CHAPTER VI
.
POINTED ITALIAN GOTHIC.
CONTENTS.
Fresco paintings—Churches at Vercelli, Asti, Verona, and Lucca—Cathedral at Siena—Sta. Maria, Florence—Church at Chiaravalle—St. Petronio, Bologna—Cathedral at Milan—Certosa, near Pavia—Duomo at Ferrara.
CHRONOLOGY.
DATES. Bologna independent A.D. 1112 Countess Matilda at Florence 1115 Obizzo d’Este at Ferrara 1184 Enrico Dandolo takes Constantinople 1203 War between Genoa and Venice 1205 Azzo d’Este at Ferrara 1208 Martino della Scala at Verona 1259 Martino delle Torre at Milan 1260 Visconti Lord of Milan 1277 Taddeo de Pepoli at Bologna 1334 Conspiracy of Marino Faliero 1355 Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan 1395 Verona ceded to Venice 1409 Cosmo de’ Medici 1434
Before the commencement of the 13th century, the Italians had acquired such mastery over the details of their round-arched style, and had worked it into such originality and completeness, that it is surprising that they should so easily have abandoned it for that form of Pointed Gothic which they afterwards adopted. It is true the Italians never rose to the conception of such buildings as the great Rhenish cathedrals, like those of Spires and Worms, or the old churches at Cologne; nor did they perhaps even rival the quasi-classical grace and elegance of the Provençal churches; but at Verona, Modena, and indeed throughout the North of Italy, they had elaborated a complete round-arched style, all the details of which were not only appropriate and elegant, but seemed capable of indefinite development in the direction in which they were proceeding. They had also before their eyes the Romanesque style of Pisa and Lucca with all its elegance, and the example of Rome, where the architects steadily refused to acknowledge the pointed arch during the whole of the Mediæval period. Yet in the beginning of the 13th century— say 1220, when the cathedrals of Amiens, Salisbury, and Toledo were designed—Italy too was smitten with admiration for the pointed arch, and set to work to adapt it to her tastes and uses.
It would be difficult to account for this, were we not aware how deeply the feelings that gave rise to the Ghibelline faction were rooted in the Italian soil. In all the cities, except Rome, the cause of the Ghibellines was throughout the Middle Ages identified with that of freedom and local independence, in opposition to that of the Guelfs, which symbolised the supremacy of the Pope and the clerical party. Knowing how strenuously this was resisted, we naturally expect to find it expressed in the architecture of the country. Two, indeed, of the great churches of Italy, Assisi (1228) and Milan (1385), were erected by Germans in the German style of the day; but these are exceptional. The form which the pointed-arched style took on its introduction, was that of adaptation to the Italian style, in a manner which the Italians thought more consonant with beauty and convenience than that adopted north of the Alps. In this they were certainly mistaken. The elegance of the details employed by a refined and cultivated people, and based on classical traditions, goes far to redeem, in most instances, the defects of their designs; but they never grasped the true principles of Gothic art, and the fatal facility of the pointed arch led them more astray after mechanical clevernesses than even the Germans. Still, it is an original style, and, however imperfect, is well worthy of study.
Before proceeding to describe the style more in detail, it may be well to point out one of the principal causes which led to the more marked features of difference between the Gothic architecture of Italy and that of Germany and France. This was the distaste of the Italians for the employment of painted glass, or at least their want of appreciation of its beauties when combined with architecture.
It will be explained in a future chapter how all-important painted glass was to the elaboration of the Gothic style. But for its introduction, the architecture of France would bear no resemblance to what it was, and is. In Italy, indeed, the people loved polychromy, but always of the opaque class. They delighted to cover the walls of their churches with frescoes and mosaics, to enrich their floors with the most gorgeous pavements, and to scatter golden stars over the blue ground of their vaults; but rarely, if ever, did they fill, or design to fill, their windows with painted glass. Perhaps the glare of an Italian sun may have tended to render its brilliancy intolerable; but more probably the absence of stained glass is owing to its incompatibility with fresco-painting, the effect of which would be entirely destroyed by the superior brightness of the transparent material. The Italians were not prepared to relinquish the old and favourite mode of decoration in which they so excelled. This adherence to the ancient method of ornamentation enabled them, in the 15th and 16th centuries, to surpass all the world in the art of painting, but it was fatal to the proper appreciation of the pointed style, and to its successful introduction into the land.
The first effect of this tendency was that the windows in Italian churches were small, and generally devoid of tracery, with all its beautiful accompaniments. The walls, too, being consequently solid, were sufficient, by their own weight, to abut the thrust of the arches: so that neither projecting or flying buttresses nor pinnacles were needed. The buildings were thus deprived externally of all the aspiring vertical lines so characteristic of true Gothic. The architects, to relieve the monotony arising from the want of these features, were forced to recur to the horizontal cornices of the classical times, and to cover their walls with a series of panelling which, however beautiful in itself, is mere ornament—both unmeaning and inconsistent.
Internally, too, having no clerestory to make room for, and no constructive necessities to meet, they jumped to the conclusion that the best design is that which covers the greatest space with the least expenditure of materials, and the least encumbrance of the floor. With builders this is a golden rule, but with architects it is about the worst that can possibly be adopted. The Germans were not free from this fault, but the Italians carried it still further. If on four or five piers they could support the vault of a whole nave, they never dreamed of introducing more. A French architect, though superior in constructive skill, would probably have introduced eight or ten in the same space. An Italian aimed at carrying the vaults of the side-aisles to the same height as that of the nave, if he could. A Northern architect knew how to keep the two in their due proportion, whereby he obtained greater height and greater width in the same bulk, and an appearance of height and width greater still, by the contrast between the parts, at the same time that he gave his building a character of strength and stability perhaps even more valuable than that of size.
In the same manner the Northern architects, while they grouped their shafts together, kept them so distinct as to allow every one to bear its proportional part of the load, and perform its allotted task. The Italians never comprehended this principle, but merely stuck pilasters back to back, in imitation of the true architects, producing an unmeaning and ugly pier. The same incongruities occur in every part and every detail. It is a style copied without understanding, and executed without feeling. The elegance of the sculptured foliage and other details sometimes goes far to redeem these faults; for the Italians, though bad architects, were always beautiful carvers, and, as a Southern people, were free from the vulgarities sometimes apparent farther north, and never fell into the wild barbarisms which too often disfigure even the best buildings on this side of the Alps. Besides, when painting is joined to sculpture in churches, the architecture may come to occupy a subordinate position, and thus escape the censure it deserves. Unfortunately there are only two examples of any importance in this style that retain all their painted decorations—St. Francis at Assisi, and the Certosa near Pavia. From this circumstance they are perhaps the most admired in Italy. In others the spaces left for colour are still plain and blank. We see the work of the architect unaided by the painting which was intended to set it off, and we cannot but condemn it as displaying at once bad taste and ignorance of the true Gothic feeling.
One of the earliest, or perhaps the very first Italian edifice into which the pointed arch was introduced, is the fine church of St. Andrea at Vercelli, commenced in the year 1219 by the Cardinal Guala Bicchieri, and finished in three years. This prelate, having been long legate in England, brought back with him an English architect called, it is said, Brigwithe, and entrusted him with the erection of this church in his native place.
[Illustration: 492. Plan of the Church at Vercelli. (From Osten’s ‘Baukunst in Lombardei.’) Scale 100 ft. to 1 in.]
In plan, it is certainly very like an English church, terminating squarely towards the east, and with side chapels to the transepts, arranged very much as we find them at Buildwas, Kirkstall, and other churches of this class and size, only that here they are polygonal, which was hardly ever the case in England. But with the plan all influences of the English architect seem to have ceased, and the structure is in purely Italian style. Externally the pointed arch nowhere appears, all the doors and windows being circular-headed; while internally it is confined to the pier-arches of the nave and the vaulting of the roof. The façade is flanked at its angles by two tall, slender, square towers; and the intersection of the nave and transept is covered by one of those elegant octagonal domes which the Italians knew so well how to use, and which is in fact the only original feature in their designs. The external form of this church is interesting, as displaying the germs of much that two centuries afterwards was so greatly expanded by a German architect in the design of Milan cathedral.
A few years later, in 1229, a church was commenced at Asti, the tower of which was finished in 1266. This allowed time for a more complete development of the pointed style, which here prevails not only internally, but externally. Tall pointed windows appear in the flanks, and even the doorways assume that form, in their canopies, if not in their openings. The porch (Woodcut No. 493) is a later addition, and a characteristic specimen of the style during the 14th century. This church is also one of the earliest examples in which those elegant terra-cotta cornices of small intersecting arches seem to have been brought to perfection.
[Illustration: 493. Church at Asti. (From Chapuy, ‘Moyen-Âge Monumental.’)]
