. But Villeroy received orders from Paris rather to risk a battle than to give up this important place. Hence, in the third week in May, the two armies began to approach each other.

Villeroy and the Elector of Bavaria passed the Dyle, and approached Tirlemont. Their combined forces amounted to about 62,000 men. The Duke, with his English, joined the Dutch at Bilsen on the 20th of May, and on the 22nd he had intelligence of the arrival of the Danish contingent, which raised the strength of his army to about 60,000 men. His first desire, now, was to learn the position of the enemy, and how best to come in contact with them. The field of battle ultimately proved to be in an elevated part of the plain of Brabant, lying between Maestricht, Louvain, and Namur. The village of Ramilies itself is but a few miles to the east of Wavre, the position of Marshal Blucher on the morning of the day of Waterloo.

On the 23rd of May, then, in 1706, the English, Dutch, and Danish army, commencing their march early in the morning, came in sight, about eight o’clock, of the Franco-Bavarian outposts. A fog for some time made everything obscure, but about ten o’clock the two armies stood in presence of each other. The French commander had formed his order of battle with the skill which experience generally gives; but he was opposed by a greater commander, whose eye speedily detected the weaknesses of his position.

The French and Bavarians were drawn up on ground which, by its nature, gave their order of battle a concave form. Thus the attacking enemy would have the advantage of being able to bring his men more rapidly from one side to the other, as required. The left wing of the French, also, though strongly posted, was in a position from which it could not easily move. Marlborough, therefore, was not long in forming his plan, which was, to turn the enemy’s right wing; to seize an elevated position in the rear of that wing, and from that position to outflank the whole army.

He therefore began a feigned attack, by his own right wing, upon the left of the French. Villeroy immediately met this, as Marlborough intended, by sending for fresh troops from his centre, and by weakening his right. Pausing in his apparent attack, Marlborough promptly moved to the left all the infantry that were out of sight of the French, and fell upon the enemy’s right wing, which was posted in Tavieres.

The attack succeeded, and Tavieres was carried. Villeroy, finding out his mistake, hurried his squadron of dragoons to the succour of his right wing; but these squadrons were met by the Danish cavalry emerging from Tavieres, and they were all cut to pieces, or driven into the Mehaigne.

And now Ramilies itself, in the centre, became the object of attack. The Duke ordered up from his own right wing every available squadron, and exposed himself much in leading the attack. He was, at one moment, thrown from his horse, and in danger of being made prisoner. While he was remounting, a cannon-ball killed his equerry, Captain Bingfield, who was assisting him.

But now the allied cavalry had reached the height of Ottomond, in the rear of the French position, and the success of the attack was secured. The French were in utter confusion in all parts of the field, and Ramilies itself was carried. There remained only the left wing of Villeroy’s army; and this, attacked now by the reserves on Marlborough’s right, and by the victorious troops which had cleared Ramilies, gave way as evening drew on, rushed in crowds down the descent behind their position, and fled for Judoigne. The cannon and baggage fell into the hands of the victors, who pursued the flying French and Bavarians until two o’clock in the morning. The allied army did not halt in its pursuit till past midnight, when it had advanced to Meldert, five leagues from the field of battle, and two from Louvian.

This battle cost the Franco-Bavarian army 13,000 men, in killed, wounded, and prisoners: among whom were the Princes of Soubise and Rohan, and a son of Marshal Tallard. The spoils of the day consisted of 80 colours and standards taken from the French; nearly all their artillery, and all the baggage which was in the field. The loss of the Allies was 1066 killed, and 2567 wounded. The vast difference between this, and the loss sustained at Blenheim, shows that the victory of Ramilies was gained by the Duke’s masterly manœuvres; and was not owing merely to the courage of the soldiers.

The results of the battle of Ramilies were very great. Louvain instantly surrendered; Brussels received the Duke with open arms on the 28th. Mechlin, Alost, and Lierre, quickly followed. All Brabant was gained by this one victory. Nor was this all. Flanders caught the infection. Ghent opened its gates on the 1st of June; and Antwerp surrendered a few days afterwards. Ostend fell on the 6th of July; and in its harbour were taken two men-of-war, and 45 smaller vessels.”

RATHMINES, BATTLE OF.--_In Ireland._--Colonel Jones, Governor of Dublin Castle, made a sally, August 2nd, 1649, and routed the Marquis of Ormond, killed 4000 men and took 2517 prisoners, with their cannon, baggage and ammunition. This battle, and other successes, completely discomfited the rebels in this part of Ireland.

RAVENNA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, April 11th, 1512, between the French, under the great Gaston de Foix, Duke of Nemours, and nephew of Louis XII, and the Spanish and Papal armies. De Foix, gained this memorable battle, but perished in the moment of victory, and the French fortunes in Italy were thus closed. The confederate army was cut to pieces. The Duke had performed prodigies of valor, but being too eager in his pursuit of the Spaniards, who were retiring in good order, he was slain.

REVOLUTION.--The Great Revolution which overturned the old Monarchy of France occurred at the close of the last century. The 2nd, the one here described sent Charles X into exile and was somewhat like that of 1848 which also exiled Louis Philippe.

SECOND FRENCH REVOLUTION.

“The political history of 1830 commenced on March 2nd, by a speech from the throne, announcing war against Algiers for the insults offered to the French flag, and a wish for a reconciliation with the Bragazana family.

This caused great dissatisfaction; the funds fell, the Chamber of Deputies were against the measure, and on the 19th were convoked till August 3rd, and several fires took place, evidently the work of incendiaries.

On the 25th July, Polignac addressed a report to the king on “legitimate power,” and which formed the ground-work of three memorable ordinances, which were signed on that day by Charles, and countersigned by the ministers.

The first ordinance abolished the freedom of the press; the second dissolved the Chamber of Deputies; and the third abrogated the most important rights of the elective franchise.

On the publication of the _Moniteur_ on the following morning, all Paris was astounded by the mystifying report of the ministers of Charles X and the king’s arbitrary decrees. The _Rentes_ fell, and the bank stopped payment.

All work was now abandoned, every manufactory closed, and detachments of artisans with large sticks traversed the streets. Troops of gendarmes patrolled the streets at full gallop to disperse the accumulating crowds. The people were silent; and at an early hour the shops were closed. Early on the 27th, troops of the royal guard and soldiers of the line came pouring in. The people looked sullen and determined. The chief points of rendezvous were the Palais Royal, the Palais de Justice, and the Bourse. Here were simultaneous cries of “_Viva la Charte!_”--“Down with the absolute king!” but no conversation--no exchange of words with each other. The King was at the Tuilleries. In the Place Carousel there was a station of several thousands of the military, including the lancers of the royal guard, with a great number of cannon. At the Place Vendome a strong guard of infantry was stationed around the column, to guard the ensigns of royalty upon it from being defaced. Crowds of people assembled, and several skirmishes took place.

On Wednesday morning, July 28th, the shops of Paris were closely shut, and the windows fastened and barred, as if the inhabitants of the city were in mourning for the dead, or in apprehension of approaching calamity. The tocsin sounded, and the people flocked in from the fauxbourgs and different quarters of the city. That determined enemy to oppression, the press, had been at work during the night. Handbills were profusely distributed, containing vehement philippics against the king and his ministers, and summoning every man to arm for his country, and to aid in ejecting the Bourbons. Placards were constantly posted up and eagerly read. During the preceding night an organisation of the people had been arranged. All the arms that could be found at the theatres, and remaining in the shops of armourers that had not been visited the evening before, were seized and distributed. Every other kind of property, however, was respected.

Strong detachments guarded the different hotels of the ministers. Loud cries and shouts were constantly heard, of “Down with the Jesuits!”--“Down with the Bourbons!” “Death to the Ministers!” Each man strove to provide himself with a musket, a pistol, a sword, a pole with a knife, or some cutting instrument to form a weapon of offence. Troops continually arrived from St. Denis, St. Cloud, and other military stations. Rude barricades were hastily thrown up in different places, to prevent the attacks of cavalry. Several telegraphs, including that on the Church des Petits Peres, were dismounted. Groups of the people, armed with sticks, bayonets, pikes, and muskets, removed or effaced all the insignia and emblems of royalty. A red flag was hoisted on the gate of St. Denis, amidst the shouts of the people. Tri-coloured flags were promenaded in the streets, and tri-coloured cockades and breast-knots were worn, not only by the French, but by the English and foreigners of all nations. The royal arms, and other ensigns of the government of Charles X that were moveable, were burned in the Place Publique. All Paris was in insurrection. Every movement of the people portended a terrible conflict. The government reposed in security upon a blind and implacable dignity.

M. Lafitte had an interview with Polignac, who said “that the ministers could enter into no compromise or concession.” “We have, then, civil war,” said Lafitte. The prince bowed, and Lafitte retired.

As soon, however, as Polignac’s answer was made known, that “ministers would enter into no compromise or concession,” war, and war to the knife, commenced; and never were witnessed more heroic acts of personal bravery, and more generous disregard of selfish feelings, than were displayed by the citizens of Paris on this memorable day and night. The drums of the national guards soon beat “to arms!” The populace answered the call amid the incessant ringing of the tocsin, and the struggle began in earnest. About two o’clock a cannon on the bridge near the Marche aux Fleurs raked with grape-shot the quay, while the troops were resolutely attacked by the people, and numbers of the guards led off, killed or wounded.

There was a tremendous conflict in La Halle, the great market-place of the Rue St. Denis. The royal guard were early in possession of it. All the outlets were speedily closed by barricades, from behind which, from the corners of the various streets, and from the windows of the houses, the people fired on the guards, and there was a terrible slaughter on both sides. The hottest engagement seems to have been in the Rue St. Honoré, opposite the Palais Royal, where the military were assembled in great force, and the people resisted their assailants with desperate determination.

At the Place de Grêve they fiercely contended with the household troops, the Swiss guards, and compelled them to fly with great loss. In the Rue Montmartre an attack was made by the duke of Ragusa in person. During part of the day the Place des Victoires was occupied by some troops, among whom was a part of the fifth regiment of the line, who had gone over to the national guards established at the Petits Peres. About two o’clock the duke de Ragusa arrived at the place at the head of fresh troops. He drew them up opposite the Rues du Mail, des Fosses, Montmartre, Croix des Petits Champs, and Neuve des Petits Champs. He immediately commanded a charge, and on both sides hundreds of men were killed. The marshal directed his troops down the Rue du Mail, and they scoured the Rue Montmartre without much difficulty till they reached the Rue Joquelet, where the people were prepared. Each house was armed and guarded. The black flag was displayed on the Porte St. Denis and other edifices.

As soon as the firing ceased, the people made preparations for the next day by strengthening the barricades and increasing their number. They were assisted by women and even children. The remainder of the afternoon and evening, and the whole of the night, was spent in raising these important obstacles to the evolutions of cavalry. Excellent materials were at hand in the paving-stones; they were dug up and piled across the streets in walls breast high, and four or five feet thick. These walls were about fifty paces distant from each other. Hundreds of the finest trees were cut down for blockades. Nothing could be more effective for the defence of a large open town like Paris, traversed in every direction by long narrow streets, overlooked by houses of six, seven, and eight stories, than such barriers, scientifically constructed. All the means that industry and ingenuity could devise, in so short a time, were carried into execution, for the energetic stand and assault determined to be made against the military in the morning.

At day-break on Thursday the tocsin sounded “To arms;” and the people began to assemble rapidly and in great crowds. The military, whose guard-houses had been destroyed, were chiefly quartered at the Louvre and the Tuilleries, the Swiss and the royal guards being posted in the houses of the Rue St. Honoré and the adjacent streets. At the same time, the students of the Polytechnic School joined the citizens nearly to a man; they then separated, proceeding singly to different parts to take the command of the people, and nobly repaid the confidence reposed in them. The garden of the Tuilleries was closed. In the Place du Carousel were three squadrons of lancers of the garde royale, a battalion of the third regiment of the guards, and a battery of six pieces, also belonging to the guards.

About one o’clock in the afternoon, a party of the royal guards and of Swiss, to the number of nearly 800 men, appeared on the Place de Grêve. A brisk fire commenced, but the national guards not being in sufficient strength, were obliged to give ground and to suffer the royal guards to take possession of their post. The royal guards had scarcely made themselves masters of the Hotel de Ville, when they were assailed on all sides with a shower of bullets from the windows of the houses on the Place de Grêve and in the streets abutting on the quay. The royal guards resisted vigorously, but were ultimately compelled to retreat along the quay; their firing by files and by platoons succeeding each other with astonishing rapidity. They were soon joined by fresh troops of the royal guard and of Swiss, including 100 cuirassiers of the guard and four pieces of artillery, each of them escorted by a dozen of artillerymen on horseback. With this terrible reinforcement they again advanced on the Hotel de Ville, and a frightful firing began on all sides. The artillery debouching from the quay, and their pieces charged with cannister shot, swept the Place de Grêve in a terrific manner. They succeeded in driving the citizens into the Rues de Matriot and du Mouton, and entered for the second time that day into their position at the Hotel de Ville. But their possession of it did not continue long; for they were soon again attacked with a perseverance and courage which was almost irresistible. Their artillery ranged before the Prefecture of the Seine and the Hotel de Ville threatened death to thousands.

Hundreds of the constitutionalists were killed by the fire of the Swiss guard from the windows of this edifice. It was erected in 1600, and though it does not appear to possess any of the characteristics of strength in a military sense of the word, yet its gates, being of immense thickness, furnished a good defence from the musketry of the attacking parties. The Hotel de Ville was afterwards employed as the head-quarters of La Fayette and the provisional government.

The Rue St. Honoré, for two days, was a perpetual scene of slaughter. The Louvre, except the picture-gallery, was on all sides attacked and defended at the same moment, and for hours. In the court of the Louvre a field-piece was planted, which commanded the Pont des Arts, being exactly opposite the Institute. Here the fighting was so dreadful and so maintained, that the front of the building of the Institute was completely covered with muskets and grape shot. One cannon ball smashed a portion of the wall, and from its elevation did dreadful execution in sweeping the bridge. The attack on the Tuilleries was over in two or three hours. A young man marched with a tri-coloured flag at the head of the attacking bourgeois. A thousand balls, fired from the front of the chateau, whistled by him without touching him. He continued to march with perfect _sangfroid_, but with, at the same time, an air of importance, up to the triumphal arch, and remained until the end of the battle.

While the people and the military were combating at the Place de Grêve, the Louvre, and the Tuilleries, troops were arriving by the Champs Elysees. A great party of the people, and many national guards, with two pieces of cannon, were hastening along near the Place Louis XVI towards the Barrier St. Etoile, when a largo troop of dragoons arrived, made a desperate charge, and cut down the people without mercy who made a very bold stand. Many of the soldiers solemnly vowed that they would not continue to obey orders to massacre their brothers and sons. Their numbers were thinned, they were fatigued, disheartened, discomfited, beaten, and fled. At Chaillot, a district of Paris, verging on the route to St. Cloud, the inhabitants, though few in number, sustained the fire of five regiments of the guards, who attempted to effect their retreat by the barrier of Passy. At length, all the royal troops left the capital by the way of the Champs Elysees, and in their retreat were fired upon by the people.

At night, part of the town was illuminated, particularly the streets of St. Denis, St. Martin, St. Jacques, and the neighbourhood of the Hotel de Ville. Perfect tranquillity prevailed throughout the city. Strong patroles silently paraded the streets, passed gently from barricade to barricade, and disarmed individuals whom fatigue and the heat of the weather, more than wine, had rendered incapable of employing their weapons usefully.

A deputation from Charles X at St. Cloud, arrived at the Hotel de Ville early in the morning. It consisted of the marquis de Rastoret, chancellor of France; M. Semonville; and count d’Argout, peer of France. They announced that Charles had named the duke de Mortemart president of the council, and that he was willing to accept a ministry chosen by him.

At eleven o’clock, the deputies and peers then in Paris assembled in their respective halls, and established regular communications with each other. The duke de Mortemart was introduced to the chamber of deputies, and delivered four ordinances, signed, the previous day, by Charles X. One of them recalled the fatal ordinances of the 25th; another convoked the chambers on the 3rd; the third appointed the duke de Mortemart president of the council, and the fourth appointed count Gerard minister of war, and M. Casimir-Perier minister of finance. The reading of these ordinances was listened to with the greatest attention. At the termination profound silence continued;--no observation was made;--the deputies passed to other business.--The duke de Mortemart returned to acquaint his master that he was no longer acknowledged as king of France. The manner in which the duke and his communications were received by the deputies, was an announcement that Charles X had ceased to reign.

On the 31st, the deputies published a proclamation, declaring that they had invited the duke of Orleans to become Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. At noon of the same day, Louis Philippe d’Orleans issued a proclamation, declaring that he had hastened to Paris, wearing the “glorious colours” of France, to accept the invitation of the assembled deputies to become Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. A proclamation of the same date appointed provisional commissaries for the different departments of government. The king, with his family, escaped to St. Cloud.

On the 3rd of August the chambers met, when the abdication of Charles was announced; and on the 9th, Louis Philippe, having taken the prescribed oath, was created king, under the title of “King of the French.”

Thus terminated this desperate struggle for popular rights, and which has no parallel in the annals of history. The Parisians left their homes to fight, without organization and almost without arms, against some of the best troops in the world;--and for what? Were they a rabble driven by hunger, or a rebellious nobility endeavouring to wrest new privileges from the monarch? No: they were men who, animated with an ardent desire to be free, would not suffer themselves to be stripped of their civil rights, but firmly and manfully defended them with their lives. It was in this respect a great moral revolution, and forms a brilliant epoch in the annals of the world.”

RETREAT OF THE GREEKS.--Whoever has read the beautiful descriptions of Xenophon, has read of the memorable retreat of the 10,000 Greeks. It happened B.C. 401, after the battle of Cunaxa; Xenophon was chosen commander. He rose superior to danger, and though under continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops of mountains, till he could rest secure for a while, and refresh his tired companions. At last they returned home, after a retreat of 1155 parasangs or leagues, which was performed in 215 days,--and after an absence of 15 months.

RIDGEWAY, BATTLE OF, OR LIME RIDGE.--Fought, Saturday, June 2nd, 1866, between the Canadian Volunteers of Toronto and Hamilton, and the Fenians, a lawless band of predatory scoundrels, who wantonly invaded Canada, and were driven back by Canada’s brave sons. The following succinct account is from the pen of the Rev. D. Inglis, D.D., of Hamilton, who was present in the engagement.

“Rev. Mr. Burwash and myself were appointed by a number of the ministers of this city to join the 13th Battalion of Hamilton volunteers, and to render them such assistance as might be in our power. The shadows of night had just given way to the bright light of that June morning when we reached Port Colborne and joined the battalion in the cars, a few minutes before the train left for Ridgeway. Much has been written on the proper rations and equipments for the men, and I only refer to this with the view of noticing the want of shoulder-straps with which to fasten the overcoats on the back of the soldiers, and the fact that they were obliged to roll them up and sling them over their right shoulders, under their left arm-pits, an expedient which afterwards greatly impeded them in aiming and firing, and caused them to abandon their overcoats when going into battle.

The train proceeded slowly to Ridgeway, where the men left the cars and were drawn up on the Stevensville road. The Queen’s Own were in the front, then came the 13th Battalion, and a company of riflemen from Caledonia forming the rear-guard. The men were in good spirits, and I could not look without admiration upon the coolness and intrepidity with which these volunteer soldiers, many of them mere lads, prepared for the advance. The ammunition was distributed to the men, the order given to load with ball cartridge, and then followed an interval of suspense and waiting. The sensation of relief was great when after some minutes of anxiety and impatience the order to advance was given. The position assigned to the waggon containing the ammunition, &c., in which Mr. Burwash and myself were riding, was immediately behind the main body, and in front of the rear guard. When about a mile and a half from Ridgeway several companies of the Queen’s Own were ordered into the fields and woods to clear them of Fenians--and in a short time the first shot was fired--and then in a rapid succession we saw small clouds of blue smoke issuing from the woods, telling us of a rapid discharge of musketry before the reports reached our ears. The sergeants in charge concluded to halt with their waggon, and Mr. Burwash and myself hurried on in the rear of our main body. The Fenian skirmishers fell back upon the main body of their force, who were drawn up in an entrenched position along the Fort Erie road. They had converted a stone wall and the ordinary snake-fences into barricades, and held a strong position; but on the advance of our forces, fearing lest our skirmishers should out-flank them, they retired in good order, and amid rapid firing, to a slightly elevated piece of ground covered with thick woods, some distance in their rear. It was in this advance that Ensign McEachren was mortally wounded. It has been stated that Colonel Booker rushed to the rear calling for a surgeon. I am in a position positively to deny this; the cry for a surgeon was heard by me, but it did not come from the Colonel. Mr. McEachren was borne to the rear by some men of his company, accompanied by the Captain, a noble fellow, whose name I do not know, to whom I at once introduced myself as a minister, and offered to do all I could for his friend. He thanked me with tears in his eyes, and hastened back to the post of danger. Dr. May was in attendance; but a glance at the wound shewed that it was mortal--and it fell to me to inform him of the fact. He received the intelligence as a Christian soldier--informing me that his faith rested in the Lord Jesus Christ. I prayed with him, and after a few moments’ conversation I mentioned Mr. Burwash’s name, and finding that he was an old parishioner of Mr. Burwash, I left him mainly to his care--though I several times spent a few moments with him afterwards. I then returned to the battle-field to see if I could be of use there. Our forces had advanced, throwing out their skirmishers right and left of the skirmishers--Queen’s Own--to the extreme right--13th battalion--the distance was probably a little more than three-quarters of a mile. Not a Fenian was to be seen, but as our brave soldiers advanced, nearer and nearer, there came again first a single shot, and then a rapid discharge of fire-arms along the whole line. From their elevated position, or from what other cause, I know not, the shots went over the heads of our men, and I could see them striking the field behind. I hastened back to the hospital with feelings of admiration for the brave fellows who, exposed to a terrible fire from an unseen foe, so nobly stood their ground, while the sharp crack of their rifles assured me that the gallant fellows were doing their duty amidst those showers of bullets, in spite of all the manifest disadvantages of their position; but I could not rid myself of a feeling of depression and anxiety when I thought of the result.

In the hospital I found a few men slightly wounded. One of them told me there were no litters with which to bear the wounded from the field. I set the men who were on guard to work to make litters with some poles which we found near--and such sheets and blankets as I could lay my hands on--and returned to the field with the men carrying the litters. I took my old position, from which I had a full view of the whole field, and was startled to notice strange movements going on among our men. They had halted--the whole line trembled--I do not mean that the brave men trembled, but there was a movement along their line which I find no other word to describe. The order to receive cavalry was given, and an effort was made to obey it. Then another and another order. The only one which the men seemed eager to obey was the one to advance, and then came the fatal bugle’s notes that told them to retreat, and our men began to fall back. I hurried to the hospital and told the Doctor and Mr. Burwash that I feared the day was against us, but said I would return to the field while they made the necessary preparations to remove the sick and wounded from a place which should soon be the very centre of the battle. When I again reached my old post of observation a shower of bullets fell around me, and before I got back to the hospital, a number of men belonging to the Queen’s Own had got between me and the house. These were quickly followed by a large number of the 13th Battalion, and I was forced to leave without again communicating with my friends. I soon found, however, that the Doctor and his wounded men, as well as Mr. Burwash, had got safely out of that terrible fire.

The descriptions given of the retreat, are, for the most part greatly exaggerated. Some men, it is true, ran away in terror, but the main body, though in confusion, were not panic-stricken. The feeling was one of vexation, and at the very moment when they expected victory, all had unaccountably gone wrong with them. Tears were shed, but they were tears wrung from brave men at the bitter thought of being called to retreat before their foes. In the rear, Major Skinner, with a number of men belonging to the 13th and the Queen’s Own, kept in good order, and so effectually covered our retreat, that the enemy were unaware of the disorder in which the main body were retiring. Beyond all doubt, we were at this point saved from further disaster by the coolness and steadiness of Major Skinner, and the officers and men who were with him.

At Ridgeway the confused and scattered mass of men who got into order through the exertions of a Toronto officer whose name I have been told is Captain Arthurs, and who certainly discharged his duty in a way that marked him out as a man able to control and lead others.

I have refrained from all criticism of the conduct of the officers on whom the responsibilities of this matter lie. I know nothing of military tactics, and it does not become me to say anything of why this little band of volunteers should have been led into a conflict with superior numbers of trained and veteran soldiers without support from artillery or the regulars--it is not my part to say what the commanding officer should or should not have done. This only I am bound to say, that the officers and men of the Queen’s Own and 13th Battalion, behaved throughout the battle with coolness and gallantry--and even the unfortunate retreat only brought out more clearly that, with few exceptions, they were men of unflinching courage. The hospital, no less than the battle-field proved the noble courage of our men, and it would have moved the stoutest heart to tears, to see those boy-heroes suffering as they did, without a murmur or a groan.

Major Gilmore, of the Queen’s Own, and Major Skinner, of the 13th, distinguished themselves greatly, their words of command inspiring their men with courage--while they themselves were steady as rocks under the hottest fire. Indeed, but for Major Skinner’s coolness and power over the men under his command, the retreat of Ridgeway must have resulted in fearful consequences.”

RIFLE PITS, CONTEST AT THE.--_Crimean war._ “The bombardment was re-opened on Easter Monday, the 9th April, soon after daybreak. Heavy rain fell all day, and the dense atmosphere prevented our men from observing the effect of the fire. This time the fleets did not share in the bombardment. At the close of the day, it was evident that our weight of metal, though greatly superior to that employed on the occasion of the first bombardment in October, was yet inadequate to the task of destroying the colossal works of the enemy. In vain our artillery pounded the earthworks and batteries. In vain showers of shell were poured into the town. The Russian engineers proved themselves consummate masters of their art, and every morning fresh guns poured forth a deadly reply from the repaired embrasures. Their resources seemed literally inexhaustible, and their courage was fully equal to the occasion. For more than a week the tremendous bombardment continued, and notwithstanding the intensity of the fire from the French and English batteries, comparatively little effect was produced. In the meanwhile both armies worked assiduously at the trenches. The French succeeded in carrying their parallels yet nearer to the Mamelon, a large rounded hill in front of the Malakoff Tower, and covered with rifle pits and earthworks; while the English gradually extended their lines towards the formidable Redan. Their great difficulty lay in forming a trench which should connect the zigzags leading on the right towards the Malakoff, and on the left towards the Redan. In order to obstruct the formation of this work, the enemy established a series of rifle-pits which enfiladed the new parallel, and whence considerable loss was inflicted upon our working parties. In addition to the fire from the rifle-pits, the enemy brought down a 12-pounder gun which swept our trenches, and effectually hindered the progress of the work. It became necessary, therefore, to attempt to drive the Russians from their vantage-ground; and on the night of the 19th of April, Colonel Egerton, at the head of 250 men of the Light Division, attempted the exploit, dashed from the breastwork, and, taking the enemy by surprise, drove him out. The successful English immediately established themselves in the pits, but the Russians were too sensible of the value of the position to permit the advantage to remain undisputed, and marched down a column 1000 strong, to attempt the recovery of the pits. Our troops met them with a well-directed volley, which shook their ranks and then closed with them in a deadly contest. The enemy was, after an obstinate fight, completely routed, and the British had secured an important advantage, though not without the loss of the gallant Colonel. On the following night, the second line of rifle-pits was also carried, after a feeble resistance; and our working parties were thus enabled to pursue their labours without annoyance, and in comparative security.”

