CHAPTER XI

MOUNTAINEERING IN TROPICAL COUNTRIES

BY A. F. R. WOLLASTON

(_The suggestions contained in this chapter are based on some experience of travel in the mountains of Africa and New Guinea, and it is assumed that the conditions are not materially different in the mountains of tropical South America. It is taken for granted that the transport animal is man, and that after entering the mountains the traveller must depend entirely on the provisions he carries with him. The medical suggestions are intended only for those who have no special knowledge of the subject, and for conditions in which only the simplest treatment is possible._)

HEALTH

The first essential to the success of an expedition lies in the good health of the various members of the party. Hard work in the trying conditions of tropical mountains soon saps the energy of the most robust, but by taking proper precautions a man may continue in good health for six months or even longer.

[Sidenote: Prevention of Sickness.]

When the body is for many hours daily bathed in sweat and smeared with mud, personal cleanliness becomes of the first importance. A bath, if it can be managed, or a sponge-down, should be the rule every evening, and all cuts and scratches must be carefully attended to and protected from infection. The question of hot or cold water may be left to the preference of the individual, with this reservation, that no man should ever take a cold bath when he has cooled down after freely perspiring.

The teeth are liable in hot climates to become loose and even to fall out. They should be kept scrupulously clean, and the mouth may be washed out with a weak solution of Condy’s fluid. The hair should at all times be cropped short both for comfort and cleanliness, and paraffin or some other oil should be rubbed into the scalp.

A regular action of the bowels is even more necessary in tropical than in temperate climates. There may be some difficulty about this on a diet of tinned foods, but it can generally be ensured by a daily plate of porridge (see below, Constipation). To avoid malaria every effort must be made to escape the attacks of the _anopheles_ mosquito. It will not be possible for the traveller to carry with him a mosquito-proof tent, but failing this, he must use a well-constructed mosquito net, made in one piece, without an opening at the side. The lower edge of the net should not hang loosely, but should be tucked under the edge of the mattress if one be used, or otherwise stretched tightly round the edge of the bed. The meshes of the muslin should not be less than twelve to the inch. It is good economy, as well as being more humane, to provide your ‘boys’ and other servants with mosquito nets. Mosquito boots, i.e. light boots with long loose uppers of canvas or thin leather, into which the trousers can be tucked, are conveniently worn in the evening to prevent mosquitoes biting the ankles. If a camp be occupied for several days, it is advisable to see that stagnant pools near by are filled up, and that no discarded tins are lying about to become filled with rain-water, in which mosquitoes may breed.

Here it may be convenient to state that very many diseases of the Tropics--cholera, dysentery, typhoid, bilharzia, etc.--are spread chiefly by means of water. It is therefore of the greatest importance to make sure of a supply of pure water. Filters will remove mud and other suspended matter from water, and a good filter in perfect condition _may_ provide a sterile water; but it is seldom possible to keep a filter perfectly clean, and it is better to do without it altogether. If the water is stagnant, or if there is any possibility of its having been contaminated in any way, it is always advisable to boil it and make tea, or if it is preferred, to aerate it with sparklets. “When in doubt, boil,” is a golden rule.

As a medicinal prevention of malaria there is nothing more effectual than to take a daily dose of 5 grains of quinine bihydrochloride. As this is a somewhat expensive drug, the native members of the expedition, if they are numerous, may be given the less costly (but less soluble) quinine bisulphate, 5 grains. If it is not convenient to give quinine to the natives every day, it may be given to them in 10-grain doses twice a week on consecutive days. The tabloids may be sugar-coated for the natives, who may otherwise surreptitiously reject them.

(_The following suggestions are intended for the necessarily limited possibilities of a mountain camp._)

[Sidenote: Treatment.]

_Malaria._--So long as his temperature is above normal, the sick man should, if possible, be kept in bed. Give 3 grains of calomel followed by a dose of Epsom salts to clear the liver and bowels. Continue to give three doses of 5 grains each of quinine bihydrochloride every day that the fever lasts; but do not give the quinine while the temperature is raised. When the attack has ceased give 10 grains daily for a week, and afterwards continue with the regular daily dose of 5 grains. At the same time it is very important to make sure of a regular action of the bowels. If, while the attack lasts, headache is very severe and persistent, 5 or 10 grains of phenacetin may be given; but this drug is greatly abused and is often of little or no use. Sweating may be stimulated by giving copious draughts of hot tea; when the sweating stage is at an end, the pyjamas should be immediately changed.