The most remarkable church of this age is that of St. Francis at Assisi, commenced in 1228, and finished, in all essentials at least, in 1253. It is said to have been built by a German named Jacob, or Jacopo. Certainly no French or English architect would have designed a double church of this class, though, on the other hand, no Italian could have drawn details so purely Northern as those of the upper church. In the lower church there are hardly any mouldings to mark the style, but its character is certainly rather German than Italian. This church depends for its magnificence and character much more on painting than on architecture. In the first place it is small, the upper church being only 225 ft. long, by 36 in. width; and though the lower one has side-aisles which extend the width to 100 ft., yet the upper church is only 60 ft. in height, and the lower about 30, so that it is far too small for much architectural magnificence. None of its details are equal to those of contemporary churches on this side of the Alps. The whole church is covered with fresco paintings in great variety and of the most beautiful character, which justly render it one of the most celebrated and admired of all Italy. On this side of the Alps without its frescoes, it would hardly attract any attention. It is invaluable as an example of the extent to which the polychromatic decoration may be profitably carried, and of the true mode of doing it; and also as an illustration of the extent to which the Italians allowed a foreign style and mode of ornamentation to be introduced into their country.
[Illustration: 494. Plan of Sta. Anastasia, Verona. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in.]
[Illustration: 495. One Bay of Sta. Anastasia, Verona.]
One of the purest and most perfect types of an Italian Gothic church is that of Sta. Anastasia at Verona, commenced apparently in 1260. It is not large, being only 285 ft. in length externally; but its arrangements are very complete, and very perfect if looked at from an Italian point of view. The square of the vault of the nave is the modulus, instead of that of the aisles, as in true Gothic churches: owing to which the pier-arches are further apart than a true artist would have placed them; there are also no buttresses externally, but only pilasters. The consequence of this is, that the arches have to be tied in with iron rods at the springing, which internally adds very much to the appearance of weakness, caused in the first instance by the wide spacing and general tenuity. These bad effects are aggravated by the absence of a string-course at the springing of the vault; and by the substitution of a circular hole for the triforium, and a hexafoiled opening of very insignificant dimensions for the glorious clerestory windows of Northern churches. Altogether, though we cannot help being pleased with the spaciousness and general elegance of design, it is impossible not to feel how very inferior it is to that of churches on this side the Alps.
[Illustration: 496. One Bay, externally and internally, of the Church of San Martino, Lucca.]
The church of San Martino at Lucca, built about a century after Sta. Anastasia (middle of 14th century), presents a strikingly happy compromise between the two styles. The pier-arches are still too wide—23 ft. in the clear; but the defect is remedied to some extent by the employment of circular instead of pointed arches, and the triforium is all that can be desired; the clerestory, however, is as insignificant as it must be where the sun is so brilliant and painted glass inadmissible. It would be easy to point out other defects; but, taking it altogether, there are few more elegant churches than this, and hardly one in Italy that so perfectly meets all the exigencies for which it was designed.
[Illustration: 497. Plan of the Cathedral at Siena. (From the ‘Églises principales d’Europe.’) Scale 100 ft. to 1 in.]
The cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto (the former commenced in 1243, the latter in 1290) are perhaps, taken altogether, the most successful specimens of Italian pointed Gothic. They are those at least in which the system is carried to the greatest extent without either foreign aid or the application of distinctly foreign details. These two buildings, moreover, both retain their façades as completed by their first architects, while the three great churches of this style—the cathedrals of Florence, Bologna, and Milan—were in this respect left unfinished, with many others of the smaller churches of Italy. The church at Siena illustrates forcibly the tendency of the Italian architects to adhere to the domical forms of the old Etruscans, which the Romans amplified to such an extent, and the Byzantines made peculiarly their own. I cannot but repeat my regret that the Italians alone, of all the Western Mediæval builders, showed any predilection for this form of roof. On this side of the Alps it could have been made the most beautiful of architectural forms. In Italy there is no instance of more than moderate success—nothing, indeed, to encourage imitation. Even the example now before us is no exception to these remarks, though one of the boldest efforts of Italian architects. In plan it ought to have been an octagon, but that apparently would have made it too large for their skill to execute, so they met the difficulty by adopting a hexagon, which, though producing a certain variety of perspective, fits awkwardly with the lines of columns, and twists the vaults to an unpleasant extent. Still, a dome of moderate height, and 58 ft. in diameter, covering the centre of the church, and with sufficient space around to give it dignity, is a noble and pleasing feature, the merit of which it is impossible to deny. Combined with the rich colouring and gorgeous furniture of the church, it makes up a whole of great beauty. The circular pier-arches, however, and the black and white stripes by which the exterior is marked, detract considerably from the effect of the whole—at least in the eyes of strangers, though the Italians still consider it a beauty. The façade of this cathedral is represented in Woodcut No. 498. It consists of three great portals, the arches of which are equal in size, though the centre doorway is larger than those at the sides. Above is the invariable circular window of the Italian architects, and the whole is crowned by steep triangular gables. Beneath the cathedral, or rather under the choir, is the ancient baptistery, now the church of St. John the Baptist; its front is in a much purer style of Gothic than the cathedral.[310]
[Illustration: 498. Façade of the Cathedral at Siena.]
The carved architectural ornaments of the façade are rich and elaborate in the extreme, though figured sculpture is used to a much less extent than in Northern portals of the same age. It is also observable that the strong horizontal lines do not harmonise with the aspiring character of pointed architecture.
The cathedral of Orvieto is smaller and simpler, and less rich in its decorations, than that at Siena, with the exception of its façade, which is adorned with sculpture and painting. Indeed the three-gabled front may be considered the typical one for churches of this class. The façades intended to have been applied to the churches at Florence, Bologna, Milan, and elsewhere, were no doubt very similar to that represented in Woodcut No. 498. As a frontispiece, if elaborately sculptured and painted, it is not without considerable appropriateness and even beauty; but, as an architectural object, it is infinitely inferior to the double-towered façades of the Northern cathedrals, or even to those with only one great tower in the centre. It has besides the defect of not expressing what is behind it; the central gable being always higher than the roof, and the two others merely ornamental appendages. Indeed, like the Italian Gothic buildings generally, it depended on painting, sculpture, and carving for its effect, far more than on architectural design properly so called.
Among the greatest and most complete examples of Italian Gothic is the church of Sta. Maria dei Fiori, the cathedral of Florence, one of the largest and finest churches produced in the Middle Ages—as far as mere grandeur of conception goes, perhaps the very best, though considerably marred in execution from defects of style, which are too apparent in every part.
[Illustration: 499. Plan of Cathedral at Florence. (From Isabelle, ‘Édifices Circulaires.’) Scale 100 ft. to 1 in.]
The building of the church was commenced in the year 1294 or 1298 (it is not quite clear which), from the designs and under the superintendence of Arnolfo di Lapo, for unfortunately in this style we know the names of all the architects, and all the churches show traces of the caprice and of the misdirected efforts of individuals, instead of the combined national movement which produced such splendid results in France and England. It is not known how far Arnolfo had carried the building when he died, in 1310, but probably up to the springing of the vaults. After this the works proceeded more leisurely, but the nave and smaller domes of the choir were no doubt completed as we now find them in the first twenty years of the 14th century. The great octagon remained unfinished, and, if covered in at all, it was only by a wooden roof of domical outline externally, which seems to be that represented in the fresco in the convent of San Marco, till Brunelleschi commenced the present dome in 1420, and completed it in all essential parts before his death, which happened in 1444. The building may therefore be considered as essentially contemporary with the cathedral of Cologne, which it very nearly equals in size (its area being 84,802 ft., while that of Cologne is estimated at 91,000), and, as far as mere conception of plan goes, there can be little doubt but that the Florentine cathedral far surpasses its German rival. Nothing indeed can be finer than its general ground-plan. A vast nave leads to an enormous dome, extending into the triapsal arrangement so common in the early churches of Cologne, and which was repeated in the last and greatest effort of the Middle Ages, or rather the first of the new school—the great church of St. Peter at Rome. In the Florentine church all these parts are better subordinated and proportioned than in any other example, and the mode in which the effect increases and the whole expands as we approach from the entrance to the sanctum is unrivalled. All this, alas! is utterly thrown away in the execution. Like all inexperienced architects, Arnolfo seems to have thought that largeness of parts would add to the greatness of the whole, and thus used only four great arches in the whole length of his nave, giving the central aisle a width of 55 ft. clear. The whole width is within 10 ft. of that of Cologne, and the height about the same; and yet, in appearance, the height is about half, and the breadth less than half, owing to the better proportion of the parts and to the superior appropriateness in the details on the part of the German cathedral. At Florence the details are positively ugly. The windows of the side-aisles are small and misplaced, those of the clerestory mere circular holes. The proportion of the aisles one to another is bad, the vaults ill-formed, and altogether a colder and less effective design was not produced in the Middle Ages. The triapsal choir is not so objectionable as the nave, but there are large plain spaces that now look cold and flat; the windows are too few and small, and there is a gloom about the whole which is very unsatisfactory. It is nearly certain that the original intention was to paint the walls, and not to colour the windows, so that these defects are hardly chargeable to the original design, and would not be apparent now were it not that in a moment of mistaken enthusiasm the Florentines were seized with a desire to imitate the true style of Gothic art, and rival Northern cathedrals in the glory of their painted glass. This, in a church whose windows were designed only of such dimensions as were sufficient to admit the requisite quantity of white light, was fatal. Notwithstanding the beauty of the glass itself, which seems to have been executed at Lubeck, 1434, from Italian designs, it is so completely out of place that it only produces irritation instead of admiration, and has certainly utterly destroyed the effect and meaning of the interior it was intended to adorn.
