part 5

, pages 90–96). It embodies the development of a physiological idea in a semi-mythical garb. In the year 1793, in the Latin _Aphorisms from the Chemical Physiology of Plants_, appended to my _Subterranean Flora_, I had defined the _vital force_ as the unknown cause which prevents the elements from following their original attractive forces. The first of my aphorisms ran thus:—

“Rerum naturam si totam consideres, magnum atque durabile, quod inter elementa intercedit, discrimen perspicies, quorum altera affinitatum legibus obtemperantia, altera, vinculis solutis, varie juncta apparent. Quod quidem discrimen in elementis ipsis eorumque indole neutiquam positum, quum ex sola distributione singulorum petendum esse videatur. Materiam segnem, brutam, inanimam eam vocamus, cujus stamina secundum leges chymicæ affinitatis mixta sunt. Animata atque organica ea potissimum corpora appellamus, quæ, licet in novas mutari formas perpetuo tendant, vi interna quadam continentur, quominus priscam sibique insitam formam relinquant.

“Vim internam, quæ chymicæ affinitatis vincula resolvit, atque obstat, quominus elementa corporum libere conjungantur, vitalem vocamus. Itaque nullum certius mortis criterium putredine datur, qua primæ partes vel stamina rerum, antiquis juribus revocatis, affinitatum legibus parent. Corporum inanimorum nulla putredo esse potest.”[RL]

These opinions, against which the acute Vicq d’Azyr has protested in his _Traité d’Anatomie_, vol. i. p. 5, but which are still entertained by many eminent persons among my friends, I have placed in the mouth of Epicharmus. Reflection and prolonged study in the departments of physiology and chemistry have deeply shaken my earlier belief in peculiar, so-called vital forces. In the year 1797, at the conclusion of my _Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser, nebst Vermuthungen über den chemischen Process des Lebens in der Thier- und Pflanzenwelt_ (vol. ii. pp. 430–436), I already declared that I by no means regarded the existence of these peculiar vital forces as established. Since that period I have not applied the term _peculiar forces_ to that which may possibly be produced only by the combined

## action of the separate already long known substances and their material

forces. We may, however, deduce a more certain definition of _animate_ and _inanimate_ substances from the chemical relations of the elements, than can be derived from the criteria of voluntary movement, the circulation of fluid in solid parts, and the inner appropriation and fibrous arrangement of the elements. I call that substance _animate_ “whose voluntarily separated parts change their composition after separation has taken place, the former external relations still continuing the same.” This definition is merely the expression of a fact. The equilibrium of the elements is maintained in animate matter by virtue of their being parts of one whole. One organ determines another, one gives to another the temperature, the tone as it were, in which these, and no other affinities operate. Thus in organisation all is reciprocal, means and end. The rapidity with which organic parts change their compound state, when separated from a complex of living organs, differs greatly according to the degree of their dependence, and the nature of the component materials. The blood of animals, which is variously modified in the different classes, undergoes a change earlier than the juices of plants. Fungi generally decompose more rapidly than the leaves of trees; and muscle more readily than the cutis.

Bone, the elementary structure of which has only been understood of late years, the hair of animals, the ligneous part of vegetable substances, the shells or husks of fruit, and the feathery calix (_pappus_) of plants, are not inorganic and devoid of life; but approximate, even in life, to the condition which they manifest after their separation from the rest of the organism. The higher the degree of vitality or irritability of an animate substance, the more striking or rapid will be the change in its compound state after separation. “The aggregate of the cells is an organism, and the organism _lives_ as long as its parts continue actively subservient to the whole. Considered antithetically to inanimate nature, the organism _appears_ to be self-determining.”[RM] The difficulty of satisfactorily referring the vital phenomena of organism to physical and chemical laws, depends chiefly (and almost in the same manner as the prediction of meteorological processes in the atmosphere) on the complication of the phenomena, and on the great number of the simultaneously acting forces, as well as the conditions of their activity.

I have faithfully adhered in the _Cosmos_ to the same mode of representing and considering the so-called _vital forces_, and affinities,[RN] the formative impulse and the principle of organising

## activity. I there wrote as follows:[RO] “The mythical ideas long

entertained of the imponderable substances, and vital forces, peculiar to each mode of organization, have complicated our views generally, and shed an uncertain light on the path we ought to pursue.

“The most various forms of intuition have thus, age after age, aided in augmenting the prodigious mass of empirical knowledge, which in our own day has been enlarged with ever-increasing rapidity. The investigating spirit of man strives, from time to time, with varying success, to break through those ancient forms and symbols invented to subject rebellious matter to rules of mechanical construction.”

Further in the same work,[RP] I have said, “It must, however, be remembered, that the inorganic crust of the earth contains within it the same elements that enter into the structure of animal and vegetable organs. A physical cosmography would therefore be incomplete, if it were to omit a consideration of these forces, and of the substances which enter into solid and fluid combinations in organic tissues, under conditions which, from our ignorance of their actual nature, we designate by the vague term of _vital forces_, and group into various systems, in accordance with more or less perfectly conceived analogies.”[RQ]

THE PLATEAU, OR TABLE-LAND, OF CAXAMARCA, THE ANCIENT CAPITAL OF THE INCA ATAHUALLPA, AND THE FIRST VIEW OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN, _From the Ridge of the Andes_.

After having sojourned for a whole year on the ridge of the Andes, or Antis,[111], between 4° north and 4° south latitude, amidst the table-lands of New Granada, Pastos, and Quito, and consequently at an elevation varying between 8,500 and 13,000 feet above the level of the sea, it is delightful to descend gradually through the more genial climate of the Cinchona or Quina Woods of Loxa, into the plains of the Upper Amazon. There an unknown world unfolds itself, rich in magnificent vegetation. The little town of Loxa has given its name to the most efficacious of all fever barks,—the Quina, or the Cascarilla fina de Loxa. This bark is the precious produce of the tree, which we have botanically described as the Cinchona Condaminea; but which, (from the erroneous supposition that all the Cinchona known in commerce was obtained from one and the same tree,) had previously been called Cinchona officinalis. The fever bark first became known, in Europe, about the middle of the seventeenth century. Sebastian Badus affirms, that it was brought to Alcala de Henares in the year 1632; but according to other accounts, it was brought to Madrid in 1640, when the Countess de Chinchon[112], the wife of the Peruvian Viceroy, arrived from Lima, (where she had been cured of an intermittent fever,) accompanied by her physician, Juan del Vego. The finest kind of Cinchona is obtained at the distance of from eight to twelve miles southward of the town of Loxa, among the mountains of Uritusinga, Villonaco, and Rumisitana. The trees which yield this bark grow on mica slate and gneiss, at the moderate elevations of 5755 and 7673 feet above the level of the sea, nearly corresponding, respectively, with the heights of the Hospital on the Grimsel, and the Pass of the Great St. Bernard. The Cinchona Woods in these parts are bounded by the little rivulets Zamora and Cachyacu.