_Diarrhœa_ is a very common trouble, particularly when no fresh food is obtainable. It is usually sufficient to take a dose of castor oil and to eat as little as possible for 24 hours. If this treatment is not effective, give 10 grains of bismuth subnitrate three times daily, and a diet of milk and arrowroot or Horlick’s malted milk. If the diarrhœa ceases, but there is still discomfort in the bowels, 10 drops of chlorodyne may be given, but in most cases it is better to avoid the use of this drug.

_Dysentery._--Rest in bed, warmth, a diet of milk and water and arrowroot, and a preliminary dose of castor oil are the first essentials of the treatment. Severe cases may be well treated by the use of emetine hydrochloride, in keratin-coated cachets, containing one ½-grain dose. One dose should be taken each day, and the treatment should be continued until he has taken altogether 8 grains. As an after-treatment it may be good practice to take 2 drams of liquid paraffin every night. There are some who advocate the regular use of this every day as a preventative of intestinal disease, but such a thing will be hardly practicable on a mountain expedition with limited transport. The treatment by ipecacuanha cannot be recommended for camp use. Less severe types of dysentery may be treated by giving small doses (1 dram) of sulphate of magnesia every two or three hours to ensure a free watery purgation, which may be continued until the pain has ceased. If the disease proves to be intractable, the sick man should be removed to the nearest place of civilization as soon as possible.

_Constipation_ is not a very common trouble in tropical mountain expeditions. It may generally be avoided by eating a daily plate of porridge and, if they can be carried, by eating prunes and figs. If the camp arrangements make bread-making possible, it is a good plan to mix with the white flour some whole meal, or, in countries where it is grown, the meal made from millet. If none of these measures ensures a daily action of the bowels, a dose of sulphate of magnesia (½ to 1 ounce) may be taken early in the morning, or one ‘Livingstone Rouser’ or cascara sagrada or two vegetable laxatives (Burroughs & Wellcome) may be taken over-night.

_Sunstroke_ is not at all likely to occur, but if a serious case should happen, and the temperature rise to 105 or 106, the patient should be stripped and wrapped in cold wet blankets until the temperature falls to 103, after which he should be placed in bed in the darkest and coolest place possible; the bowels must be kept open and a liquid diet given for some days.

_Coughs_ and _Colds_ are sometimes exceedingly troublesome. They may often be cured at the outset by taking a hot bath (if that be practicable) with mustard in it, followed by bed with many blankets and a dose (10 to 15 grains) of Dover’s powder. A sore throat may be treated by frequent gargles of weak solution of potassium permanganate (Condy’s fluid) and by sucking tabloids of chlorate of potash. Nasal catarrh may sometimes be cured by sniffing the vapour arising from the open mouth of a bottle of formalin.

_Toothache_ is one of the most frequent and most distressing troubles of a mountain expedition, and it ought, as far as possible, to be avoided by visiting a dentist before leaving civilization. If the pain is in a decayed tooth, it is sometimes sufficient, after clearing away the debris, to put into the cavity some powdered carbonate of soda; it is more efficacious to put in very carefully a small drop of pure carbolic acid on a plug of cotton wool. Pain at the root of a tooth may be relieved by painting the gum with tincture of iodine, but the cheek should be held away from the jaw until the tincture has dried. Some forms of toothache can only be treated by extraction, and no expedition ought to make a long journey without three or four forceps. The sufferer will probably prefer extraction at the hands of an amateur to the horrors of prolonged toothache.

_Sleeplessness_ is often a very serious trouble, not less at high altitudes than in the sweltering heat of the foothills. Sleep may sometimes be induced by drinking a cup of hot cocoa shortly before going to bed; it is also a good plan to have biscuits within reach during the night. If the insomnia is very persistent, it may become necessary to give up smoking and to reduce as far as possible the consumption of tea. The use of powerful sleeping-draughts is strongly to be deprecated, except in extreme cases.

_Conjunctivitis_ is certain to occur to one or more members of the expedition. It is easily treated by a weak solution of boric acid, or an astringent solution of zinc sulphate (1 grain in 1 ounce of water). An eye-bath is easily carried, and is very useful.