[Illustration: 500. Section of Dome and part of Nave of the Cathedral at Florence. Scale 100 ft. to 1 in.]
[Illustration: 501. Part of the Flank of Cathedral at Florence.]
[Illustration: 502. Dome at Chiaravalle, near Milan. (From a drawing by Ed. Falkener, Esq.)]
Externally the façade was never finished,[311] and we can only fancy what was intended from the analogy of Siena and Orvieto. The flanks of the nave are without buttresses or pinnacles, and, with only a few insignificant windows, would be painfully flat except for a veneer of coloured marbles disposed in panels over the whole surface. For an interior or a pavement such a mode of decoration is admissible; but it is so unconstructive, so evidently a mere decoration, that it gives a weakness to the whole, and most unsatisfactory appearance to so large a building. This is much less apparent at the east end, where the outline is so broken, and the main lines of the construction so plainly marked, that the mere filling in is comparatively unimportant. This is the most meritorious part of the church, and, so far as it was carried up according to the original design, is extremely beautiful. Even the plainness and flatness of the nave serve as a foil to set off the varying outline of the choir. Above the line of the cornice of the side-aisles there is nothing that can be said to belong to the original design except the first division of the drum of the dome, which follows the lines of the clerestory. It has long been a question what Arnolfo originally intended, and especially how he meant to cover the great octagonal space in the centre. All knowledge of his intentions seems to have been lost within a century after his death: at least, in the accounts of the proceedings of the commission which resulted in the adoption of Brunelleschi’s design for the dome, no reference is made to any original design as then existing, and no one appears to have known how Arnolfo intended to finish his work. Judging from the structure as far as he carried it, and with the knowledge we now possess of the Italian architecture of that age, we can easily conjecture what his design for its completion may have been. Internally, it probably consisted of a dome something like the present, but flatter, springing from the cornice, 40 ft. lower than the present one, and pierced with large openings on each of its eight faces.
[Illustration: 503. Section of Eastern portion of Church at Chiaravalle. (From Gruner’s ‘Terra Cotta Architecture in Italy.’) Scale 50 ft. to 1 in.]
Externally, two courses were open to him. The first and most obvious was to hide the dome entirely under a wooden roof, as is done in St. George’s, Thessalonica (Woodcut No. 305), or in the baptistery in front of the cathedral, and is done in half the baptisteries in Italy—as at Parma, for instance (Woodcut No. 514). Had he done this, the span of the dome might have been very much larger, without involving any constructive difficulties, and the three towers over the choir and transepts might have sufficed to relieve its external appearance sufficiently for architectural effect. On the whole, however, I am rather inclined to believe that something more ambitious than this was originally proposed, and that the design was more like that of Chiaravalle near Milan, built in 1221, and one of the most complete and perfect of this class of dome now existing in Italy. Its external appearance may be judged of from Woodcut 502, and its constructive details from the section, Woodcut No. 503.
If the basement is sufficiently solid—and that at Florence is more than sufficient for any superstructure of the sort—it is evident the architect can dispose of such masses of masonry, that he can counteract any thrust or tendency to spread that can exist in any dome of this sort; and instead of being only 136 ft. across, 150 or 160 might easily have been attempted. Instead of 375 ft., which is the height of the present dome from the floor to the top of the cross externally, it might even with the present diameter have been carried up to at least 500 ft., or as high as the church was long,—70 to 100 ft. above the height of St. Peter’s at Rome.
Had this been done, the three smaller semi-domes must have been intended to be crowned with miniature octagonal spires of the same class with the great dome, and between these the vast substructures show that it was intended to carry up four great spires, probably to a height of 400 ft.
Had all this been done (and something very like it seems certainly to have been intended), neither Cologne Cathedral, nor any church in Europe, ancient or modern, would have been comparable to this great and glorious apse. As it is, the plain, heavy, simple outlined dome of Brunelleschi acts like an extinguisher, crushing all the lower part of the composition, and both internally and externally destroying all harmony between the parts. It has deprived us of the only chance that ever existed of witnessing the effect of a great Gothic dome; not indeed such a dome as might with the same dimensions have been executed on this side of the Alps, but still in the spirit, and with much of the poetry, which gives such value to the conceptions of the builders in those days.
But for this change of plan, the ambition of the Florentines might have been in some measure satisfied, whose instructions to the architect were, that their cathedral “should surpass everything that human industry or human power had conceived of great and beautiful.”
About a century later (1390), the Bolognese determined on the erection of a monster cathedral, which, in so far as size went, would have been more than double that at Florence. According to the plans that have come down to us, it was to have been about 800 ft. long and 525 wide across the transepts; at the intersection was to have been a dome 130 ft. in diameter, or only 6 ft. less than that at Florence; and the width of both nave and transepts was to have been 183 ft.: so that the whole would have covered about 212,000 ft., or nearly the same area as St. Peter’s at Rome, and three times that of any French cathedral! Of this vast design, only about one-third (Woodcut No. 504), 74,000 sq. ft., was ever carried out; but that fragment is quite sufficient to enable us to judge of the merits or defects of this style in its state of greatest perfection. The only other building in the same style on a sufficient scale to admit of comparison with this is the nave of the cathedral at Florence just described, but that is nearly as may be only half of its dimensions, or 36,000 ft. as compared with 72,000. The chapels, too, at Bologna add practically a fifth aisle, giving great variety and richness to the perspective. The varied heights and proportions of the central and side aisles are singularly pleasing, and there being six arches at Bologna instead of only four as at Florence, and twelve side chapels where none exist in the other example, go far to redeem the lean mechanical look which is the great defect of this style. The great advantage San Petronio has over the Florentine church is in the size and number of its windows, and these not being filled with stained glass the whole church has a bright and pleasing effect that contrasts most favourably with the gloom of its great rival. Notwithstanding this, the nave of San Petronio cannot be considered as a successful work of art. In the first place it is too mechanically perfect. The area of the points of support as compared with the voids is, as far as can be made out from such plans as exist, about one-twelfth, which would be a merit in a railway station, but something more is wanted in a monumental building. In the next there is a singular deficiency of either constructive or constructed ornament. On this side of the Alps an architect with vaulting shafts, string-courses, galleries, and fifty other expedients, would have relieved the bareness of the walls. At Bologna it probably was intended they should be painted, and this never having been executed may account for most of its apparent defects.
[Illustration: 504. Plan of the part executed of St. Petronio, Bologna. (from Wiebeking.) Scale 100 ft. to 1 in.]
In Gothic architecture one of two systems seems indispensable: either painted glass with strongly-marked carved mouldings over the whole of the interior, or white glass with flat surfaces suitable for opaque paintings. Few cathedrals are complete in both respects at the present day, but in their imperfect state the Northern system has an immense advantage over the Southern. The architecture of our cathedrals is complete and beautiful even in ruins. An Italian church without its coloured decoration is only a framed canvas without harmony or meaning. Were San Petronio as complete in its coloured decoration as the Certosa at Pavia or Monreale at Palermo, it might stand a fair competition with the best interiors on this side of the Alps. As it is, it is only a splendid example of ornamental but unornamented construction, and, as was attempted to be explained in the Introduction, both elements are wanted for success in architectural design.
[Illustration: 505. Section of San Petronio, Bologna. (From Wiebeking.) Scale 50 ft. to 1 in.]
The exterior of the church is in too unfinished a state to enable us to judge of what its effect might have been if completed, but many of its details, especially of the façade, are of very great beauty, in many respects superior to what is to be found on this side of the Alps. Its central dome, however, never could have been a feature worthy of so vast a church. In diameter it is equal, or nearly so, to that of Florence, but the points of support are so small, and so far apart, that it must have been mainly if not wholly of wood. No such towering structure as Arnolfo’s vast substructures show that he intended, could have stood on the slim supports of the Bolognese church.[312]
[Illustration: 506. Plan of the Cathedral of Milan. (From ‘Chiesi Principali d’Europa.’) Scale 100 ft. to 1 in.]
The cathedral of Milan—at once the most remarkable and one of the largest and richest of all the churches erected in the Middle Ages—was commenced in the year 1385, by order of Gian Galeazzo, first Duke of Milan, and consecrated in 1418, at which date all the essential parts seem to have been completed, though the central spire was not finished till about the year 1440, by Brunelleschi.