ROADS, LORD COCHRANE AT BASQUE.--“Our fire-ships were sent in, each conducted by a lieutenant and five men; the ships were sixteen in number, and some very heavy. When they got in, the French ships cut and slipt, nine sail of the line got on shore on the Isle of Aix, and the next morning we discovered them: the fire-ships having done little good, the small craft and frigates were ordered in to attempt to destroy them. The place where they lay was like Portsmouth harbour, under the fire of the two batteries, each of which had three tiers of guns, of twenty-nine each, all heavy metal: the navigation to get at them was very difficult, in some places there being only four fathoms water. Just as we were sitting down to dinner on board the Revenge, our signal was made to go in and assist the gun and mortar vessels; our ship was cleared for

## action in fifteen minutes, and in half an hour we were alongside

of three sail of the line, when we opened a dreadful cannonade on them, which continued for an hour and a quarter, the Warsaw, a fine 80-gun ship, and the Aquilon, struck to us. We were now in a very critical state ourselves, being in only five fathoms water, which was ebbing very fast; the batteries on shore, having got our length, struck us almost every shot for the last quarter of an hour; luckily, a breeze springing up, we got off into deeper water, and out of reach of their guns, when we anchored again, and sent our boats to take out the prisoners, and set them on fire, about seven, p.m. At nine they were all in flames, and at two in the morning they blew up with a tremendous explosion; the French set fire to the Tonniere, and the Imperieuse to the Calcutta; three other ships of the line were on shore, very much mauled by the frigates and boom-ships; some of them were on their beam-ends, and but little chance of getting off again. The captain of the Warsaw was on board our ship; he said, they were bound out to relieve Martinique with troops and provisions. I went on board his ship after she struck, and the decks were strewed with dead and dying, a most dreadful slaughter. We also lost several killed and wounded, and our ship was much cut up in sails and rigging.

Lord Cochrane caused about 1500 barrels of gunpowder to be started into puncheons, which were placed end upwards: upon the tops of these were placed between 3 and 400 shells, charged with fuses; and again, among and upon these were between 2 and 3000 hand-grenades. The puncheons were fastened to each other by cables wound round them, and jammed together with wedges; and moistened sand was rammed down between these casks, so as to render the whole, from stem to stern, as solid as possible, that the resistance might render the explosion the more violent.

In this tremendous instrument of destruction, Lord Cochrane committed himself, with only one lieutenant and four seamen; and after the boom was broken, his lordship proceeded with this explosion-ship towards the enemy’s line. Let it be recollected, that at this moment the batteries on shore were provided with furnaces to fire red-hot shot, and then his lordship’s danger in this enterprize may be properly conceived.

The wind blew a gale, and the tide ran three knots an hour. When the blue lights of the fire-ships were discovered, one of the enemy’s line made the signal for fire-ships; which being also a blue light, the enemy fell into great confusion, firing upon her with very injurious effect, and directly cut their cables.

When lord Cochrane had conducted his explosion-ship as near as was possible, the enemy having taken the alarm, he ordered his brave little crew into the boat, and followed them, after putting fire to the fuse, which was calculated to give them fifteen minutes to get out of reach of the explosion. However, in consequence of the wind getting very high, the fuse burnt too quickly; so that, with the most violent exertion against wind and tide, this intrepid little party was six minutes nearer than they calculated to be, at the time when the most tremendous explosion that human art ever contrived took place, followed by the bursting at once in the air of nearly 400 shells and 3000 hand-grenades, pouring down a shower of castmetal in every direction. But fortunately our second Nelson was spared, the boat having reached, by unparalleled exertion, only just beyond the extent of destruction. Unhappily, this effort to escape cost the life of the brave lieutenant, whom his noble captain saw die in the boat, partly under fatigue, and partly drowned with waves that continually broke over them. Two of the four sailors were also so nearly exhausted, that their recovery was for some time despaired of.

The repetition of his explosions was so dreaded by the enemy, that they apprehended an equal destruction in every fire-ship, and, immediately crowding all sail, ran before wind and tide so fast, that the fire-ships, though at first very near, could not overtake them, before they were high and dry on shore, except three seventy-fours, besides the Calcutta, which were afterwards engaged, taken, and burned.

Lord Cochrane now turned his attention to rescue the vanquished from the devouring elements; and in bringing away the people of the Ville de Varsovie, he would not allow even a dog to be abandoned, but took the crying little favourite up into his arms and brought it away. But a still greater instance of goodness was displayed in his humanity to a captain of a French seventy-four, who came to deliver his sword to Lord Cochrane, and lamented that all he had in the world was about to be destroyed by the conflagration of his ship. His lordship instantly got into the boat with him, and pushed off to assist his prisoner in retrieving some valuable loss; but in passing by a seventy-four, which was on fire, her loaded guns began to go off; a shot from which killed the French captain by Lord Cochrane’s side, and so damaged the boat, that she filled and the rest of the party were nearly drowned.”

RODNEY’S, ADMIRAL, VICTORIES.--This renowned Admiral fought, near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish Admiral Don Langara, whom he defeated, and made prisoner, destroying eight of his ships and taking four, January 16th, 1780. On April 12th, 1782, he encountered the French fleet in the West Indies, commanded by Count de Grasse--took 10 ships of the line, and sent the French Admiral prisoner to England. The enemy lost also one ship, sunk, and three blown up.

ROSAS, BAY OF.--Brilliant naval action by the boats of the Tigre, Cumberland, Volontaire, Apollo, Topaz, Philomel, Scout, and Tuscan, commanded by Lieutenant Tailour, which ended in the capture or destruction of 11 armed vessels in the bay. November 1st, 1809.

ROSBACH, BATTLES OF.--In the first battle fought at Rosbach 40,000 rebel Flemings, under the command of the Duke of Burgundy, the King Charles VI in France being present, fell November 17th, 1382. A second battle between the Prussians, commanded by their King and the combined army of the French and Austrians, in which the latter sustained a severe defeat. Many thousands were slain on both sides, November 5th, 1757.

ROSES, WARS OF THE.--These wars arose out of a contest for the throne, between the two houses of York and Lancaster. It was termed the War of the Roses, from the badge of the York party being a white, and that of the Lancaster a red rose. It arose in complicated disputes about the succession among the descendants of Edward III. The feud thus arising was not concluded until Henry VII asserted the ascendency of the Lancaster party, on the field of Bosworth, and united the two, by marriage with a daughter of the York party.

King Richard was killed at Bosworth and the Crown conferred upon the Earl of Richmond, and an end put to the wars between the two houses of York and Lancaster, begun upon the intrusion of king Henry IV, and continued till the death of King Richard III. There were fought 12 pitched battles, and 2 kings, 1 prince, 10 dukes, 2 marquesses, 24 earls, 27 lords, 2 viscounts, 1 lord prior, 1 judge, 139 knights, 441 esquires, and 84,998 private soldiers were slain; which, being added to the 638 of superior quality, there appears to have been killed in the quarrels between the two roses, 85,625.

ROSS, BATTLE OF.--_In Ireland._--Fought, June 4th, 1698, between the Royal troops and the insurgent forces, when, after the most obstinate contest, the latter were defeated losing more than 2600 killed on the field.

ROXBURGH.--The following describes the razing of this fortress A.D. 1460: “Ever since the captivity of David II, a period of more than a hundred years, the castle of Roxburgh had been in possession of the English. James laid siege to it. He had gone with several of his nobility to watch the effect of a battery of cannon which had begun to play on the fortress. One of the pieces, a large gun of Flemish manufacture, formed of iron bars hooped together, burst in firing. A heavy fragment struck the King on the groin, and killed him on the spot. A holly tree in the park of Fleurs Castle still marks the place where James of the Fiery Face, not yet 30 years old, came to his untimely end. On hearing the lamentable tidings, the queen came immediately to the camp. She appeared in the midst of the army, leading by the hand her little son, now the King. The spirited woman exhorted the soldiers to spend no time in vain regrets, but to show their regard for the dead, by gaining the victory which he had so much at heart. Catching ardour from her appeal, the army renewed the attack and carried the castle by storm that same day. The ruins of the stronghold, which cost Scotland so dear, are still to be seen on the tongue of land where Tweed and Teviot join, a little way above Kelso Bridge.

S.

SACRED WAR.--_Sacrum Bellum._--The first, about the celebrated temple of Delphi, took place B.C. 448. The second occurred also at the same place, when it was attacked by the Phœnicians, B.C. 356.

SADOWA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 3rd, 1866, between the Prussians and Austrians. Dr. Russel thus writes:--

“In spite of the sombre morning and of the grey clothing, relieved only by the darker but livelier green of the Jagers and their plumed hats, the effect of the whole host wheeling, deploying, advancing, taking ground to the right or left, or marching in lengthened column, was so bright that it was difficult to believe they all, horses and men, had been sleeping out under the veiled stars of heaven, and were still dank and heavy with the night dew and the rain of the morning. But there could be no mistake about the reality of the work in which they were engaged, for the Austrians on the brow of the slope to the right were pounding away fiercely at the invincible enemy in the valley. That there was an enemy was plain enough, for the earth flew up on the slope as the answering shells glanced upwards, and then exploded among the infantry in the rear. This was about 8.30 A.M. At nine o’clock a heavy shower obscured the field, and when it drifted northwards three Austrian batteries were still busy on the slope, and several columns of infantry, deploying on its side, moved up around it and disappeared into the valley, whence there soon came masses of curling smoke, and then the batteries limbered up and moved over also, showing that the enemy were falling back. The second line on the right made a slight movement to the right and upwards, but it did not seem as if the Austrians concerned themselves much for the ground between the rear of Imilovitz and the river. The cannonade which had all this time been going on towards the right now extended towards the middle or centre; a line of batteries moving on or halting to fire could be seen on the plateau to the right of Klum, and it was evident that the enemy was in great force in that direction. It looked as if the Prussians had attacked the position almost simultaneously from left to right, for no sooner had the

## action developed itself on the centre than it rolled back from

Nechanitz on the left, and before 9.30 the whole range of hills and valleys and slopes for nine miles and more was as if the earth had been turned into snow wreaths agitated in a wintry gale. Before 10 o’clock a thicker and darker cloud rose from the trees and the village on the right. “My God, Imilovitz is in flames,” exclaimed the guardian of the tower. The officers said “_Ja so!_” “_Hem!_” and uttered various other sounds of varied import possibly, smoked their cigars, and looked on. Imilovitz, indeed, blazed up furiously after a time, and in about a quarter of an hour more the Austrian batteries which had gone down the slope toiled up again, unlimbered, and fired from the brow. Puffs of smoke high in the air or rising from the ground showed where the Prussian fire was plying the Austrians on the right; but their guns replied vigorously, and all through that day, though sometimes ill-placed, the Austrian artillery behaved most gallantly. It was difficult to ascertain why the Austrian corps on the right were so unsteady, and why so many men were leaving the ranks of regiments still invisible; but after a time another sponge-like rain-cloud wiped away everything, and left it all like a clean slate, from behind which there issued a rolling fire of cannon as close as the volleys of a _feu de joie_. When the shower passed away, the cannonade on the right near the tree had sensibly diminished, and the Austrians seemed to have the advantage all along the front, judging by the advance of their guns and infantry, except near the left centre and right of their line. On the extreme left another black cloud now rose up, licked by flames at the base. “_Gott in Himmel!_” exclaimed the guardian of the tower, “Sadowa burns now!” And so it was. The pleasant little village, snug church, hospitable mill--all were burning. It was with surer divination of the coming woe than we had that the poor people had fled in tears, or remained in hopeless sorrow in their homes. The heat of this great battle burned up whatever it touched, and sent forth the lava which destroyed as it flowed on all sides. Between the big tree and Klum, in the centre and far away towards the second ridge, the fight was raging with extraordinary fury from 10 o’clock till 10.30--and that half-hour seemed an age. But still the Austrians advanced. One grey mass of men followed another into the smoke, and was lost there. Towards Sadowa and Nechanitz on the left they also were gaining ground, and before 11 o’clock their columns had gone out of sight into the valley or undulations, and the Prussians could be seen by their fire to have fallen back on the opposing slopes of the second range of hills.

An animating and magnificent feature was now added to the terrible spectacle by the forward movement of the heavy cavalry near the Prague road and towards the centre. These great squares of white, spreading out slowly, obliterated the cornfields. The very colour of the ground was changed and darkened under the trampling of horses. One column went towards the Nechanitz road, the other two moved towards Klum; but after a few formations they halted again, and some of these regiments dismounted and stood by their horses. The Saxons, readily to be distinguished by their light blue, also advanced parallel with the Prague road towards the top of the slope. This was some time after eleven o’clock, when the Prussian left and centre had visibly given way, though fighting with extreme tenacity and fervour. The light cavalry, at the same time, or part of them, advanced towards Klum in the centre, awaiting the moment to deluge the plain with an exulting flood. But the time was not come. The Prussians, reinforced, or calling in their second line and reserves, came with a desperate impetus up the slopes on the left and centre, and also developed a new attack on the left of the Prague road, which looked like a black riband now and then as the smoke was driven off by the wind. They were intent on turning our left if possible, but they met with a stubborn and successful resistance at that point. Soon afterwards, in the midst of a heavy fall of rain, the cavalry made another advance, and when it cleared the Austrian infantry were seen to have moved still further to the left and centre, while the sound of the cannonade grew so deafening that the Prussians must have been driven back beyond the position they occupied when they began the action. Between half-past eleven and twelve o’clock the Austrians were to all intents successful on the centre and on its flanks, although the fury of the cannonade and the incessant rattle of musketry all along the front, from the front of Nechanitz to the plateau beyond Klum attested the severity of the struggle and the obstinate resistance of the Prussians. Probbis, another pretty village, was now in flames; three villages burning at once, farmhouses adding their contingents to the fire and smoke, caissons blowing up, shells bursting, and the slopes and hill tops covered with grey and blue specs--each a man in agony or in death. Again the cavalry moved onwards. This time one division, in three bodies, crowned the ridge and formed near the front line under the church, on the left of Klum, in the centre and left of the position, and there they waited once more. But now on the right the action awoke again, and, to our surprise, a very heavy fire of musketry, comparatively close at hand, came from the direction of Smirlintz; the Austrians on the crest of the ridge moved uneasily, while many more stragglers than one cared to see pressed down towards the railroad. Whatever the cause of the agitation, the Prussians on the centre and left pressed their attack with renewed vigour, and the contest which ensued was of exceeding fierceness; but still the enemy did not prevail--the Austrians not only held their ground, but repulsed the enemy advanced against them, took their ground, and made prisoners. From the left of Klum to the Prague road, and beyond it, all was fire and smoke. The tumult of voices was dreadful, and such as is never to be heard save in such awful agony of battle. The Austrians again advanced a little nearer the big tree, and two batteries of reserve artillery could be seen driving fast to the left to strengthen the attack. But the Prussian reserves were once more called upon, and from 12.30 till nearly 1 o’clock there was an artillery fire from centre to left for six miles or more, which could not well have been exceeded in any action of which history makes mention. That ammunition was becoming needed in the advanced position was evident from the motion of the trains of supply and reserve, and we watched the cavalry with intense interest, as it seemed to be the time for them to make an impression. The Prussians were wavering. At 1 o’clock the Prussians, however, recovered some of the ground on the right near the big tree. The Austrian artillery began to fall back over the brow of the hill, and again battalions of infantry came in sight and moved away obliquely towards the centre. Still, no Prussians appeared in that direction, but they were certainly forcing the Austrians back on the right. It might have been expected that the reserves to the right would have been sent up to hold the top of the slope, but I could not see it was so. Many stragglers now appeared on the railway, the fields were spotted with them; and now and then a shell bursting in or over the infantry marching along the slope or the reserves, struck them, or left a little pile of dead or struggling men in the voids which the opening columns displayed. I confess the advance of the Prussians in this direction appeared to me inexplicable and very serious; for, although the left and centre of the Austrians might be victorious, this movement threatened, by forcing back their right, to cut them off from Konigsgratz--so, at least, was the situation as viewed from the tower; but it is strange how different a field of action appears from different points of view, as any one may find out by riding from place to place on a field-day. However, a General who saw what was visible to those in the tower would have felt uneasiness and have turned his attention to fill the gap in his line at the centre, and to drive back the Prussians who were doubling up his right.

While the centre advanced slowly, but surely, a space seemed to be left between the ground they had occupied and the left of the Austrians, who were continually retiring there. The houses burning fiercely in Klum emitted volumes of smoke, which were swept away towards the right. Another village lying apparently to the left of Prague road, named Gres Biaritz, or Hiaritz, as well as I could catch the name, was now in flames. More tumbrils blew up in that direction, so that there were now six or seven villages and hamlets on fire from left to right. The battle was assuming a more awful and tremendous aspect, and the faint rays of sunshine which shot at intervals through the lifting clouds only gave the scene greater terror. Horses without riders careered among the wounded, who were crawling all over the plain, dismounted dragoons dragged themselves to the rear, and men came crawling along in such numbers that they appeared like a broad fringe to the edges of the battle. The rolling of musketry in the hollows beyond smothered the voice of the cannon. At last the reserves behind were pressed forward with energy. Their artillery unlimbering opened from sixteen guns into the dense blue columns which were driving the Austrians before them, and checked their advance, till the Prussian artillery, getting upon the small ridge and firing down so as to get a slight enfilade, began to knock over horses and men. The Austrians, however, here, as elsewhere, stuck to their pieces admirably, and it was not till the Prussian infantry, getting into a clump of timber, opened a sharp fire on their flank that they limbered up, leaving more than one black heap to mark the position they had occupied. Meanwhile the Austrians on the left pursued their onward career. The Saxon reserves pushed up the hills in the direction of Nechanitz; and a great body of cavalry sweeping round between the left and centre, dashed in wavelike columns through the smoke towards the Prussians, and menaced their artillery, against which some thirty or forty pieces in line were directing a steady and rapid fire. Prussian prisoners begun to arrive at intervals between the convoys of wounded, winding their way along the Prague road. Most of those men belonged to the 6th and 31st regiments, to judge from the numbers on their shoulder-straps; and among them was an officer of great stature, with red moustaches and whiskers, who bore his captivity with great _sang froid_, and walked along like a conqueror. As the Austrian left and centre gained ground, the right yielded, and column after column of Prussians came upon the ridge, firing as they advanced, while their guns on the flanks swept the slowly retreating, but not disorderly, Austrians with shrapnel and shell. At times the Austrians halting opened a brisk fire; once or twice several regiments formed square to receive cavalry, but I could not see any Prussian horse on the slope near them. There was a hesitation, both in the Austrians and the enemy, which was not intelligible, and several times the officers at the head of the Prussian columns riding forward, fired over their horses’ heads, and stood up in their stirrups as if to see into the hollows. A shell burst close over one of them, and when the smoke cleared away, man and horse were down, and never stirred again. The folds of the ground must have hid most of the Prussians from the Austrian artillery as they got near the big tree, for the gunners principally directed their pieces against the Prussian guns, which received accessions rapidly, and occupied their full attention. At last the Prussians were perceived, and five battalions of Austrians from the reserve, coming from the extreme right, tried to check their advance by a flanking fire. The Prussians halted, and in an instant a fire of surprising volume and sharpness flew along their front. The Austrians for a few minutes replied steadily, but they fell fast, and at last two battalions, with great vigour, charged up the hill, but were broken in the run, were shaken by a rolling volley and by several rounds from the artillery in flank, and retreated in some disorder towards the left, behind a spur of the ridge. The enemy pressed on anew, and soon gained the _plateau_ close by the big tree, where they dipped into an undulation only to reappear at the other side, and then formed up in compact square-like formations, pushing out lines of skirmishers towards Klum, from which they were about a mile distant. The Austrians below them and nearer to Konigsgratz halted and faced round to meet a new enemy, for the Prussians now showed near the railway, and a sanguinary encounter took place around some houses in a wood, in which artillery and musketry raged for a quarter of an hour in a perfect tornado. A range of buildings near a large factory chimney on the very banks of the Elbe, as it seemed to me, was the scene of another very severe struggle. Another village, Trothina, burst into flames, and from under the very smoke appeared the Prussian skirmishers on the very extreme right, followed by more infantry. The enemy were, indeed, quite inexhaustible in number, though still he could not hold his own on the left. Suddenly an Austrian battery, galloping from the left centre, began to mow down the Prussians on the right. They were retiring behind the burning Trothina. But their artillery was at hand again. From a lane above the village a battery opened on the Austrians, and, at the same time, another battery, wheeling over the slope below the big tree, crossed its fire on the devoted Austrians. “_Ein Kreuz feuer? Ein Kreuz feuer?_” exclaimed the officers. “Good God! where do they come from?” Where, indeed! This combat now assumed larger proportions. The Prussian right showed in great force, and the hills were covered with their regiments advancing in the most perfect order. All over the field were hundreds limping away, and piles of dead lay in rows along the lanes and in the thick corn. The enemy, whose strength had been hidden from us by the hills, now displayed numbers, which accounted for the retreat of the Austrians on the right.

The Austrian gunners could not hold up against the cross fire, and the weight of pieces opposed to them. What avail was it that they were winning on the centre? Through the glass they could be seen pressing on from point to point in a tempest of smoke and flame. It was now near two o’clock. On the left and centre there could be no hesitation in declaring that the Prussians were all but beaten. It seemed as if a charge _en masse_ of the horse deployed for miles on the _plateau_ could roll up their centre on their left, or crumble the left into pieces. The fire at Klum, in the centre, which had died out, broke forth with fresh violence, and all the village began to burn. The Prussians in the centre made another grand effort, and it would only be a repetition of adjectives, utterly feeble at the strongest, to endeavour to give the smallest conception of the roar of cannon which announced and met this fresh attempt to change the fortunes of the day. The strong wind could not clear away the smoke, which poured in banks as agitated as the sea itself over the battle-field, now contracted to the centre and right, for all towards the Prague road the fight had apparently ended in the discomfiture of the Prussian left. As it contracted it heated up, and the caissons and tumbrils blew up repeatedly. The movements of the Austrians from the right centre to oppose the last effort of the Prussians increased the open interval between the centre and the extreme right resting on the lower ground near the river, but the Austrians did not perceive it, or if they did, could not prevent the advance of the enemy along the _plateau_ by the big tree towards Klum. The Austrian right and reserves become more unsteady, but their artillery contests every foot of ground. Suddenly a spattering of musketry breaks out of the trees and houses of Klum right down on the Austrian gunners, and on the columns of infantry drawn up on the slopes below. The gunners fall on all sides--their horses are disabled--the fire increases in intensity--the Prussians on the ridge press on over the _plateau_; this is an awful catastrophe--two columns of Austrians are led against the village, but they cannot stand the fire, and after three attempts to carry it, retreat, leaving the hill-side covered with the fallen. It is a terrible moment. The Prussians see their advantage; they here get into the very centre of the position. In vain the staff officers fly to the reserves and hasten to get back some of the artillery from the front. The dark blue regiments multiply on all sides and from their edges roll perpetually sparkling musketry. Their guns hurry up, and from the slope take both the Austrians on the extreme right and the reserves in flank. They spread away to the woods near the Prague road and fire into the rear of the Austrian gunners.

Thus a wedge growing broader and driven in more deeply every instant was forced into the very body of the Austrian army, separating it at the heart and dividing its left and centre from the right. The troops in the centre and left are dismayed at hearing the enemy’s guns in their rear, and are soon exposed to the fire which most of all destroys the _morale_ of soldiers already shaken by surprise. The right, previously broken up and discomfited, hurry towards the Prague road in something like confusion, and spread alarm among the reserves of the centre and left. The regular lines of the columns below are gradually bulging out, and are at last swallowed up in disordered multitude. Officers gallop about trying to restore order. Some regiments hold together, though they are losing men in heaps every instant. The left wing is arrested in its onward progress. The Prussian Generals in front of them and on the centre, seeing their enemy waver, throw their battalions against them, and encourage their artillery to fresh efforts; but the formidable Austrian cavalry prevents any hasty or enthusiastic demonstrations on the part of the Prussian right, whom long continued fighting and heavy losses must have somewhat enervated.

Even yet there was hope for the Austrians! There, on the Prussian front, wheeled a force of horse with which a Murat or a Kellerman or a Seidlitz could have won a battle and saved an empire. There, still unshaken, were at least 40,000 men, of whom scarcely one had ever fired a shot. The indomitable Austrian artillery still turned hundreds of muzzles on the enemy’s guns, and girt their men in a band of fire. To let slip that cavalry on both sides of Klum, to crash through infantry and guns, seemed really worth doing, though failure would have made the difference between a defeat and a rout. It would have been a supreme deed fit for such a force to accomplish or to perish in attempting. And there were no natural obstacles visible from the tower to a grand charge. The Prussian right, separated from its centre and left, would have been rolled down into the valley among the Austrians, and utterly crushed, and the Austrian centre and left have been liberated to continue their contest with the enemy. Moments were precious. The Prussian fire became more severe, the wavering of the Austrians greater. The falling of trees on the Prague road, the rush of fugitives, the near approach of the Prussian shells to the place, some of them bursting over the railway station, were awful warnings of the state of the battle. All the roads were blocked up with retreating trains and waggons. Men were throwing down their arms and wading through the inundations. The Austrian gunners on the causeway began to catch a sight of the Prussians near at hand in the woods, and opened on them with shrapnel and shell. It was now somewhere about 2.30; but it was not possible to note time when such things were going on so near. Scarce could the glass be directed to one point ere an exclamation from a bystanding officer or an awful clamour carried it to another. Seconds were of inestimable value--not only that hundreds were falling, but that they were falling in vain--that all the issues for which an empire had summoned its might and the Kaiser his people to the field were being decided, and that the toils of generations of Emperors, warriors, and statesmen were about being lost for ever. The genius of the Prussian was in the ascendant.