The tree is felled in its first flowering season, or about the fourth or seventh year of its growth, according as it may have been reared from a strong shoot or from seed. At the time of my journey in Peru we learned, with surprise, that the quantity of the Cinchona Condaminea annually obtained at Loxa by the Cascarilla gatherers, or Quina hunters (_Cascarilleros_ and _Caçadores de Quina_), amounted only to 110 hundred weight. At that time none of this valuable product found its way into commerce; all that was obtained was shipped at Payta, a port of the Pacific, and conveyed round Cape Horn to Cadiz, for the use of the Spanish Court. To procure the small supply of 11,000 Spanish pounds, no less than 800 or 900 Cinchona trees were cut down every year. The older and thicker stems are becoming more and more scarce; but, such is the luxuriance of growth, that the younger trees, which now supply the demand, though measuring only six inches in diameter, frequently attain the height of from 53 to 64 feet. This beautiful tree, which is adorned with leaves five inches long and two broad, seems, when growing in the thick woods, as if striving to rise above its neighbours. The upper branches spread out, and when agitated by the wind the leaves have a peculiar reddish colour and glistening appearance which is distinguishable at a great distance. The mean temperature of the woods of the Cinchona Condaminea varies between 60° and 66° Fahrenheit; that is to say, about the mean annual temperature of Florence and the Island of Madeira: but the extremes of heat and cold experienced at those points of the temperate zone, are never felt in the vicinity of Loxa. However, comparisons between climates in very different degrees of latitude, and the climate of the table-lands of the tropical zone, must, from their very nature, be unsatisfactory.

Descending from the mountain node of Loxa, south-south-east, into the hot valley of the Amazon River, the traveller passes over the Paramos of Chulucanas, Guamani, and Yamoca. These Paramos are the mountainous deserts, which have been mentioned in another portion of the present work; and which, in the southern parts of the Andes, are known by the name of Puna, a word belonging to the Quichua language. In most places, their elevation is about 10,125 feet. They are stormy, frequently enveloped for several successive days in thick fogs, or visited by terrific hail-storms; the hail-stones being not only of different forms, generally much flattened by rotation, but also run together into thin floating plates of ice called papa-cara, which cut the face and hands in their fall. During this meteoric process, I have sometimes known the thermometer to sink to 48° and even 43° Fahrenheit, and the electric tension of the atmosphere, measured by the voltaic electrometer, has changed, in the space of a few minutes, from positive to negative. When the temperature is below 43° Fahrenheit, snow falls in large flakes, scattered widely apart; but it disappears after the lapse of a few hours. The short thin branches of the small leaved myrtle-like shrubs, the large size and luxuriance of the blossoms, and the perpetual freshness caused by the absorption of the moist atmosphere—all impart a peculiar aspect and character to the treeless vegetation of the Paramos. No zone of Alpine vegetation, whether in temperate or cold climates, can be compared with that of the Paramos in the tropical Andes.

The solemn impression which is felt on beholding the deserts of the Cordilleras, is increased in a remarkable and unexpected manner, by the circumstance that in these very regions there still exist wonderful remains of the great road of the Incas, that stupendous work by means of which, communication was maintained among all the provinces of the empire along an extent of upwards of 1000 geographical miles. On the sides of this road, and nearly at equal distances apart, there are small houses, built of well-cut free-stone. These buildings, which answered the purpose of stations, or caravanseries, are called Tambos, and also Inca-Pilca, (from Pircca, the Wall). Some are surrounded by a sort of fortification; others were destined for baths, and had arrangements for the conveyance of warm water: the larger ones were intended exclusively for the family of the sovereign. At the foot of the volcano Cotopaxi, near Callo, I had previously seen buildings of the same kind in a good state of preservation. These I accurately measured, and made drawings from them. Pedro de Cieça, who wrote in the sixteenth century, calls these structures Aposentos de Mulalo[113]. The pass of the Andes, lying between Alausi and Loxa, called the Paramo del Assuay, a much frequented route across the Ladera de Cadlud, is at the elevation of 15,526 feet above the level of the sea, and consequently almost at the height of Mont Blanc. As we were proceeding through this pass, we experienced considerable difficulty in guiding our heavily laden mules over the marshy ground on the level height of the Pullal; but whilst we journeyed onward for the distance of about four miles, our eyes were continually rivetted on the grand remains of the Inca Road, upwards of 20 feet in breadth. This road had a deep under-structure, and was paved with well-hewn blocks of black trap porphyry. None of the Roman roads which I have seen in Italy, in the south of France and in Spain, appeared to me more imposing than this work of the ancient Peruvians; and the Inca road is the more extraordinary, since, according to my barometrical calculations, it is situated at an elevation of 13,258 feet above the level of the sea, a height exceeding that of the summit of the Peak of Teneriffe by upwards of 1000 feet. At an equal elevation, are the ruins said to be those of the palace of the Inca Tupac Yupanqui, and known by the name of the Paredones del Inca, situated on the Assuay. From these ruins the Inca road, running southward in the direction of Cuenca, leads to the small but well-preserved fortress of the Cañar[114], probably belonging to the same period, viz.: the reign of Tupac Yupanqui, or that of his warlike son Huayna Capac.