The design is said to have been furnished by a German architect, Heinrich Arlez von Gemunden, or as the Italians call him, “da Gamondia,”—a statement which is corroborated by the fact that the details and many of the forms are essentially Northern; but it is equally certain that he was not allowed to control the whole, for all the great features of the church are as thoroughly Italian as the details are German: it is therefore by no means improbable that Marco da Campione, as the Italians assert, or some other native artist, was joined with him or placed over him.
In size it is, except Seville, the largest of all Mediæval cathedrals, covering 107,782 ft. In material it is the richest, being built wholly of white marble, which is scarcely the case with any other church, large or small; and in decoration it is the most gorgeous—the whole of the exterior is covered with tracery, and the amount of carving and statuary lavished on its pinnacles and spires is unrivalled in any other building of Europe. It is also built wholly (with the exception of the façade) according to one design. Yet, with all these advantages, the appearance of this wonderful building is not satisfactory to any one who is familiar with the great edifices on this side of the Alps. Cologne is certainly more beautiful; Rheims, Chartres, Amiens, and Bourges leave a far more satisfactory impression on the mind; and even the much smaller church of St. Ouen will convey far more pleasure to the true artist than this gorgeous temple.
The cause of all this it is easy to understand, since all or nearly all its defects arise from the introduction of Italian features into a Gothic building; or rather, perhaps, it should be said, from a German architect being allowed to ornament an Italian cathedral. Taking the contemporary cathedral of St. Petronio at Bologna as our standard of comparison, it will be seen that the sections (Woodcuts Nos. 505, 507) are almost identical both in dimensions and in form, except that at Milan the external range is a real aisle instead of a series of side chapels; but, at the same time, it will be perceived that the German system prevailed in doubling the number of the piers between the nave and side-aisles. So far, therefore, the German architect saved the church. The two small clerestories, however, still remain; and although the design avoids the mullionless little circles of Bologna, there is only space for small openings, which more resemble the windows of an attic than of a clerestory. The greater quantity of light being thus introduced by the tall windows of the outer aisle, the appearance is that of a building lighted from below, which is fatal to architectural effect.
The model still preserved on the spot shows that the German architect designed great portals at each end of the transepts. This, however, was overruled in favour of two small polygonal apses. Instead of the great octagonal dome which an Italian would have placed upon the intersection of the whole width of the nave and transepts, German influence has confined it to the central aisle, which is perhaps more to be regretted than any other mistake in the building. The choir is neither a French chevet nor a German or Italian apse, but a compromise between the two, a French circlet of columns enclosed in a German polygonal termination. This part of the building, with its simple forms and three glorious windows, is perhaps an improvement on either of the models of which it is compounded.
[Illustration: 507. Section of the Cathedral of Milan.[313] (From Wiebeking.) Scale 50 ft. to 1 in.]
This is the nearest approach to the French chevet arrangement to be found in all Italy. It is extremely rare in that country to find an aisle running round the choir, and opening into it, or with the circlet of apsidal chapels which is so universal in France. The Italian church is not, in fact, derived from a combination of a circular Eastern church with a Western rectangular nave, but is a direct copy from the old Roman basilica.
[Illustration: 508. View of the Interior of Milan Cathedral. (From Rosengarten.)]
The details of the interior of Milan cathedral are almost wholly German (Woodcut No. 508). The great capitals of the pillars, with their niches and statues, are the only compromise between the ordinary German form and the great deep ugly capitals—fragments, in fact, of classical entablatures—which disfigure the cathedrals of Florence and Bologna, and so many other Italian churches. Had the ornamentation of these been carried up to the springing of the vault, they would have been unexceptionable; as it is, with all their richness, their effect is unmeaning.
Externally, the appearance is in outline not unlike that of Sta. Maria dei Fiori; the apse is rich, varied, and picturesque, and the central dome (excepting the details) similar, though on a smaller scale, to what I believe to have been the original design of the Florentine church. The nave is nearly as flat as at Florence, the clerestory not being visible; but the forest of pinnacles and flying buttresses and the richness of the ornamentation go far to hide that defect. The façade was left unfinished, as was so often the case with the great churches of Italy. Pellegrini was afterwards employed to finish it, and a model of his design is still preserved. It is fortunate that his plan was not carried out. The façade was finished, as we now see it, from the designs of Amati, by order of Napoleon. It is commonplace, as might be expected from its age, but inoffensive. The doorways are part of Pellegrini’s design, and the Mediæval forms being placed over those of the cinque-cento, produce a strangely incongruous effect. For the west front several original designs are still preserved. One of these, with two small square towers at the angles, as at Vercelli and elsewhere, was no doubt the Italian design. The German one (Woodcut No. 509) is preserved by Bassi:[314] had this been executed, the façade would have been about one-third (viz. 100 ft.) wider than that of Cologne. Had the height of the towers been in the same proportion, they would have been the tallest in the world. In that case the effect here, as at Cologne, would have been to shorten and overpower the rest of the building to a painful extent. A design midway between the two, with spires rising to the same height as the central one, or about 360 ft., would perhaps have the happiest effect. At any rate, the want of some such features is greatly felt in the building as it stands.
[Illustration: 509. Design for Façade of Milan Cathedral. (From Bassi.)]
The Certosa, near Pavia, was commenced about the same date (1396) as the cathedral at Milan. It is seldom that we find two buildings in the Middle Ages so close to one another in date and locality, and yet so dissimilar. There is no instance of such an occurrence on this side of the Alps, till modern times; and it shows that in those days the Italians were nearly as devoid of any distinct principles of architecture as we have since become.
[Illustration: 510. View of the Certosa, near Pavia. (From a Photograph.)]
The great difference between Pavia and Milan is that the former shows no trace of foreign influence. It is as purely Italian as St. Petronio, and by no means so complete or consistent in design. Nothing, in fact, can be more painful than the disproportion of the parts, the bad drawing of the details, the malformation of the vaults, and the meanness of the windows; though all these defects are completely hidden by the most gorgeous colouring, and by furniture of such richness as to be almost unrivalled. So attractive are these two features to the majority of spectators, and so easily understood, that nine visitors out of ten are delighted with the Certosa, and entirely forget its miserable architecture in the richness and brilliancy of its decorations.
Externally the architecture is better than in the interior. From its proximity to Pavia, it retains its beautiful old galleries under the roof. Its circular apses, with their galleries, give to this church, for the age to which it belongs, a peculiar character, harmonising well with the circular-headed form, which nearly all the windows and openings present. Even in the interior there are far more circular than pointed arches.
The most beautiful and wonderful part of the building is the façade. This was begun in 1473, and is one of the best specimens in Italy of the Renaissance style. It would hardly, therefore, be appropriate to mention it here, were it not that the dome over the intersection of the nave and transepts is of the same age and style, but reproduces so exactly (except in details) what we fancy the Mediæval Italian Gothic dome to have been, that it may be considered as a feature of the earlier ages. Referring to Woodcut No. 502, it will be seen how like it is to that of Chiaravalle in outline. It is less tall, however, and, if translated into the details of the great church at Florence, would fit perfectly on the basement there prepared for such a feature.
Like many other churches in Northern Italy, the principal parts of the Certosa are built in brick, and the ornamental details executed in terra-cotta. Some of the latter, especially in the cloisters, are as beautiful as any executed in stone in any part of Italy during the Middle Ages; and their perfect preservation shows how suitable is the material for such purposes. It may not be appropriate for large details or monumental purposes, but for the minor parts and smaller details, when used as the Italians in the Middle Ages used it, terra-cotta is as legitimate as any material anywhere used for building purposes; and in situations like the alluvial plains of the Po, where stone is with difficulty obtainable, its employment was not only judicious but most fortunate in its results.
It would be a tedious and unprofitable task to attempt to particularise all the churches which were erected in this style in Italy, as hardly one of them possesses a single title to admiration beyond the very vulgar one of size. To this Santa Croce, at Florence, adds its association with the great men who lie buried beneath it, and Sta. Maria Novella can plead the circumstance—exceptional in that city—of possessing a façade;[315] but neither of these has anything to redeem its innate ugliness in the eyes of an architect.
There are two great churches of this period at Venice, the San Giovanni e Paolo (1246-1420) and the Frari (1250); they are large and richly ornamented fabrics, but are both entirely destitute of architectural merit.
[Illustration: 511. Duomo at Ferrara. (From Hope’s ‘Architecture.’) Scale 50 ft. to 1 in.]
A much more beautiful building is the cathedral at Como, the details of which are so elegant and so unobtrusively used as in great measure to make up for the bad arrangement and awkward form of the whole. In design it is, however, inferior to that of the Duomo at Ferrara (Woodcut No. 511). The latter does not display the richness of the façades of Siena or Orvieto, nor the elegance of that last named; but among the few Italian façades which exist, it stands pre-eminent for sober propriety of design and the good proportions of all its parts. The repose caused by the solidity of the lower portions, and the gradual increase of ornament and lightness as we ascend, all combine to render it harmonious and pleasing. It is true it wants the aspiring character and bold relief of Northern façades; but these do not belong to the style, and it must suffice if we meet in this style with a moderate amount of variety, undisturbed by any very prominent instances of bad taste.