The spirit of Bismark or his genius ruled the battle-field. While the Austrian was hesitating, the Prussian was acting. The lines of dark blue which came in sight from the right teemed from the vales below as if the earth yielded them. They filled the whole back ground of the awful picture of which Klum was the centre. They pressed down on the left of the Prague road. In square, in column, deploying or wheeling hither and thither--everywhere pouring in showers of deadly precision--penetrating the whole line of the Austrians; still they could not force their stubborn enemy to fly. On all sides they met brave but unfortunate men, ready to die if they could do no more. At the side of the Prague road the fight went on with incredible vehemence. The Austrians had still an immense force of artillery, and although its concentrated fire swept the ground before it, its effect was lost in some degree by reason of the rising ground above, and at last by its divergence to so many points to answer the enemy’s cannon. Many Austrians must have fallen by their own artillery. Once an Austrian column, separating itself from the great multitude below, with levelled bayonets, led by its officers in front waving caps and sabres, went straight at the wood around Klum and drove back the Prussian Tirailleurs, but were staggered by fearful volleys of musketry. Their officers were all killed or wounded. They fell suddenly back. Down came the Prussians, but they were received on the bayonet point and with clubbed muskets, and were driven back to the shelter of the wood, and some were carried off prisoners in the retreating column. Indeed, handfuls of Prussians were coming into the town behind us all the day, showing how close the fight was, and a considerable body of the 27th Regiment, with some officers, are now in the Grosser Ring. Chesta and Visa were now burning, so that from right to left the flames of ten villages, and the flashes of guns and musketry, contended with the sun that pierced the clouds for the honour of illuminating the seas of steel and the fields of carnage. It was three o’clock. The efforts of the Austrians to occupy Klum and free their centre had failed, the right was driven down in a helpless mass towards Konigsgratz, quivering and palpitating as shot and shell tore through it. “_Alles ist verloren!_” Artillery still thundered with a force and violence which might have led a stranger to such scenes to think no enemy could withstand it. The Austrian cavalry still hung like white thunder-clouds on the flanks, and threatened the front of the Prussians, keeping them in square and solid columns. But already the trains were streaming away from Konigsgratz, placing the Elbe and Adler between them and the enemy. The grip of the Prussians could not be shaken. Word was brought to me to leave at once, for the city gates were about being closed, and the gunners on the walls were laying their pieces to cover the inundations and the causeways. One more glance showed a very hell of fire--cornfields, highways, slopes, and dells, and hillsides covered with the slain--the pride and might of Austria shattered and laid low. What happened more I can only tell from hearsay. But I am told that at the last the Austrian horse saved all that was not lost, and in brilliant charges rolled back the tide of Prussian infantry; that the gunners threw their pieces into the Elbe and into the inundated fields as they retreated; that men were drowned in hundreds as they crowded over pontoon bridges hastily laid and sunk or burned ere the columns could cross over; that luggage-trains, reserve ammunition, guns, and prisoners, the spoils of that enormous host, fell into the hands of the victors, who remained masters of that hard-fought field, covered for nine miles with myriads of the slain. Well might Benedek exclaim, “All is lost but my life! Would to God I had lost that too!”

There is no account of our losses, estimates varying from 10,000 to 25,000. If prisoners be included, I am inclined to think the latter number correct. The loss in guns is reckoned at 150 to 180. It would not astonish me to hear it was more.”

INCIDENTS OF THE BATTLE.

Incidents of the battle are furnished by several other correspondents of the London papers. The following are selections:--

“In the Austrian ranks some striking instances of inhumanity have been exhibited. Yesterday, a prisoner was brought hither loaded with chains, to suffer well-deserved punishment. He was a Croat, and was taken in the very act of cutting off his own wounded captain’s fingers to get quicker at his rings.

In the knapsacks of the fallen Austrians were found spare suits of regimentals that had never been worn; and, according to the prisoners, those uniforms were intended to be worn at the solemn entry into Berlin.

One correspondent was informed by an Austrian officer, a prisoner, that in Konigsgratz, on the 2nd July even, there were 7000 wounded Austrians. But--disgraceful as the fact may seem--three days after the battle of Skalitz, wounded Austrians--such is the testimony of Prussian officers and surgeons--were found with wounds still bleeding on the field among the dead bodies.

At 1.5 the staff galloped off to see the position on the right, passing through the 6th Corps, which was in reserve. As the green plumes were seen rapidly advancing, the bands broke into the National Anthem, and the men cheered their commander as he passed with no uncertain note. Faces broke out into broad smiles; Jager hats were thrown into the air; all seemed joyous in the anticipation of an approaching triumph. Benedek, however, waved to them to cease, shouting in his peculiar tone of voice, always clear and distinct, “Not now--wait till to-morrow, my children.”

By half-past four o’clock the whole army was in full retreat; its rear, harassed by the enemy, was protected by the artillery and cavalry, who are said to have made many desperate charges, and to have been more than decimated. The bridges across the Adler and the Elbe are few and narrow, and the several columns meeting at such points became confused and intermixed. Guns that could not be carried away, were thrown off their carriages into the river; many were lost in this manner, but it is said that comparatively few are taken. A captain of artillery, who heard me asking about the loss in guns, said, “Out of my whole battery I have but one gun and seven horses left, and many others are in like condition.” Another said, “We have no artillery.” Every head was hung down, every spirit depressed. It was not merely a battle, but an empire lost, unless diplomatists can at last unweave the net which baffled them before, and which the sword has failed to cut. The soldiers knew nothing of all this; their only trouble was the fatigue from which they suffered, or the thought that the day’s battle would have to be fought over again before they could reach the pleasant plains and reap the benefits held out to their imaginations in Benedek’s proclamation issued but a few days ago. The night was chilly, and bivouac fires lined the sides of the road at intervals. Had it been an advance instead of a retreat, we might have enjoyed the picturesque scene. Round fires of firwood, flaming high above their heads, stood or sat the brave fellows who had laboured so hard and fought so gallantly on that day. Some stood warming themselves by the blaze which lighted up their bronzed faces to as red a glow as that of the pine stems that towered over them; others sat resting a wounded arm or leg on the bed of branches plucked for them by their more fortunate comrades; others, again, lay about in every attitude of exhaustion.”

SAGUNTUM, SIEGE OF.--Like Numantia, one of the most important in history, occurred B.C. 219. The citizens, after sustaining the siege for eight months, with heroic bravery, to prevent themselves falling into the hands of Hannibal, buried themselves in the ruins of their city. They burnt their houses and all their effects, and thus reduced the city to ashes.

ST. ALBANS, BATTLES OF.--The first fought, May 22nd, 1455, between the houses of York and Lancaster. The second between the Earl of Warwick and Queen Margaret of Anjou, who conquered. Fought, February 2nd, 1461. This battle was fought on Shrove-Tuesday, and resulted in the death of the Earl. “The Earl of Warwick, who now put himself at the head of the Yorkists, was one of the most celebrated generals of the age, formed for times of trouble, extremely artful and incontestably brave, equally skilful in council and the field; and inspired with a degree of hatred against the Queen that nothing could suppress. He commanded an army, in which he led about the captive King, to give a sanction to his attempts. Upon the approach of the Lancastrians, he conducted his forces, strengthened by a body of Londoners, who were very affectionate to his cause, and gave battle to the Queen at St. Alban’s. In this, however, he was defeated. About 2000 of the Yorkists perished in the battle, and the person of the King again fell into the hands of his own party, to be treated with apparent respect, but real contempt.”

ST. CHARLES.--On the 6th of November, 1837, a riot occurred at Montreal, but no lives were lost. On the 10th, Sir John Colborne, the Commander of the Forces, removed his head quarters from Sorel to Montreal. On the same day, a detachment proceeded to St. John’s under the command of Captain Glasgow. He found a large body of people posted on the opposite bank of the Richelieu, and the cavalry proceeded to take possession of the bridge, in order to prevent them from crossing. On the 16th, warrants were issued for the apprehension of twenty-six of the chief leaders. As a party of volunteer cavalry, newly organised, who had charge of two prisoners, were returning to Montreal, a large body of peasantry fired upon them from behind the fences near Longueuil, and compelled them to abandon their prisoners. Colonel Wetherall, with a considerable force, proceeded immediately from Chambly in the direction of St. Charles, for the purpose of dispersing a large body of people who had assembled there, and fortified their position. At some places the insurgents fled on the approach of the army, but at St. Charles the defenders were so obstinate that the Colonel was obliged to storm and carry the works, burning every house but one. The slaughter was great on the side of the unfortunate and misguided people, but slight on that of the troops. Another party of troops, who were marching from Sorel up the course of the Richelieu to effect a junction with Colonel Wetherall, were not so successful. At St. Denis they met with such a strong opposition, that they were compelled to abandon their intention and march back to Sorel. This success on the part of the insurgents was only of short duration, for, on the winter roads being formed, the same party marched through the country without opposition. Having captured St. Charles, and dispersed a considerable body collected for the purpose of cutting off his return, Colonel Wetherall came back to Montreal, bringing with him the pole and cap of liberty, which had been reared at St. Charles, and twenty-five prisoners. Four or five battalions of troops were raised in Montreal, and upwards of 50 corps of various kinds in other parts of the country. One of the most tragical events which took place at this time was the murder of Lieutenant Weir. This young officer had been sent overland to Sorel with a despatch directing the officer in command to prepare a force to accompany Colonel Gore, who was to leave Montreal in the afternoon in the steamboat. The roads were so bad that travelling was almost impossible, and he could not reach Sorel by land until half an hour after Colonel Gore and his division had crossed the St. Lawrence and marched on their route to St. Denis. Taking a fresh calèche, he hastened to join his troops; but, mistaking the road, he passed them and arrived at St. Denis before them. Here he was made a prisoner, closely pinioned, sent forward to St. Charles, and on the road was barbarously murdered by his brutal guardians. The fact and the circumstances attending it were only ascertained on the second expedition to St. Denis. The body was found in the Richelieu, and was brought to Montreal for interment. The funeral took place with military honours, and so solemn and imposing a sight was never before witnessed in the city.

Martial law was proclaimed in the District of Montreal on the 5th of December, and Sir John Colborne invested with authority to administer it. Immediately after this the attention of Government was called to the preparations making at the Lake of the Two Mountains, at St. Eustache, St. Benoit and St. Scholastique, where the most active and able leaders of the revolt had fortified themselves in a formidable manner.

On the morning of the 13th of December, Sir John Colborne, with about 1300 men, advanced towards the district from Montreal along the left hank of the Ottawa. On the 14th the army crossed the river and invested the village of St. Eustache. The attack was completely successful, though attended with much destruction of life and property. The handsome church was set on fire as well as the _presbytère_ and about 60 of the principal houses. One of the leaders was killed near the church, and a large number burnt or suffocated from the flames; of the troops only one or two were killed and a few wounded.

The next day, as the troops marched forward to St. Benoit, His Excellency was met by delegates bearing a flag of truce, and stating that the insurgents were prepared to lay down their arms unconditionally. Almost every house exhibited something white; and, on arriving at St. Benoit, 250 of these misguided men were found drawn up in a line and suing for pardon, stating that their leaders had deserted them. They were immediately dismissed to their homes and occupations. With the return of the troops from the county of the Two Mountains the military operations, connected with the first insurrection in Lower Canada, may be said to have terminated.

ST. DIZIER, BATTLES OF.--_In France._--Between the Allied armies and the French--one of the engagements being commanded by Napoleon himself. The French sustained in these battles, as in several proceeding, severe defeats, and led the way by which the Allied armies entered Paris. Fought, January 27th and March 26th, 1814.

ST. JEAN DE LUZ, BATTLE OF.--“Soult had a strong position on the Nivelle from St. Jean de Luz to Ainhoe, about twelve miles in length. General Hill, with the British right, advanced from the valley of Baztan, and attacking the French on the height of Ainhoe, drove them towards Cambo, on the Nive, while the centre of the Allies, consisting of the English and Spanish troops, under Beresford and Alton, carried the works behind Sarre, and drove the French beyond the Nivelle, which the Allies crossed at St. Pé, in the rear of the enemy. Upon this the French hastily abandoned their ground and works on the left of the Nivelle, and during the night withdrew to their entrenched camp in front of Bayonne. Wellington’s headquarters were established at St. Jean de Luz, November 10th, 1813.”

ST. QUENTIN, BATTLE OF.--Philip II, of Spain, assisted by the British, defeated the French here, August 10th, 1557.

ST. SEBASTIAN, BATTLE OF.--The fortified works, through which ran the high road to Hernani, were carried by the English Auxiliary Legion, under General Evans, after very hard fighting. The British naval squadron off the place, lent, under Lord John Hay, very great aid to the victors. Fought, May 5th, 1836. Again, on the 1st of October, same year, a vigorous assault was made on the lines of General De Lacy Evan by the Carlists. Both sides fought with great bravery, but the Carlists were repulsed after suffering severely. The Anglo-Spanish loss was 376 men, and thirty-seven officers killed and wounded. The General was also wounded.

ST. SEBASTIAN, SIEGE OF.--By the British and Allied armies, under Wellington. After a short siege, during which it sustained a heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was nearly laid in ruins, it was stormed by General Graham, and taken, August 31st, 1803. The loss was almost all on the British side in the storming--the Spaniards losing few.

ST. VINCENT, BATTLE OF CAPE.--Between the Spanish and British fleets off this Cape. The latter was commanded by Admiral Sir John Jarvis, who took four line of battle ships, and damaged considerably the rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14th, 1797. His own fleet consisted of 15 sail of the line only--whilst the enemy’s fleet was 27 sail, 7 of which carried from 112 to 130 guns each.

ST. VINCENT, CAPE.--Admiral Rooke, with 20 men of war, and the Turkish fleet, under his convoy, was attacked by Admiral Tourville with a force vastly superior to his own, when 12 English and Dutch men of war, and 80 merchant men were taken or destroyed by the French, June 16th, 1693. Here, also, Admiral Rodney destroyed several Spanish ships, January 16th, 1780.

SALAMANCA, BATTLE OF.--Fought July 22nd, 1812.--“Lord Wellington had fought the battle of Talavera in less than three months after he had marched out of Lisbon, and in only three months and six days after his landing in Portugal. He had seen some kind of action and enterprise to be absolutely necessary. It was demanded by England; it was expected by Spain and Portugal. Hence he first drove the French out of Oporto and out of the Portuguese dominions, and then, in conjunction with a Spanish army, marched upon Madrid, and fought a battle with the French.

But these three months sufficed to show him, how utterly valueless was the aid proffered him by the Spaniards. They left him without provisions; they furnished him with no means of transport; and when they placed an army by his side, that army could do nothing but run away, and spread alarm and consternation on every side. Hence, so soon as he fully understood the real condition of affairs, he wrote home to the British government in these plain terms:

“Spain has proved untrue to her alliance because she is untrue to herself;” “and until some great change shall be effected in the conduct of the military resources of Spain, and in the state of her armies, no British army can attempt safely to co-operate with Spanish troops in the territories of Spain.”

Having arrived at this conclusion, Lord Wellington soon withdrew his army from Spain, retired into Portugal, and began to concert measures for the effectual defence of that kingdom. At home, party spirit, as usual, led to injustice. The opposition in the British parliament questioned the whole of his conduct of the past campaign. Sir W. Napier tells us, that “his merits, they said, were nought; his actions silly, presumptuous, and rash; his campaign one deserving not reward but punishment. Yet he had delivered Portugal, cleared Galicia and Estramadura, and forced 100,000 French veterans to abandon the offensive and concentrate about Madrid!”

He now calmly submitted to the British government his views of the defence of Portugal. He assigned to Marshal Beresford the organization of the Portuguese army; he required only 13,000 British troops to be permanently maintained; and with this force he expected to be able to defend Portugal, at least until Spain should be thoroughly subdued by the French; so as to allow of the concentration of their whole force on the work of subjugating Portugal.

The wisdom and expediency of this employment of English troops and English revenues in foreign war, was abundantly evident. For, when the Continent should have been wholly conquered by Napoleon, he would then, as he plainly declared, attempt the invasion of England. Hence, to keep his armies employed in the Peninsula, was the way plainly pointed out by common sense, as likely to postpone or wholly avert a French invasion of the British islands. To defend Portugal, therefore, was Wellington’s first object; for Portugal had become a sort of outwork of England.

The Spanish government, meanwhile, with equal imbecility and self-sufficiency, chose to rush into inevitable defeat. They had starved the English army; which, in a whole month, got only ten days’ bread; and which lost 1000 horses from mere want of provender; and had thus forced Lord Wellington to retire into Portugal. They now choose, with an army of 50,000 men, to give battle to the French at Ocana; where, on the 12th of November, they sustained such a total defeat, that ten days after the battle not a single battalion kept the field. No fewer than 20,000 of the Spaniards laid down their arms, and the rest were utterly scattered and dispersed.

At the opening of 1810, Napoleon resolved to complete the conquest of the Peninsula. He augmented his armies in Spain to 360,000 men. One army, consisting of 65,000 men, under the command of Soult, was charged with the subjugation of Andalusia; and another, of 80,000 men, under Massena, was to move to the west, and reduce Portugal. Now, therefore, must Wellington’s plans for the defence of Portugal be brought to the test.

The actual force of Massena’s army in May, 1810, is shown by French returns given by Sir W. Napier, to have been 86,847 men.

On the 1st of June the French commander invested Ciudad Rodrigo, which capitulated on the 11th of July. Almeida surrendered on the 26th of August, and thus the road to Lisbon was opened to the French army. Wellington would gladly have fought a battle to save these fortresses; but if he engaged 80,000 French, with 32,000 English and Portuguese, and did not signally defeat them; what would then have become of Portugal? Still, when on Portuguese ground, and engaged in the defence of Portugal, he thought it right, on September 27th, to make one stand at Busaco; where he inflicted on the French a loss of 4500 men, at a cost, to his own army, of only 1300. Massena then began even to think of retreating into Spain; when a peasant informed him of a mountain-pass by which he might carry his army into a position from which he could threaten Wellington’s left. This compelled the English General again to make a retrograde movement; and on the 15th of October the whole British and Portuguese army was collected within the lines of Torres Vedras.

These now famous lines, which Wellington had long been silently constructing, were so little thought of either in England or in France, that military instructions were actually given in England commencing thus: “As it is probable the army will embark in September.” And the French commander on his part, found his way suddenly stopped by an insurmountable obstacle, of the existence of which he had never before heard.

Lord Wellington had observed that on the land side (and the French had no force upon the water) Lisbon could be completely defended by a series of entrenchments properly manned. Silently, therefore, during many months past, he had been at work on these lines. They were now complete, mounting 600 guns and when manned by 50,000 men they might have defied Napoleon himself at the head of one of his largest armies.

Massena, astonished, employed several days in examining these lines on every side, but at no point could he find an attack to be feasible. One or two attempts were made, in which his troops were roughly handled, and one of his Generals killed. At last, altogether perplexed, he sent off General Foy to Paris to ask of Napoleon what was to be done. But Napoleon himself had no remedy to prescribe, and hence, after remaining before the lines for one whole month, until utter starvation menaced his army, the French Marshal commenced a retreat. He first retired to Santaren, where he remained until the following March. He then finally retreated out of Portugal, having lost, in the short space of seven months, not fewer than 45,000 men, chiefly by exposure, disease, and starvation. Lord Wellington followed him, and at once invested Almeida. Massena ventured on an engagement at Fuentes d’Onore, but failed, and Almeida capitulated to the English on the 12th of May, 1811.

This campaign had greatly raised the hopes and the confidence of England, and had placed the character of her General on an unassailable elevation. Portugal had been defeated, and a French Marshal with a noble army had been driven back in defeat. Lord Wellington now, therefore, resolved to begin offensive operations in Spain, and he sat down before Badajoz. But Napoleon had at last awakened to the real character of this great struggle. He resolved that Badajoz should not be lost. He therefore earnestly and strenuously increased his forces in Spain, until, in September, 1811, they again amounted to 368,000 men. Soult and Marmont received their orders, and approached Badajoz with 60,000 men. Lord Wellington retired, but in July he threatened Ciudad Rodrigo, when again the two French Marshals marched to its relief with a greatly superior army. And now, as the winter approached, both armies went into cantonments, and the campaign of 1811 ended.

But with January, 1812, commenced that career of triumph which only ended at Waterloo. In 1810, Wellington had saved Portugal; in 1811, he had threatened and disquieted the French armies in their possession of Spain; but the opening year was not to close until that possession was very seriously endangered.

Silently, all November and December, Wellington’s preparations were going on. Soult imagined that he was about to renew the siege of Badajoz, but suddenly, in the earliest days of January, a bridge was thrown over the Agueda, and the English army crossed the river and invested Ciudad Rodrigo. The siege commenced on the 8th, and on the 19th the place was stormed and carried. It had cost the French a siege of six weeks to take it from the Spaniards two years before. On hearing of its capture in twelve days, Marmont wrote to Napoleon, saying, “On the 16th, the English batteries opened their fire: on the 19th the place was taken by storm, and fell into the power of the enemy. There is something so incomprehensible in all this, that until I know more I refrain from any observation.”

Badajoz, a far stronger place, was next invested, on the 17th of March, and on the 6th of April it was taken by storm. And here, too, General Lery, a French engineer, expressed his astonishment, writing thus: “I think the capture of Badajoz a very extraordinary event, and I should be at a loss to account for it in any manner consistent with probability.” These two great strongholds, the border-fortresses, had now been taken, and the way was thus opened into the heart of Spain. All Europe saw with astonishment that a little English army, seldom amounting--even with the aid of the Portuguese,--to more than 40,000 men, could counteract the efforts of the best armies of France, led by Napoleon’s most trusted Generals.

After these exploits, Wellington gave his army some rest until the harvest should grow up, and provisions be more easily obtained. But in May he sent General Hill to storm the forts at Almarez on the Tagus, when the French works, with all their artillery and stores, fell into the hands of the English, who lost only 180 men. By this able manœuvre the two armies of Marmont and Soult were separated.

On the 13th of June, the rains having ceased, and the field magazines being completed, Wellington passed the Agueda, and on the 17th be entered Salamanca, the people shouting, singing, and weeping for joy. The forts, however, were still held by French garrisons, and were not taken until the 27th.

On the 8th of July, Marmont, the French General now opposed to Wellington, received a reinforcement of 6000 men, and both he and Wellington began to prepare for a battle. On the 15th and 16th, Marmont, who had previously made several deceptive movements, concentrated his beautiful and gallant army between Toro and the Hornija rivers. Then began a series of manœuvres, continued for several successive days, until, on the 20th, the two armies were in sight, marching on parallel heights within musket-shot of each other in the most perfect array. The strength of each army amounted to from 45,000 to 48,000 men; but of Wellington’s force a considerable portion consisted of Portuguese troops.

In two or three days more, Marmont would have been joined by two other French corps, augmenting his force by nearly 20,000 men. But then he apprehended the arrival of either King Joseph, or Jourdan, the senior Marshal then in Spain, either of whom would have superseded him in the command. His object, therefore, was either to force the English to retreat from Salamanca, or else to fight a battle, and if possible gain a victory, before either of his superiors in command could arrive.

On the 22nd of July, some change of position on the part of the English army gave Marmont the impression that Wellington was about to retire towards Ciudad Rodrigo. Eager not to let the English thus escape him, the French General ordered Maucune’s division, which formed his left, to march forward so as to fall upon the flank of the British in their expected retreat. They did so; but in so advancing a chasm intervened between them and the division of Bonnet, which formed part of the French centre. Word was brought to Wellington of this movement. “Starting up, he repaired to the high ground, and observed their movements for some time with stern contentment. Their left wing was entirely separated from the centre. The fault was flagrant, and he fixed it with the stroke of a thunderbolt.” Turning to the Spanish General Alava who stood by his side, he exclaimed, “Mon cher Alava, Marmont est perdu!”

A few orders issued suddenly from his lips like the incantations of a wizard, and suddenly the dark mass of troops seemed animated by some mighty spirit. Rushing down the slope of the mountain, they entered the great basin. And now, after long coiling and winding like angry serpents, the armies suddenly fastened together in deadly strife.

Marmont saw the country beneath him suddenly covered with enemies when he was in the act of making a complicated evolution; and when by the rash advance of his left, his troops were separated into three parts, each at too great a distance to assist the other. In this crisis, despatching officer after officer, some to hasten up his troops from the forest, some to stop the march of his left wing, he still looked for victory, till he saw Pakenham with his division penetrate between his left and his centre; then hope died within him, and he was hurrying in person to the fatal spot, when an exploding shell stretched him on the field, with two deep wounds in his side.”

This naturally augmented the confusion of the French; but they still fought manfully. It was just five o’clock when Pakenham fell on Maucune, who, little thinking of such an onset, expected to see, from the summit of a hill he had just gained, the Allies in full retreat. Still, his gunners stood to their guns, and his cavalry charged; but both were killed or repulsed; the infantry endeavoured to form a front, but in the midst of its evolution it was charged and broken. The British cavalry fell upon the rear, while Leith, with the fifth division, bore down on the right flank. For awhile, the French veterans maintained some kind of order, but at last the cavalry broke them; Thomiere, one of their Generals, was killed, 2000 of the French threw down their arms, and the whole division was utterly routed.

The next portion of the French line, Clausel’s division, while warmly engaged with the English under Cole and Leith, had to sustain a charge from 1200 British dragoons. The whole French division was broken in an instant. Five guns and 2000 prisoners were taken in a few minutes. The entire of the left wing of the French army was now only a helpless mob of fugitives. In the centre the struggle was a more arduous one. The French still held a strong position on a hill--the Arapiles. Two attacks by the Portuguese and English were repelled. Beresford, Cole and Leith, were all wounded, and the English centre for a moment was shaken and in danger. But Wellington, whose eye was always where the peril was greatest, immediately ordered up Clinton’s division from the rear, and restored the battle. The ridge of the Arapiles was regained, “And now the current once more set in for the British. Pakenham continued to outflank the French left; Foy retired from the ridge of Calveriza, and the Allied host, righting itself like a gallant ship after a sudden gust, again bore right onwards, holding its course through blood and gloom.”