_Skin Diseases._--The most common that is likely to be met with is ‘prickly heat,’ which is due to extensive sweating. The amount of fluids drunk should be cut down as much as possible, and some relief may be obtained by the use of a weak solution of carbolic acid (1 in 50). It is a good plan to use a dusting powder before going to bed.

‘_Scrub Itch_’ and ‘_Dhobie Itch_’ are names given to a very irritating and inflamed condition of the skin, more especially of the moister parts, such as the arm-pits and the inside of the thighs. It is in many cases particularly troublesome at night, and it is not at all easy to cure. The part should be kept scrupulously clean, and a sulphur ointment (10 per cent) may be applied. A dusting powder of zinc and boric acid often gives temporary relief from the irritation.

_Ringworm_ of one kind or another is almost certain to occur among a large number of men. It is hopeless to expect to cure a case during the course of an expedition, but the spread of it may be checked by the use of a sulphur ointment or by painting the part with liniment of iodine.

_Body Parasites._--In places where ‘jiggers’ are found, it is certain that the men are adepts at their extraction; but a European, who takes proper care of his feet and wears long boots in camp, need not be troubled by them. If the body is invaded by lice, they can be got rid of by the use of a mercury ointment.

_Snake Bite_ requires the most prompt treatment. Without loss of time a strong ligature must be tied about the limb above the bite: thus, for a bite on the finger the ligature may be at the base of the fingers, for a bite on the hand or forearm it must be above the elbow, and for a bite on the foot or leg the ligature must be above the knee. The ligature must be twisted tightly by means of a stick, and at intervals of about half an hour it should be relaxed for a few seconds to prevent the risk of gangrene. With a sharp knife the whole of the area about the puncture should be freely cut away, and the wound should be washed with a strong solution of permanganate of potash. A less heroic, but less reliable, treatment is to make two or three incisions into the flesh about the puncture, and to rub into the cuts crystals of permanganate of potash. A small quantity of alcohol may be given, and the patient may be put to bed and kept warm. The popular remedies of large quantities of brandy, walking about, and sucking the wound are of no value.

_Leeches_, by reason of their delicate gait, often find their way into the most intimate and unexpected places, and may be gorged with blood before they are detected. They should never be pulled off: a touch with the juice out of a well-smoked pipe will cause them to shrivel and drop off. In the early mornings, when leeches stretch themselves expectant on every twig, a wise man will walk in the rear of his caravan.

_Cuts_ and _Scratches_, if not attended to at once, may lead to abscesses and ‘veldt-sores’ and an infinity of trouble. Even the smallest scratch should be treated at once with the iodine bottle, which may be easily carried in a pocket, or if necessary, with a bandage.

_Boils_ are best treated by dusting with boric acid powder and protecting them with a gauze dressing. When they come to a head, the top may be cut off and a drop of pure carbolic acid applied, after which a gauze dressing must be used until it is completely healed.

_Abscesses_ may be opened with a sharp knife, when they ‘point,’ and dressed with a wet gauze dressing, frequently changed, until the discharge has ceased. The smallest abscesses and boils should be treated with extreme care, as they are very liable in the Tropics to develop into ulcers if neglected.

The treatment of _Sprains_ and _Fractures_ must be learnt from one of the many small handbooks of First-aid.

[Sidenote: Medicine Cases and Drugs.]

For use in Africa no better case has been devised than the ‘Congo Chest’ (No. 250) of Messrs. Burroughs, Wellcome & Co., and in other countries, where it cannot be carried far, it is useful as a store to be kept at the base camp. A smaller case, which will fulfil most of the ordinary requirements, is the No. 231 case, weight about 7 lb. For the higher ascents, where only the barest necessities can be carried, a leathern pocket-case (such as No. 114, B. W. & Co.) should be taken. In all circumstances it will be advisable to take an additional supply of bandages and dressings, which cannot be contained in the case itself.

It is important that all drugs should be obtained fresh from the makers shortly before the departure of the expedition.