The true type of an Italian façade is well illustrated in the view of St. Francesco at Brescia (Woodcut No. 512), which may be considered the germ of all that followed. Whether the church had three aisles or five, the true Italian façade in the age of pointed architecture was always a modification or extension of this idea, though introduced with more or less Gothic feeling according to the circumstances of its erection.
At Florence there is a house or warehouse, converted into a church,—Or (horreum) San Michele, which has attracted a good deal of attention, but more on account of its curious ornaments than for beauty of design—which latter it does not, and indeed can hardly be expected to, possess. The little chapel of Sta. Maria della Spina at Pisa owes its celebrity to the richness of its niches and canopies, and to the sculpture which they contain. In this the Italians were always at home, and probably always surpassed the Northern nations. It was far otherwise with architecture, properly so called. This, in the age of the pointed style, was in Italy so cold and unmeaning, that we do not wonder at the readiness with which the Italians returned to the classical models. They are to be forgiven in this, but we cannot so easily forgive _our_ forefathers, who abandoned a style far more beautiful than that of Italy to copy one which they had themselves infinitely surpassed; and this only because the Italians, unable either to comSprehend or imitate the true principles of pointed art, were forced to abandon its practice. Unfortunately for us, they had in this respect in that age sufficient influence to set the fashion to all Europe.
[Illustration: 512. View of St. Francesco, Brescia. (From Street’s ‘Brick and Marble in the Middle Ages.’)]
Of late work in Dalmatia the most remarkable is the Cathedral of Sebenico (described in Mr. Jackson’s work), built entirely in stone and marble, and without any brick or timber in its construction. It is a cruciform building, covered over by a waggon-vault of stone, visible both inside and outside. It was commenced from the design of Messer Ambrosia, a Venetian architect, in 1435, to whom may be attributed the nave and aisles up to the string-course above nave arches. The work was continued after 1441 by another architect, Messer Giorgio, also from Venice, who died in 1475, leaving the building still incomplete. The style of the work is late Venetian Gothic, influenced in its later portions by the Renaissance revival. The cloisters of the Badia at Curzola, and of the Dominican and Franciscan convents at Ragusa, are also beautiful specimens of late Italian Gothic.
END OF VOL. I.
----------------------------
LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
[Illustration: PORTAL OF THE CONVENT AT BELEM, NEAR LISBON.]
A
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
IN ALL COUNTRIES,
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY.
BY JAMES FERGUSSON, D.C.L., F.R.S., M.R.A.S., FELLOW ROYAL INST. BRIT. ARCHITECTS, _&c. &c. &c._
[Illustration: Façade of Church at Tourmanin.]
IN FIVE VOLUMES.—VOL. II.
_THIRD EDITION._
EDITED BY R. PHENÉ SPIERS, F.S.A., FELLOW ROYAL INST. BRITISH ARCHITECTS.
LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, 1893. _The right of Translation is reserved._
FERGUSSON’S ARCHITECTURE.
_Third Edition, with 330 Illustrations, 2 vols., medium 8vo_, 31s. 6d.
A HISTORY OF THE MODERN STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE.
By the late JAMES FERGUSSON, F.R.S.
A New Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With a Special Account of the Architecture of America.
By ROBERT KERR, Professor of Architecture at King’s College, London.
---------------------
BY THE SAME.
_New and Cheaper Edition, with 400 Illustrations, medium 8vo_, 31s. 6d.
A HISTORY OF INDIAN AND EASTERN ARCHITECTURE.
LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.
CONTENTS OF VOL. II.
## PART II.—CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
(_Continued._)
## BOOK II.—ITALY.
(_Continued._)
CHAP. PAGE
VII. Circular churches—Towers at Prato and Florence—Porches— 1 Civic buildings—Town-halls—Venice—Doge’s Palace—Cà d’Oro— Conclusion
VIII. SICILY—Population of Sicily—The Saracens—Buildings at 22 Palermo—Cathedral of Monreale—Cefalu—The Pointed Arch
IX. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN PALESTINE—Church of Holy 32 Sepulchre, Jerusalem—Churches at Abû Gosh and Lydda—Mosque at Hebron
## BOOK III.—FRANCE.
I. Division of subject—Pointed arches—Provence—Churches at 39 Avignon, Arles, Alet, Fontifroide, Maguelonne, Vienne— Circular churches—Towers—Cloisters
II. AQUITANIA—Churches at Périgueux, Souillac, Angoulême, 64 Alby, Toulouse, Conques, Tours—Tombs
III. ANJOU—Cathedral at Angers—Church at Fontevrault— 81 Poitiers—Angiovine spires
IV. AUVERGNE—Church at Issoire—Clermont—Fortified Church at 89 Royat
V. BURGUNDY—Church of St. Martin d’Ainay—Cathedral at le 94 Puy-en-Velay—Abbeys of Tournus and Cluny—Cathedral of Autun—Church of St. Menoux
VI. FRANKISH PROVINCE—Exceptional buildings—Basse Œuvre, 104 Beauvais—Montier-en-Der
VII. NORMANDY—Triapsal Churches—Churches at Caen— 110 Intersecting Vaulting—Bayeux
VIII. FRANKISH ARCHITECTURE—Historical notice—The pointed 120 arch—Freemasonry—Mediæval architects
IX. FRENCH GOTHIC CATHEDRALS—Paris—Chartres—Rheims—Amiens— 130 Other Cathedrals—Later style—St. Ouen’s, Rouen
X. Gothic details—Pillars—Windows—Circular Windows—Bays— 161 Vaults—Buttresses—Pinnacles—Spires—Decoration— Construction—Furniture of Churches—Domestic architecture
## BOOK IV.—BELGIUM AND HOLLAND.
I. Historical notice—Old Churches—Cathedral of Tournay— 187 Antwerp—St. Jacques at Liège
II. Civil Architecture—Belfries—Hall at Ypres—Louvain— 199 Brussels—Domestic architecture
III. HOLLAND—Churches—Civil and Domestic Buildings 206
## BOOK V.—GERMANY.
I. INTRODUCTORY—Chronology and Historical notice 209
II. Basilicas—Plan of St. Gall—Church at Reichenau— 213 Romain-Motier—Granson—Church at Gernrode—Trèves— Hildesheim—Cathedrals of Worms and Spires—Churches at Cologne—Other Churches and Chapels—Double Churches—Swiss Churches
III. CIRCULAR CHURCHES—Aix-la-Chapelle—Nymwegen—Fulda—Bonn— 247 Cobern
IV. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE—Lorsch—Palaces on the Wartburg— 255 Gelnhausen—Houses—Windows
V. POINTED STYLE IN GERMANY—History of style—St. Gereon, 264 Cologne—Churches at Gelnhausen—Marburg—Cologne Cathedral— Freiburg—Strasburg—St. Stephen’s, Vienna—Nuremberg— Mühlhausen—Erfurt
VI. Circular Churches—Church Furniture—Civil Architecture— 292 Town-hall at Brunswick
VII. NORTHERN GERMANY—BRICK ARCHITECTURE—Churches at Lubeck— 302 in Brandenburg—in Ermeland—Castle at Marienburg
## BOOK VI.—SCANDINAVIA.
I. Sweden—Norway—Denmark—Gothland—Round Churches—Wooden 313 Churches
## BOOK VII.—ENGLAND.
I. INTRODUCTORY 335
II. SAXON ARCHITECTURE 341
III. ENGLISH MEDIÆVAL ARCHITECTURE—Plans of English 345 Cathedral Churches—Vaults—Pier Arches—Window tracery— External Proportions—Diversity of Style—Situation— Chapter-Houses—Chapels—Parish Churches—Details—Tombs—Civil and Domestic Architecture
IV. ARCHITECTURE OF SCOTLAND—Affinities of Style—Early 418 Specimens—Cathedral of Glasgow—Elgin—Melrose—Other Churches—Monasteries
V. IRELAND—Oratories—Round Towers—Domical Dwellings—Domestic 443 Architecture—Runic Cross Decoration
## BOOK VIII.—SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
I. SPAIN—INTRODUCTORY 460
II. Romanesque Churches at Naranco, Roda, and Leon—Early 464 Spanish Gothic: Churches at Santiago, Zamora, Toro, Avila, Salamanca, and Tarragona—Middle Pointed style: Churches at Toledo, Burgos, Leon, Barcelona, Manresa, Gerona, Seville— Late Gothic style: Churches at Segovia, Villena—Moresco style: Churches at Toledo, Ilescas, and Saragoza
III. CIVIL ARCHITECTURE—Monastic Buildings—Municipal 502 Buildings—Castles
IV. PORTUGAL—Church of Batalha—Alcobaça—Belem 507
## PART III.—SARACENIC AND ANCIENT AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE.
## BOOK I.
I. SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE IN CHRISTIAN COUNTRIES; OR, 512 BYZANTINE SARACENIC—Introduction
II. SYRIA AND EGYPT—Mosques at Jerusalem—El Aksah—Dome of 516 the Rock—Mosque at Damascus—Egypt—Mosques at Cairo—Mosque at Kerouan—Other African buildings—Mecca
III. SPAIN—Introductory Remarks—Mosque at Cordoba—Palace at 542 Zahra—Churches at Sta. Maria and Cristo de la Luz at Toledo—Giralda at Seville—Palace of the Alcazar—The Alhambra—Sicily
IV. TURKEY—Mosques of Mahomet II.—Suleimanie and Ahmedjie 556 Mosques—Mosques of Sultanas Validé, and of Osman III.— Civil and Domestic Architecture—Fountains, &c.