There remained only the division of Foy, which formed the extreme right of the French line, and still maintained a gallant fight. It seemed difficult for this General to extricate his division, but he did it with great dexterity. Just as the darkness fell, he increased his skirmishers, and brought forward some cavalry, as if for a charge. But when the English had prepared themselves for a real encounter, the skirmishers fell back, and the English pursued; but when they reached the top of the hill, the main body of the French had escaped into a forest hard by, where darkness gave them safety.

Another failure on the part of a Spaniard, here, again, favoured the French. The castle of Alba, on the Tormes, was garrisoned by a Spanish force, under Carlos d’Espana. This, if maintained, would have stopped the French in their flight by the main road, and have forced them to take the fords. But d’Espana, without informing Wellington, had withdrawn the garrison, and left the road open! “Had the castle of Alba been held,” says Napier, “the French could never have carried off a third of their army.” But by this piece of Spanish folly or cowardice, they were permitted to escape.

As it was, their loss was enormous. They went into action with 43,800 infantry and 4000 cavalry. Three weeks after, their General, Clausel, who succeeded Marmont in the command, wrote to the Minister of War at Paris, “The army consists of 20,000 infantry, and 1800 horse.” So that, by death or wounds or capture, it had lost more than half of its numbers. On the part of the Allies, the loss was 3176 British, 2018 Portuguese, and eight Spanish. One General was killed, and five were among the wounded. Wellington himself was struck in the thigh by a spent ball, which passed through his holster. This was one of the last incidents of this great battle; in which the English leader, to use a French officer’s expression, “defeated 40,000 men in forty minutes.” “Late in the evening of that great day,” says Sir William Napier, “I saw him behind my regiment, then marching towards the ford. He was alone; the flush of victory was on his brow, his eyes were eager and watchful, but his voice was calm and even gentle. More than the rival of Marlborough,--for he had defeated greater Generals than Marlborough ever encountered, he seemed with prescient pride to accept this victory only as an earnest of future glory.”

The French fled with such celerity, that their headquarters, on the following night, were at Flores d’Avila, no less than forty miles from the field of battle! The English army, on the other hand, entered Madrid on the 12th of August, amidst a scene of the wildest ecstasy. “No words can express the enthusiasm which prevailed when the English standards were seen in the distance, and the scarlet uniforms began to be discerned through the crowd. Amidst a countless multitude, wrought up to the highest pitch of rapturous feeling; amidst tears of gratitude and shouts of triumph, the British army entered the Spanish capital, not as conquerors, but as friends; not as oppressors, but deliverers.” As for Wellington, “with tears and every sign of deep emotion, the multitudes crowded round his horse, hung by his stirrups, touched his clothes, and throwing themselves on their knees, blessed him aloud.” The intrusive King, with about 12,000 men, had fled out of the city a few days previous.

The Retiro, the largest arsenal which the French possessed in Spain, still had a garrison of 1700 men. But it surrendered on the 13th, and the British found in it, 180 pieces of cannon, 20,000 stand of arms, and immense stores of all kinds. Meanwhile, “the French affairs in every part of the Peninsula now exhibited that general crash and ruin which so usually follows a great military disaster, and presages the breaking up of a political power.”

Nor were the mighty results of this great battle limited to Southern Europe. At the very moment when it took place, Napoleon, at the head of 450,000, was entering the heart of the Russian empire. The news of the defeat of his forces in Spain, reached him on the evening preceding the great battle of Borodino. It doubtless reached the Emperor Alexander also; and the news must have greatly aided the Russian Monarch in forming that remarkable resolve, “I am _immovable_; and no terms whatever shall induce me to terminate the war, or to fail in the sacred duty of avenging our country.” And, in a general order, issued shortly after, General Kutusoff, Alexander’s chief commander, said, “The hand of God is falling heavily on Napoleon: _Madrid is taken_.” Still, when, in October, Wellington, from the want of battering-artillery, failed in carrying the castle of Burgos, faction again raised its head in England, and even dared to question his skill and talent as a General! It was with reference to some of these attacks that Wellington took the following review of the results of the year.

“I fear that the public will be disappointed at the results of the last campaign: and yet it is, in fact, the most important and successful campaign in which a British army has been engaged for the last century. We have taken by siege Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, and Salamanca, and the Retiro has surrendered. Since January, this army has sent to England little short of 20,000 prisoners; and it has taken and destroyed, or we now possess, little short of 3000 pieces of cannon.”

More wonderful achievements, occupying a series of years, never were wrought out by a British army. Sir William Napier justly traces the triumph of Salamanca and other victories to the forethought of Wellington, in having laid such a foundation as he had provided in Torres Vedras. “This strong post was of his own planning,--he had chosen it, fortified it, defended it, and now, knowing its full value, he was availing himself of its advantages. The tree was planted to bear such fruit as was gathered at Salamanca, and the value of his combinations must be estimated from the general result. He had only 60,000 disposable troops, and 100,000 were especially appointed to watch and control him; yet he passed the frontier, defeated 45,000 men in a pitched battle, and drove 20,000 others from Madrid in confusion, without difficulty and without risk. No General was ever more entitled to the honour of victory.”

SALAMIS, BATTLE OF.--The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great battle, October 20th, 480 B.C. Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only 310 sail defeated the whole fleet of Xerxes, consisting of 2000 sail. One of the greatest naval engagements in ancient times.

SALDANHA BAY.--_Near the Cape of Good Hope._--Here a Dutch squadron was captured by Admiral St. George Keith Elphinstone, without resistance. Five men of war and nine frigates surrendered, and St. George was in consequence of this bloodless victory, which was executed with wonderful judgment, created Lord Keith, August 17th, 1796.

SANTA CRUZ.--Here, April 25th, 1657, the renowned Blake totally destroyed 16 Spanish ships, secured with great nautical skill, and protected by the castle and the forts on the shore. This was thought, at that time, one of the greatest feats ever accomplished. The Earl of Clarendon, speaking of this exploit, says, “It was so miraculous, that all who knew the place wondered that any sober man, with what courage soever endowed, would have undertaken it; and the victors could hardly persuade themselves to believe what they had done, whilst the surviving Spaniards thought that they were devils and not men who had destroyed their ships so.” Here also, in an unsuccessful attack made upon this place by Nelson, several officers and 141 men were killed, and the brave Admiral lost his right arm, July 24th, 1797. It is remarkable that Captain Freemantle, the great friend of Nelson, and a companion of his in most of his great and brilliant achievements was also wounded in the arm immediately before Nelson had received his wound in the same limb. The following laconic note addressed to the lady of Captain Freemantle, (who was on board with her husband at the time he wrote) has been preserved, as being the first letter written by the glorious hero with his left hand:

MY DEAR MRS. FREEMANTLE,

Tell me how Tom is? I hope he has saved his arm. Mine is off; but, thank God, I am as well as I hope he is.

Ever Yours, HORATIO NELSON.

SARATOGA, BURGOYNE’S SURRENDER AT.--General Burgoyne, commander of a body of the British Army, after a very severe engagement with the American Provincials in the American War of Independence, October 17th, 1777, surrendered to the American General Gates. No less than 5791 men laid down their arms. This was the greatest check the British suffered during the war.

SCOPOLO.--On July the 5th, 1808, a desperate action was fought off the island of Scopolo, between a large Turkish frigate and corvette, and the Seahorse thirty-eight guns, captain Stewart, exhibiting the skill and gallantry of the latter against a great disparity of force, by which his own ship was so well preserved, while that of his opponent was ruined. The action began at half-past nine in the evening, the Turks under easy sail, a little off the wind, and continually endeavouring to board. At ten o’clock, after a quarter of an hour’s hot fire, the small ship was silenced; the large ship, which had during this time fallen a little to leeward, and thus been prevented from assisting her consort, recovered her position; the action was recommenced; and the resistance of the Turks was so obstinate, that it was not till a quarter past one she was rendered a motionless wreck. As they would neither answer nor fire, captain Stewart, knowing the character of the people, conceived it most prudent to wait for daylight to send on board her. At daylight, observing her colours upon the stump of the mizenmast, the Seahorse poured a broadside into her stern, when she struck. She was named the Badere Zaffer, of fifty-two guns, with a complement of 500 men, commanded by captain Scanderli Kichuc Ali, who had been prevented by his own people from blowing her up. Her loss was prodigious--165 killed and 195 wounded. The Seahorse had only five killed and ten wounded.

SEBASTOPOL.--The celebrated city besieged during the Crimean war. See _Bombardment, first and second (final) of Sebastopol_; also, _Mamelon_, _Malakoff_ and _Sortie_.

SEDGMOOR, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 5th, 1685, in which the Duke of Monmouth was completely defeated by the army of James II of England. The Duke, who was the natural son of Charles II, by Lucy Walters, one of his mistresses, was made prisoner, and soon afterwards executed.

SEIDLITZ, BATTLE OF.--Fought, April 10th, 1831, between the Poles and Russians. The Poles obtained the victory, after a bloody battle, taking 4000 prisoners, and several pieces of cannon. The killed and wounded, on both sides, amounted to many thousands.

SEMINCAS, BATTLE OF.--Fought A.D. 938. One of the most bloody battles ever fought. Between the Moors and Ramirez II, King of Leon, and the Austrians. More than 80,000 of the infidels were slain, the dead lying in heaps for miles around.

SEMPACH, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 9th, 1386, between the Swiss and Leopold, Duke of Austria. The heroic Swiss, after prodigies of valour, gained a great and memorable victory over the Duke, who was slain. By this battle they gained their independence, which they possess until this day; and they annually commemorate, with great solemnity, this victory.

SERGEANT.--The highest non-commissioned officer of a company. This word enters into the title of different officers, as sergeant-major, color-sergeant, &c.

SERINGAPATAM, BATTLE OF.--This first battle, called also the Battle of Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Saib, was fought May 15th, 1791. The second, in which the redoubts were stormed, and Tippoo reduced by Lord Cornwallis, fought February 6th, 1792. After this capture peace was signed, and Tippoo agreed to cede one-half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees, about £3,000,000, sterling to England, and to give up his two sons as hostages. In a new war the Madras army arrived before Seringapatam, April 5th, 1799. It was joined by the Bombay army, April 14th, and the place was stormed and carried by Major General Baird, May 4th, same year. Tippoo was killed in this engagement.

The following account gives the particulars of the 1st engagement previous to the capture of Seringapatam.

“On the 27th of March, 1799, at three o’clock p.m., the right wing (of the British army destined for the capture of Seringapatam) moved slowly off the ground of encampment, along a heavy sandy road, impeded in their progress by the ponderous battering-train of guns, each 42 pounder being drawn majestically along by thirty, forty, and sometimes fifty bullocks, harnessed four abreast; and even these numbers were frequently found insufficient to extricate the wheels of the carriages from the deep sloughs into which they often sank, even up to the axles, when the aid of elephants was required; these sagacious animals would wind their trunks or probosci around the nave and between the spokes of the wheels, and thus lift gun and carriage from the impending difficulty, whilst the bullocks were being goaded and whipped with leather thongs. The ponderous machines were thus drawn forward. It was indeed an admirable and beautiful sight to observe the sagacity of these huge creatures; for when one only was brought up to assist, if the weight was too considerable for its animal strength, a shrill trumpeting proceeding from its proboscis would instantly proclaim this deficiency in strength for the object required, when the keeper would call for another elephant, and then the united power of the two, simultaneously applying their whole force, would speedily overcome almost insurmountable difficulties; though, when guns and carriages were embedded up to the axles of the four wheels, several of these noble animals have been required to lift the machines bodily from the tenacious clay into which they had sunk.

Clouds of looties, or irregular predatory horsemen, were on the right flank of the line, who fired incessantly on the British as they advanced; and when a stoppage occurred, to extricate the guns, large bodies of these looties would suddenly dash through the intervals, cutting down the artillerymen, maiming the bullocks, and destroying the whole paraphernalia of harness; and this in spite of all the exertions of skirmishers to keep them at a respectable distance. The fierce sun was almost intolerable, and many Europeans fell dead from _coups-de-soleil_. Only three miles and a half could be marched from three o’clock until nearly twelve, when the little mud-walled fort of Malleville was descried, with the gallant 19th dragoons, drawn up in close column under the walls, to shelter them from the enemy’s brisk cannonade. At a hill fortress (Amboor), previous to mounting the Ghauts and entering the Mysore country, the British army had been joined by about 10,000 of the Nizam’s troops--a disorderly set of savage, undisciplined barbarians (clothed in stuffed cotton jackets, covered with steel-chained armour, capable of resisting a musket-ball), prancing and skirmishing about the country in every direction, wielding their long lances with uncommon dexterity, managing their horses with grace and ease, almost to perfection in the equestrian art--sometimes casting their spears, and then, at full gallop, bending the body so low under the horse, as to recover possession of the spear that lay flat on the sand. This heterogeneous force was certainly an additional strength to the numerical force of the British, but, in a military point of view, of dubious advantage to the invading regular army, whose movements they frequently disconcerted by dashing furiously through the intervals between the columns on the line of march, and, being often mistaken for the enemy’s irregular horse, were fired at accordingly, many of them perishing in this unprofitable manner; and had any adverse fortune occurred in the campaign, confusion and defeat must have ensued, as these disorderly masses would inevitably have incommoded, and rendered all military discipline abortive. Accordingly, to protect them from absolute annihilation, the 33rd regiment of infantry, under command of the hon. colonel Wellesley (the Duke of Wellington), was attached to this disorderly crew, and acted with them during the advance to Seringapatam. The movements of the whole army was entirely confided to the management of Colonel Barry Close, a Company’s officer, and adjutant-general to the forces--a man of extensive capacity, who had displayed eminent talents in both civil and military departments during his long residence in India. He was an ornament to his profession, and, had fortune favoured him, might have proved a first-rate general. For his amiable and conciliatory disposition, he was beloved and esteemed by all who enjoyed the advantage of his society.

During the march, the towns and villages were involved in flames in every direction, and not an atom of food or forage was anywhere procurable (every officer of the army was provided with three months’ provision of biscuit, &c., borne on the backs of bullocks in various numbers, according to the grade of the officer), and every tank or pool of water was impregnated with the poison of the milk hedge, large quantities of the branches of which the enemy had industriously thrown in--so that many horses, bullocks, and even, in some instances, men, fell victims to the deleterious infusion.

As the head of the British column passed the little fort of Malleville, the quarter-master-general was observed marking out the site for encampment on an extensive sandy plain in front of the fort. The booming of distant heavy ordnance was plainly distinguishable. The lascars had commenced pitching the tents and marquees for the reception of the exhausted troops, but were suddenly interrupted in their occupation by the successive bounding of cannon-balls amongst them, when they precipitately quitted the dangerous situation, and fled for protection to the rear of the approaching troops. The enemy were posted on a commanding eminence about two miles distant, at the extremity of the sandy plain, supported by a long range of numerous heavy artillery and strong imposing bodies of regular cavalry. The English pickets, commanded by Captain Macpherson, of the 12th foot, pushed on towards the enemy’s left flank with two 12-pounder galloppers, and the action became brisk in that quarter--for, having ensconced themselves in a wood, they were thus secure from the charges of hordes of cavalry surrounding, whom they saluted with reiterated discharges of grape-shot from the galloppers. In the interim, whilst this scene was agitating, the right wing of the British army formed, on the intended ground of encampment, in contiguous close columns, and in this form cautiously advanced towards the eminence in front. I now, for the first time, became acquainted with the whirring, hoarse noise of cannon-balls--the phitz, phitz, of musket-bullets passing close to the body--and the ping, ping, of those flying distantly over head: fortunately, the balls, rockets, &c., were ill-directed, and did little execution. As the columns approached nearer the enemy’s position, the heavy guns were withdrawn behind the eminence (Tippoo Saib fearing nothing so much as the capture of his artillery, which he had invariably lost in his former battles with lord Cornwallis, in 1782), and ultimately disappeared! In this short advance, Captain Whitley, of the grenadiers of the 12th (to which company I was attached), observing, I presume, the unaccustomed paleness of my countenance, turned round and offered me a refreshing draught of brandy and water from the contents of his canteen, or leathern bottle attached to his side, which I gratefully accepted; for at eighteen we have not the nerves and stamina of a man of forty years old. Untried individuals may sarcastically sneer at this apparent indication of pusillanimity; but never, during all my service, did I observe soldiers enter on a scene of action with that calm, florid appearance, denoting a sense of health and security: did man ever yet exist exempt from the common feelings of human nature? In point of fact, there is an evident, palpable alteration of feature in every man, at the commencement of a battle; as it rages, this marked difference in the lineaments of the countenance disappears, and the excitement of exertion soon produces the usual effect of renewed animation, with a spirit of recklessness indifferent to the consequences of existing danger.

The advancing columns having approached within a few yards of the summit of the eminence, halted, and deployed into line, and thus marched on, when having reached the apex of the ascent, the formidable army of the redoubtable Tippoo Saib appeared drawn up on the plain below in battle array, with woods on both flanks, covered with tens of thousands of horsemen: the first indication of a serious attack proceeded from a body of cavalry, who charging the light infantry skirmishing front, soon drove them with headlong speed into the British line, where they rejoined their battalions; this body of horse, of about 1500, was formed in a compact wedge-like shape, with the front angle headed by two enormous elephants (saddled with howdahs, filled with distinguished officers), having each a huge iron chain dangling from the proboscis, which they whirled about with great rapidity, a blow from which would have destroyed half a company of infantry; at the first superficial view they were mistaken for the Nizam’s troops, but as they rapidly approached (firing their pistols and carbines, which produced some trifling effect) towards an interval of a few yards extent between his majesty’s 12th regiment and a battalion of Sepoys on the right, it was soon obvious they intended passing through this interval to the rear of the British line; fortunately, at this momentous crisis, a detachment of the Company’s native cavalry suddenly galloped from the rear, and completely filled up the space, when the enemy edged off, and directed their whole column to the front of the 12th regiment. General Harris, the commander-in-chief, suddenly appeared in the rear, vociferating aloud, “Fire, 12th! fire!” To their eternal credit, coolness, and unexampled discipline, be it recorded, that although standing with recovered arms, not a shot was fired, nor even a movement made, that indicated indecision; the men knew it was not the voice of the colonel, who, however, thus pressed by the authority of his superior officer, now gave the command--“Steady, 12th! and wait until these fellows are within ten yards of you,--then singe the beggars’ whiskers.” This order was implicitly obeyed. At the word “Fire!” a volley was effectually poured into the wedge of cavalry, followed by a rapid and well-directed file-firing, which produced the happiest effect; for on the smoke clearing away, a complete rampart of men and horses lay extended on the earth, in front of this invincible old corps! The elephants, maddened, with pain from their innumerable wounds, were shuffling away with speed, and swinging the enormous chains to right and left amidst the retiring cavalry, many of whom were thus destroyed. The howdahs (from which the leading chiefs had directed the charge) were dashed to atoms, and several of these brave men’s heads hung from the backs of the enraged animals; horses rearing, and crushing the riders to death--other loose and wounded horses scouring the plain on all sides--the scene was awfully terrific! Just at this eventful period, two 9-pounder field-pieces replaced the cavalry in the interval alluded to, at once opening a destructive shower of grape-shot on the discomfited horsemen, who were attempting to join their main body stationed in the woods below; these latter, perceiving the entire defeat of the “_Forlorn Hope_,” poured forth their tens of thousands, scouring rapidly over the sandy plain, exposed to the exterminating effects of the British artillery. The battle now became general along the whole line--infantry, cavalry, and artillery, all exerting their utmost efforts of destruction. Unfortunately, a large body of the Mysorian cavalry outflanked and cut into the rear of the British line, destroyed crowds of sick men and lascars, who were considered safe from such indiscriminate and inhuman butchery. Many of these gallant fellows, although in the last stage of human debility, crawled out of the doolies (rough palanquins for sick men), and fought manfully to the last gasp. On the extreme right of the line, the hon. colonel Wellesley was stationed, with his majesty’s 33rd regiment of foot, surrounded by the Nizam’s cavalry. The Mysorians at once charged the Nizam’s horse, who as suddenly scampered off. When the 33rd regiment were first observed by the enemy, the usual cry of “Feringee bong chute!” (“Rascally English!”) was uttered, and Tippoo’s cavalry fled in confusion, leaving several battalions of infantry to receive the dreadful charge of the British regiment! One hurrah! and the opposing infantry came in contact; several thousands of the Mysorians were bayonetted, the rest retiring in dismay, followed by the 19th dragoons, who cut and slashed without mercy. The right wing of the enemy being thrown into irretrievable confusion, and all parts of their line wavering, the battle was soon ended, Tippoo Saib drawing off with all possible haste. The British line now began to advance from their fighting position; but so numerous were the dead bodies of men and horses in front of the 12th regiment, that some difficulty was experienced in surmounting the obstacle! Two or three horsemen, in the attack of the wedge of cavalry, cut through the 12th regiment, but were immediately shot in the rear. To give an idea of the temper, sharpness, and weight of the swords of these men, who had all drugged themselves with bang (a narcotic herb, resembling opium in its effects on the human frame), for the attack, I have only to mention, that the barrel of one of the European’s muskets was completely severed by one cut from a Moorman’s sabre, the blade of which was three and a half feet long, half an inch thick at the back, and four inches broad, weighing fourteen pounds!

It is now only necessary to add, that the victory was in favour of the British, who with the right wing of their army (about 16,000 men) had engaged the combined forces of the sultan, destroying several thousands, with the loss only of a few hundreds. No guns were captured on either side. About six o’clock in the afternoon, the only indication of the proximity of an enemy was the distant booming of heavy artillery. The British, on reaching their original ground of encampment, were congratulated by the left wing of the army (just encamping, after a tedious hot march) on the success of the engagement, expressing regret that they had not arrived in time to participate in the glory of the day.”

SERINGAPATAM, OPENING THE TRENCHES BEFORE.--“On the morning of the 5th April, 1799, the British army encamped on their permanent ground for the siege of the celebrated fortress of Seringapatam; and, after due deliberation, it was decided to open the trenches, if possible, the same evening. In accordance with this determination, two separate bodies of troops were ordered to parade, at six o’clock in the afternoon--one destined to drive the enemy from the dry bed of a nullah, or narrow river--the other to take possession of a small wood situated in a line on the right of the river, and rather nearer the encampment, which had been occupied the night before by a detachment of flankers under General Baird, and evacuated, the enemy having silently retreated from it on the approach of the English. Both these positions were, on the 5th, strongly occupied by select bodies of Tippoo’s troops. To accomplish these arduous enterprises, his Majesty’s 12th regiment, with a proportion of sepoys or native troops, consisting of about 2000 effective men, under the command of lieutenant-colonel Shaw (of the 12th foot), marched from the British lines at a quarter past six o’clock, to take possession of the bed of the river; his majesty’s 33rd regiment of foot, with a detachment of sepoys, amounting, in toto, to 2000 men, under the command of colonel Wellesley (now the duke of Wellington), quitted camp about the same time, to occupy the tope, or wood, on the right of the bed of the river. The two posts were intended to be carried at or near the same time as possible, for the mutual protection and security of both detachments--as one position was almost untenable without the occupation of the other. The British encampment was situated three miles from Seringapatam, on a rising ground gradually sloping up from the fortress, with the exception of partial undulations, which, however, did not prevent a perfect view of the whole intermediate spaces. The two posts (nullah and top) were midway between the camp and the besieged town. Scarcely had these two little columns quitted the camp, than they were assailed by showers of rockets and blue lights from every direction in front, which completely illumined the atmosphere, and exposed the British to the fire of Tippoo’s tiger sepoys; heavy masses of whom poured death into Shaw’s force, with the most terrific effect. Still this gallant little body moved slowly on (as the night was exceedingly dark), although more encumbered each moment with dead, dying, and wounded: the rockets and musketry from upwards of 20,000 of the enemy were incessant--no hail could be thicker; with every blue light came a shower of bullets, and several rockets passed through the head to the rear of the column, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations:[2] the cries of the wounded were quite awful. Not a shot did the British fire, nor had the men even loaded their pieces; a caution from the brave old colonel Shaw, that “_all must be done with the bayonet_,” needed no repetition to ensure obedience; but scarcely had this caution been conveyed through the ranks, when a tremendous peal of musketry was heard on the right flank, in the direction of the wood, which caused Shaw’s force to halt, as the attack became so formidable from the front, and both flanks, that it would have been an useless sacrifice of the men’s lives to stand up; they were consequently directed to lie down for a few minutes, to avoid the effects of the enemy’s scorching fire, which now proceeded from a very few yards’ distance--the brilliant light of their fire-balls or blue lights exposing Shaw’s column to the full force of their musketry; and imagining, from the recumbent posture of the British, that the majority was killed, a large column of the tiger sepoys ventured an attack with the bayonet, and drove in the battalion of the Company’s sepoys, who were a few yards in advance on the right, and killing their major. The command, “_Up, 12th and charge!_” was no sooner given, than each man sprang up and advanced to the charge in silence and compact order. The tiger sepoys stood, until a very few yards intervened between the combatants, when a general shout of “Feringee bong chute!” (“the rascally English!”) was uttered, and the enemy dispersed on all sides in considerable confusion; but, shortly after, again threw out their blue lights, and recommenced their murderous file-firing, which once more compelled the British to resume their prostrate posture. It was now about twelve o’clock at night, when the solemn trampling of a body of troops was plainly distinguished, approaching from the right flank in a hasty and rather tumultuous manner. Once more Shaw’s column were on their feet and preparing to charge, when a few stragglers from the hon. colonel Wellesley’s force rushed in, and announced that the detachment had been repulsed from the wood, and that the approaching trampling was part of the force coming to join Shaw--that two companies of the 33rd, with their colonel (Wellesley), were missing! A few minutes after this report, major Shea (second in command to Wellesley) joined Shaw’s force with the remains of that detachment: he stated that colonel Wellesley, with two companies of the 33rd regiment, had been either taken prisoners or had retreated to camp! As second in command, he had considered it his duty to traverse the wood in search of him, which proving unsuccessful, and the fire from the enemy becoming so exceedingly heavy, had induced him to lead the remaining troops to colonel Shaw, for the purpose of obtaining information, and receiving instructions how to act. Colonel Shaw replied, ironically, “that he had better follow his colonel to camp”--a hint that was implicitly and immediately complied with. Indignation here overcame prudence, as Shaw soon saw the enemy pouring in from all sides, and the stoutest heart in his force predicted a fatal result, from the united and concentrated efforts of so numerous an enemy. Large quantities of ammunition were sent from camp during the night, for the supply of Shaw’s column, as, from the tremendous firing, it was naturally apprehended that all their cartridges had been expended; but these incessant peals of musketry had all proceeded from Tippoo’s troops (not a single shot had been returned by Shaw’s column). The oldest soldier in camp declared they had never heard so tremendous a fire: in fact, it continued for twelve hours without intermission, blue lights and rockets illuminating the air the whole time--beautiful, though terrific. It was generally imagined in camp that Shaw and his detachment must have been inevitably annihilated; but this gallant old officer only waited the dawn of day, to exhibit one of the most glorious and impressive spectacles that ever added lustre to the annals of British military fame! The appearance of Wellesley in camp, followed by part of two companies of the 33rd regiment, reporting that the remainder of his detachment had been cut to pieces, increased the probability of the inevitable destruction of the other attacking column, and all was anxiety and commiseration, in camp, for the fate of this devoted little band.