We saw still grander remains of the ancient Peruvian Inca road, on our way between Loxa and the Amazon, near the baths of the Incas on the Paramo of Chulucanas, not far from Guancabamba, and also in the vicinity of Ingatambo, near Pomahuaca. The ruins at the latter place are situated so low, that I found the difference of level between the Inca road at Pomahuaca, and that in the Paramo del Assuay, to be upwards of 9700 feet. The distance in a direct line, as determined by astronomical latitudes, is precisely 184 miles; and the ascent of the road is about 3730 feet greater than the elevation of the Pass of Mont Cenis, above the Lake of Como. There are two great causeways, paved with flat stones, and in some places covered with cemented gravel[115], on Macadam’s plan. One of these lines of road runs through the broad and barren plain lying between the sea-coast and the chain of the Andes, whilst the other passes along the ridge of the Cordilleras. Stones, marking the distances at equal intervals, are frequently seen. The rivulets and ravines were crossed by bridges of three kinds; some being of stone, some of wood, and others of rope. These bridges are called by the Peruvians, Puentes de Hamaca, or Puentes de Maroma. There were also aqueducts for conveying water to the Tambos and fortresses. Both lines of road were directed to Cuzco, the central point and capital of the great Peruvian empire, situated in 13° 31′ south lat., and according to Pentland’s Map of Bolivia, at the elevation of 11,378 feet above the level of the sea. As the Peruvians had no wheeled carriages, these roads were constructed for the march of troops, for the conveyance of burthens borne by men, and for flocks of lightly laden Lamas; consequently, long flights of steps[116], with resting-places, were formed at intervals in the steep parts of the mountains. Francisco Pizarro and Diego Almagro, in their expeditions to remote parts of the country, availed themselves with much advantage of the military roads of the Incas; but the steps just mentioned were formidable impediments in the way of the Spanish cavalry, especially as in the early period of the Conquista, the Spaniards rode horses only, and did not make use of the sure-footed mule, which, in mountainous precipices, seems to reflect on every step he takes. It was only at a later period that the Spanish troops were mounted on mules.

Sarmiento, who saw the Inca roads whilst they were in a perfect state of preservation, mentions them in a _Relacion_ which he wrote, and which long lay buried in the Library of the Escurial. “How,” he asks, “could a people, unacquainted with the use of iron, have constructed such great and magnificent roads, (_caminos tan grandes, y tan sovervios_), and in regions so elevated as the countries between Cuzco and Quito, and between Cuzco and the coast of Chili?” “The Emperor Charles,” he adds, “with all his power, could not have accomplished even a part of what was done by the well-directed Government of the Incas, and the obedient race of people under its rule.” Hernando Pizarro, the most educated of the three brothers, who expiated his misdeeds by twenty years of captivity in Medina del Campo, and who died at 100 years of age, in the odour of sanctity (_en olor de Santidad_), observes, alluding to the Inca roads: “Throughout the whole of Christendom, no such roads are to be seen as those which we here admire.” Cuzco and Quito, the two principal capitals of the Incas, are situated in a direct line south-south-east, north-north-west in reference the one to the other. Their distance apart, without calculating the many windings of the road, is 1000 miles; including the windings of the road, the distance is stated by Garcilaso de la Vega, and other Conquistadores, to be “500 Spanish leguas.” Notwithstanding this vast distance, we are informed, on the unquestionable testimony of the Licentiate Polo de Ondegardo, that Huayna Capac, whose father conquered Quito, caused certain materials to be conveyed thither from Cuzco, for the erection of the royal buildings, (the Inca dwellings). In Quito, I found this tradition still current among the natives.

When, in the form of the earth, nature presents to man formidable difficulties to contend against, those very difficulties serve to stimulate the energy and courage of enterprising races of people. Under the despotic centralizing system of the Inca Government, security and rapidity of communication, especially in relation to the movement of troops, were matters of urgent state necessity. Hence the construction of great roads, and the establishment of very excellent postal arrangements by the Peruvians. Among nations in the most various degrees of civilization, national energy is frequently observed to manifest itself, as it were by preference, in some special direction; but the advancement consequent on this sort of partial exertion, however strikingly exhibited, by no means affords a criterion of the general cultivation of a people. Egyptians, Greeks[117], Etruscans, and Romans, Chinese, Japanese, and Indians, present examples of these contrasts. It would be difficult to determine, what space of time may have been occupied in the execution of the Peruvian roads. Those great works, in the northern part of the Inca Empire, on the table-land of Quito, must certainly have been completed in less than thirty or thirty-five years; that is to say, in the short interval between the defeat of the Ruler of Quito, and the death of the Inca Huayna Capac. With respect to the southern, or those specially styled the Peruvian roads, the period of their formation is involved in complete obscurity.

The date of the mysterious appearance of Manco Capac is usually fixed 400 years prior to the arrival of Francisco Pizarro, (who landed on the Island of Puná in the year 1532), consequently, about the middle of the twelfth century, and full 200 years before the foundation of the city of Mexico (Tenochtitlan); but instead of 400 years, some Spanish writers represent the interval between Manco Capac and Pizarro to have been 500, or even 550 years. However the history of the Peruvian empire records only thirteen reigning princes of the Inca dynasty, which, as Prescott justly observes, is not a number sufficient to fill up so long a period as 550, or even 400 years. Quezalcoatl, Botchia, and Manco Capac, are the three mythical beings, with whom are connected the earliest traces of cultivation among the Aztecs, the Muyscas, (properly Chibchas), and the Peruvians. Quezalcoatl, who is described as bearded and clothed in black, was High Priest of Tula, and afterwards a penitent, dwelling on a mountain near Tlaxapuchicalco. He is represented as having come from the coast of Panuco; and, therefore, from the eastern part of Anahuac, on the Mexican table-land. Botchia, or rather the bearded, long-robed Nemterequeteba[118], (literally messenger of God, a Buddha of the Muyscas), came from the grassy steppes eastward of the Andes chain, to the table-lands of Bogotá. Before the time of Manco Capac, some degree of civilization already existed on the picturesque shores of the Lake of Titicaca. The fortress of Cuzco, on the hill of Sacsahuaman, was built on the model of the more ancient structures of Tiahuanaco. In like manner, the Aztecs imitated the pyramidal buildings of the Toltecs, and the latter copied those of the Olmecs (Hulmecs); and thus, by degrees, we arrive at historic ground in Mexico as early as the sixth century of the Christian era. According to Siguença, the Toltecic Step Pyramid of Cholula, was copied from the Hulmecic Step Pyramid of Teotihuacan. Thus, through every stage of civilization, we pass into an earlier one, and as human intelligence was not aroused simultaneously in both continents, we find that in every nation the imaginative domain of mythology immediately preceded the period of historical knowledge.