The following is a list of drugs, etc., which may be found useful in a tropical expedition:

Quinine bihydrochloride gr. v. Quinine bisulphate gr. v. Blaud pill gr. iv. Potassium chlorate gr. v. Dover powder gr. v. Iron and arsenic compound. Bismuth subnitrate gr. v. Ginger essence min. x. Potassium permanganate gr. ii. Calomel gr. i. Salol gr. v. Salicin gr. v. Laxative vegetable. ‘Livingstone Rouser.’ Zinc sulphate gr. i. Opium gr. i. Aspirin gr. v. Phenacetin gr. v. Soda mint. Easton syrup dr. ½ Cascara sagrada gr. ii. Ipecacuanha (sine emetine) gr. v.

In addition to the above, which are taken in tabloid form, a supply should be taken of the following:

Pure carbolic acid. Boric acid. Castor oil. Sulphate of magnesia. Iodoform. Lanolin. Vaselin. Sulphur ointment (1 in 10). Ammoniated mercury ointment (1 in 10). Iodine liniment.

And the following various articles:

Metal-handled lancet. Dressing scissors. Dissecting forceps. Probe. Clinical thermometers. Caustic holder and points. Suture needles and silk. Safety pins. Mustard leaves. Adhesive plaster, 1 inch and 2 inch. Court plaster. Oiled silk. Large supply of bandages of 1-inch and 2-inch width. Supply of lint. Gauze.

EQUIPMENT

(_These notes are merely intended to supplement, with special reference to the Tropics, the information on this subject contained in other chapters._)

[Sidenote: Food.]

The mainstay of the ‘Sahib’ or ‘Bwana’ or ‘Tuan’ must be the same as the food of his men: thus, in a wheat country his food is flour, in a millet country, millet, and in a rice country, rice; and to the ordinary Englishman the worst of these is rice. An important point to arrive at in selecting tinned provisions is to take as great a variety as possible. Though it is true that after a few months all tins, meat or fish or fruit, seem to have one and the same flavour, it is possible that a stomach jaded by a long course of beef or mutton may welcome jugged hare or curried prawns. It is worth while, too, to take a few tins _de luxe_ for special festivals. In hot places there is often a craving for strong flavours, and a palate which shuns such things at home cries out for pickles and sauces. There is perhaps little need to say that all tinned foods should be obtained from the best manufacturers, and that any tin which shows a suspicion of ‘bulging’ should be at once discarded. It is probable that no fresh vegetables will be available, and it is unfortunate that of those in tins the wet vegetables are too heavy for limited transport, while the dried variety are tasteless and require a long time for cooking: an exception must be made in favour of Murray Cooksley’s dried potatoes which can be strongly recommended. Failing vegetables, it is very important to eat fruit: dried apple chips, pears, prunes, peaches and apricots, more

## particularly the latter, should be eaten daily. Raisins and figs are

good food, and are conveniently carried in the pocket with biscuits for lunch. Ginger is useful in counteracting the prevailing flavour of tin. Some of the cheeses, notably the flat Dutch variety, are a useful food, and should certainly be taken; nor should anchovies and olives be forgotten. In the higher regions there will be a strong desire--even stronger than in the Alps, possibly on account of the distaste for it in the hot country below--for butter, and this should be of the best kind: it is a good plan to take two varieties, as the flavour of tinned butters varies considerably. The usual drink will probably be tea, as coffee is heavy to carry, and is usually undrinkable as made by the native cook. A cup of cocoa before bedtime is an easily carried luxury. Condensed milk should certainly be taken in considerable quantities for use in sickness; the ‘Ideal’ brand of unsweetened milk mixes well with porridge or stewed fruit. A great saving in transport may be effected by the use of saccharine (or preferably saxin) tabloids.

The use of alcohol is a question about which no one will dare to dogmatize. It should certainly not be taken during the day, but, in the opinion of the writer, a small glass of whisky or, in the Dutch fashion, of gin at or before the evening meal adds to the enjoyment of monotonous food and assists digestion. A bottle or two of brandy should be taken for emergencies, and champagne is of great value in the convalescent stage of malaria or other fevers: this latter should be taken in pint bottles, which may be left at the base camp, whither sick men will necessarily be sent.

[Sidenote: Canteen.]