At five o’clock on the morning of the 6th April, the fire of musketry began to relax; the whole were under arms, and generously anxious for the safety of the column under Shaw’s command: but scarcely had the day dawned, than a glorious and exhilarating scene was displayed: the gallant old 12th, and the sepoys in line with them, were seen rushing on the entrenched enemy at the point of the bayonet, and driving them from the bed of the river, in spite of a heavy cannonade from the fortress of Seringapatam, and the resistance of the numerous columns opposed to them. Never did men more heroically perform their duty: the conflict was excessively murderous and obstinate, as the tiger sepoys were brave, numerous and well-disciplined. For some time the result of the attack appeared most dubious, as a considerable body of French troops persevered in most gallant style, in leading on Tippoo’s sepoys. The rapid charge of the 12th regiment, supported by the sepoys composing the force, excited the admiration of the whole British army. General Harris was heard to exclaim, “Well done, old 12th! why, they are going to take Seringapatam!” The occupation of the bed of the nullah being at length achieved by Shaw’s column, it had scarcely secured itself under the embankment of the river, from the thundering cannon of the fortress, when the enemy in the wood (who had opposed and put Wellesley to flight) opened a destructive fire from several field-pieces, which completely enfiladed Shaw’s post. A mound of earth was quickly thrown up on the right flank of the 12th regiment, to protect them, as much as possible, from this fresh annoyance; but this precaution could not have prevented the British from being dislodged from the bed of the river, had not several brigades from camp been observed advancing to support the position of Shaw’s post, and to drive the enemy from the wood. The certainty of speedy support inspired Shaw’s column with renewed ardour, and a fire was for the first time returned, with a rapidity and effect that completely disconcerted the enemy, who retired in good order, ever and anon facing about and firing a volley of musketry.

They were not relieved until the close of the evening of the 6th, as the enemy’s firing from the fortress of Seringapatam was so destructive, that Baird’s brigade was compelled to halt and return to camp; the other brigade, under Wellesley, advanced and took possession of the wood which the enemy abandoned, and thus relieved Shaw’s post from an annoying enfilade of cannon and musketry, from which they suffered for at least an hour and a half after daybreak, with the greatest constancy and courage. Eleven officers and 180 rank and file were killed and wounded in this small force during the night and morning of the 5th and 6th April. About seven o’clock in the evening of the latter day, the 74th regiment relieved the 12th, who were right happy to break their fast after twenty-four hours’ hard fighting and fasting.”

SEVILLE.--Surrendered to the French, February 1st, 1810; taken by assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, August 27th, 1812, when the French left it, at the general evacuation of the south of Spain, in consequence of their signal defeat in that battle.

SHERRIFMUIR, BATTLE OF.--Fought, November 12th, 1715, between the Royal army, under the Duke of Argyle, and the Scotch rebel forces, who favored the Pretender, and commanded by the Earl of Mar. The insurgents were defeated. Fought on the same day in which the rebel forces were defeated at Preston.

SHREWSBURY, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 21st, 1403, between the Royal army of Henry IV, and the army of the Nobles, led by Percy, surnamed Hotspur, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army consisted of about 12,000 men, and the engagement was most obstinate and bloody. Henry was seen everywhere in the thickest of the fight, while his valiant son, who was afterwards the renowned conqueror of France, fought by his side, though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept the field and performed astonishing deeds of bravery. On the other hand, Hotspur performed prodigies of valour; 2300 gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men. Hotspur was killed by an unknown hand, and his death decided the fortune of the day.

SHROPSHIRE, BATTLE OF.--In which the Britons were completely defeated, and Caractacus, their leader, taken prisoner and sent to Rome; fought A.D. 51.

SIEGES.--Numerous in History; the following are the most important:--

_Acre_, 1799, by Bonaparte; siege raised after sixty days, open trenches.

_Algiers_, 1816. _See this article._

_Almeida_, August 27th, 1810.

_Antwerp_, 1576, use of infernal machines; also besieged 1583, 1585, 1706, 1792, and 1814.

_Badajoz_, March 11th, 1811, but raised June 9th. Taken by escalade on the night of April 6th, 1812.

_Bagdad_, 1248.

_Bayonne_, 1451.

_Berwick_, 1293. _See this article._

_Bommel_, 1794; the invention of the covert-way used here.

_Burgos_, September to October, 1812, raised; the French in their retreat blew up the works, June 13th, 1813.

_Calais_, 1347; British historians affirm cannon first used here at this siege. _See this article._

_Candia_, 1667; the largest cannon then known in Europe, used here by the Turks.

_Carthagena_, 1706.

_Chalons_, 1199.

_Cherbourg_, 1650.

_Ciudad Rodrigo_, 1706, July, 1810; January, 1812. _See this article._

_Constantinople_, 1453.

_Copenhagen_, 1700, 1801, and 1807. _See this article._

_Cracow_, 1772.

_Dunkirk_, 1646, 1793.

_Frederickshall_, 1718, Charles XII killed here.

_Gibraltar_, 1704, 1799, and 1782; red hot cannon balls used here to burn the French fleet. _See this article._

_Ismael_, 1790. _See this article._

_Kars_, 1855. _See this article._

_Londonderry_, 1689. _See this article._

_Mons_, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746, 1792, and 1794.

_Mothe_, 1634; the French taught by Mr. Muller, an English engineer, first practised the art of throwing shells.

_Naples_, 1381, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799, and 1806.

_Orleans_, 1428, 1563.

_Philipsburg_, 1644, 1675, and 1688; first experiment of firing artillery à-ricochet here, also besieged 1734 and 1795.

_Romorentin_, 1356; according to Voltaire, artillery first used here in sieges.

_St. Sebastian_, September, 1813.

_Salamanca_, June, 1812.

_Saragossa_, oftener spelled _Zaragosa_,--appended to this article is a graphic account of the 2nd siege. It was besieged three times, in 1710, 1808, and 1809, the two last were dreadful sieges.

_Schweidnitz_, 1762 and 1807. Here was the first experiment to reduce a fortress by springing globes of compression.

_Sebastopol_, 1854 and 1855. _See this article under the heads of Bombardment of Sebastopol, Mamelon, Quarries, Rifle Pits, Sortie, &c._

_Seville_, 1096, 1247, 1248, one of the most memorable sieges mentioned in Spanish history.

_Silistria_, 1854. _See this article_.

_Stralsund_, 1675, 1713, and 1807; the method of throwing red hot cannon balls first practiced here with certainty.

_Tarifa_, December 20th, 1811.

_Toulon_, 1707 and 1793.

_Tournay_, 1340, 1312, 1581, 1667, and 1709. During this siege the best defence ever drawn from countermines was here practised; also besieged in 1765 and 1794.

_Tunis_, 1270, 1535.

_Valenciennes_, May 23rd to July 14th, 1793. _See this article._

_Warsaw_, September 8th, 1831.

_Zutphen_, 1572 and 1586.

SILISTRIA, SIEGE OF.--In 1854.--The following is an admirable account of the siege of this place:

“After the battle of Citate, so bitter a blow to the pretensions of Russia, the enemy’s Generals found it advisable to change their plan of operations. Adopting Foktchani as their basis, they accumulated a large amount of military stores, and finding that the Turks were not to be tempted into crossing the Danube, calmly awaited reinforcements. When these had arrived, it was resolved to make a desperate effort to force the passage of the river. Imperative orders arrived from St. Petersburg to press the war vigorously, and at any cost. On the 13th of February they attacked Giurgevo, on the Wallachian bank of the Danube, with a considerable force, and after a vigorous resistance, the Turks were forced to evacuate their position, though not without being able to effect an orderly retreat across the river, and establish themselves firmly in the opposite town of Rustchuk. The Russian Generals now resolved on concentrating their strength, and making an irresistible advance into Bulgaria. With characteristic promptness, however, Omer Pacha initiated the attack. Throwing a small column across the Danube at Rahova, he assaulted and drove back the outposts at Kalarasch with considerable slaughter; and the Turks, after this dashing feat, retired in security to Rahova. Another attempt was made by the extreme right of the Russian line, on the 11th of March, to seize Kalafat; but they were energetically repulsed by the brave garrison of that renowned town. Four days later, Prince Gortschakoff made a desperate effort to wrest from its Ottoman defenders the island in the Danube between Tukurtai and Oltenitza, which had been so important a position in the battle at the latter place. The Russians were again driven back, but some idea of the sanguinary nature of the struggle may be formed from the fact that 2000 soldiers of the Czar left their bodies on the disputed ground.

“Five days before this desperate attempt to force the passage of the river at Oltenitza, General Luders had succeeded in crossing, at Galatz, into the Dobrudscha. Gortschakoff, defeated as he had been, resolved upon abandoning the position he had so disastrously occupied, and shifting his ground farther to the east, effected a passage at Tultscha, beyond the point where Luders had passed with his army. The two divisions were now united, and numbered about 5000 men. By a curious coincidence, the 23rd of March, the day on which Gortschakoff crossed the river, was the same day in which Odessa was so successfully bombarded by the allied fleets. Thus was the Russian success more than counterbalanced. Four days later, England and France had officially entered into the struggle. The great object of the enemy’s movements now became apparent. Prince Paskiewitch, the veteran General, the most celebrated commander of the Russian army, was summoned from Poland to assume the supreme command, and Schilders, the most accomplished general of engineers, also hastened to the scene of operations. The capture of Silistria, the strongest fortress on the southern bank of the Danube, and the key to Bulgaria, was evidently the object of the Russians. So important was the possession of this place deemed by the Czar, that the most imperative directions were forwarded to accomplish it at any cost. The plan of operations was this. Gortschakoff and Luders, having crossed the Danube, were to advance towards Silistria, intercepting communications, and investing it on the land side; while Paskiewitch was to throw forward the main body of the army and vigorously assault it from the northern side. The garrison of Silistria, commanded by Moussa Pacha, a General of great ability and indomitable courage, did not number more than 8000 men.

“Now commenced one of the most memorable sieges which history has ever recorded. Others have exceeded it in the number of men engaged, in the length of time occupied, but none in heroic episodes and unflinching constancy. On the 14th of April, batteries were thrown up on the north bank of the Danube, opposite the devoted town, and a vigorous bombardment opened, but without much effect. On the 28th the first assault was made, but so hot was the reception the attacking force met with, that three weeks elapsed before they had sufficiently recovered to completely invest the town. By that time 53,000 Russians had surrounded the fortress, and batteries had been established, commanding the most important points. On the south-west front, and consequently the land side of the town, two very important earthworks were thrown up, known as Arab Tabia and Illanii. The ground on which these works were situated rises in a series of platforms, which virtually command the town. Their defence, therefore, was of the utmost importance to the brave garrison. Again and again, for the space of ten weeks, did the enemy precipitate strong columns of men against these mounds of earth, and again and again were they driven back with enormous loss. In vain the Russian cannonade levelled the bastions and slaughtered the defenders; others supplied their places, and once more the works rose defiantly. The Russian shells swept the ground, and the Turks burrowed in the trenches, till the advancing columns of assailants rushed to the breach. Then the undaunted defenders sprang upon them, and hurled them back, covered with defeat. Every attack was made with increased numbers, and made only to be the more ignominiously defeated. Mines were stealthily advanced towards the works; but the Turks countermined, and the Russian sappers were blown into the air. All this while an incessant bombardment from the river batteries poured death into the town. But the undaunted besieged never for a moment relaxed their resistance. Three master-spirits guided their operations, and infused heroic courage into their ranks. Captain James Butler, a young Englishman, who had volunteered for service in the army of the East, had joined the garrison, in company with Lieutenant Nasmyth, another young officer, animated by similar motives. These two gallant men were the very soul of the defence, and aided by the brave Maussa Pacha, the Ottoman Commander, successfully defied the power of the assailants. Butler, as the senior of the two Englishmen, assumed a position readily acceded to him by his Turkish allies, and to him they were indebted for the admirable construction and disposition of the defensive works. Lieutenant Nasmyth proved himself a most able seconder of his friend’s exertions, and in the capacity of “special correspondent” of the _Times_ newspaper, made all Europe acquainted with the details of this extraordinary siege.

“Straining every nerve, and exhausting every resource, to become masters of the place, the Russian Generals summoned to their aid the larger portion of the right wing of their army, thus materially weakening their power of opposing the Turkish forces to the westward of Silistria, who, in consequence, obtained some easy successes. On the 12th of May, a tremendous assault was made by the besiegers on the town, and repulsed after a sanguinary struggle, in which more than 2000 Russians was lost. Ten days afterwards another assault was attempted, and again was the enemy defeated. With true Russian wiliness, overtures were secretly made to Moussa Pacha to betray his trust, and for an adequate price to deliver the fortress to the Czar. The brave man scornfully rejected the proposition, and bade the enemy to take it if they could. Meanwhile, Omer Pacha was anxiously endeavouring to succour the devoted garrison. Obstacles interposed by the stupidity, if not traitorous connivance, of officials in the ministry, had hitherto effectually tied his hands; but at length, on the 5th of July, a detachment of Turkish troops effected an entrance into the town after a smart skirmish; and on the 8th, about a thousand more literally cut their way through the Russians, and were added to the garrison. Aided by those welcome reinforcements, the Turks now assumed the offensive, and on the night of the 13th made a sortie, and succeeded in destroying the Russian works, springing their mines, and inflicting a terrible loss upon their ranks.

“It was now evident to the Russian Commanders that, if the town were to be taken at all, it must be by a _coup de main_, and a grand assault was ordered for the 28th of June. But they had miscalculated the valour of their soldiers. Daunted by the warm reception they had hitherto experienced, they absolutely refused to march again to the breach; and nothing but the threat of stopping their rations unless Silistria were taken the next day, could induce these valiant warriors to perform their duty. On the next day, the Russian Generals led their half-starved and unwilling forces against the redoubts of Silistria. The Commanders, Prince Paskiewitch, Count Orloff, Generals Schilders, Gortschakoff, and Luders, placed themselves in the very front of the attacking force, anxious to stimulate the soldiers by their own exposure. The assault was attempted, and most triumphantly repulsed. The Russians were thrown into the utmost disorganization, and fled precipitately from the well-directed volleys of the garrison. Their leaders, too, paid dearly for their temerity. Paskiewitch himself was severely wounded; Schilders had both his legs shattered, Luders his jaw shot away, Count Orloff was killed, and Gortschakoff received a serious wound. Nor did the brave defenders escape without irreparable loss. Their gallant chief, Moussa Pacha, was struck on the head by a round shot, and expired instantly; and the noble Butler fell a sacrifice to his undaunted courage. The Turkish reinforcements outside the garrison fell upon the rear of the retreating Russians, and completed the rout their compatriots had so gloriously initiated. Beaten on every hand, the enemy dashed pell-mell across the river, in confused retreat towards Foktchani. The siege was raised. More than 30,000 Russian soldiers had perished in the attempt to take Silistria, and the broken remnant was now in full flight, owing its safety solely to the limited number of the victorious Turks, which forbade pursuit.

“With the exception of the small force which still lingered in the plague-stricken plains of the Dobrudscha, not a Russian remained to the south of the Danube. The mighty legions, precipitated so recklessly across the Danube, were dead upon the Turkish bank, or flying ignominiously from the scene. The despised Turks were the triumphant conquerors, and the great Czar had received another and a greater blow from the “sick man.”

SLAUGHTER OR MASSACRE.--Under this head both Ancient and Modern History abound with events which can be so called. The following are among the most remarkable, as recorded by various authors:

The Carthagenians in Sicily who were totally slaughtered, 397 B.C.

2000 Tyrians crucified and 8000 put to the sword by Alexander the Great. 331 B.C.

The Romans throughout Asia, women and children not exempted, cruelly butchered in one day, by order of Mithridates, King of Pontus, 88 B.C.

The massacre of Roman Senators, &c., 86 B.C.

That of Octavianus Cæsar to the Manes of Julius Cæsar, 41 B.C.

Jerusalem, 1,100,000 Jews cruelly put to the sword, A.D. 70.

Cassius slaughtered 400,000 of the inhabitants of Selucia, A.D. 167.

Eighty Christian Fathers by order of the Emperor Gratian were put into a ship which was set on fire and then driven out to sea, A.D. 370.

Belisarius massacred 30,000 citizens of Constantinople, A.D. 552.

That of the Albigenses and Waldenses, A.D. 1209.

The Sicilian Vespers--all the French in Sicily butchered without distinction of age or sex, the first bell for vespers being the signal, A.D. 1282.

That of St. Bartholomew’s day throughout France, August 24th, 1572.

Ismael, 30,000 of the inhabitants old and young slain, December, 1790. _See Ismael._

Of all the whites in the Island of St. Domingo, March 29th, 1804.

Massacre of the Mamelukes in Egypt, March 1st, 1811. _See account appended to this list._

Sinopé during the Crimean war, 1854.

MASSACRES IN ENGLISH HISTORY.

Of 300 nobles on Salisbury Plain, A.D. 474.

The Danes in England, November 13th, 1002.

The Jews in England, A.D. 1189.

The unoffending McDonalds of Glencoe, 1692. _See account appended to this list._

Massacres of Cawnpore, Delhi, and other places during the Great Indian Mutiny, 1857. _See Cawnpore and Delhi._

SLAUGHTER or MASSACRE OF GLENCOE.--This barbarous and diabolical massacre, which, at the time of its commission, excited universal and heartfelt indignation, took place in February, 1692. About the middle of 1691, “as the Highlanders were not yet totally subdued, the Earl of Breadalbane undertook to bring them over by distributing sums of money among their chiefs; and £15,000 were accordingly remitted from England for that purpose. The clans being informed of this, suspected that the Earl’s design was to appropriate to himself the best part of the money; and when he began to treat with them, they made such extravagant demands, that he found his scheme impracticable. He had therefore to refund the sum he had received; and resolved to wreak his vengeance on those who had frustrated his intention. He who chiefly thwarted him was McDonald of Glencoe, whose opposition rose from a private circumstance, which ought to have had no effect on a treaty that regarded the public weal. McDonald had plundered the lands of Breadalbane during the course of hostilities; and the Earl insisted upon being indemnified for his losses, from the other’s share of the money which he was employed to distribute. The Highlander, however, not only refused to acquiesce in these terms, but, by his influence among the clans, defeated the whole scheme, and, in revenge, Breadalbane devoted him to destruction. King William had, by proclamation, offered an indemnity to all those who had been in arms against him, provided they would submit and take the oaths by a certain day; and this was prolonged to the close of 1691, with a denunciation of military execution against those who should hold out after the end of December. McDonald, intimidated by this declaration, repaired, on the very last day of the month, to Fort William, and desired that the oaths might be tendered to him by Colonel Hill, governor of that fortress. As this officer was not vested with the power of a civil magistrate, he refused to administer them; and McDonald set out immediately for Inverary, the county-town of Argyle. Though the ground was covered with snow, and the weather intensely cold, he travelled with such diligence, that the term prescribed by the proclamation was but one day elapsed when he reached the place, and addressed himself to Sir John Campbell, sheriff of the county, who, in consideration of his disappointment at Fort William, was prevailed upon to administer the oaths to him and his adherents. Then they returned to their own habitations in the valley of Glencoe, in full confidence of being protected by the government, to which they had so solemnly submitted.

Breadalbane had represented McDonald at court as an incorrigible rebel, as a ruffian inured to bloodshed and rapine, who would never be obedient to the laws of his country, nor live peaceably under any sovereign. He observed, that he had paid no regard to the proclamation, and proposed that the government should sacrifice him to the quiet of the kingdom, in extirpating him, with his family and dependants, by military execution. His advice was supported by the suggestions of the other Scottish ministers; and the King, whose chief virtue was not humanity, signed a warrant for the destruction of those unhappy people, though it does not appear that he knew of McDonald’s submission. An order for this barbarous execution, signed and counter-signed by his majesty’s own hand, being transmitted to the master of Stair, secretary for Scotland, this minister sent particular directions to Livingstone, who commanded the troops in that kingdom, to put the inhabitants of Glencoe to the sword, charging him to take no prisoners, that the scene might be more terrible. In the month of February, captain Campbell of Glenlyon, by virtue of an order from major Duncanson, marched into the valley of Glencoe with a company of soldiers belonging to Argyle’s regiment, on pretence of levying the arrears of the land-tax and hearth-money. When McDonald demanded whether they came as friends or enemies, he answered as friends, and promised, upon his honour, that neither he nor his people should sustain the least injury. In consequence of this declaration, he and his men were received with the most cordial hospitality, and lived fifteen days with the men of the valley in all the appearance of the most unreserved friendship. At length the fatal period approached. McDonald and Campbell having passed the day together, parted about seven in the evening, with mutual professions of the warmest affection. As soon as Campbell had retired, he received the following letter from major Duncanson, quartered at Ballachalis, a place some distance from Glencoe. It is dated the 12th of February, 1692, and runs thus:--

“SIR,--You are hereby ordered to fall upon the rebels, the McDonalds of Glencoe, and put all to the sword under seventy years of age. You are to have especial care that the old fox and his sons do upon no account escape. This you are to put into execution at five o’clock in the morning (Saturday, the 13th) precisely; and by that time I will strive to be with you, with a stronger party. If I do not come to you at five, you are not to tarry for me, but to fall on. Secure all the avenues, that not a man may escape. _This is by the King’s especial command_, for the good of the country, that these miscreants may be cut off, root and branch.”

This was instantly communicated to the officers and men under his command, and immediate preparations made for carrying the inhuman massacre into effect.

The younger McDonald, perceiving the guards doubled, began to suspect some treachery, and communicated his suspicion to his brother; but neither he nor the father would harbour the least doubt of Campbell’s sincerity; nevertheless, the two young men went forth privately, to make farther observations. They overheard the common soldiers say they liked not the work; that though they would willingly have fought the McDonalds of the glen fairly in the field, they held it base to murder them in cold blood; but that their officers were answerable for the treachery. When the youths hasted back to apprise their father of the impending danger, they saw the house already surrounded; they heard the discharge of muskets, the shrieks of women and children; and, being destitute of arms, secured their own lives by immediate flight. The savage ministers of vengeance had entered the old man’s chamber, and shot him through the head. He fell down dead in the arms of his wife, who died next day, distracted by the horror of her husband’s fate. The laird of Auchintrincken, McDonald’s guest, who had, three months before this period, submitted to the government, and at this very time had a protection in his pocket, was put to death without question. A boy of eight years, who fell at Campbell’s feet, imploring mercy, and offering to serve him for life, was stabbed to the heart by one Drummond, a subaltern officer. Eight and thirty persons suffered in this manner, the greater part of whom where surprised in their beds, and hurried into eternity before they had time to implore the divine mercy. The design to butcher all the males under seventy years of ago that lived in the valley, the number of whom amounted to 200, was defeated by Duncanson not arriving in time to secure the passes, so that one young man and woman had nearly succeeded in escaping, and were climbing the last rugged height of their native place, when they were discovered, and shots immediately sent after them. Struck by one of them the unfortunate young man made a convulsive spring, and fell headlong into the valley below. His companion, alarmed by the report, lost her hold, and tumbled after him. They were both killed by the fall.

Campbell, having perpetrated this brutal massacre, ordered all the houses to be burned, made a prey of all the cattle and effects that were found in the valley, and left the helpless women and children, whose husbands and fathers he had murdered, naked and forlorn, without covering, food, or shelter, in the midst of the snow that covered the whole face of the country, at the distance of six long miles from any inhabited place. Distracted with grief and horror, surrounded with the shades of night, shivering with cold, and appalled with the apprehension of immediate death from the swords of those who had sacrificed their friends and kinsmen, they could not endure such a complication of calamities, but generally perished in the waste, before they could receive the least comfort or assistance. This barbarous massacre, performed under the sanction of King William’s authority, answered the immediate purpose of the court, by striking terror into the hearts of the jacobite Highlanders; but at the same time excited the horror of all those who had not renounced every sentiment of humanity, and produced such an aversion to the government, as all the arts of a ministry could never totally surmount. A detail of the particulars was published at Paris, with many exaggerations, and the jacobites did not fail to expatiate upon every circumstance, in domestic libels and private conversation. The King, alarmed at the outcry which was raised on this occasion, ordered an inquiry to be set on foot, and dismissed the master of Stair from his employment of secretary; he likewise pretended that he had subscribed the order amidst a heap of other papers, without knowing the purport, of it; but as he did not severely punish those who made his authority subservient to their own cruel revenge, the imputation stuck fast to his character; and the Highlanders, though terrified into silence and submission, were inspired with the most implacable resentment against his person and administration.”