The early Spanish Conquistadores were filled with admiration on first beholding the roads and aqueducts of the Peruvians; yet not only did they neglect the preservation of those great works, but they even wantonly destroyed them. As a natural consequence of the destruction of the aqueducts, the soil was rendered unfertile by the want of irrigation. Nevertheless, those works, as well as the roads, were demolished for the sake of obtaining stones ready hewn for the erection of new buildings; and the traces of this devastation are more observable near the sea-coast, than on the ridges of the Andes, or in the deeply cleft valleys with which that mountain-chain is intersected. During our long day’s journey from the syenitic rocks of Zaulac to the valley of San Felipe, (rich in fossil remains and situated at the foot of the icy Paramo of Yamoca), we had no less than twenty-seven times to ford the Rio de Guancabamba, which falls into the Amazon. We were compelled to do this on account of the numerous sinuosities of the stream, whilst on the brow of a steep precipice near us, we had continually within our sight the vestiges of the rectilinear Inca road, with its Tambos. The little mountain stream, the Rio de Guancabamba, is not more than from 120 to 150 feet broad; yet so strong is the current, that our heavily laden mules were in continual danger of being swept away by it. The mules carried our manuscripts, our dried plants, and all the other objects which we had been a whole year engaged in collecting; therefore, every time that we crossed the stream, we stood on one of the banks in a state of anxious suspense until the long train of our beasts of burthen, eighteen or twenty in number, were fairly out of danger.

This same Rio de Guancabamba, which in the lower part of its course has many falls, is the channel for a curious mode of conveying correspondence from the coast of the Pacific. For the expeditious transmission of the few letters that are sent from Truxillo to the province of Jaen de Bracamoros, they are despatched by a swimming courier, or, as he is called by the people of the country, “_el correo que nada_.” This courier, who is usually a young Indian, swims in two days from Pomahuaca to Tomependa; first proceeding by the Rio de Chamaya, (the name given to the lower part of the Rio de Guancabamba) and then by the Amazon river. The few letters of which he is the bearer, he carefully wraps in a large cotton handkerchief, which he rolls round his head in the form of a turban. On arriving at those parts of the rivers in which there are falls or rapids, he lands, and goes by a circuitous route through the woods. When wearied by long-continued swimming, he rests by throwing one arm on a plank of a light kind of wood of the family of the Bombaceæ, called by the Peruvians _Ceiba_, or _Palo de balsa_. Sometimes the swimming courier takes with him a friend to bear him company. Neither troubles himself about provisions, as they are always sure of a hospitable reception in the huts which are surrounded by abundant fruit-trees in the beautiful Huertas of Pucara and Cavico.

Fortunately, the river is free from crocodiles, which are first met with in the upper course of the Amazon, below the cataract of Mayasi; for the slothful animal prefers to live in the more tranquil waters. According to my calculation, the Rio de Chamaya has a fall[119] of 1778 feet, in the short distance of 52 geographical miles; that is to say, measuring from the Ford (_Paso_) de Pucara, to the point where the Chamaya disembogues in the river Amazon, below the village of Choros. The Governor of the province Jaen de Bracamoros assured me, that letters sent by the singular water post conveyance just mentioned, are seldom either wetted or lost. After my return from Mexico, I myself received, when in Paris, letters from Tomependa, which had been transmitted in this manner. Many of the wild Indian tribes, who dwell on the shores of the Upper Amazon, perform their journeys in a similar manner; swimming sociably down the stream in parties. On one occasion, I saw the heads of thirty or forty individuals, men, women, and children, of the tribe of the Xibaros, as they floated down the stream on their way to Tomependa. The _Correo que nada_ returns by land, taking the difficult route of the Paramo del Paredon.

On approaching the hot climate of the basin of the Amazon, the aspect of beautiful and occasionally very luxuriant vegetation delights the eye. Not even in the Canary Islands, nor on the warm coasts of Cumana and Caracas, had we beheld finer orange-trees than those which we met with in the Huertas de Pucara. They consisted chiefly of the sweet orange-tree (_Citrus aurantium_, Risso); the bitter orange-tree (_Citrus vulgaris_, Risso) was less numerous. These trees, laden with their golden fruit in thousands, attain there a height of between 60 and 70 feet; and their branches, instead of growing in such a way as to give the trees rounded tops or crowns, shoot straight up like those of the laurel. Near the ford of Cavico a very unexpected sight surprised us. We saw a grove of small trees, about 18 or 19 feet high, the leaves of which, instead of being green, appeared to be of a rose colour. This proved to be a new species of Bougainvillæa, a genus first determined by Jussieu the elder, from a Brazilian specimen in Commerson’s _Herbarium_. But on a nearer approach we found that these trees were really without leaves, properly so called, and that what, from a distant view, we had mistaken for leaves, were bright rose-coloured bracts. Owing to the purity and freshness of the colour, the effect was totally different from that of the hue which so pleasingly clothes many of our forest-trees in autumn. The Rhopala ferruginea, a species of the South African family of the Proteaceæ, has found its way hither, having descended from the cool heights of the Paramo de Yamoca into the warm plains of the Chamaya. We likewise frequently saw here the beautifully pinnated Porlieria hygrometrica, one of the Zygophylleæ, which, by the closing of its leaves, indicates change of weather, generally the approach of rain. This plant is more certain in its tokens than any of the Mimosaceæ, and it very rarely deceived us.