A great deal of ingenuity has been devoted to the invention of canteens, but most of them are useless to the mountain explorer, who can only afford to carry the fewest and most necessary articles. Weight may be saved by using plates of aluminium, and cooking-pots may be of the same metal if it is possible to ensure their thorough cleaning. Kettles should be made of iron, and cups or mugs of enamelled iron; cups can be made to pack more conveniently one inside the other if the lower half of the handle is cut off. In those Eastern countries, where kerosene tins are used for the transport of provisions, an excellent fire-place can be made by using discarded tins laid on their side--a few holes are knocked in the top and the fire placed inside. Tins of the same kind can be easily adapted to the purpose of baking bread; and in this connection it may be mentioned that in countries where banana wine cannot be obtained, a very good substitute is yeast cakes, one tin of which (price about 1s. 6d.) makes bread enough for one man for six months: bread made with baking powder very quickly becomes dry and uneatable. Tin-openers are very liable to be lost or broken, and a quantity of them should be taken.

[Sidenote: Clothing.]

The most important parts of the clothing in tropical mountaineering are the head-gear and foot-gear. In the lower hills and in the early part of the day when the sun is really hot, a wide-brimmed hat or a helmet with a good protection for the back of the neck should be used; if the helmet is made of ‘pith’ it should be covered on the outside with the thinnest waterproof material, otherwise it becomes sodden and heavy with the first rain. Hats and helmets should be lined with thin red cloth; the latter are more cheaply bought in tropical towns than in this country.

The most careful attention should be devoted to the question of _boots_, and it is in all cases wise to take more pairs than are thought to be necessary. Most people will find it impossible to wear in the Tropics the heavy boots to which many are accustomed in the Alps; the excessive perspiration makes the feet soft and more easily blistered, and every extra ounce of weight is a serious consideration. The most suitable are ordinary nailed shooting boots, with a plentiful supply of spare nails or ‘saccorb’ screws for the higher ascents. It is a good plan to have the uppers made in one piece, i.e. with no seam down the back. In the Tropics all leathern objects become coated with mould in a few hours, and rot with astonishing rapidity, so that it is advisable to expose spare boots to the sun whenever the opportunity occurs. Dubbin, or some other preparation of the kind, should be freely used.[25] At the end of a hard day it is the greatest comfort to be able to change into a pair of light and soft shoes or boots; when transport is very limited it will still be possible to carry a pair of Canadian moccasins. In the lower country and at the base camp it is advisable in the evening to wear mosquito boots (see above, Malaria).

Khaki or drill _suits_ are more cheaply made locally than in this country; they should be made very amply, and large pockets provided. Sleeves are an almost intolerable nuisance in the lower ground, and they may be cut very short or dispensed with altogether. Shorts are cool and comfortable, but they should not be worn in places where leeches are found, and they cannot be recommended in any case, as the bruises and scratches on the knees are very liable to suppurate in hot climates. Trousers are preferable to breeches or knickerbockers, and light canvas anklets holding the ends of the trousers over the boots are cooler than putties. For underclothing every man must decide for himself. There are those who can wear woollen vests and flannel shirts in the Tropics; but both of those garments quickly become ‘felted’ with profuse sweating, and no amount of washing will restore their softness. Linen or cotton vests are easily washed, and are usually found to be the most comfortable. A flannel shirt and soft woollen sweater should be taken to wear at night in the mountains. Thick woollen socks, several sizes too large, will often help you to sleep on a cold night: a warm woollen cap is useful in the same way.

Cholera belts have been strongly recommended by some travellers, but they are often a source of danger rather than otherwise. The important thing to aim at is to protect the vital organs of the abdomen from chill during the night, and this may be effected by fastening a wide towel about the middle of the body; even in the hottest night this will not be found oppressive: the same purpose will be answered by a folded blanket, which may be pulled up and down over the shoulders and feet when the night becomes chilly. A light mackintosh cape or poncho reaching to the knees is of great use for wearing about the camp, when a dry change of clothes has been put on after a day’s march.

[Sidenote: Furniture.]