SLAUGHTER or MASSACRE OF THE MAMELUKES, March 1st, 1811.--“It has been related, that one of the chief means employed by Mahomet Ali in civilizing Egypt, or in improving the state of the country, was the destruction of the Mamelukes--a class of hired foreign soldiers, who, as usual in such cases, were opposed to all changes in the government. It was only by resorting to a barbarous stratagem in one of his campaigns, that the sanguinary blow was struck. The following is an account of this sanguinary affair:

“The chiefs of the Mamelukes, with their adherents, being assembled, by invitation from the Pacha of Egypt, within the citadel of Cairo, after a time, according to eastern custom, coffee was brought, and, last of all, the pipes; but at the moment when these were presented, as if from etiquette, or to leave his guests more at their case, Mahomet Ali rose and withdrew, and, sending privately for the captain of his guard, gave orders that the gates of the citadel should be closed; adding, that as soon as Siam Bey and his two associates should come out for the purpose of mounting, they should be fired upon till they dropped, and that at the same signal the troops posted throughout the fortress should take aim at, every Mameluke within their reach, while a corresponding order was sent down at the same time to those in the town, and to such even as were encamped without, round the foot of the fortress, to pursue the work of extermination on all stragglers that they should find, so that not one of the proscribed body might escape. Siam Bey, and his two brothers in command, finding that the Pacha did not return to them, and being informed by the attendants that he was gone into his harem (an answer that precluded all farther inquiry), judged it time to take their departure. But no sooner did they make their appearance without, and were mounting their horses, than they were suddenly fired upon from every quarter, and all became at once a scene of confusion, and dismay, and horror, similar volleys being directed at all the rest, who were collected round, and preparing to return with them, so that the victims dropped by hundreds. Siam himself had time to gain his saddle, and even to penetrate to one of the gates of the citadel; but all to no purpose, for he found it closed like the rest, and fell there pierced with innumerable bullets. Another chief, Amim Bey, who was the brother to Elfi, urged the noble animal which he rode to an act of greater desperation, for he spurred him till he made him clamber upon the rampart; and preferring rather to be dashed to pieces than to be slaughtered in cold blood, drove him to leap down the precipice, a height that has been estimated at from thirty to forty feet, or even more; yet fortune so favoured him, that though the horse was killed in the fall, the rider escaped. An Albanian camp was below, and an officer’s tent very near the spot on which he alighted. Instead of shunning it, he went in, and throwing himself on the rites of hospitality, implored that no advantage might be taken of him; which was not only granted, but the officer offered him protection, even at his own peril, and kept him concealed so long as the popular fury and the excesses of the soldiery continued. Of the rest of that devoted number, thus shut up and surrounded, not one went out alive; and even of those who had quietly remained in the town, but very few found means to elude the activity and greedy search that was made after them--a high price being set upon every Mameluke’s head that should be brought. All Cairo was filled with wailing and lamentations; and, in truth, the confusion and horrors of that day are indescribable; for not the Mamelukes alone, but others also, in many instances wholly unconnected with them, either from mistake, or from malice, or for plunder, were indiscriminately seized on and put to death; so that great as the number was that perished of that ill-fated body, it yet did not comprehend the total of the victims. The strange fact of the leap and escape of Amim Bey, and of his asylum in the officer’s tent, reached at last the Pacha’s ears, who sent instantly to demand him; and when the generous Albanian found that it would be impossible any longer to shelter or screen his fugitive, he gave him a horse, and recommended him to fly with all speed into Asia, where, in the palace of Suleyman Pacha at Acre, he found safety.”

SLAVE TRADE.--The following is a good description of this horrible trade now nearly at an end:--

“On our return from Brazil, we fell in with a slave-ship. She had taken in, on the coast of Africa, 336 males and 226 females, making in all 562, and had been out seventeen days, during which she had thrown overboard 55. The slaves were all enclosed under grated hatchways, between decks. The space was so low, that they sat between each other’s legs, and stowed so close together, that there was no possibility of their lying down, or at all changing their position, by night or day. As they belonged to, and were shipped on account of different individuals, they were all branded, like sheep, with the owners’ marks, of different forms. These were impressed under their breasts, or on their arms, and, as the mate informed me, with perfect indifference, “queimados pelo ferro quento--burnt with the red-hot iron.” Over the hatchway stood a ferocious-looking fellow, with a scourge of many twisted thongs in his hand, who was the slave-driver of the ship; and whenever he heard the slightest noise below, he shook it over them, and seemed eager to exercise it. As soon as the poor creatures saw us looking down at them, their dark and melancholy visages brightened up. They perceived something of sympathy and kindness in our looks, which they had not been accustomed to, and feeling, instinctively, that we were friends, they immediately began to shout and clap their hands. One or two had picked up a few Portuguese words, and cried out, “Viva! viva!” The women were particularly excited. They all held up their arms; and when we bent down and shook hands with them, they could not contain their delight; they endeavoured to scramble upon their knees, stretching up to kiss our hands; and we understood that they knew we had come to liberate them. Some, however, hung down their heads in apparently hopeless dejection; some were greatly emaciated, and some, particularly children, seemed dying. But the circumstance which struck us most forcibly, was, how it was possible for such a number of human beings to exist, packed up and wedged together as tight as they could cram, in low cells, three feet high, the greater part of which, except that immediately under the grated hatchways, was shut out from light or air, and this when the thermometer, exposed to the open sky, was standing in the shade, on our deck, at 89 deg. The space between decks was divided into compartments, three feet three inches high; the size of one was sixteen feet by eighteen, and of the other, forty by twenty-one; into the first were crammed the women and girls; into the second, the men and boys: 226 fellow-creatures were thus thrust into one space 288 feet square, and 336 into another space 800 feet square, giving to the whole an average of twenty-three inches, and to each of the women not more than thirteen inches, though many of them were pregnant. We also found manacles and fetters of different kinds; but it appeared that they had all been taken off before we boarded. The heat of these horrid places was so great, and the odour so offensive, that it was quite impossible to enter them, even had there been room. They were measured, as above, when the slaves had left them. The officers insisted that the poor suffering creatures should be admitted on deck, to get air and water. This was opposed by the mate of the slaver, who, from a feeling that they deserved it, declared they would murder them all. The officers, however, persisted, and the poor beings were all turned up together. It is impossible to conceive the effect of this eruption--507 fellow-creatures, of all ages and sexes, some children, some adults, some old men and women, all in a state of total nudity, scrambling out together to taste the luxury of a little fresh air and water. They came swarming up, like bees from the aperture of a hive, till the whole deck was crowded to suffocation, from stem to stern, so that it was impossible to imagine where they could all have come from, or how they could all have been stowed away. On looking into places where they had been crammed, there were found some children next the sides of the ship, in the places most remote from light and air; they were lying nearly in a torpid state, after the rest had turned out. The little creatures seemed indifferent as to life or death; and when they were carried on deck, many of them could not stand. After enjoying for a short time the unusual luxury of air, some water was brought; it was then that the extent of their sufferings was exposed in a fearful manner. They all rushed like maniacs towards it. No entreaties, or threats, or blows, could restrain them; they shrieked and struggled, and fought with one another, for a drop of this precious liquid, as if they grew rabid at the sight of it. There is nothing which slaves, in the middle passage, suffer from so much as the want of water. It is sometimes usual to take out casks filled with sea-water as ballast, and when the slaves are received on board, to start the casks and refill them with fresh. On one occasion, a ship from Bahia neglected to change the contents of the casks, and on the mid-passage found, to their horror, that they were filled with nothing but salt water. All the slaves on board perished! We could judge of the extent of their sufferings from the afflicting sight we now saw.”

SLUYS, NAVAL BATTLE OF.--In this battle Edward III gained a signal victory over the French. The English had the wind of the enemy, and the sun at their backs, and began the action, which was fierce and bloody--the English archers galling the French on their approach; 230 French ships were taken; 30,000 Frenchmen were killed, and two Admirals; English loss inconsiderable.--Fought, June 24th, 1340.

SMOLENSKO, BATTLE OF.--One of the most memorable battles fought during the Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. Fought, August 17th, 1812. The French were three times repulsed, but at last gained the victory, and on entering Smolensko, found it in ruins, on account of their bombardment.

SOBRAON, BATTLE OF.--_In India._--Fought, February 10th, 1846, between the British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir Hugh Gough, and the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The enemy were dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken; and in attempting the passage of the river by a floating bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded or drowned. They also lost sixty-seven cannon and some standards. The British lost 2383 men.

SOLEBAY, NAVAL BATTLE OF.--Between the fleets of England and France on the one side and the Dutch on the other; the Allies commanded by the Duke of York. The Dutch were compelled to flee, having lost three ships, but the English lost four. In this obstinate and bloody engagement the _Earl of Sandwich_ man-of-war blew up, and 1000 men were either killed or wounded. Fought, May 28th, 1672.

SOLFERINO, BATTLE OF.--This great battle, one of the most bloody ever fought, took place during the war of Italy and France against Austria. Fought, June 24th, 1859. The loss on both sides was tremendous. The Austrians mustered 250,000 men; the Allies 150,000. The number slain and wounded ranged from 30,000 to 37,000. The result of this battle was the Austrians repassed the Mincio, whilst the Allied headquarters were placed at Cavriana.

SORTIE FROM SEBASTOPOL.--The great sortie, during which the good Captain Hedley Vicars was killed, is well described in the following account:

“On the night of the 22nd of March, the enemy, about 7000 strong made a sortie from the works of the Mamelon, which the French, as already related, had so gallantly endeavoured to wrest from them. The distance between the advanced parallels of the opposing forces was not more than sixty yards; and the Russians were fully alive to the necessity of preventing, if possible, any further advance on the part of the Allies. The French and English Generals were equally aware of the importance of the position, and not less than 6000 or 7000 French soldiers were nightly marched down to the trenches; our working and covering parties numbering about 1500. Advancing stealthily in two columns, the enemy attacked the head of the French sap, and were gallantly met by a division of the 3rd Zouaves, under Chef de Bataillon Balon. Three times was the attack made, and three times repulsed, not without great loss both to assailants and defenders. Finding themselves unable to force the French lines in this direction, the enemy changed his front, and threw himself against the left of the French position; but here, too, our brave Allies were equally on the alert, and a sharp volley assured the adventurous Russians that but little success was to be hoped for in that quarter. Rapidly extending their attack, they succeeded in occupying the nearest English parallel, and thence poured a murderous fire into the French lines. General D’Autemarre, the officer in command, seeing the fierce nature of the attack, now ordered up the 4th battalion of the Chasseurs-à-Pied, who, in a vigorous bayonet charge, drove the enemy from his position.

While this was going on in the French trenches, to the right of our lines, our troops were also engaged in repelling an equally determined attack. A portion of the Russian columns advanced under cover of the darkness, and succeeded in approaching the English lines. The first intimation our men had of the threatened attack was from the advanced sentinels, who quietly fell back with the intelligence that a large body of the enemy was approaching our position. The English troops engaged that night in the trenches consisted of detachments of the 7th, 34th, 77th, 88th, 90th, and 97th regiments, under the command of Colonel Kelly, of the 34th. The advanced posts on the right nearest the French lines were composed of men from the 77th and 97th, led by Captain Vicars, who, hearing the approach of the enemy, ordered his men to keep silence. On came the Russians, and when within a few yards of the English trenches, they rushed forward and leaped into the works. They were immediately met by the brave defenders of the lines, who, hitherto motionless, now made an irresistible charge upon the advancing foe, and after a few moments of desperate hand-to-hand conflict, literally pitched them from the parapet. Captain Vicars, who led his men with distinguished courage, met his death in this vigorous repulse. Major Gordon, of the Engineers, who commanded the detachment on the right, was severely wounded. While the attention of the defenders of the trenches was thus drawn to the conflict in this direction, the enemy made another attempt to penetrate our lines farther to the left, where two mortars had been established for the defence of the trenches. Here they succeeded in gaining a footing, notwithstanding a most brilliant resistance from a few men of the 90th, who actually drove them from the battery, though they were unable effectually to oppose their advance. The 7th and 34th, under the command of Lieut.-Colonel Tylden, were now brought up to the scene of action, and gallantly met the fierce assault. After a severe contest, the Russians gave way, and were precipitated from the works. A general attack was now made upon the retreating masses, who fled utterly beaten. The French followed them so far as to be enabled to destroy some of the rifle-pits they had established on the slope of the Mamelon, which had been the means of such constant annoyance to our Allies. In this pursuit Colonel Kelly was killed. The Russian loss must have been very great. On our side, the casualties were not more than 38 killed and wounded; the French lost over 300.

On the next day an armistice, for the purpose of burying the dead, was requested by General Osten-Sacken, the Russian Commander. This was granted, and for two hours, on the 24th, the guns ceased firing, and the officers and men of the opposed armies enjoyed a brief respite from their deadly contest. There was a natural desire on each side to approach as nearly as possible the lines of the other; and the soldiers mingled freely in the open space between the Allies on the one side and entrenched sides of the Mamelon in front. Burial parties were formed and the dead and wounded of either army borne away by their comrades. Meanwhile the officers chatted and exchanged cigars, and the men passed equivocal compliments--such as their very limited acquaintance with each other’s language would permit; the Russians making kind inquiries as to when the Allies would favour them with a visit at Sebastopol; and our fellows requesting them not to trouble themselves with special preparations, as they intended to make themselves quite at home when they did come. The dead and wounded, in every variety of attitude, were a frightful spectacle, even to those inured to scenes of strife and bloodshed. At length the armistice expired, the white flags disappeared from the parapet of the Mamelon, the stragglers hastily ran to the protection of their works, and in an instant the boom of hostile cannon again thundered on the ear, and clouds of white smoke again obscured the scene of the brief truce.”

SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS, THE.--“The grand truth embodied in the majestic lines--

“Let us be back’d with God, and with the seas, Which he hath given for fence impregnable, And with their helps alone defend ourselves; In them, and in ourselves, our safety lies.”

seems to have been a heartfelt conviction in the breasts of all true Englishmen, long centuries before the poet was born.

King John, whom history has generally branded as a very unworthy monarch, had some redeeming kingly qualities--not the least of which was his determined assertion of England’s sovereignty of the seas. He ordered his sea-captains to compel all foreigners to salute his flag by “striking” their own national flags, and, probably, by also lowering their topsails (as was the practice at a subsequent period), in acknowledgment of England’s maritime supremacy. If any foreign ship, even though belonging to a friendly power, refused compliance, it was to be seized, and adjudged a lawful prize. This and other facts lead to the conclusion that John only enforced an ancient claim to dominion of the seas, which had been asserted and enforced occasionally time out of mind.

Edward III, during his wonderfully long reign of fifty-one years, was a most jealous asserter of his sovereignty of the seas, over which he claimed a judicial power. Dr. Campbell says that Edward, “in his commissions to admirals and inferior offices, frequently styles himself sovereign of the English seas, asserting that he derived this title from his progenitors, and deducing from them by the grounds of his instructions, and of the authority committed to them by these delegations. His parliaments, likewise, in the preambles of their bills, take notice of this point, and that it was a thing notorious to foreign nations that the King of England, in right of his crown, was sovereign of the seas. In old “Hakluyt’s Voyages” is printed a very curious poem, called “De politia conservativa maris,” supposed to have been written in the time of Edward IV. It contains a number of separate chapters, each of which is full of most valuable and instructive information concerning the commerce of England with various countries. The unknown author, who must have been a man of very extensive information in his day, urges most strongly his countrymen to maintain inviolate the sovereignty of the seas, as the only means to preserve their prosperity and safety.

In the reign of Charles I, both the French and Dutch began to express great jealousy of the British claim to dominion of the seas, and Hugo Grotius endeavoured very learnedly to prove that Albion had no better natural right than Holland, or any other maritime nation, to such a title. Our own equally learned and eloquent Selden retorted by his celebrated treatise “Mare Clausum.” We need not quote any of his arguments, which are generally profound, and, if not always impregnable to impartial criticism, are at any rate patriotic and singularly striking and ingenious. Suffice it that the general conclusion to which he arrives is conveyed in one very impressive sentence: “That they (the English) have an hereditary, uninterrupted right to the sovereignty of their seas, conveyed to them from their earliest ancestors, in trust for their latest posterity.” Mainly with a view to enforce his claim to the sovereignty of the narrow seas, did Charles I endeavour to provide a naval force sufficient to overawe both French and Dutch, and therefore issued his writs for levying “ship-money”--a most fatal undertaking as concerned himself; for, as every reader knows, this arbitrary measure (however honourable its original motives might have been) was the beginning of that deplorable alienation between the King and his subjects which resulted in the great civil war, and eventually cost the hapless monarch both his crown and his life.

In 1635 the King, by his secretary of state, addressed a long and deeply interesting letter of instructions to his ambassador at the Hague, in order to enable the latter to explain and justify to their “High Mightinesses” his naval preparations, and their meaning and objects. We will extract a few passages illustrative of our theme: “We hold it,” saith King Charles, “a principle not to be denied, that the King of Great Britain is a monarch at land and sea, to the full extent of his dominions; and that it concerneth him as much to maintain his sovereignty in all the British seas, as within his three kingdoms; because, without that, these cannot be kept safe, nor he preserve his honour, and due respect with other nations. But, commanding the seas, he may cause his neighbours, and all countries, to stand upon their guard whensoever he thinks fit. And this cannot be doubted, that whosoever will encroach on him by sea, will do it by land also, when they see their time.... The degrees by which his Majesty’s dominion at sea hath of later years been first impeached, and then questioned, are as considerable as notorious.... But withal, considering that peace must be maintained by the arm of power, which only keeps down war by keeping up dominion; his Majesty, thus provoked, finds it necessary, for his own defence and safety, _to re-assume and keep his ancient and undoubted right in the dominion of the seas_, and suffer no other prince or state to encroach upon him, thereby assuming to themselves or their admirals any sovereign command, but to force them to perform due homage to his admirals and ships, and to pay acknowledgments as in former times they did.”

The Protector of the Commonwealth proved himself quite as jealous of maintaining the power and privileges of the navy, as any of his kingly predecessors, and he did what not one of them had ever effected, namely, made a treaty with the United Provinces (the Low Countries), by which it was solemnly stipulated “that the ships and vessels of the United Provinces, as well those fitted for war as others, meeting any ships of war of the said Commonwealth in the British seas, shall strike their flag and lower their topsail, in such manner as had been any time before practised under any former government.” This was in 1654. After the restoration, Charles II renewed the treaty in 1662, and in 1667, in almost precisely the same terms as the above; and at the conclusion of the Dutch war, in 1673, in the fourth article of the treaty of peace it was expressly stipulated that if any “ships or vessels of war, or others, or whether single or in fleets, shall meet in any of the seas from Cape Finisterre to the middle point of the land of Vanstaten in Norway, with any ships or vessels belonging to his Majesty of Great Britain, whether those ships be single or in greater numbers, if they carry his Majesty of Great Britain’s flag or jack, the aforesaid Dutch vessels or ships shall strike their flag and lower their topsail, in the same manner, and with as much respect, as has at any time and in any place been formerly practised,” &c. The reader will bear in mind that the Dutch were at that time the most powerful naval power next to Great Britain. The treaty appears to have confirmed the dominion of the latter beyond what might properly be called the “narrow,” or “British seas,” including, as it did, all from the south-west of Portugal to a cape in Norway.

During the reigns of the four Stuart kings, as well as under the protectorate of Cromwell, the “Mariners of England,”

“Whose flag has braved, a thousand years, The battle and the breeze,”

did indeed jealously “guard our native seas,” and assert and maintain their country’s sovereignty thereof. In 1652, two fierce

## actions were fought on this very score “On the 14th of May,

Commodore Young fell in with a Dutch convoy, escorted by three ships of war, from whom he civilly demanded _the usual honours to be paid to the English flag_. The Dutch commander positively refused to comply, giving as a reason that he had express orders from the States-General not to pay those honours which the English exacted from their ships in the Channel. Commodore Young, on this refusal, fired into the Dutch, which brought on a smart action; but at length the Dutch ships struck, and, _after paying the compliment_, were allowed to proceed on their voyage.” Only four days later, Blake himself and Van Tromp had a far more serious encounter on the very same score. Van Tromp and his fleet stood towards Dover, off which Blake was lying with fifteen men-of-war, and paid no respect whatever to the English flag. Blake instantly fired, from his own ship, three unshotted guns at the Dutchman as a reminder of his want of respect. Van Tromp retorted with a broadside. “A most furious engagement instantly began. At first the whole of the Dutch fleet directed their fire at the English admiral, but he was soon bravely supported by the rest of the ships, and Commodore Bourne joining at the same time with eight sail more, obliged the Dutch to bear away, though still superior in number, and seek shelter at the back of the Goodwin Sands, after having been most severely mauled. The action lasted from four till nine at night. One of the Dutch ships was taken, and another sunk.”

In a volume of the “Naval Chronicle,” for 1807, the sovereignty of the sea is described as being “an actual and peculiar use and enjoyment of the sea itself, and the performance of all the functions of a sovereign upon it; such as prescribing rules of navigation to those who frequent it, punishing delinquents, protecting others, and receiving from all that homage and advantage which are due to every lawful sovereign.” The writer proceeds to state that the dominion of the sea entitles the “lawful possessors” to six several prerogatives. The first two refer to the right of fishing, &c., and the residue we will give at length.

“3. To impose tribute and customs on all merchant ships and fishermen, fishing and trading within the limits of the sea that is subjected to any particular dominions.

“4. The regular execution of justice for protecting the innocent, and punishing the guilty for all crimes committed within the extent of such sea-dominions.

“5. To grant free passage through any such sea to any number of ships of war belonging to any other prince or republic, or to deny the same, according to the circumstances and occasion of such passage, in the same manner as any prince or state may grant or deny free passage to foreign troops through their territories by land, even though the prince or state to whom such ships or land forces belong _be not only at peace, but in alliance_ with the prince or republic of whom passage is desired.

“6. To demand of all foreign ships whatsoever within those seas to strike the flag and lower the topsail to any ships of war, or others bearing the colours of the sovereign of such seas.”

The latest example of an English commander insisting on a salute to his flag, which we have been able to find, occurred in the month of June, 1769, when “a French frigate having anchored in the Downs, without paying the usual compliment to the British flag, Captain John Holwell, who was the senior officer lying there, in the ‘Apollo’ frigate, sent an officer on board to demand the customary salute; the French captain refused to comply, upon which Captain Holwell immediately ordered the ‘Hawk,’ sloop of war, to fire two shot over her, which being done, the French commander thought proper instantly to salute.”

Many of the greatest of our poets have eloquently alluded to the sea-sovereignty of their native island, ramparted with tidal waters. Who does not remember the truly magnificent lines:--

“This precious stone set in the silver sea, Which serves it as the office of a wall, Or as a moat defensive to a house Against the envy of less happy lands!

* * * * *

England, bound in with the triumphant sea, Whose rocky shore beats back the envious siege Of watery Neptune.”

The popular strain of Thomson’s “Rule Britannia” gives an emphatic assertion of Britain’s naval greatness. No poet, however, has so celebrated the floating bulwarks of Britain, and the “Hearts of Oak” who man them, as Campbell. His marvellously spirit-stirring lyric, “Ye Mariners of England,”[3] has no rival in its intense patriotism.

In conclusion, suffice it that for a considerable time the claim of England’s sovereignty of the seas, so far as it includes special homage to our flag, or anything resembling a judicial supremacy over the ships of other nations, within the limits of the narrow (or any other) seas, has been a dead letter. But we can well afford to dispense with what was at best a somewhat questionable sort of shadowy honour, for we know that we yet retain the substantial maritime supremacy which alone enables us to rank as the foremost nation of the world--

“Mistress, at least while Providence shall please, And trident-bearing Queen of the wide seas!”

to quote the noble lines of the patriotic and Christian poet, Cowper. Well will it be for us to constantly bear in mind the vital truth that the same great poet proclaimed:--

“They trust in navies, and their navies fail: God’s curse can cast away ten thousand sail!”

SPURS, BATTLE OF THE.--Henry VIII of England landed in France, July, 1513, and soon gathered an army of 30,000 men. He was shortly after joined by the Emperor Maximilian, with a well-appointed army of horse and foot. They laid siege to Terouenne, which they invested with an army of 50,000 men; and the Duc de Longueville advancing to its relief was signally defeated. The French were everywhere routed in the battle. This battle of Guinnegate was called the Battle of the Spurs, because the French made more use of their spurs than their swords. Fought 18th, August, 1513.

STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE.--Fought A.D. 1135. The following graphic account gives the reason why the engagement was so called:

“King David at once marched into England to strike for the rights of his niece. Twice he ravaged Northumberland with merciless barbarity. In a third invasion he penetrated into Yorkshire. Stephen was in the south, hard pressed by the partisans of Matilda, and was obliged to leave the northern part of his kingdom to look to its own defence. There was a man in those parts who knew what to do. This was the aged Thurstan, Archbishop of York. He assembled the Barons at York, held a solemn fast, gave them absolution and his blessing, and delivered into their hands his crozier and the holy banner of St. Peter of York. He ordered processions of the priests with crosses, banners, and relics in every parish. He enjoined all men capable of bearing arms to rise “for the defence of the Church against the barbarians.” To all who should die in battle he promised salvation. He sent forth the priests to lead their parishioners to battle. Sickness alone prevented him, aged as he was, from putting on his own coat of mail.

The English standard was erected on Cutton Moor, near Northallerton. The mast of a ship was set up on a high four-wheeled car. At the top of the mast was a large cross; in the centre of the cross a silver box containing the consecrated wafer. Below the cross floated the banners of three Saints, St. Peter of York, St. John of Beverley, and St. Wilfred of Ripon. The idea of this car seems to have been taken from the great standard car which was used by the people of Lombardy.

The Scottish army was 26,000 strong. Men from the Lowlands of Scotland were there armed with cuirasses and long spears; archers from the southland “dales,” or valleys of the rivers that run into Tweed and Solway; troopers from the Border mountains, who rode small, but strong and active horses; the fierce men of Galloway, who carried long pikes and wore no defensive armour; clansmen from the Highlands with the small round target and claymore; men of the isles, who wielded a long-handled battle-axe. A strong body of knights and men-at-arms, sheathed in complete mail, rode around the King.

The English placed their standard in their centre. Their steel-clad knights dismounted, sent their horses to the rear, and formed in a compact mass round the standard car. The Scots came on, shouting their war cry, “Alban! Alban!” Their fierce charge drove in the English infantry, but they could not break through the dense array of mailed warriors who surrounded the standard, and received them on the points of their levelled lances. The long pikes of the Galloway men were shivered against the strong plate-armour of the knights. In vain the Highlanders tried to hew their way with the claymore into the mass of iron-cased chivalry. The archers of Yorkshire, Nottingham, and Lincolnshire, with their great bows, and arrows of three feet in length, ranged themselves on both flanks of the Scots, and kept up from either side a constant flight of their deadly shafts. On many another bloody day the Scots were destined to know right cruelly the fatal force of the cloth-yard arrow!

For full two hours the attack was maintained. At length the Scots began to recoil. An English soldier, cutting off the head of one of the slain, raised it aloft, and cried, “The head of the King of Scots.” The report that their King was killed flew through the Scottish army and filled them with dismay. They broke and fled. The King, tearing off his helmet to show his face, kept together a small body of troops around himself, and was able in some degree to check the pursuit. On that bloody moor he left 12,000 dead.”