V. PERSIA—Historical notice—Tombs at Bagdad—Imaret at 567 Erzeroum—Mosque at Tabreez—Tomb at Sultanieh—Bazaar at Ispahan—College of Husein Shah—Palaces and other Buildings—Turkestan
## BOOK II.—ANCIENT AMERICA.
I. INTRODUCTORY 583
II. CENTRAL AMERICA—Historical notice—Central American 589 style—Temples—Palaces—Buildings at Palenque—Uxmal, &c.
III. PERU—Historical notice—Titicaca—Tombs—Walls of Cuzco, 600 &c.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
NO. PAGE
_Frontispiece._—Portal of the Convent at Belem, near Lisbon.
_Vignette to Title-page._—Façade of Church at Tourmanin.
_Frontispiece to Part II._ (continued).—View of Cologne Cathedral xvi
513. Plan of Baptistery, Parma 2
514. Baptistery at Parma, half Section half Elevation 2
515. View of the Duomo at Prato 3
516. Torracio at Cremona 4
517. Campanile, Palazzo Scaligeri, Verona 5
518. Campanile, S. Andrea, Mantua 6
519. Campanile at Florence 7
520. North Porch, Sta. Maria Maggiore, Bergamo 9
521. Palace of the Jurisconsults at Cremona 11
522. Broletto at Como 12
523. Ornamental Brickwork from the Broletto at Brescia 13
524. Window from the Cathedral of Monza 14
525, 526. Windows from Verona 15
527. Central Part of the Façade of the Doge’s Palace, Venice 16
528. Palace of Cà d’Oro, Venice 18
529. Angle Window at Venice 19
530. Ponte del Paradiso, Venice 20
531. San Giovanni degli Eremiti, Palermo 25
532. Plan of Church at Monreale 26
533. Portion of the Nave, Monreale 27
534. Lateral Entrance to Cathedral at Palermo 28
535. East End of Cathedral at Palermo 29
536. Plan of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem 34
537. Holy Sepulchre—Plan and Elevation as it existed before the fire in 1808 35
538. Plan of Church at Abû Gosh 36
539. Section of East End of same 36
540. Section of East End of Church at Lydda 37
541. Plan of Apse of Church at Lydda 37
542. Plan of Mosque at Hebron 38
543. Diagram of the Architectural Divisions of France 41
544. Diagram of Vaulting 46
545. Diagram of Dome pendentives 47
546. Section of Church at Carcassonne, with the outer aisles added in the 14th century 48
547. Porch of Notre Dame de Doms, Avignon 51
548. Porch of St. Trophime, Arles 52
549. Apse of Church at Alet 53
550. Internal Angle of Apse at Alet 54
551. Elevation of half one Bay of the Exterior of St. Paul-Trois-Châteaux 55
552. Half bay of Interior of same 55
553. Longitudinal and Cross Section of Fontifroide Church 56
554. Doorway in Church at Maguelonne 57
555. Plan of Cathedral, Vienne 58
556. Plan of Church at Planes 59
557. Tower at Puissalicon 60
558. Church at Cruas 61
559. Cloister at Fontifroide 62
560, 561. Capitals in Cloister, Elne 62
562. Plan of St. Front, Périgueux 64
563. Part of St. Front, Périgueux 65
564. Interior of Church at Souillac 67
565. Plan of Cathedral at Angoulême 68
566. One Bay of Nave, Angoulême 68
567. Plan of Church at Moissac 69
568. Plan of Cathedral at Alby 69
569. Plan of Church of the Cordeliers, at Toulouse 70
570. Section of Church of the Cordeliers 71
571. Angle of Church of the Cordeliers 71
572. Plan of St. Sernin, Toulouse 72
573. Section of St. Sernin 72
574. Plan of Church at Conques 73
575. Plan of St. Martin at Tours 74
576. Plan of Church at Charroux 75
577. Plan of St. Benigne, Dijon 75
578. St. Sernin, Toulouse 77
579. Church at Aillas 78
580. Church at Loupiac 78
581. St. Eloi, Espalion 79
582. Tomb at St. Pierre, Toulouse 80
583. Plan of Cathedral at Angers 82
584. Plan of St. Trinité, Angers 82
585. View of the Interior of Loches 83
586. Plan of Church at Fontevrault 83
587. View of Chevet at Fontevrault 84
588. Elevation of one of the Bays of the Nave at Fontevrault 84
589. Façade of Church of Notre Dame at Poitiers 85
590. Plan of Cathedral at Poitiers 86
591. Spire at Cunault 87
592. Plan of Church at Issoire 89
593. Elevation of Church at Issoire 90
594. Section of Church at Issoire, looking East 90
595. Elevation of Chevet, Notre Dame du Port, Clermont 91
596. Plan of Chevet of same 92
597. Fortified Church at Royat 93
598. Façade of Church of St. Martin d’Ainay, Lyons 95
599. Cloister of Cathedral of Le Puy-en-Velay 96
600. View of Interior of Abbey at Tournus 97
601. Plan of Abbey Church at Cluny 98
602. View in Aisle at Autun 100
603. View in Nave at Autun 100
604. Section of Narthex at Vezelay 101
605. East End, St. Menoux 102
606. Chevet, St. Menoux 103
607. Plan and Section of Basse Œuvre, Beauvais 105
608. External and Internal View of Basse Œuvre 106
609. Decoration of St. Généreux 107
610. Section of Eastern portion of Church of Montier-en-Der 108
611. Triapsal Church at Querqueville 110
612. Plan of the Church of St. Stephen, Caen 112
613. Western Façade of same 113
614. Section of Nave of same 114
615. Diagram of Vaulting of same 115
616. Elevation of Compartment of Nave of St. Stephen, Caen 115
617. Compartment, Abbaye-aux-Dames, Caen 116
618. East End of St. Nicolas, Caen 117
619. Lower Compartment, Nave, Bayeux 118
620. Plan of Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris 132
621. Section of Side-aisles, of same 133
622. External Elevation of same 133
623. Plan of Chartres Cathedral 134
624. Plan of Rheims Cathedral 135
625. Plan of Amiens Cathedral 135
626. View of the Façade of the Cathedral at Paris 136
627. North-west View of the Cathedral at Chartres 138
628. Buttress at Chartres 139
629. Buttresses at Rheims 139
630. Bay of Nave of Beauvais Cathedral 142
631. Doorway, South Transept, Beauvais 143
632. Plan of Cathedral at Noyon 144
633. Spires of Laon Cathedral 145
634. View of Cathedral at Coutances 146
635. Lady Chapel, Auxerre 147
636. Plan of Cathedral at Troyes 148
637. Façade of Cathedral at Troyes 149
638. Window of Cathedral at Lyons 150
639. Plan of Cathedral at Bazas 150
640. Plan of Cathedral at Bourges 151
641. Section of Cathedral at Bourges 152
642. View in the Church of Charité sur Loire 154
643. Chevet, Pontigny 155
644. West Front of Ste. Marie de l’Épine 156
645. Plan of Church of St. Ouen at Rouen 157
646. Church of St. Ouen from the S.E. 158
647. Southern Porch of same 159
648. Diagram of plans of Pillars 162
649. Window, St. Martin, Paris 163
650. Window in Nave of Cathedral at Chartres 163
651. Window in Choir of Cathedral at Chartres 163
652. Window at Rheims 164
653. Window at St. Ouen 164
654. Window at Chartres 165
655. West Window, Chartres 166
656. Transept Window, Chartres 166
657. West Window, Rheims 166
658. West Window, Evreux 166
659. West Window, St. Ouen 167
660. Diagram of Vaulting 169
661. Abbey Church, Souvigny 170
662. Diagram of Buttresses 172
663. Flying Buttresses of St. Ouen 172
664. Flying Buttress at Amiens 173
665. St. Pierre, Caen 176
666. Lantern, St. Ouen, Rouen 177
667. Corbel 178
668. Capitals from Rheims 178
669. Rood-Screen from the Madeleine at Troyes 181
670. Hôtel de Ville of St. Antonin 182
671. House at Cluny 183
672. House at Yrieix 184
673. Portal of the Ducal Palace at Nancy 185
674. View of West End of Church at Nivelles 190
675. Plan of Cathedral at Tournay 191
676. Section of Central Portion of same, looking South 192
677. West Front of Notre Dame de Maestricht 192
678. Spire of the Chapel of St. Sang, Bruges 193
679. Window in Church at Villers, near Genappe 193
680. Plan of the Cathedral at Antwerp 195