Of _beds_ none has yet been found better than the ordinary X-pattern, but as this is somewhat heavy to carry, it will probably have to be left behind when the mountains are reached. In countries where bulky loads can be carried, the ‘Wolseley’ valise is of the greatest value. One load carries a man’s bedding, spare boots, clothing and a variety of odds and ends, and the valise itself is used as a bed, which can be made tolerably comfortable by putting leaves and moss underneath it; if the flaps are sufficiently wide, the valise can also be used as a sort of makeshift tent. Blankets should be of large size (96 by 60 inches), and it will be found that two or three light blankets are better than a single heavy one; by sewing tapes at the edges of one of the blankets it can be converted into a sleeping-bag when required. Clothes should be carried, not haphazard with the blankets, but in thin cotton bags (about 30 by 20 inches): one of these bags, filled with soft clothes, may be used as a pillow; but the extra labour of carrying a well-made hair or feather pillow is more than balanced by the comfort it ensures. In mountain regions, where vegetation is luxuriant, a more comfortable bed can be made in this fashion: four Y-shaped pieces of wood are driven into the ground at intervals corresponding to the four corners of a bed; two short pieces of stiff wood are laid across the forks of the Y’s at the head and foot of the bed, and on them are laid long saplings from one end to another--these are easily secured in their place by rattans or other creepers or fibres, which are sure to be found growing in such places, or by string. On the top of the bedstead thus made leaves or grass may be laid, and on the top of this the bedding. In places where there is no vegetation, and where the Wolseley valise cannot be carried, the bedding must be laid on a thin waterproof sheet, which should measure not less than 96 by 60 inches. Such a waterproof sheet may be of use in other places also: it is not generally known that fleas have a strong dislike to india-rubber, and in places where these little creatures abound a complete immunity from them may be enjoyed by sleeping on a mackintosh sheet.

A _camp-chair_ is a necessity which must be carried as far as circumstances will allow. The best is the ‘Rhoorkee’ chair, which accommodates itself to the most uneven ground, and can be taken to pieces and packed with the bedding; spare canvas should be taken for mending. A useful but less strong type is the X-pattern folding chair.

_Washing Apparatus._--An aluminium basin with a canvas cover will hold all the necessary gear. Duplicates should be taken of everything,

## particularly sponges, which are very liable to be attacked and devoured

by crickets. A pair of barber’s clippers is indispensable.

[Sidenote: Tents.]

Tents are among the most important part of the equipment, and at the same time they present the greatest difficulty. In an expedition to high mountains in the Tropics every variety of climate will be experienced, from the sweltering heat of the plains to the alpine cold of the heights, and it will not be possible to carry tents suitable to all these conditions. The only thing to do is to effect a compromise by taking tents which will not be unbearably hot in the low country, and which at the same time are not too heavy to be carried into the mountains. The first of these requirements is met by using a tent provided with an outer fly--an absolute essential in a hot country; the second is achieved by making the tent such that the fly and the tent itself can be used separately when transport is strictly limited. One condition is certain to be met with at all altitudes, and that is the frequent and abundant rainfall; this makes it imperative that both the outer fly and the roof of the tent should be made of rain-proof canvas. In the lower country it is advisable to aim at the ideal of one man one tent, as the close proximity of persons in a small, hot tent is likely to lead to friction of another kind. The smallest compatible with comfort for one man is a ‘Whymper’ pattern tent, 6½ by 6½ feet on the ground, and 6½ feet high at the ridge. A tent of this size may be occupied by two people in the mountains, but a tent of 7½ by 7½ feet would be preferable, though heavier. The inner tent is slung from the ridge pole by loops about 6 inches long; the outer fly is stretched over the ridge pole, and should project beyond the inner tent not less than 1 foot at each end and 2 feet at the sides. The outer fly and the roof of the tent should be made of some form of Willesden canvas capable of withstanding a heavy downpour of rain; to ensure lightness, the ends and side walls of the tent may be made of a lighter material, such as waterproof duck. Both ends should be made to open, and also to be laced up tightly in the event of heavy rain or strong wind or cold. Large pockets sewn on to the side walls, and a light cord stretched from end to end under the ridge, will be found useful. In heavily timbered countries a considerable amount of transport may be saved by discarding tent-poles and cutting wood for the purpose from the neighbouring jungle. If a belt of bamboos is met with, some of these may be cut and carried on from camp to camp. At the base or other long-occupied camp it will generally be found possible to build a house thatched with grass or leaves, which will be always cooler than a tent, as well as more commodious for the Europeans. One or more ‘Mummery’ tents for the Europeans may be taken for the final ascents of mountains. A great disadvantage of these tents, if made of some light waterproof material, is the excessive condensation that takes place inside them in places where the atmosphere is saturated with moisture.