STIRLING, BATTLE OF.--Fought, A.D. 1297.

“Wallace was engaged in the siege of Dundee when tidings were brought him that an army, fifty thousand strong, was on the march from England to put the Scots down. They were holding their course towards Stirling. Wallace immediately left Dundee and advanced to meet them. If he could reach the river Forth before the English, he meant to make them pay for their passage. He marched swiftly, talking over and arranging his plans with the good Sir John the Graham as they rode. When they reached the hill above Cambuskenneth, two miles east from Stirling, no English were in sight. It was not long, however, till their banners were seen approaching. The chief of their host was the Earl of Surrey. But he was old and in broken health, and the man who really took the command was Sir Hugh Cressingham, Edward’s Lord Treasurer of Scotland. Cressingham was a priest, haughty and insolent, who loved the corslet better than the cassock.

The English, three times more in number than the Scots, advanced and took up their position on the banks of the Forth. Wallace occupied the high ground to the north. The river, spanned by a long and narrow wooden bridge, flowed between the armies. The towers of Cambuskenneth Abbey threw their shadows slant and long as the September sun sank behind Ben Lomond. The glow of the watchfires lighted up the deep and sluggish waters of the Forth, as the two armies lay under the silent night, waiting for day, and what fortune God might send.

Morning came, but Surrey was in no haste to begin. The bridge was so narrow that only two men-at-arms could pass it abreast. The attempt to cross a deep river in the face of an enemy, by one narrow passage, was so dangerous that the English general hesitated to risk it. But the rash and scornful churchman, Cressingham, would try it. He insisted on instantly attacking the Scots with the division under his command. Surrey gave way to the taunts of the headstrong priest, and ordered the attack.

A brave knight, Sir Marmaduke de Twenge, led the advance at the head of a squadron of cavalry, heavily sheathed in steel, both horse and man. Cressingham with his division followed. The Scots, posted on high ground, kept their ranks and allowed the English to defile over the bridge. Wait! they know what they are about. Twenge has got his division of heavy cavalry over to the opposite shore. Cressingham’s division are eagerly crowding along the bridge. Twenge forms his cavalry and leads them up the hill against the main body of the Scots. Nearly half the English army has crossed without interruption. But see that strong force of Scottish spearmen who, fetching a circuit, and keeping near the river, make swiftly for the head of the bridge. They dash across the line of English as it issues from the bridge, and cut it in two. Forming in a solid mass bristling with spears, they occupy the bridgehead, and bar the bridge against all passage. Surrey looks on over the water. In three minutes the old General shall see a sight to make his white hair stand up!

The moment Wallace has waited for has come. Up then, and at them! The Scots charge furiously down the hill on Twenge and his cavalry, and hurl them back in disorder on the squadrons of Cressingham, great part of which have not had time to form since they passed the bridge. The English are mingled, horse and foot, in desperate confusion. Hundreds of them go down before the fierce charge of the Scots. The long spears plough the thick, disordered mass. Vast numbers are driven back into the river. The deep, still-flowing river swallows horse and man with splash and gurgle. Multitudes madly plunge in, vainly hoping to struggle to the other side, and the water is lashed into a foam by the drowning struggles of thousands of men and horses. This is the sight which old Surrey sees, sitting his warhorse on the safe side of the Forth.

He did what he could to send help to his reeling squadrons. The royal standard of England, with its three gold leopards set on red, was advanced to the cry of “For God and St. George!” A strong body of knights attended it. Then came Surrey’s own banner, of chequered blue and gold, followed by a numerous force of his vassals. It was in vain. They forced their way over the bridge, but finding no room to form, they only served to increase the confusion and swell the slaughter made by the Scottish spearmen. Of all who crossed that fatal bridge there returned but three. Sir Marmaduke Twenge with his nephew and armour-bearer, spurring their steads, rushed into the midst of the Scots at the bridgehead, cut their way through, and escaped unharmed. The haughty churchman, Cressingham, lay dead on the field. A Scottish spear had pierced his mail like silk, and run him through the body, till the point stood out on the other side. It was said that Wallace’s own hand drove that spear home.

Surrey saw that the safe side of the Forth was safe no longer, for the Scots were preparing to cross. He turned his horse, and fled without drawing bridle to Berwick. His troops broke and scattered in all directions. The face of the country was covered with a confused mass of terrified fugitives, who threw away their arms and standards as they fled. Keen and fierce the Scots pressed the chase, and their thirsty swords drank much blood. The powerful host which a few hours before had marshalled so proudly beside Stirling Bridge was beaten small and scattered like chaff.”

STONY CREEK.--_Canada._--Fought, June 5th, 1813. Between the Canadians and Americans, the latter commanded by Generals Chandler and Winder. The Americans had advanced as far as Stony Creek with the intention of dislodging him, when Lieutenant Colonel Harvey, now Sir John Harvey, conceived and executed a plan of surprising them in the night. Before day he entered their camp, consisting of 3000 men, with only 704 soldiers, killed and wounded a great number, and captured two Generals and 120 prisoners. This affair so disconcerted the Americans that they returned hastily to Fort George, leaving the communication with part of Niagara frontier open to the British, and perhaps eventually saving the whole of the Province.

STRATTON HILL, BATTLE OF.--Between the Royal army and the forces of the Parliament, headed by the Poet Waller. The Parliamentarians lost the battle, with numbers of killed and wounded, and Waller was obliged to flee to Bristol. Fought, May 16th, 1643. Waller was nephew to the great Hampden.

T.

TALAVERA.--Fought, July, 27th and 28th, 1809, between the English and French and Spanish armies.--“After the campaigns of Marlborough, the English army acquired little distinction in the field for more than a century. The battles of Dettingen (1743), Fontenoy (1745), and Minden (1759), were affairs in which England was involved by her Hanoverian alliances, and in which small bodies of English troops were engaged, with little glory, and with but trifling results. It was not until the next century had opened, and the talent and ambition of one of the world’s greatest conquerors had almost reached the climax of universal dominion, that England, for her own preservation, and for the rescue of the Spanish peninsula from his grasp, was compelled to send an army into Spain; which, under the guidance of one of the most consummate Generals that the world has ever seen, chased the armies of France over province after province, from Lisbon to Biscay, and ultimately drove them over the Pyrenees.

The peninsular campaigns of the Duke of Wellington commenced with the brilliant affair of Vimiera; but we cannot dignify that engagement with the name of a great battle, in which the forces on either side, did not exceed thirteen or fourteen thousand men; and the fruits of which were snatched from the victor’s hands by the sudden arrival of a superior in command. It was on Sir Arthur Wellesley’s second appearance in Portugal, in the year following the battle of Vimiera, that the contest really began; and the three great battles which distinguished its successive stages, were those of Talavera, Salamanca, and Vittoria. The first exhibited the power of Napoleon in Spain fairly grappled with; the second showed that power defeated; the third closed the struggle by its absolute downfall and expulsion.

After his supercession in 1808, on the very day of Vimiera, Sir Arthur Wellesley had returned to England; but, happily, the indignation felt by the English people at the convention of Cintra, by which the results of that victory had been thrown away, warned the British government that it was needful in times of great emergency to depart from the rule of _seniority_, and to select a Commander mainly on the ground of known and proved talent and ability. Hence the victor of Vimiera was again called into the field, and, on the 22nd of April, 1809, Sir Arthur Wellesley a second time landed in Portugal.

“The unexpected arrival of a victorious Commander,” says Sir W. Napier, “created the greatest enthusiasm:--the Regency nominated him Captain-General; the people hailed his presence, and an undefined but powerful sentiment that something great would be achieved, pervaded the public mind.” Still, somewhat surprising, and rather overweening, was this confidence; for Sir Arthur Wellesley commanded only 26,000 English and German troops;--the Spanish and Portuguese armies were of little worth, and the French Emperor had at that moment in the Peninsula, a force of _two hundred and seventy thousand men_.

Sir Arthur lost no time in bringing his troops into action. On the 12th of May he crossed the Douro, in the face of the French army, and carried Oporto. Soult had entered it two months before with 25,500 men; he quitted it with 19,500, having lost by the sword and by sickness, by assassination and capture, 6,000 good soldiers. He had marched into Portugal with 58 pieces of artillery, he quitted it without a gun! Yet Soult was perhaps the greatest of all Napoleon’s Generals. Sir Arthur’s next object was, and indeed it seemed a necessity of his position, to seek the French armies, and to fight them with the least possible delay. The demand of the English, and of the Portuguese also, was to be led against the foe. To raise the spirit of the people of Spain and Portugal, and also of the governments of both countries, it was necessary to show that there was an army and a General in the field, and that neither the army nor the General were afraid of meeting the French.

At this period the Spanish Generals and the Spanish Ministers had not fully proved their entire inefficiency. They still boasted of their power to “drive the French out of Madrid, and out of Spain;” and if the English General had refused to co-operate with them, he would have been charged with cowardice or with treachery. On the 27th of June, 1809, therefore, Sir Arthur, at the head of 22,000 British troops, and with 30 guns, entered Spain, and began his march on Madrid. The Spanish General Cuesta, with an army of 39,000 men, was to co-operate with him.

This co-operation, however, proved to be nothing but hindrance and a source of vexation. The two armies marched forward, Sir Arthur grieved, day by day, by some failure of supplies, means of transport, or other necessary aid. On one occasion a delay of two whole days was created by the Spanish General’s obstinacy. On the 24th of July Sir Arthur wrote to Lord Castlereagh, “I am not able to follow the enemy as I could wish; having found it impossible to procure _even one mule, or a cart in Spain_; ... My troops have been in actual want of provisions for the last two days.” Meanwhile the Spanish Government took care of its own troops, and left the English to shift for themselves. “The French,” writes Sir Arthur, “can take what they like and will take it--while we cannot even buy common necessaries.”

Joseph, the nominal King of Spain, was apprized of the approach of the English and Spanish forces, and marched out of Madrid with 25,000 French veterans, commanded by Marshals Jourdan and Victor, to meet them. The two armies came into the neighbourhood of each other about the 22nd of July, 1809. Sir Arthur and Cuesta had agreed, on that day, that Victor’s corps, which had been found detached from the rest of the French army, should be attacked on the following day. But when the English troops were getting under arms the next morning, the old Spaniard was not up, and finally, he objected to any attack that day. The fact was, that the French General had contrived to corrupt some of Cuesta’s staff, and thus difficulties were constantly thrown in the way.

Victor, whose discomfiture would have been easy on the 23rd, had now escaped, and had joined Sebastiani and King Joseph. The whole French army now amounted to 56,122 men, and, confident in their strength, the Commanders resolved at once to march upon Talavera, and to attack the Anglo-Spanish army.

Two or three minor engagements preceded the general battle. On the 27th, in the afternoon, Victor’s advanced guards came upon the British outposts, and immediately attacked them. The English troops, some of whom then saw fire for the first time, were thrown into some confusion, and Sir Arthur himself narrowly escaped being made prisoner. A body of 10,000 Spanish which was posted near, took such an alarm, that they broke and fled, giving out that “all was lost.” Sir Arthur, with some difficulty, restored order, brought up fresh troops, and the French were finally driven off. Yet such was the effect of this panic among the Spanish troops, that they went into action the next day with 6000 men less than their previous number.

That same night Victor, encouraged by the effect of the surprise thus narrated, made an attack after sunset on a hill which was the key of the English position. For a moment the French attack succeeded, but General Hill brought up the 48th regiment, and at last expelled the French from the ground which they had gained. The British lost 800 men, and the French 1000, in this affair, which was not ended until long after dark.

As soon, however, as the day dawned, the French renewed the attack.

Once more they ascended the hill, and struggled hand to hand with the English infantry. General Hill was wounded, and many officers fell around him. But the French never gained the upper hand. After a severe contest, they fell back; and the English pressed down the hill, after them, until the whole of the attacking column got into confusion, and finally rushed down the declivity in headlong rout. This single attack, which lasted only forty minutes, cost the French nearly 1500 men.

A consultation was now held in the French camp, as to the expediency of immediately risking a general battle. Jourdan strongly urged the taking up a position behind the Alberche, and there awaiting the approach of Soult, who, with another army, was expected to menace the English on their flank and rear in a few days. Victor was more confident, promising to carry the hill on the English left, if Sebastiani would attack the centre and right at the same moment. He added, “If such a combination can fail, it is time that we gave up war.”

King Joseph hesitated; when, at that moment, a despatch arrived from Soult, stating that he could not reach the neighbourhood in less than a week. This decided the matter, and orders were given to attack.

Meanwhile, many discouragements prevailed in the English camp. Provisions were scarce, and the men suffered from hunger. Among the Spaniards all was confusion and distrust. Such alarm was created by Cuesta’s conduct, that in the very midst of the battle, his own countryman, the Duke d’Albuquerque, sent one of his staff to warn Sir Arthur Wellesley that “Cuesta was betraying him.” Sir Arthur received the message while seated on the hill, intently watching the movements of the French. He listened to it without even turning his head; and coolly replied to the officer who brought him the message, “Very well, you may return to your brigade;” and then quietly resumed his survey.

But now the battle began. The allied army was posted near Talavera, having that city and the Tagus on its right, a hill already referred to on its left, a sort of ravine and water-course in front; and looking towards the Alberche,--a river which flows into the Tagus,--in front of which lay the whole French army. “The British and Germans,” says Sir W. Napier, “were somewhat above 19,000 sabres and bayonets, with 30 guns. The Spaniards were 33 or 34,000 men, with 70 guns. The French advanced with 80 guns, and nearly 50,000 men. But what a difference in the quality of the troops! The French were all hardy veterans; while the genuine soldiers of the allied army did not exceed 19,000.”

Before one o’clock the French soldiers were seen to gather round their eagles, and the rolling of drums was heard along the whole line. Half an hour later, King Joseph’s guards, the reserve, and the fourth corps were descried in march; and soon the table-land and the height on the French right were covered with dark and lowering masses. Victor gave the signal for battle, and 80 pieces of artillery sent a tempest of bullets before the light troops, who came on with all the swiftness and violence of a hailstorm, followed by the broad black columns in all the majesty of war.

“Sir Arthur Wellesley from the hill viewed the whole field of battle. He saw the fourth corps rushing forwards with the usual impetuosity of French soldiers and falling upon Campbell’s division, which held the right centre, with infinite fury; yet that General, assisted by Mackenzie’s brigade and two Spanish battalions, withstood their utmost efforts. The British regiment met the advancing columns with loud shouts, broke their front, lapped their flanks with fire, and at last pushed them back with a terrible carnage. Ten guns were taken; but as Campbell feared to break his line by a pursuit, the French rallied, and made head for another attack. Then the British artillery played vehemently upon them; a Spanish regiment of cavalry charged their flank; they retired in disorder, and the victory was secured in that quarter.”

This was on the right of the English line. On the left, two different columns of French were seen advancing towards the hill, the key of the position. Sir Arthur sent forward an English regiment of cavalry, and the 1st German hussars, to charge the heads of these columns. A hollow cleft, not before perceived, stopped the Germans; some of the English leaped it, in twos and threes, and in desultory manner fell upon the French infantry. Some Polish lancers charged them while thus disordered, and the regiment was broken, and lost 207 officers and men.

Meanwhile, one of the French attacking columns was actually contending for possession of the hill; and at the same time a powerful mass of infantry, crossing the ravine, pressed hard upon the English centre. The French attack was at first driven back; then the English Guards, in the excitement of success, rushed after them with reckless ardour. The French reserves charged them; the Guards, disordered, were broken; the German Legion, adjoining, got into confusion, and for the moment the English centre seemed to be shaken and in disorder.

But when the Guards had made their rash charge, Sir Arthur, foreseeing the issue of it, had ordered up the 48th regiment; and had also sent for Cotton’s light-horse. The French came on, pushing before them the disordered foot-guards. Sir Arthur charged them with the 48th, brought them to a stand; the Guards and the German Legion speedily recovered their ranks; and at last this terrible attack was defeated, and the French were pushed back over the ravine, carrying with them their general, Lapisse, mortally wounded.

Meanwhile their attack on the hill had failed; while on the Spanish part of the army, safely posted behind redoubts in Talavera, they had made no assault. And so closed the battle of Talavera. Both sides remained in the position of the morning when night closed upon them. But at day-break the French began their retreat; and before six o’clock their whole army was safely encamped behind the Alberche. That day, too, Sir Robert Crawford joined the British army, bringing with him the 43rd, the 52nd, and the 95th regiments; which troops immediately relieved the rest of the army of the outpost-duty.

The loss of the English in this terrible contest was 6268; including in the reckoning all the attacks, both on the 27th and the 28th. The loss of the French was 8794, according to their own returns. They lost also 17 guns, some tumbrils, and several hundred prisoners.

Sir Arthur Wellesley, as we have said, was obliged to fight this battle. Had he refused to advance, the Spanish government and people would have deemed his presence useless, and would have upbraided him with want of courage. And having advanced, the French Marshals very naturally looked upon him as their prey; and attacked him, deeming his defeat certain.

The reputation gained by the victory was obviously that arising from a fearless meeting of the attack of a fine French army of 50,000 men, led by two celebrated Generals, with an Anglo-German force of 19,000, encumbered with the merely nominal aid of Spaniards. A French critic, General Jomini, thus speaks of the moral result: “This battle at once restored the reputation of the British army, which, during a century past, had declined. It was now ascertained, that the English infantry could dispute the palm with the best in Europe.”

Sir Arthur, too, had now seen, and his troops had seen and proved, the value of the Spanish army; and all illusion on that subject had ceased. Their artillery was well trained, and sometimes rendered good service; but their cavalry was wretched; and their infantry was totally unable to perform evolutions under fire without falling into confusion. The result therefore naturally was, that the English General, retiring into Portugal, commenced plans to be carried out by English and Portuguese forces, in which the Spanish armies bore little or no part.

The merits of the English Commander were promptly recognized by his own government. He was immediately created Baron Douro and Viscount Wellington of Talavera, and of Wellington in the county of Somerset.

There is a remarkable similarity, in all its chief features, between this, the first of Wellington’s great battles, and Waterloo, his last. Doubling the numbers on both sides, the proportions were nearly the same. The French at Talavera had more than 50,000 excellent troops,--at Waterloo they had almost twice as many. The great English General had about 19,000 good troops at Talavera, with the nominal aid of 30,000 worthless ones. At Waterloo, he had about 33 or 34,000 good troops, with the addition of about as many unreliable ones. In both cases alike, the French, confident of success, made the attack; and in both cases they were foiled and driven back by a British force of less than half their number. The one material difference between the two conflicts lay in this,--that in the second great battle, just as Napoleon’s last attack had been repelled, a force of 50,000 Prussians broke in upon the retreating French, and utterly dispersed and annihilated their already-beaten army.”

TARA, BATTLE OF.--This was one of the earliest battles in Ireland in ’98. Fought between the Royal forces, only 400 strong, and the insurgent Irish, amounting to 4000, yet they were completely beaten, and 500 slain, May 26th, 1798.

TARBES, BATTLE OF.--Fought, March 20th, 1814, between the English and French. Marshal Soult was forced from his position, with great loss, by the Duke of Wellington. This engagement shortly preceded that of Toulouse.

TARENTUM WAR.--One of the most celebrated wars in Roman History. Undertaken by the inhabitants of Tarentum, with the aid of the renowned Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, which resulted, after many battles, in their subjugation by the arms of the Romans.

TCHERNAYA, BATTLE OF.--One of the brilliant engagements during the Crimean war. Fought, August 10th, 1854. The enemy, in dense columns of infantry and cavalry, supported by 160 guns, advanced from the heights towards the river, here crossed by two bridges, the larger one being known as the Traktir Bridge. They carried pontoons, and appliances for crossing the stream; and there were also several places in which the Tchernaya was fordable. Favoured by the dim light of early morning, they succeeded in throwing several battalions unobserved across the river, and attacking the division led by General Camon, on the extreme left of the French line. Though taken by surprise, the French made a brave resistance, and the 3rd Zouaves and 50th of the line assisted by the 82nd, which attacked them in the flank, succeeded in repelling them with considerable loss.

In their second attempt the Russians were somewhat more successful. They advanced across the Traktir Bridge. The _tête du pont_ was guarded by the 20th regiment of the line, who were too weak to offer any effective resistance. They bravely disputed the ground, and lost twelve officers before they would give way. The dense masses of the Russians now thronged across the bridge. In their train followed three guns, which were promptly got into position to sweep the road along which the French would advance. The infantry swarmed across the bridge, or waded breast high through the stream. Quickly forming into heavy columns, they advanced in gallant style up the hill in front of the French centre. General Herbillon was fully prepared for the attack, and the enemy was promptly met, and, after a very animated contest, driven back across the bridge by the 2nd Zouaves, the 97th of the line, and one battalion of the foot Chasseurs. The slaughter was terrific; the French and Sardinian guns playing on the retreating mass, and the French pursuing them in a vigorous bayonet charge.

The right of the French position occupied some low hillocks, defended in front by the river, and by the aqueduct used to supply the Turkish army with water. The Sardinian army was encamped on their right and had manned a very effective battery. General Faucheux was the French commander at this portion of the line, and a considerable body of artillery was under his command. While the Russians were attacking the French centre, as already related, another column of enormous strength advanced across the river and aqueduct, and attacked the French right. The artillery and the rifles of the Sardinians made dreadful havoc in their ranks; but the Russian officers cheered on their men to the advance, and, in defiance of dreadful loss, charged gallantly the French position. The Zouaves, who held the brow of the hill, retired slowly to the main body, which was partially hidden by the nature of the ground, and the enemy came on with loud cheers, imagining an easy conquest. Then the French suddenly formed up into line, and charging forward with an impetuosity that defies description, literally crushed the enemy in their tremendous rush, and hurled them down the hill. Many rolled into the aqueduct and were suffocated; others had their limbs broken by the fall; and the main hotly turned and fled precipitately towards the bridge. As the broken and flying mass poured onwards, the batteries opened upon them, and a scene of fearful massacre ensued. The bridge was choked with the troops endeavouring to pass across, and the river was crowded with the fugitives. Among them poured the iron hail of the Sardinian batteries; and when they struggled into the open ground, hundreds more fell mortally wounded. Never was there a more complete or ignominious defeat.

The remnants of the infantry withdrew behind the cavalry, and retreated to the hill; the Russian artillery covering them by a heavy fire against the French batteries. Prince Gortschakoff manœuvred his cavalry for some time in sight of the Allies, hoping apparently to draw our dragoons in pursuit among the hills, where a second Balaklava massacre would probably have awaited them. General Scarlett, commanding the English cavalry division, eagerly proffered the services of his splendid warriors, but General Pelissier wisely declined to hazard such valuable troops in such a perilous adventure.

Towards evening the Russians drew off, leaving about 3000 dead upon the field, and their wounded could not have amounted to less than 5000. The French carried off in their ambulances, 1626 soldiers and thirty-three officers, besides 400 prisoners. Among the dead was General Read, a very distinguished Russian officer, upon whose person was found a plan of the attack. The French lost 9 officers killed and 61 wounded, 172 men killed and 1163 wounded, besides 146 missing. The gallant Sardinians, besides the death of General the Count of Montevecchio, sustained a loss of 250 men. The Turkish battalions arrived too late to take any part in the affair.

TEWKESBURY, BATTLE OF.--Fought, May 4th, 1471. The very day of the battle of Barnet, Queen Margaret landed at Plymouth. At the news of the defeat of Warwick she sank to the ground in despair; but the arguments of her friends soon awakened her natural courage, and she advanced to Bath. It was there resolved to try to effect a junction with the Earl of Pembroke, who had a large force in Wales; but the people of Gloucester had secured the only bridge over the Severn, and at Tewkesbury it was found that Edward was at hand with a more numerous army. The Lancastrian leaders then drew up their forces without the town; the Yorkists, led by the King’s brother, the Duke of Gloucester, fell on them furiously, and after a short but gallant resistance, the Lancastrians were totally routed. The Queen and Prince were made prisoners; the latter being led into the royal tent, Edward demanded of him what had brought him to England. “To recover my father’s kingdom and heritage, from his father and grandfather to him, and from him to me lineally descended,” replied the undaunted youth. Edward struck him in the face with his gauntlet, and Gloucester, Clarence, and some others despatched him with their swords. Edward then set out for London, and on the evening of his arrival king Henry died in the Tower, of grief as was given out, but there can be little doubt that he was murdered by order of Edward. The guilt of the deed, though without any proof, was afterwards laid on the Duke of Gloucester.

TEXEL, BATTLES OF THE.--The vicinity of the Texel has been the scene of some remarkable engagements, among others a battle of three days was fought here, between the English, under Blake and Monk, and the Dutch, under Van Tromp and DeRuyter, when the Dutch were signally defeated and Van Tromp killed, 1653. Again Ruyter was defeated here, August 11th, 1673. The Dutch fleet gloriously vanquished by Lord Duncan, October 11th, 1797. Twelve ships of war and thirteen Indiamen of the Dutch surrendered to Admiral Mitchell, who took them without firing a shot, August 28th, 1799.

THERMOPYLÆ, BATTLE OF.--Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans at this defile withstood the whole army of the Persians, until of the 300 heroes who surrounded him, all were slain but one man; 20,000 Persians perished by the hands of the Spartans, August 7th, 480 B.C. This battle was one of the most celebrated events in the annals of Greece, and effectually, at last, gave a check to the invading Persian army. The following is from Rollin’s Ancient History.

[4]“Thermopylæ is a strait or narrow pass of mount Œta, between Thessaly and Phocis, but 25 feet broad, which therefore might be defended by a small number of forces, and which was the only way through which the Persian land army could enter Achaia, and advance to besiege Athens. This was the place where the Grecian army thought fit to wait for the enemy: the person who commanded it was Leonidas, one of the two kings of Sparta.

[5]Xerxes in the meantime was upon his march: he had given orders for his fleet to follow him along the coast, and to regulate their motions according to those of the land army. Wherever he came, he found provisions and refreshments prepared beforehand, pursuant to the orders he had sent; and every city he arrived at gave him a magnificent entertainment, which cost immense sums of money. The vast expense of those treats gave occasion to a witty saying of a certain citizen of Abdera in Thrace, who, when the king was gone, said, they ought to thank the gods, that he ate but one meal a-day.