At Chamaya we found rafts (_balsas_) in readiness to convey us to Tomependa, where we wished to determine the difference of longitude between Quito and the mouth of the Chinchipe; a point of some importance to the geography of South America on account of an old observation of La Condamine[120]. We slept as usual in the open air, and our resting-place was on the sandy shore called the Playa de Guayanchi, at the confluence of the Rio de Chamaya and the Amazon. Next morning we proceeded down the latter river as far as the Cataract and the Narrows, or the Pongo of Rentema. Pongo, the name given to River Narrows by the natives, is a corruption of the word _Puncu_, which, in the Quichua language, signifies a door or gate. In the Pongo de Rentema huge masses of rock consisting of coarse-grained sandstone (conglomerate), rise up like towers and form a rocky dam across the stream. I measured a base line on the flat sandy shore, and found that the Amazon River, which, further eastwards, spreads into such mighty width, is, at Tomependa, scarcely 1400 feet broad. In the celebrated River Narrows, called the Pongo de Manseriche, between Santiago and San Borja, the breadth is less than 160 feet. The Pongo de Manseriche is formed by a mountain ravine, in some parts of which the overhanging rocks, roofed by a canopy of foliage, permit only a feeble light to penetrate, and by the force of the current all the drift-wood, consisting of trunks of trees in countless numbers, is broken and dashed to atoms. The rocks by which all these Pongos are formed, have, in the course of centuries, undergone many changes. The Pongo de Rentema, which I have mentioned above, was, a year before my visit to it, in part broken up by a high flood; indeed the inhabitants of the shores of the Amazon still preserve by tradition a lively recollection of the sudden fall of the once lofty masses of rock along the whole length of the Pongo. This fall took place in the early part of the last century, and the debris suddenly dammed up the river and impeded the current. The consequence was, that the inhabitants of the village of Puyaya, situated at the lower part of the Pongo de Rentema, were filled with alarm on beholding the dry bed of the river; but, after the lapse of a few hours, the waters recovered their usual course. There appears to be no reason for believing that these remarkable phenomena are occasioned by earthquakes. The river, which has a very strong current, seems, as it were, to be incessantly labouring to improve its bed. Of the force of its efforts some idea may be formed from the fact that, notwithstanding its vast breadth, it sometimes rises upwards of 26 feet above its ordinary level in the space of 20 or 30 hours.

We remained seventeen days in the hot valley of the Marañon or the Amazon River. To proceed from thence to the coast of the Pacific it is necessary to cross the chain of the Andes, between Micuipampa and Caxamarca (in 6° 57′ S. lat., and 78° 34′ W. long.), at a point where, according to my observations, it is intersected by the magnetic equator. At a still higher elevation are situated the celebrated silver mines of Chota. Then, after having passed the ancient Caxamarca (the scene, 316 years ago, of the most sanguinary drama in the history of the Spanish Conquista), and also Aroma and Guangamarca, the route descends, with some interruptions, into the Peruvian lowlands. Here, as in nearly all parts of the Andes, as well as of the Mexican Mountains, the highest points are picturesquely marked by tower-like masses of erupted porphyry and trachyte, the former frequently presenting the effect of immense columns. In some places these masses give a rugged cliff-like aspect to the mountain ridges; and in other places they assume the form of domes or cupolas. They have here broken through a formation, which, in South America, is extensively developed on both sides of the equator, and which Leopold von Buch, after profound research, has pronounced to be cretaceous. Between Guambos and Montan, nearly 12,800 feet above the level of the sea, we found marine fossils[121] (Ammonites about 15 inches in diameter, the large Pecten alatus, oyster-shells, Echini, Isocardias, and Exogyra polygona). A species of Cidaris, which, in the opinion of Leopold von Buch, does not differ from one found by Brongniart in the old chalk at the Perte du Rhone, we collected in the basin of the Amazon at Tomependa, and likewise at Micuipampa; that is to say, at elevations differing the one from the other by no less than 10,550 feet. In like manner, in the Amuich chain of the Caucasian Daghestan, the chalk of the banks of the Sulak, scarcely 530 feet above the level of the sea, is again found on the Tchunum, at the elevation of full 9,600 feet, whilst, on the summit of the Shadagh Mountain, 13,950 feet high, the Ostrea diluviana (Goldf.), and the same chalk, present themselves. Abich’s admirable Caucasian observations furnish the most decided confirmation of Leopold von Buch’s geognostic views respecting the cretaceous Alpine development.

From the solitary farm of Montan, surrounded with flocks of Lamas, we ascended further southward the eastern declivity of the Cordilleras, until we reached the level height in which is situated the argentiferous mountain Gualgayoc, the principal site of the far-famed mines of Chota. Night was just drawing in, and an extraordinary spectacle presented itself to our observation. The Cerro de Gualgayoc is separated by a deep cleft-like valley (Quebrada), from the limestone mountain Cormolache. The latter is an isolated hornstone rock, presenting, on the northern and western sides, almost perpendicular precipices, and containing innumerable veins of silver, which frequently intersect and run into each other. The highest shafts are 1540 feet above the floor of the stoll or groundwork, called the Socabon de Espinachi. The outline of the mountain is broken by numerous tower-like points and pyramidal notches; and hence the summit of the Cerro de Gualgayoc bears the name of Las Puntas. This mountain presents a most decided contrast to that smoothness of surface which miners are accustomed to regard as characteristic of metalliferous districts. “Our mountain,” said a wealthy mine-owner whom we visited, “looks like an enchanted castle (_como si fuese un castillo encantado_).” The Gualgayoc bears some resemblance to a cone of dolomite, but it is still more like the notched ridges of the Mountain of Monserrat in Catalonia, which I have also visited, and which has been so pleasingly described by my brother. Not only is the silver mountain Gualgayoc perforated on every side, and to its very summit, by many hundred large shafts, but the mass of the siliceous rock is cleft by natural openings, through which the dark blue sky of these elevated regions is visible to the observer standing at the foot of the mountain. The people of the country call these openings windows (_Las ventanillas de Gualgayoc_). On the trachytic walls of the volcano of Pichincha similar openings were pointed out to us, and there, likewise, they were called windows, (_Ventanillas de Pichincha_.) The singular aspect of the Gualgayoc is not a little increased by numerous sheds and habitations, which lie scattered like nests over the fortress-looking mountain wherever a level spot admits of their erection. The miners carry the ore in baskets, down steep and dangerous footpaths, to the places where it is submitted to the process of amalgamation.