Special attention must be devoted to the tents of the ‘boys’ and carriers, who, if they want less ‘head-room’ and less protection from the sun than their masters, require an equal amount of protection from the cold and rain. Their tents may be made without an outer fly, of the same material as above described, and it may be calculated that a tent of 10 by 6 feet with a height of 4½ feet is sufficient for six men. A light rope should be sewn firmly along the outside of the ridge, terminating at either end in a free loop, which can be attached to a tree or to a post driven into the ground. The roof may be made sloping to reach the ground; more room, with a little extra weight and cost, is provided by bringing the roof to within 1 foot of the ground and sewing to the edge of it a hanging wall or valence 1 foot wide. To accommodate a large number of men, a good plan is that practised by the Dutch army in the East Indies. Two upright poles are driven into the ground, and a horizontal pole tied from one to the other at a height of about 7 feet. Many poles 12 to 15 feet long are then laid about 1 foot apart, with one end on the ground and the other resting on the horizontal, to which they may be tied by rattan or cord; the angle at which these poles are laid should be as low as is consistent with the waterproofness of the roofing material, and they may be strengthened by tying horizontal poles across them at intervals of 2 to 3 feet. On the structure thus made, which resembles the framework of half the roof of a house, is laid a light Willesden canvas 10 feet wide, and of a length calculated according to the weight of the material and the average loads carried, and to the number of men to be accommodated. It is obvious that such a shelter, which gives plenty of room and has many advantages in a hot climate, can only be made in districts where timber is plentiful, and is not suited to cold weather, nor to places where strong winds are frequent.

It is advisable to provide each man with a waterproof ground sheet measuring 72 by 30 inches; an even better plan, which will cause much gratification and good-will, is to give to each man a waterproof canvas sack of the same dimensions, which he can use as a ground sheet or as a sleeping-bag, and at all times as a ‘hold-all’ for his clothes and personal belongings.

MANAGEMENT

[Sidenote: Loads and Packing.]

The conditions of transport vary so much in different places--in one place men carry loads on their heads, and in another on their backs: here they carry a 60-lb. load, there only 40 lb., and so on--that it is impossible to specify in detail here the size and shape of the loads, and only a few general principles can be suggested. After finding out the local conditions, it is important, so far as it is possible, to pack provisions in loads as they will be required, so that it will not be necessary to open one box for salt, another for meat, another for jam, and so on. By a careful calculation it will be possible to pack the boxes with all (or most of) the food required for a certain number of days. The ‘Vanesta’ case of three-ply wood (made by the Vanesta Company) is by far the lightest and strongest box for packing provisions and other gear. The boxes should be made of the size suited to the local conditions of porterage, and each one should be fully addressed on the lid, and a number attached with reference to a list of its contents; it is advisable also to put the numbers on the _ends_ of the boxes, so that when they are all piled up on board ship or at the base camp or elsewhere, a sought-for box may be found with the minimum of trouble. When their contents have been used, these boxes should not be thrown away, but should be kept for the use of natural history specimens or other curious objects found during the course of the expedition.

All loads should be as nearly as possible of the same weight, but some will necessarily be heavier than others, and a few days’ experience of the men will suffice for their proper distribution. Much time will be saved at the beginning of the day if the same man always carries the same load. Double loads are to be avoided at all cost. Personal loads, i.e. bedding, tents, kitchen apparatus, and other things that may be wanted on the march or as soon as camp is reached, should be given to strong men who are not likely to dawdle behind the caravan. If it can be arranged, it is wise to have one or two spare or lightly loaded men to take up the burdens of any who fall out by sickness or any other accident.

[Sidenote: Trade Goods, Natives, etc.]