681. Plan of St. Jacques, Liège 197
682. Belfry at Ghent 200
683. Cloth-hall at Ypres 201
684. Town-hall, Brussels 203
685. Part of the Bishop’s Palace, Liège 205
686. Reduction of an original plan of a Monastery at St. Gall 215
687. Plan of Church at Mittelzell, in the island of Reichenau 217
688. Elevation of West End of same 217
689. Plan of the Church of Romain-Motier 218
690. View of same 218
691. Section of Church at Granson 219
692. Plan of Church at Gernrode 220
693. View of West End of Church at Gernrode 220
694. View of West End of Abbey of Corvey 221
695. Plan of original Church at Trèves 223
696. Plan of Mediæval Church at Trèves 223
697. Western Apse of Church at Trèves 224
698. Eastern Apse of Church at Trèves 224
699. Internal View of the Church of St. Michael at Hildesheim 225
700. Plan of same 225
701. Plan of Cathedral of Worms 227
702. One Bay of Cathedral at Worms 227
703. Side Elevation of same 228
704. Plan of the Cathedral at Spires 229
705. Western Apse of Cathedral at Mayence 230
706. Church at Minden. Cathedral at Paderborn. Church at Soest 231
707. Plan of Sta. Maria in Capitolio, Cologne 232
708. Apse of the Apostles’ Church at Cologne 233
709. Apse of St. Martin’s Church at Cologne 234
710. East End of Church at Bonn 235
711. Plan of Church at Laach 236
712. View of Church at Laach 236
713. Church at Sinzig 237
714. Rood Screen at Wechselburg 238
715. Crypt at Göllingen 238
716. Façade of Church at Rosheim 239
717. Church at Marmoutier 240
718. Section of Church of Schwartz Rheindorf 241
719. View of same 242
720. Plan of Chapel at Landsberg 243
721. Section of Chapel at Landsberg 243
722. View and Plan of the Cathedral at Zurich 243
723. Doorway at Basle 244
724. Plan of Church at Aix-la-Chapelle 248
725. Church at Nymwegen 249
725a. Plan of Church at Mettlach 249
725b. Capital of Triforium of same 250
726. Church at Petersberg 251
727. Plan of Church at Fulda 251
728. Plan of Church at Drüggelte 251
729. Baptistery at Bonn 252
730. Chapel at Cobern on the Moselle 253
731. Porch of Convent at Lorsch 255
732. Arcade of the Palace at Gelnhausen 257
733. Capital, Gelnhausen 257
734. View of the Palace on the Wartburg 258
735. Cloister at Zurich 266
736. Dwelling-house, Cologne 261
737. Windows in back of same 262
738. Windows from Sion Church, Cologne 262
739. Windows from St. Quirinus at Neuss 262
740. Section of St. Gereon, Cologne 265
741. Plan of St. Gereon, Cologne 265
742. East End of Church at Gelnhausen 266
743. Plan of Church at Marburg 267
744. Section of Church at Marburg 267
745. Plan of Church at Altenberg 268
746. Plan of Cathedral at Cologne 269
747. Western Façade of Cathedral of Cologne 272
748. View of Church at Freiburg 274
749. Plan of Strasburg Cathedral 276
750. West Front of same 277
751. Plan of Ratisbon Cathedral 280
752. View of the Spire of St. Stephen’s, Vienna 281
753. Plan of the Franciscan Church at Salzburg 283
754. Plan of St. Lawrence’s Church, Nuremberg 284
755. Plan of Church at Kuttenberg, taken above the roof of the aisles 284
756. Section of the Church of same 285
757. Plan of Church of St. Victor at Xanten 287
758. View of Marien Kirche, Mühlhausen 289
759. Plan of Marien Kirche, Mühlhausen 289
760. St. Severus Church at Erfurt 290
761. Anna Chapel at Heiligenstadt 292
762. Sacraments Häuschen, Nuremberg 293
763. Doorway of Church at Chemnitz 294
764. Schöne Brunnen at Nuremberg 296
765. Todtenleuchter, Vienna 297
766. Bay Window from St. Sebald’s Parsonage, Nuremberg 298
767. Façade of House at Brück-am-Mur 299
768. Town-hall at Brunswick 300
769. Plan of Cathedral, Lubeck 303
770. Plan of Marien Kirche, Lubeck 304
771. View of same 305
772. Tower in the Kœblinger Strasse, Hanover 306
773. Church at Frauenburg 307
774. Church at Santoppen 308
775. Façade of Marien Kirche, Brandenburg 309
776. Façade of the Knight-hall in the Castle of Marienburg 310
777. Plan of Upsala Cathedral 314
778. Apse of Lund Cathedral 315
779. Old Country Church and Belfry 316
780. Plan of Cathedral of Trondhjem 317
781. View of Cathedral of Trondhjem 318
782. Elevation of Domkirche: Roeskilde 319
783. Plan of same 319
784. Frue Kirche, Aarhuus 319
785. Church of Kallundborg 320
786. Helge-Anders Church, Wisby 322
787. Interior of Church at Gothem 323
788. Folö Church, Gothland 324
789. Portal, Sandeo Church, Gothland 325
790. Portal, Hoäte Church, Gothland 326
791. View of Round Church, Thorsager, Jutland 327
792. Section and Ground-plan of same 328
793. Round Church of Oester Larsker, Bornholm 329
794. View and plan of Hagby Church, Sweden 330
795. Läderbro Church and Wapenhus, Gothland 331
796. Plan of Church at Hitterdal 332
797. View of Church at Hitterdal 333
798. Church of Urnes, Norway 334
799. Tower of Earl’s Barton Church 341
800. Windows, Earl’s Barton 342
801. Saxon Doorway at Monkwearmouth 343
802. Plan of Norwich Cathedral 346
803. Plan of Canterbury Cathedral 347
804. Plan of Durham Cathedral 348
805. Plan of Salisbury Cathedral 349
806. Plan of Winchester Cathedral 350
807. Plan of Ely Cathedral 351
808. Octagon at Ely Cathedral 352
809. Plan of Westminster Abbey 354
810. Nave of Peterborough Cathedral 357
811. Nave of Lincoln Cathedral 359
812. Nave of Lichfield Cathedral 360
813. Choir of Gloucester Cathedral 361
814. Diagrams of Vaulting 362
815. Vault of Cloister, Gloucester 363
816. Vault of Aisle at St. George’s, Windsor 364
817. Aisle in Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster 364
818. Retro-choir, Peterborough Cathedral 365
819. Choir Arches of Oxford Cathedral 366
820. Transformation of the Nave, Winchester Cathedral 368
821. Choir of Ely Cathedral 369
822. Two Bays of the Nave of Westminster Abbey 370
823. One Bay of Cathedral at Exeter 370
824. The Five Sisters Window, York 372
825. Ely Cathedral, East End 373
826. Lancet Window, Hereford Cathedral 374
827. East End of Lincoln Cathedral 375
828. North Transept Window, Lincoln 376
829. Window in Chapter-house at York, English Geometric Tracery 377
830. Window in St. Anselm’s Chapel, Canterbury 377
831. East Window of Carlisle Cathedral 378
832. South Transept Window, Lincoln 378
833. Perpendicular Tracery, Winchester Cathedral 379
834. Salisbury Cathedral, from the N.E. 381
835. View of Lichfield Cathedral 382
836. Lincoln Cathedral 383
837. View of the Angel Tower and Chapter-house, Canterbury 384
838. West Front of Peterborough Cathedral 385
839. Chapter-house, Bristol 389
840. Chapter-house, Salisbury 390
841. Chapter-house, Wells 391
842. Chapter-house, York 392
843. Internal Elevation of St. Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster 394
844. Plan of Ste. Chapelle, Paris 395
845. Plan of St. Stephen’s. Westminster 395
846. Interior View of King’s College Chapel, Cambridge 396
847. Plan of Circular Church at Little Maplestead 398
848. Spire of Great Leighs Church, Essex 398
849. Tower of Little Saxham Church, Suffolk 398
850. Roof at Trunch Church 400
851. Roof of Aisle in New Walsingham Church 400
852. Plan of Church of Walpole St. Peter’s, Norfolk 401
853. Staircase at Canterbury Cathedral 402
854. Norman Gateway, College Green, Bristol 403
855. Capitals, &c., of Doorway leading to the Choir Aisles, Lincoln 404
856. West Doorway, Lichfield Cathedral 405