The value of the silver obtained from the mines of Gualgayoc during the first thirty years of their being worked, from 1771 to 1802, is supposed to have amounted to upwards of thirty-two millions of piastres. Notwithstanding the hardness of the quartzose rock, the Peruvians, even before the arrival of the Spaniards, extracted rich argentiferous galena from the Cerro de la Lin, and also from the Chupiquiyacu; of this fact many old shafts and galleries bear evidence. The Peruvians also obtained gold from the Curimayo, where also natural sulphur is found in the quartz rock as well as in the Brazilian Itacolumite. We took up our temporary abode, in the vicinity of the mines, in the little mountain town of Micuipampa, situated at an elevation of 11,873 feet above the sea, and where, though only 6° 43′ from the equator, water freezes within doors, at night, during a great part of the year. This wilderness, almost devoid of vegetation, is inhabited by 3000 or 4000 persons, who are supplied with articles of food from the warm valleys, as they themselves can grow nothing but some kinds of cabbage and salad, the latter exceedingly good. Here, as in all the mining towns of Peru, _ennui_ drives the richer inhabitants, who, however, are not the best informed class, to the dangerous diversions of cards and dice. The consequence is, that the wealth thus quickly won is still more quickly spent. Here one is continually reminded of the anecdote related of one of the soldiers of Pizarro’s army, who complained that he had lost in one night’s play, “a large piece of the sun,” meaning a plate of gold which he had obtained at the plunder of the Temple of Cuzco. At Micuipampa the thermometer, at eight in the morning, stood at 34°.2, and at noon, at 47°.8 Fahrenheit. Among the thin Ichhu-grass (possibly our Stipa eriostachya), we found a beautiful Calceolaria (_C. Sibthorpioides_), which we should not have expected to see at such an elevation.

Near the town of Micuipampa there is a high plain called the Llano or the Pampa de Navar. In this plain there have been found, extending over a surface of more than four English square miles, and immediately under the turf, immense masses of red gold ore and wire-like threads of pure silver. These are called by the Peruvian miners _remolinos_, _clavos_, and _vetas manteadas_, and they are overgrown by the roots of the Alpine grasses. Another level plain, to the west of the Purgatorio, and near the Quebrada de Chiquera, is called the Choropampa (the Muscle-Shell Plain), the word _churu_ signifying in the Quichua language a muscle or cockle, particularly a small eatable kind, which the people of the country now distinguish by their Spanish names _hostion_ or _mexillon_. The name Choropampa refers to fossils of the cretaceous formation, which in this plain are found in such immense numbers that at an early period they attracted the attention of the natives. In the Choropampa there has been found near the surface of the earth, a rich mass of pure gold, spun round, as it were, with threads of silver. This fact proves how slight may be the affinity between many of the ores upheaved from the interior of the earth, through fissures and veins, and the nature of the adjacent rock, and how little relative antiquity exists between them and that of the formation they have broken through. The rock of the Gualgayoc, as well as that of the Fuentestiana, is very watery, whilst in the Purgatorio perfect dryness prevails. In the Purgatorio, notwithstanding the height of the strata above the sea-level, I found to my astonishment, that the temperature in the mine was 67°.4 Fahr., whilst in the neighbouring Mina de Guadalupe the water in the mine was about 52°.2 Fahr. In the open air the thermometer indicates only 42°.1 Fahr., and the miners, who labour very hard, and who work almost without clothing, say that the subterranean heat in the Purgatorio is stifling.

The narrow path from Micuipampa to the ancient Inca city Caxamarca is difficult even for mules. The original name of the town was Cassamarca or Kazamarca, that is to say, the City of Frost. Marca, in the signification of a district or town, belongs to the northern dialect of the Chinchaysuyo, or the Chinchasuyu, whilst in the common Quichua language the word means the story of a house, and also a fortress and place of defence. For the space of five or six miles, the road led us through a succession of Paramos, where we were without intermission exposed to the fury of a boisterous wind and the sharp angular hail peculiar to the ridges of the Andes. The height of the road is for the most part between 9600 and 10,700 feet above the sea-level. There I had the opportunity of making a magnetic observation of general interest, viz., for determining the point where the north inclination of the needle passes into the south inclination, and also the point at which the traveller has to cross the magnetic equator[122].

Having at length reached the last of these mountain wildernesses, the Paramo de Yanaguanga, the traveller joyfully looks down into the fertile valley of Caxamarca. It presents a charming prospect, for the valley, through which winds a little serpentine rivulet, is an elevated plain of an oval form, in extent from 96 to 112 square miles. The plain bears a resemblance to that of Bogota, and like it is probably the bed of an ancient lake; but in Caxamarca there is wanting the myth of the miracle-working Botchia, or Idacanzas, the High Priest of Iraca, who opened a passage for the waters through the rocks of Tequendama. Caxamarca lies 640 feet higher than Santa Fé de Bogota, and consequently its elevation is equal to that of the city of Quito; but being sheltered by surrounding mountains, its climate is much more mild and agreeable. The soil of Caxamarca is extraordinarily fertile. In every direction are seen cultivated fields and gardens, intersected by avenues of willows, varieties of the Datura (bearing large red, white, and yellow flowers), Mimosas, and beautiful Quinuar trees (our Polylepsis villosa, a Rosacea approximating to the Alchemilla and Sanguisorba). The wheat harvest in the Pampa de Caxamarca is, on the average, from fifteen to twenty-fold; but the prospect of abundant crops is sometimes blighted by night frosts, caused by the radiation of heat towards the cloudless sky, in the strata of dry and rarefied mountain air. These night frosts are not felt within the roofed dwellings.

Small mounds, or hillocks, of porphyry (once perhaps islands in the ancient lake) are studded over the northern part of the plain, and break the wide expanse of smooth sandstone. From the summit of one of these porphyry hillocks, we enjoyed a most beautiful prospect of the Cerro de Santa Polonia. The ancient residence of Atahuallpa is on this side, surrounded by fruit gardens, and irrigated fields of lucern (Medicago sativa), called by the people here _Campos de alfalfa_. In the distance are seen columns of smoke, rising from the warm baths of Pultamarca, which still hear the name of Baños del Inca. I found the temperature of these sulphuric springs to be 156°.2 Fahr. Atahuallpa was accustomed to spend a portion of each year at these baths, where some slight remains of his palace have survived the ravages of the Conquistadores. The large deep basin or reservoir (_el tragadero_) for supplying these baths with water, appeared to me, judging from its regular circular form, to have been artificially cut in the sandstone rock, over one of the fissures whence the spring flows. Tradition records that one of the Inca’s sedan-chairs, made of gold, was sunk in this basin, and that all endeavours to recover it have proved vain.