In Africa, where the manufactured products of civilization have penetrated even to the remotest districts, the question of trade goods is a constant worry. Every inquiry, therefore, must be made beforehand as to the kind of goods required in the district to be visited and in the regions to be passed through on the way. But fashions are constantly changing; on one side of a river you can get nothing without brass wire, and on the other glass beads are the only currency: if the people ask for small white beads nothing will induce them to take your large red ones; so it is necessary in those places to go provided with many different kinds of goods to suit the local tastes. Salt is in some places of the greatest value for barter, and in places where the people understand their use, fish-hooks are greatly appreciated. In unexplored regions, such as parts of New Guinea, where the natives have received nothing from the outside world, the question is simpler, and it is only necessary to take those things which the people are certain to appreciate, such as glass beads, red cloth (turkey twill) and straight knives. Even the most uncultured of “savages” are expert barterers, and it is advisable to establish a definite scale of payment--such as, for example, one bead for one sweet potato, a piece of cloth for a spear or club, and so on. They are quick to appreciate justice and honesty, and attempts on the part of the carriers of the expedition to defraud them must be checked. On first coming into contact with a new tribe it is necessary, without making a display of force, to be on the watch against a treacherous attack. Presents should be given to the head-men and (if they are seen) to the old women. It is well to learn and practise the native form of greeting, and to submit to any ceremony of blood-brotherhood or the like. If it is possible to learn the names of individuals and to so address them, it will always be appreciated as a compliment. Undue familiarity between the carriers of the expedition and the native women will inevitably lead to trouble, and should be severely punished. It is unwise to point at native people, and (in some cases) to laugh at them. Unless they are travelling with the expedition, natives should never be allowed to remain in the camp after nightfall. Medical treatment is one of the surest ways to win the affection and respect of the ‘savage,’ and castor oil or bandages will often make a way easier where words or rifles would be of no avail.

[Sidenote: Carriers, etc.]

The management of the carriers themselves is a matter which can be learnt by experience alone. Generally speaking, it may be said that a just and strict impartiality to all men is a foundation of their good services; men of all colours are quick to notice and to take advantage of the smallest sign of weakness or of favouritism on the part of their master. Cases of insubordination or other faults must be punished in some way; but, unfortunately, the use of the stick, which alone among certain races appeals to the delinquent (and is indeed expected by him), is forbidden by the constituted authority, and an infringement of the rule leads to trouble after returning to civilization: the appeal to the pocket by cutting off a part of the man’s wages is the most effectual punishment that remains. One of the most annoying troubles that the leader of an expedition has to contend with is malingering. This does not often present much difficulty to anyone with a knowledge of medicine, and others may often detect it by means of the clinical thermometer; the most appropriate punishment for it is the administration of a powerful purgative. Finally, it may be said that very little trouble will be experienced if the men have hard work, adequate food, tobacco, and days of rest at stated intervals.

[Sidenote: Camps, and Things in General.]

When a camp is made on the banks of a river, the tents of the Europeans should be pitched upstream of those of the men. A careful examination of the high-water mark should be made before the tents are pitched.

The cook-house should be made within a very short distance of the Europeans’ tents, as it rains more often than not at the time of the evening meal.

A good ‘boy’ is one who has a fire going to make tea while the camp is being pitched.

At a base camp latrines should be constructed, and at a temporary camp the men should be instructed to go to a certain definite distance.

Trenches to carry off water should be made round the tents, even if there seems to be no probability of rain.

In choosing a site for a camp, avoid as far as possible the proximity of a native village; and if strong winds are frequent, avoid the neighbourhood of large and decaying trees.

The leader of an expedition should often personally supervise the distribution of rations to the men; and, except in the case of very large expeditions, he should always supervise the apportionment of loads at the beginning of a journey.

Flies are often an intolerable nuisance in a camp; they may be driven out of the tent at dusk by putting a lamp outside and then shaking the roof of the tent, so that they are unable to settle: after a few minutes they will have settled elsewhere and the lamp may be brought inside.

The following is a list of articles which might be overlooked in preparing the equipment for an expedition: A spring balance for weighing loads; a steel measuring-tape; a cold chisel; wire for mending; assorted nails and screws; a housewife with needles and cottons, etc.; stencil and ink for marking boxes; a small electric torch; many bootlaces; spare watch-glasses; a flint and steel; pocket-books in which notes can be written in duplicate.

Finally, it may be appropriate to quote the advice given by a distinguished traveller, the late Mrs. Bishop: “Never take anything you can possibly do without.” To this we might add another counsel: Take everything you are likely to require, and leave things behind when they can no longer be carried.

FOOTNOTES:

[25] See also “Equipment,” p. 82.

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