[6]In the same country of Thrace, there was a prince who showed an extraordinary greatness of soul on this occasion: it was the king of the Bisaltes. Whilst all the other princes ran into servitude, and basely submitted to Xerxes, he bravely refused to receive his yoke, or to obey him. Not being in a condition to resist him with open force, he retired to the top of the mountain Rhodope, into an inaccessible place, and forbade all his sons, who were six in number, to carry arms against Greece. But they, either out of fear of Xerxes, or out of a curiosity to see so important a war, followed the Persians, in contradiction to their father’s injunction. On their return home, their father, to punish so direct a disobedience, condemned all his sons to have their eyes put out. Xerxes continued his march through Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, every thing giving way before him till he came to the Strait of Thermopylæ.

[7]One cannot see, without the utmost astonishment, with what an handful of troops the Grecians opposed the innumerable army of Xerxes. We find a particular account of their number in Pausanias. All their forces joined together, amounted only to 11,200 men, of which number 4000 only were employed at Thermopylæ to defend the pass. But these soldiers, adds the historian, were all determined to a man either to conquer or die. And what is it that an army of such resolution is not able to effect?

[8]When Xerxes advanced near the Straits of Thermopylæ, he was strangely surprised to find that they were prepared to dispute his passage. He had always flattered himself, that on the first hearing of his arrival, the Grecians would betake themselves to flight: nor could he ever be persuaded to believe, what Demaratus had told him from the beginning of his project, that at the first pass he came to, he would find his whole army stopped by an handful of men. He sent out a spy before him to take a view of the enemy. The spy brought him word, that he found the Lacedæmonians out of their intrenchments, and that they were diverting themselves with military exercises, and combing their hair: this was the Spartan manner of preparing themselves for battle.

Xerxes, still entertaining some hopes of their flight, waited four days on purpose to give them time to retreat;[9] and in this interval of time he used his utmost endeavours to gain Leonidas, by making him magnificent promises, and assuring him, that he would make him master of all Greece if he would come over to his party. Leonidas rejected his proposal with scorn and indignation. Xerxes, having afterwards written to him to deliver up his arms, Leonidas, in a style and spirit truly laconical, answered him in these words,[10] “Come and take them.” Nothing remained but to prepare themselves to engage the Lacedæmonians. Xerxes first commanded his Median forces to march against them, with orders to take them all alive, and bring them to him. These Medes were not able to stand the charge of the Grecians; and being shamefully put to flight, they showed, says Herodotus,[11] that Xerxes had a great many men, and but few soldiers. The next that were sent to face the Spartans, were those Persians called the Immortal Band, which consisted of 10,000 men, and were the best troops in the whole army. But these had no better success than the former.

Xerxes, out of all hopes of being able to force his way through troops so determined to conquer or die, was extremely perplexed, and could not tell what resolution to take, when an inhabitant of the country came to him, and discovered a secret[12] path to the top of an eminence, which overlooked and commanded the Spartan forces. He quickly dispatched a detachment thither; which, marching all night, arrived there at the break of day, and possessed themselves of that advantageous post.

The Greeks were soon apprized of this misfortune; and Leonidas, seeing that it was now impossible to repulse the enemy, obliged the rest of the allies to retire, but staid himself with his 300 Lacedæmonians, all resolved to die with their leader; who being told by the oracle, that either Lacedæmon or her king must necessarily perish, determined, without the least difficulty or hesitation, to sacrifice himself for his country. The Spartans lost all hopes either of conquering or escaping, and looked upon Thermopylæ as their burying-place. The king, exhorting his men to take some nourishment, and telling them at the same time, that they should sup together with Pluto, they set up a shout of joy as if they had been invited to a banquet, and full of ardour advanced with their king to battle. The shock was exceedingly violent and bloody. Leonidas himself was one of the first that fell. The endeavours of the Lacedæmonians to defend his dead body were incredible. At length, not vanquished, but oppressed by numbers, they all fell except one man, who escaped to Sparta, where he was treated as a coward and traitor to his country, and nobody would keep company or converse with him. But soon afterwards he made a glorious amend for his fault at the battle of Platæa, where he distinguished himself in an extraordinary manner. Xerxes, enraged to the last degree against Leonidas for daring to make head against him, caused his dead body to be hung up on a gallows, and made his intended dishonour of his enemy his own immortal shame.”

THRASYMENE, BATTLE OF.--Fought, B.C. 217.--On a circular range of hills, near the lake, Hannibal disposed his army, and Flaminius, the Roman General, took his station in the valley beneath. A mist rising from the lake completely concealed the Carthaginians from the Romans, while it left the view of the former unimpeded. The fortune of the day was such as might have been expected--15,000 soldiers fell with Flaminius in the valley, and 6000 more were obliged to surrender themselves prisoners of war. The following is from Rollin’s Ancient History:

[13]“Hannibal being thus got, almost unexpectedly, out of this dangerous place, refreshed his troops, and then marched and pitched his camp between Arretium and Fesulæ, in the richest and most fruitful part of Tuscany. His first endeavours were to discover the genius and character of Flaminius, in order that he might take advantage of his foible, which, according to Polybius, ought to be the chief study of a general. He was told that Flaminius was greatly conceited of his own merit, bold, enterprising, rash, and fond of glory. To plunge him the deeper into these excesses, to which he was naturally prone,[14] he inflamed his impetuous spirit, by laying waste and burning the whole country, in his sight.

Flaminius was not of a temper to continue inactive in his camp, though Hannibal should have lain still. But when he saw the territories of his allies laid waste before his eyes, he thought it would reflect dishonour upon him, should he suffer Hannibal to ransack Italy without control, and even advance to the very walls of Rome, without meeting any resistance.

He rejected with scorn the prudent counsels of those who advised him to wait the arrival of his colleague, and to be satisfied for the present with putting a stop to the devastation of the enemy.

In the meantime, Hannibal was still advancing towards Rome, having Cortona on the left hand, and the lake Thrasymene on the right. When he saw that the consul followed close after him, with the design to give him battle, by stopping him in his march; having observed that the ground was convenient for that purpose, he also began to prepare himself for the battle. The lake Thrasymene and the mountains of Cortona form a very narrow defile, which leads into a large valley, lined on both sides, with hills of a considerable height, and closed at the outlet by a steep hill of difficult access. On this hill, Hannibal, after having crossed the valley, came and encamped with the main body of his army; posting his light-armed infantry in ambuscade upon the hills on the right, and part of his cavalry behind those on the left, as far almost as the entrance of the defile, through which Flaminius was obliged to pass. Accordingly, this general, who followed him very eagerly, with the resolution to fight him, being come to the defile near the lake, was forced to halt, because night was coming on; but he entered it the next morning at day-break.

Hannibal having permitted him to advance, with all his forces, above half way through the valley, and seeing the Roman vanguard pretty near him, he sounded the charge, and commanded the troops to come out of their ambuscade, in order that he might attack the enemy, at the same time, from all quarters. The reader may guess at the consternation with which the Romans were seized.

They were not yet drawn up in order of battle, neither had they got their arms in readiness, when they found themselves attacked in front, in rear, and in flank. In a moment all the ranks were put into disorder. Flaminius, alone undaunted in so universal a surprise, animates his soldiers both with his hand and voice; and exhorts them to cut themselves a passage with their swords through the midst of the enemy. But the tumult which reigned everywhere, the dreadful shouts of the enemy, and a fog that was risen, prevented his being seen or heard. However, when the Romans saw themselves surrounded on all sides, either by the enemy or the lake, and the impossibility of saving their lives by flight, it roused their courage, and both parties began the fight with astonishing animosity. Their fury was so great, that not a soldier in either army perceived an earthquake, which happened in that country, and buried whole cities in ruins. In this confusion, Flaminius being slain by one of the Insubrian Gauls, the Romans began to give ground, and at last quite ran away. Great numbers, to save themselves, leaped into the lake, whilst others, climbing over the mountains, fell into the enemy’s hands whom they strove to avoid. Six thousand only cut their way through the conquerors, and retreated to a place of safety; but the next day they were taken prisoners. In this battle 15,000 Romans were killed, and about 10,000 escaped to Rome, by different roads. Hannibal sent back the Latins, who were allies of the Romans, into their own country, without demanding the least ransom. He commanded search to be made for the body of Flaminius, in order to give it burial, but it could not be found. He afterwards put his troops into quarters of refreshment, and solemnized the funerals of 30 of his chief officers, who were killed in the battle. He lost in all but 1500 men, most of whom were Gauls.

Immediately after, Hannibal dispatched a courier to Carthage, with the news of his good success in Italy. This caused the greatest joy for the present, raised the most promising hopes with regard to the future, and revived the courage of all the citizens. They now prepared with incredible ardour to send into Italy and Spain all necessary succours.

Rome, on the contrary, was filled with universal grief and alarm, as soon as the prætor had pronounced from the rostra the following words, “we have lost a great battle.” The senate, studious of nothing but the public welfare, thought that in so great a calamity and so imminent a danger recourse must be had to extraordinary remedies. They therefore appointed Quintus Fabius, dictator, a person as conspicuous for his wisdom as his birth. It was the custom at Rome that the moment a dictator was nominated, all authority ceased, that of the tribunes of the people excepted. M. Minucius was appointed his general of horse.”

TILSIT, PEACE OF.--Between France and Russia, when Napoleon restored to the Russian Monarch one-half his dominions, and Russia recognized the confederation of the Rhine and the elevation of his three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome to the thrones of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed, July 7th, 1807.

TINCHEBRAY, BATTLE, OF.--Fought, 1106, between Henry I of England, and Robert, Duke of Normandy. The two brothers met at this place, and Robert was defeated, and all Normandy was taken by Henry,--Robert himself being thrown into a dungeon, and kept for more than twenty-five years a prisoner.

TOPLITZ, BATTLES OF.--The first was fought between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter defeated, in 1762. Another battle August 30th, 1813. Treaty of ditto, September 9th, 1813. Second treaty of ditto, October 3rd, 1813.

TORGAN, BATTLE OF.--Between Frederick II of Prussia and the Austrians, in which the former obtained a complete victory. The Austrian General, Count Daun, was wounded, November 11th, 1760.

TOULON, NAVAL BATTLES OF.--A memorable battle off this port between the English, French and Spanish fleets, February 10th, 1744. The English lost the victory through a misunderstanding of their Admirals. Another battle fought here, when Lord Hood took six ships of the French fleet, and sunk one of very large force, and several others, June 4th, 1794. While the two fleets were engaged, a large fleet of Indiamen got safely into Brest harbour. As on this fleet depended the means of the French carrying on the war, they claim the victory, notwithstanding their loss in ships and men.

TOULOUSE, BATTLE OF.--This was the final battle of the Peninsular war--one of the most bloody that was fought between the French and English. The French were commanded by Soult, and the English by Wellington. Wellington forced the French to retreat after twelve hours of hard fighting, the battle raging from seven in the morning till seven at night. The English lost between 4000 and 5000 men, that of the French exceeded 10,000. Fought, April 10th, 1814.

TOURNAMENTS, OR TILTS.--Every one has read of these ancient modes of duelling. If not, let them read Sir Walter Scott’s “Ivanhoe,” &c. The Arabs are very expert in their management of horses at these tilts. The following will describe the whole:--

“The tournament field is oblong, and bordered by rows of spectators, sitting cross-legged round the open space. The best riders of the tribe, mounted on the most active horses, are then introduced into the arena, the men being clothed with as much splendour as their means will permit them, while the chargers are covered with large silk housings of different colours, reaching to the ground, and resembling those of ancient knights, as represented in Froissart. Some of the Arabs then commence making their horses dance to the sound of drums and trumpets, whilst men on foot occasionally rush forward and discharge their muskets close to the horses’ ears. Others dash forward at full speed along the line of seated spectators, as close to their feet as they possibly can, without actually trampling upon them: and every now and then suddenly throwing their horses on their haunches, spin them round on their hind legs, and resume in the opposite direction their wild career. It is a nervous sight to behold; for you momentarily expect to see some person or child crushed beneath the horses’ hoofs; but no accident ever happens, and men, women, and children, maintain their seats with the greatest calmness and feeling of security, saluting any well-executed point of horsemanship with loud and exulting shouts of approbation, whilst the women accompany them with the usual but indescribable cries of the quick-repeated lu-lu-lu-lu; in return for which they are covered with clouds of sand and dust, which the impetuous coursers throw up behind them. Three or four others dashing their sharp stirrups into the flanks of their impatient steeds, rush madly along the length of the arena, shouting forth their _tekbir_, or war-cries, and whirling round their heads the long and silver-adorned Arab guns, which they discharge at the spectators when they have reached the farthest extremity of the lists. Others engage with swords soldiers on foot, galloping round their adversaries in incredibly small circles, twisting their horses suddenly round, and then circling to the other hand; and I know not which most to admire, the activity and suppleness of the rider or of his horse. Others, whilst at full speed, will lean over, and without in the least reducing their pace, pick up from the ground a piastre or any other equally small object, thrown down for the purpose. These sports form, on the whole, one of the gayest and most animating scenes I ever beheld, increased as it is by the waving of many silken sanjaks of the brightest colours, by the music, the report of fire-arms, the war-cries of the performers, and the shouts of the numerous spectators.”

TOURNAY.--Taken by the Allies in 1709; taken again by the French, November 11th, 1792. A battle was fought here by the Anglo-Austrian army, against the French, in which they were defeated, May 8th, 1793. Another battle was fought between the English and French, when the French were repulsed, losing 200 men and three field pieces. Fought, May 6th, 1794.

TOURS, BATTLE OF.--One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that which most established his fame; gained over the Saracens, near Tours, and from which he acquired the name of Martel or the Hammer. Some historians declare that but for this victory, all Europe, us well as Asia and Africa, would otherwise have become Mahommedan. Fought, October 10th, 732.

TOWTON, BATTLE OF.--This great battle is supposed to be the most fierce and bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. Fought, March 29th, 1461, between the houses of York and Lancaster, to the latter of which it proved fatal; more than 37,000 men of the Lancastrians fell. Edward IV of York issued orders to give no quarter, and a merciless massacre ensued.

TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF.--The most glorious and splendid naval engagement ever achieved by the British navy. The French had 18 and the Spaniards 15 ships of the line; the British had 27 ships. Several of the enemies’ Admirals were taken prisoners. The following is Southey’s fine description of the death of England’s greatest naval hero. He says:--

“Nelson having despatched his business at Portsmouth, endeavoured to elude the populace by taking a by-way to the beach, but a crowd collected in his train, pressing forward to obtain a sight of his face: many were in tears, and many knelt down before him, and blessed him as he passed. England has had many heroes, but never one who so entirely possessed the love of his fellow-countrymen as Nelson. All men knew that his heart was as humane as it was fearless; that there was not in his nature the slightest alloy of selfishness or cupidity; but that, with perfect and entire devotion, he served his country with all his heart, and with all his soul, and with all his strength; and therefore they loved him as truly and as fervently as he loved England. They pressed upon the parapet to gaze after him when his barge pushed off, and he returned their cheers by waving his hat. The sentinels who endeavoured to prevent them from trespassing upon this ground, were wedged among the crowd; and an officer who, not very prudently upon such an occasion, ordered them to drive the people down with their bayonets, was compelled speedily to retreat; for the people would not be debarred from gazing till the last moment upon the hero--the darling hero of England!

* * * * *

It had been part of Nelson’s prayer, that the British fleet might be distinguished by humanity in the victory which he expected. Setting an example himself, he twice give orders to cease firing on the Redoubtable, supposing that she had struck, because her guns was silent; for, as she carried no flag, there was no means of instantly ascertaining the fact. From this ship, which he had thus twice spared, he received his death. A ball fired from her mizen-top, which, in the then situation of the two vessels, was not more than 15 yards from that part of the deck where he was standing, struck the epaulette on his left shoulder, about a quarter after one, just in the heat of action. He fell upon his face, on the spot which was covered with his poor secretary’s blood. Hardy, who was a few steps from him, turning round, saw three men raising him up. “They have done for me at last, Hardy,” said he. “I hope not,” cried Hardy. “Yes” he replied, “my back-bone is shot through.” Yet even now, not for a moment losing his presence of mind, he observed, as they were carrying him down the ladder, that the tiller ropes, which had been shot away, were not yet replaced, and ordered that new ones should be rove immediately: then, that he might not be seen by the crew, he took out his handkerchief, and covered his face and his stars. Had he but concealed these badges of honour from the enemy, England, perhaps, would not have had cause to receive with sorrow the news of the battle of Trafalgar. The cockpit was crowded with wounded and dying men, over whose bodies he was with some difficulty conveyed, and laid upon a pallet in the midshipmen’s berth. It was soon perceived, upon examination, that the wound was mortal. This, however, was concealed from all except Captain Hardy, the Chaplain, and the medical attendants. He himself being certain, from the sensation in his back, and the gush of blood he felt momently within his breast, that no human care could avail him, insisted that the surgeon should leave him, and attend to those to whom he might be useful; “for,” said he, “you can do nothing for me.” All that could be done was to fan him with paper, and frequently to give him lemonade to alleviate his intense thirst. He was in great pain, and expressed much anxiety for the event of the action, which now began to declare itself. As often as a ship struck, the crew of the Victory hurrahed, and at every hurrah, visible expression of joy gleamed in the eyes, and marked the countenance of the dying hero. But he became impatient to see Hardy; and as that officer, though often sent for, could not leave the deck, Nelson feared that some fatal cause prevented him, and repeatedly cried, “Will no one bring Hardy to me? he must be killed! he is surely dead!” An hour and ten minutes elapsed from the time when Nelson received his wound, before Hardy could come to him. They shook hands in silence, Hardy in vain struggling to suppress the feelings of that most painful and yet sublime moment. “Well, Hardy,” said Nelson, “how goes the day with us?” “Very well,” replied Hardy; “ten ships have struck, but five of the van have tacked, and show an intention to bear down upon the Victory. I have called two or three of our fresh ships round, and have no doubt of giving them a drubbing.” “I hope,” said Nelson, “none of our ships have struck.” Hardy answered, “there was no fear of that.” Then, and not till then, Nelson spoke of himself. “I am a dead man, Hardy,” said he; “I am going fast; it will be all over with me soon. Come nearer to me. Let my dear Lady Hamilton have my hair, and all other things belonging to me.” Hardy observed, that he hoped Mr. Beatty could yet hold out some prospect of life. “Oh! no,” he replied; “it is impossible. My back is shot through. Beatty will tell you so.” Hardy then once more shook hands with him, and with a heart almost bursting, hastened upon deck.

By this time all feeling below the breast was gone, and Nelson, having made the surgeon ascertain this, said to him: “You know I am gone. I know it. I feel something rising in my breast,” putting his hand on his left side, “which tells me so.” And upon Beatty’s inquiring whether his pain was very great, he replied, “so great that he wished he was dead. Yet,” said he, in a lower voice, “one would like to live a little longer too!” And after a few minutes, in the same undertone, he added: “What would become of poor Lady Hamilton if she knew my situation!” Next to his country she occupied his thoughts. Captain Hardy, some fifty minutes after he had left the cockpit, returned, and again taking the hand of his dying friend and commander, congratulated him on having gained a complete victory. How many of the enemy were taken he did not know, as it was impossible to perceive them distinctly, but 14 or 15 at least. “That’s well,” cried Nelson, but “I bargained for 20.” And then, in a stronger voice, he said: “Anchor, Hardy, anchor.” Hardy, upon this, hinted that Admiral Collingwood would take upon himself the direction of affairs. “Not while I live, Hardy,” said the dying Nelson, ineffectually endeavouring to raise himself from the bed: “do you anchor.” His previous orders for preparing to anchor had shown how clearly he foresaw the necessity of this. Presently calling Hardy back, he said to him in a low voice, “Don’t throw me overboard;” and he desired that he might be buried by his parents, unless it should please the King to order otherwise. Then reverting to private feelings: “Take care of my dear Lady Hamilton, Hardy; take care of poor Lady Hamilton. Kiss me, Hardy,” said he. Hardy knelt down and kissed his cheek; and Nelson said, “Now I am satisfied. Thank God I have done my duty!” Hardy stood over him in silence for a moment or two, then knelt again and kissed his forehead “Who is that?” said Nelson; and being informed, he replied, “God bless you, Hardy.” And Hardy then left him for ever. Nelson now desired to be turned upon his right side, and said, “I wish I had not left the deck; for I shall soon be gone.” Death was, indeed, rapidly approaching. He said to the Chaplain, “Doctor, I have _not_ been a _great_ sinner;” and after a short pause, “Remember that I leave Lady Hamilton and my daughter Horatia as a legacy to my country.” His articulation now became difficult; but he was distinctly heard to say, “Thank God, I have done my duty!” These words he repeatedly pronounced, and they were the last words which he uttered. He expired at thirty minutes after four, three hours and a quarter after he had received his wound.”

TRAKTIR BRIDGE, BATTLE OF.--Fought during the Crimean campaign, between the French and Sardinian forces, and the Russians--

“The garrison of Sebastopol having failed, on the 2nd of August, in a desperate attempt to forces the Allied lines by the Woronzoff Road, remained inactive only in appearance. They were ready for a new Balaclava and a new Inkerman all in one, so far as the strategic movement is concerned. In August the Tchernaya is fordable at many points, well known, of course, to the enemy. On the 16th of that month they debouched from the Tchouliou Heights, and descended to the Tchernaya, in the neighbourhood of Traktir-bridge. Behind this bridge rise, at a little distance, the Fediukine hills, on which rested the rear of the French army, which now faced about. To their right were the Sardinians,--to theirs the Turks. Beyond the river, and under Tchouliou hills is a valley, along which swarmed the Russian masses, driving the outposts of the Sardinian Bersaglieri, or sharp-shooters. About 1500 Zouaves and Chasseurs guarded the bridge: they were attacked by 10,000 Russians, under General Read. For an hour the 1500 held the 10,000 beneath the storm of artillery which pound upon their dense columns from one English battery and from the Sardinian and French artillery. At last, the Russians swarmed over the fords, forced the bridge, and slowly pushed the brave Zouaves up the hill; but executed this movement painfully, out of breath, in disorder, and rent by ordnance. At the hill’s brow the main body of the French received in their openings comrades worthy of Leonidas, who, turning, and now backed by strong columns, charged bayonets down the declivity. Twice the enemy rallied, but in vain. The Sardinians and French made a final rush, and drove them with carnage upon their supports, who were thus disarrayed. The artillery reopened, and the battle was won. General Scarlett’s dragoons came up at this moment, but General Pelissier deemed pursuit unwise. The enemy retired on Mackenzie’s Farm. He left on the field a quantity of fascines, planks, beams, ladders, and sappers’ tools, destined to destroy the works of the besiegers. He left also 2500 dead; and 1620 of his wounded were that night in the ambulances of the French, who took, in addition, 500 prisoners. They themselves lost 180 killed, and 810 wounded--chiefly on and near the bridge. This great battle occurred the day succeeding the First Napoleon’s natal anniversary, and the fête-day of the French Empire. It was on that very morning that the Queen of England set out to pay the first Royal visit ever made by English Monarch to a Sovereign of that warlike dynasty. It seemed as if events both in the East and in the West were conspiring to raise to the highest point the glory of the Napoleon destinies at one and the same hour.”

TREBIA, BATTLE OF.--Fought between Hannibal and the Romans. Hannibal taking advantage of the well known impetuosity of the Romans, sent over at first a detachment of 1000 horse. These pretending defeat, hastily recrossed the river, followed by the main body of the Romans. By this means the defeat of the Romans was insured. Benumbed with wading up to their armpits in water, they became an easy prey to their enemies; 26,000 were either slain, or drowned in attempting to cross the river.

TRINCOMALEE.--Taken from the Dutch by the English in 1782. Retaken by the French same year; restored to the Dutch in 1783. Surrendered to the British, under Colonel Stewart, August 26th, 1795, and was confirmed by the peace of Amiens in 1802. Of a series of actions fought off Trincomalee, between Sir Edward Hughes and the French Admiral Suffrein, one was fought February 18th, 1782, the enemy having 11 ships and the British 9. On April 12th following, they had 18 to 11 ships, and on July 6th, same year, they had 15 to 12 ships. Yet, in every one of these battles, the French suffered severe defeats.

TRIPLE ALLIANCE.--This celebrated party alliance between the States General and England against France, was for the protection of the Netherlands (Holland and Belgium). Sweden afterwards joined the alliance, January 28th, 1668.

TRIUMPH.--On the day appointed, the General, crowned with laurels, pronounced an oration to the soldiers and surrounding multitude, relating his military achievements; then the march began with a long procession, in which were carried inscriptions, containing the names of the nations, provinces, or cities, he had conquered; the priests assisted, leading the beasts used for sacrifice. The conqueror, in an ivory car, richly ornamented, closed the procession. He was surrounded by his friends and relations, bearing branches of laurel; the procession stopped at the Capitol, where they sacrificed to Jupiter, and deposited part of the spoils. The lustre of the Roman conquests was often tarnished by their inhumanity to the conquered; their prisoners, if of high rank, were only reserved to suffer superior mortifications; the captive Monarchs and Generals were bound in chains, their heads closely shaven (a mark of peculiar degradation), and they were thus presented a sad spectacle to the gazing multitude.

TROYES.--Celebrated for the treaty, May 24th, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by the Allied armies, February 7th, 1814. Retaken by Napoleon, February 28th, and finally occupied by the Allies, March 4th, same year.

TYRE.--A celebrated city in Asia Minor. Besieged by Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 572, and the city demolished a year after its rebuilding. Taken by Alexander the Great, who spent seven months in the siege, August 20th, 332 B.C. Thousands of the inhabitants were crucified by Alexander, along the shore, for the bravery with which they had defended their city.

U.

ULM, BATTLE OF.--A fierce and bloody engagement between the French and Austrians, the latter commanded by General Mack, and the French by Marshal Ney. The French gained a complete victory, the Austrians losing 36,000 men as prisoners, the flower of their army, and an immense number of killed and wounded. Fought, October 17th, and 19th, 1805.

UNIFORMS.--First used in France by Louis XIV in 1668, adopted in England not long after.

USHANT, NAVAL BATTLE OF.--Between the British and French fleets, when after an indecisive action of three hours, under cover of the night, the latter withdrew in a deceptive manner to the harbour of Brest. Keppel commanded the English fleet and the Count d’Ovillier the French. A dispute occurring between the English Admiral and the second in command caused the victory to be not so complete as it would otherwise have been. Fought, July 27th, 1778.

UTRECHT, TREATY OF.--The Union of the seven Provinces began here A.D. 1579. Celebrated treaty, April 11th, 1713. Surrendered to the Prussians, May 9th, 1787. Possessed by the French, January 17th, 1795.