Of the fortress and palace of Atahuallpa, there also remain but few vestiges in the town, which now contains some beautiful churches. Even before the close of the sixteenth century, the thirst for gold accelerated the work of destruction, for, with the view of discovering hidden treasures, walls were demolished and the foundations of buildings recklessly undermined. The Inca’s palace is situated on a hill of porphyry, which was originally cut and hollowed out from the surface, completely through the rock, so that the latter surrounds the main building like a wall. Portions of the ruins have been converted to the purposes of a town jail and a Municipal Hall (Casa del Cabildo). The most curious parts of these ruins, which however are not more than between 13 and 16 feet in height, are those opposite to the monastery of San Francisco. These vestiges, like the remains of the dwelling of the Caciques, consist of finely-hewn blocks of free-stone, two or three feet long, laid one upon another without cement, as in the Inca-Pilca, or fortress of the Cañar, in the high plain of Quito.

In the porphyritic rock there is a shaft which once led to subterraneous chambers and into a gallery, (by miners called a stoll,) from which, it is alleged, there was a communication with the other porphyritic rocks already mentioned;—those situated at Santa Polonia. These arrangements bear evidence of having been made as precautions against the events of war, and for the security of flight. The burying of treasure was a custom very generally practised among the Peruvians in former times; and subterraneous chambers still exist beneath many private dwellings in Caxamarca.

We were shown some steps cut in the rock, and the footbath used by the Inca (_el lavatorio de los pies_). The operation of washing the sovereign’s feet was performed amidst tedious court ceremonies[123]. Several lateral structures, which, according to tradition, were allotted to the attendants of the Inca, are built some of free-stone with gable roofs, and others of regularly shaped bricks, alternating with layers of siliceous cement. The buildings constructed in this last-mentioned style, to which the Peruvians give the name of _Muros y obra de tapia_, have little arched niches or recesses. Of their antiquity I was for a long time doubtful, though I am now convinced that my doubts were not well-grounded.

In the principal building, the room is still shown in which the unfortunate Atahuallpa was confined for the space of nine months, from the date of November, 1532[124]. The notice of the traveller is still directed to the wall, on which he made a mark to denote to what height he would fill the room with gold, on condition of his being set free. This height is variously described. Xerez in the _Conquista del Peru_ (which Barcia has preserved to us), Hernando Pizarro in his letters, and other writers, all give different accounts of it. The captive monarch said, “that gold in bars, plates, and vessels should be piled up as high as he could reach with his hand.” The dimensions of the room, as given by Xerez, are equivalent to 23 feet in length and 18 in breadth. Garcilaso de la Vega, who quitted Peru in 1560, in his twentieth year, estimates that the treasures brought from the temples of the Sun in Cuzco, Huaylas, Huamachuco, and Pachacamac, up to the fatal 29th of August, 1533, the day of the Inca’s death, amounted to 3,838,000 ducados de oro[125].

In the chapel of the town jail, which, as I have mentioned above, is erected on the ruins of the Inca Palace, a stone, stained, as it is alleged, with “indelible spots of blood,” is viewed with horror by the credulous. It is placed in front of the altar, and consists of an extremely thin slab, about 13 feet in length, probably a portion of the porphyry or trachyte of the vicinity. To make an accurate examination of this stone, by chipping a piece off, would not be permitted. The three or four spots, said to be blood stains, appear in reality to be nothing but hornblende and pyroxide run together in the fundamental mass of the rock. The Licentiate Fernando Montesinos, though he visited Peru scarcely a hundred years after the taking of Caxamarca, gave currency to the fabulous story that Atahuallpa was beheaded in prison, and that traces of blood were still visible on a stone on which the execution had taken place. There appears no reason to question the fact, since it is borne out by the testimony of many eye-witnesses, that the Inca willingly allowed himself to be baptized by his cruel and fanatical persecutor, the Dominican monk, Vicente de Valverde. He received the name of Juan de Atahuallpa, and submitted to the ceremony of baptism to avoid being burnt alive. He was put to death by strangulation (_el garrote_), and his execution took place publicly in the open air. Another tradition relates that a chapel was erected above the stone on which Atahuallpa was strangled, and that the remains of the Inca repose beneath that stone. Supposing this to be correct, the alleged spots of blood are not accounted for. The fact is, however, that the body was never deposited under the stone in question. After the performance of a mass for the dead and other solemn funeral ceremonies, at which the brothers Pizarro were present in deep mourning(!), the body was conveyed first to the cemetery of the Convento de San Francisco, and afterwards to Quito, Atahuallpa’s birthplace. This removal to Quito was in compliance with the wish expressed by the Inca prior to his death. His personal enemy, the crafty Rumiñavi, from artful political motives, caused the body to be interred in Quito with great solemnity. Rumiñavi (literally the stone-eye) received this name from a defect in one of his eyes, occasioned by a wart. (In the Quichua language _rumi_ signifies stone, and _ñavi_ eye.)

Descendants of the Inca still dwell in Caxamarca, amidst the dreary architectural ruins of departed splendour. These descendants are the family of the Indian Cacique, or, as he is called in the Quichua language, the Curaca Astorpilca. They live in great poverty, but nevertheless contented and resigned to their hard and unmerited fate. Their descent from Atahuallpa, through the female line, has never been a doubtful question in Caxamarca; but traces of beard would seem to indicate some admixture of Spanish blood. Huascar and Atahuallpa, two sons of the great Huayna Capac (who for a child of the Sun was somewhat disposed to free-thinking)[126], reigned in succession before the invasion of the Spaniards. Neither of these two princes left any acknowledged male heirs. In the plains of Quipaypan, Huascar was made prisoner by Atahuallpa, by whose order he was shortly after secretly put to death. Atahuallpa had two other brothers. One was the insignificant youth Toparca, who in the autumn of 1533 Pizarro caused to be crowned as Inca; and the other was the enterprising Manco Capac, who was likewise crowned, but who afterwards rebelled: neither of these two princes left any known male issue. Atahuallpa indeed left two children; one a son, who received in Christian baptism the name of Don Francisco, and who died young; the other a daughter, Doña Angelina, who became the mistress of Francisco Pizarro, with whom she led a wild camp life. Doña Angelina had a son by Pizarro, and to this grandson of the slaughtered monarch the Conqueror was fondly attached. Besides the family of Astorpilca, with whom I became acquainted in Caxamarca, the families of Carguaraicos and Titu-Buscamayca were, at the time I visited Peru, regarded as descendants of the Inca dynasty. The race of Buscamayca has since that time become extinct.