857. Tomb of Bishop Marshall, Exeter Cathedral 405
858. The Triple Canopy in Heckington Church, Lincolnshire 406
859. Prior d’Estria’s Screen, Canterbury Cathedral 406
860. Doorway of Chapter-house, Rochester Cathedral 407
861. Tomb of the Black Prince, Canterbury Cathedral 408
862. Tomb of Edward III. in Westminster Abbey 409
863. Tomb of Edward II. in Gloucester Cathedral 410
864. Tomb of Bishop Redman in Ely Cathedral 411
865. Waltham Cross (restored) 412
866. Plan of Westminster Hall 414
867. Section of Westminster Hall 414
868. Hall of Palace at Eltham 415
869. Window, Leuchars 420
870. Pier-Arch, Jedburgh 421
871. Arches in Kelso Abbey 422
872. Plan and three Bays of Choir, Kirkwall Cathedral 423
873. North Side of the Cathedral at Kirkwall 424
874. 1. Plan of Glasgow Cathedral. 2. Plan of Crypt, Glasgow Cathedral 425
875. View in Crypt of Glasgow Cathedral 426
876. Crypt of Cathedral at Glasgow 427
877. Clerestory Window, Glasgow Cathedral 427
878. East End of Glasgow Cathedral 428
879. East End, Elgin Cathedral 429
880. South Transept, Elgin Cathedral 430
881. Ornament of Doorway of same 430
882. Plan of Elgin Cathedral 431
883. Aisle in Melrose Abbey 432
884. East Window, Melrose 433
885. Chapel at Roslyn 434
886. Under Chapel, Roslyn 434
887. Stone Roof of Bothwell Church 435
888. Exterior of Roof of Bothwell Church 435
889, 890. Ornamental Arcades, from Holyrood 436
891. Interior of Porch, Dunfermline 437
892. Window at Dunkeld 438
893. Doorway, Linlithgow 439
894. Doorway, St. Giles’s, Edinburgh 440
895. Doorway, Pluscardine Abbey 441
896. Window in Tower, Iona 441
897. Aisle in Trinity College Church, Edinburgh 442
898. Cloister, Kilconnel Abbey 445
899. Oratory, Innisfallen, Killarney 447
900. Cormac’s Chapel, Cashel 448
901. Section of Chapel, Killaloe 448
902. St. Kevin’s Kitchen, Glendalough 449
903. Doorway in Tower at Um Rasas 451
904. Round Tower and Chancel Arch of Fineens Church, Clonmacnoise 452
905. Doorway in Tower, Kildare 452
906. Doorway in Tower, Donoughmore, Meath 453
907. Doorway in Tower, Antrim 453
908. Tower, Devenish 453
909. Tower, Kilree, Kilkenny 453
910. Tower, Kinneth, Cork 454
911. Tower, Ardmore 454
912. Floor in Tower, Kinneth 455
913. Doorway, Monasterboice 455
914. Doorway, Kilcullen, Kildare 455
915. Windows in Round Towers 455
916. Window, Glendalough 455
917. Oratory of Gallerus 457
918. Tower, Jerpoint Abbey 457
919. House, Galway 458
920. Ballyromney Court, Cork 458
921. Cross at Kells 459
922. View of Church at Naranco 465
923. Plan of Church at Naranco 465
924. Plan of S. Pablo 466
925. Detail of S. Pablo 466
926. Church at Roda 466
927. Panteon of St. Isidoro, Leon 467
928. Plan of Santiago di Compostella 468
929. Santiago Cathedral. Interior of South Transept, looking North-East 469
930. Interior of S. Isidoro, Leon 470
931. Cathedral at Zamora 471
932. Collegiate Church at Toro 472
933. Lérida Old Cathedral. Door of South Porch 473
934. San Vincente, Avila. Interior of Western Porch 474
935. Exterior of Lantern, Salamanca Old Cathedral 475
936. Section of Cimborio at Salamanca 476
937. Plan of St. Milan, Segovia 476
938. Tarragona Cathedral. View across Transepts 477
939. Church of the Templars at Segovia 478
940. Plan of Cathedral at Toledo 479
941. View in the Choir of the Cathedral at Toledo 480
942. Plan of Burgos Cathedral 481
943. West Front of Burgos Cathedral 482
944. Plan of Leon Cathedral 483
945. Bay of Choir, Leon Cathedral 484
946. Compartment of Nave, Burgos Cathedral 484
947. Plan of Cathedral at Barcelona 485
948. Sta. Maria del Mar, Barcelona 486
949. Sta. Maria del Pi, Barcelona 486
950. Interior of Collegiate Church, Manresa 487
951. Plan of Cathedral at Gerona 488
952. Interior of Cathedral at Gerona, looking East 489
953. Cimborio of Cathedral at Valencia 490
954. Plan of Cathedral at Seville 491
955. Plan of Cathedral at Segovia 493
956. Section of Church at Villena 493
957. Plan of Sta. Maria la Bianca 495
958. Interior of Sta. Maria la Bianca 496
959. Apse of St. Bartolomeo 497
960. Chapel at Humanejos 498
961. Tower at Ilescas 499
962. St. Paul, Saragoza 500
963. Doorway from Valencia 501
964. Cloister of the Huelgas, near Burgos 502
965. Cloister, Tarazona 503
966. The Casa Lonja, Valencia 504
967. Castle of Cocos, Castille 505
968. Plan of the Church at Batalha 508
969. Portal at Belem 510
970. Plan of the Mosque el-Aksah at Jerusalem 517
971. View in the Mosque el-Aksah 518
972. Plan of the Dome of the Rock (Mosque of Omar) 520
973. View in Aisle of same 521
974. Capital in Dome of the Rock 521
975. Order of the Dome of the Rock 522
976. Plan of Mosque at Damascus 523
977. Plan of Mosque of Amru, Old Cairo 526
978. Arches in the Mosque of Amru 527
979. Mosque of Ibn Tooloon at Cairo 528
980. Window in Mosque of same 529
981. Plan of Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo 531
982. Section of same 532
983. Plan of Mosque and Tombs of Sultan Berkook, Cairo 533
984. Section of Mosque of Berkook 533
985. Mosque of Kaitbey 535
986. Plan of Great Mosque at Mecca 537
987. Plan of Great Mosque of Kerouan 538
988. Main Entrance in Court of same 539
989. Minaret at Tunis 540
990. Plan of Mosque of Cordoba 544
991. Interior of Sanctuary at Cordoba 545
992. Exterior of the Sanctuary, Cordoba 546
993. Screen of the Chapel of Villa Viciosa, Mosque of Cordoba 547
994. Church of San Cristo de la Luz, Toledo 548
995. The Giralda at Seville 550
996. Plan of the Alhambra, Granada 552
997. Plan of Suleimanie Mosque 559
998. Section of Suleimanie Mosque 560
999. View of Suleimanie Mosque 561
1000. Plan of Ahmedjie Mosque 563
1001. Plan of Tomb of Zobeidé, Bagdad 568
1002. View of Tomb of Zobeidé 568
1003. Tomb of Ezekiel, near Bagdad 569
1004. Imaret of Oulou Diami at Erzeroum 570
1005. Plan of Mosque of Tabreez 572
1006. View of Ruined Mosque at Tabreez 573
1007. Tomb of Sultan Khodabendah at Sultanieh 574
1008. Section of the Tomb at Sultanieh 574
1009. View of the Tomb at Sultanieh 575
1010. Plan of Great Mosque at Ispahan 576
1011. Madrissa of Sultan Husein at Ispahan 578
1012. Throne-room at Teheran 579
1013. Palace at Ispahan 580
1014. Pavilion in the Khan’s Palace at Khiva 581
1015. Pyramid of Oajaca, Tehuantepec 590
1016. Plan of the Temple at Mitla 591
1017. View of the Palace at Mitla 592
1018. Elevation of Teocalli at Palenque 594
1019. Plan of Temple 594
1020. Elevation of Building at Chunjuju 596
1021. Elevation of part of Palace at Zayi 596
1022. Plan of Palace at Zayi 597
1023. Casa de las Monjas, Uxmal 597
1024. Interior of a Chamber, Uxmal 598
1025. Apartment at Chichen Itza 599
1026. Diagram of Mexican construction 599
1027. Ruined Gateway at Tia Huanacu 601
1028. Gateway at Tia Huanacu 602
1029. Tombs at Sillustani 603
1030. Ruins of House of Manco Capac in Cuzco 604
1031. House of the Virgins of the Sun 605
1032. Peruvian Tombs 606
1033. Elevation of Wall of Tambos 606
1034. Sketch Plans of the Walls of Cuzco 607
1035. View of Walls of Cuzco 607
FRONTISPIECE TO PART II.
(Continued.)
[Illustration:
VIEW OF COLOGNE CATHEDRAL.
(From Rosengarten.) ]
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
## PART II.—CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
_Continued._
## BOOK II.
ITALY.—_Continued._
##