The son of the Cacique Astorpilca, an interesting and amiable youth of seventeen, conducted us over the ruins of the ancient palace. Though living in the utmost poverty, his imagination was filled with images of the subterranean splendour and the golden treasures which, he assured us, lay hidden beneath the heaps of rubbish over which we were treading. He told us that one of his ancestors once blindfolded the eyes of his wife, and then, through many intricate passages cut in the rock, led her down into the subterranean gardens of the Inca. There the lady beheld, skilfully imitated in the purest gold, trees laden with leaves and fruit, with birds perched on their branches. Among other things, she saw Atahuallpa’s gold sedan-chair (_una de las andas_) which had been so long searched for in vain, and which is alleged to have sunk in the basin at the Baths of Pultamarca. The husband commanded his wife not to touch any of these enchanted treasures, reminding her that the period fixed for the restoration of the Inca empire had not yet arrived, and that whosoever should touch any of the treasures would perish that same night. These golden dreams and fancies of the youth were founded on recollections and traditions transmitted from remote times. Golden gardens, such as those alluded to (_Jardines ó huertas de oro_), have been described by various writers who allege that they actually saw them; viz., by Cieza de Leon, Parmento, Garcilaso, and other early historians of the Conquista. They are said to have existed beneath the Temple of the Sun at Cuzco, at Caxamarca, and in the lovely valley of Yucay, which was a favourite seat of the sovereign family. In places in which the golden Huertas were not under ground, but in the open air, living plants were mingled with the artificial ones. Among the latter,

## particular mention is always made of the high shoots of maize and the

maize-cobs (_mazorcas_) as having been most successfully imitated.

The son of Astorpilca assured me that underground, a little to the right of the spot on which I then stood, there was a large Datura tree, or Guanto, in full flower, exquisitely made of gold wire and plates of gold, and that its branches overspread the Inca’s chair. The morbid faith with which the youth asserted his belief in this fabulous story, made a profound and melancholy impression on me. These illusions are cherished among the people here, as affording them consolation amidst great privation and earthly suffering. I said to the lad, “Since you and your parents so firmly believe in the existence of these gardens, do you not, in your poverty, sometimes feel a wish to dig for the treasures that lie so near you?” The young Peruvian’s answer was so simple and so expressive of the quiet resignation peculiar to the aboriginal inhabitants of the country, that I noted it down in Spanish in my Journal. “Such a desire (_tal antojo_),” said he, “never comes to us. My father says that it would be sinful (_que fuese pecado_). If we had the golden branches, with all their golden fruits, our white neighbours would hate us and injure us. We have a little field and good wheat (_buen trigo_).” Few of my readers will I trust be displeased that I have recalled here the words of young Astorpilca and his golden dreams.

An idea generally spread and firmly believed among the natives is, that it would be criminal to dig up and take possession of treasures which may have belonged to the Incas, and that such a proceeding would bring misfortune upon the whole Peruvian race. This idea is closely connected with that of the restoration of the Inca dynasty, an event which is still expected, and which in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was looked forward to with especial confidence. Oppressed nations always fondly hope for the day of their emancipation, and for the re-establishment of their old forms of government. The flight of Manco Inca, the brother of Atahuallpa, who retreated into the forests of Vilcapampa, on the declivity of the Eastern Cordillera; and the abode of Sayri Tapac and Inca Tupac Amaru in those wildernesses, are events which have left lasting recollections in the minds of the people. It is believed that descendants of the dethroned dynasty settled still further eastward in Guiana, between the rivers Apurimac and Beni. These notions were strengthened by the myth of _el Dorado_ and the golden city of Manoa, which popular credulity carried from the west and propagated eastward. So greatly was the imagination of Sir Walter Raleigh inflamed by these dreams, that he raised an expedition in the hope of conquering “the imperial and golden city.” There he proposed to establish a garrison of three or four thousand English, and to levy from “the Emperor of Guiana, a descendant of Huayna Capac, and who holds his Court with the same magnificence, an annual tribute of £300,000 sterling, as the price of the promised restoration to the throne in Cuzco and Caxamarca.” Wherever the Peruvian Quichua language prevails, traces of the expected restoration of the Inca rule[127] exist in the minds of many of the natives possessing any knowledge of their national history.

We remained five days in the capital of the Inca Atahuallpa, which, at that time, numbered only 7000 or 8000 inhabitants. Our departure was delayed by the necessity of obtaining a great number of mules to convey our collections, and of selecting careful guides to conduct us across the chain of the Andes to the entrance of the long but narrow Peruvian sandy desert called the _Desierto de Sechura_. Our route across the Cordilleras lay from north-east to south-west. Having passed over the old bed of the lake, on the pleasant level height of Caxamarca, we ascended an eminence at an elevation of scarcely 10,230 feet: and we were then surprised by the sight of two strangely-shaped porphyritic mounds called the Aroma and the Cunturcaga. The latter is a favourite haunt of the gigantic vulture, which we call the Condor; _kacca_, in the Quichua language, signifying _the rocks_. The porphyritic heights just mentioned are in the form of columns having five, six, or seven sides, from 37 to 42 feet in height, and some of them are crooked and bent as if in joints. Those which crown the Cerro Aroma are remarkably picturesque. The peculiar distribution of the columns, which are ranged in rows one above another, and frequently converging, presents the appearance of a two-storied building, roofed by a dome of massive rock, which is not columnar. These erupted masses of porphyry and trachyte are, as I have on a former occasion remarked, characteristic of the ridges of the Andes, to which they impart a physiognomy totally different from that of the Swiss Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Siberian Altai.

From Cunturcaga and Aroma we descended, by a zigzag route, a steep declivity of 6400 feet into the cleft-like valley of the Magdalena, the lowest part of which is 4260 feet above the sea level. Here there is an Indian village consisting of a few miserable huts, surrounded by the same species of cotton-trees (_Bombax discolor_), which we first observed on the banks of the Amazon. The scanty vegetation of the valley of Magdalena somewhat resembles that of the province of Jaen de Bracamoros, but we missed, with regret, the red groves of Bougainvillæa. Magdalena is one of the deepest valleys I have seen in the chain of the Andes. It is a decided cleft, running transversely from east to west, and bounded on each side by the Altos of Aroma and Guangamarca. Here recommences the same quartz formation which was so long enigmatical to me. We had previously observed it in the Paramo de Yanaguanga, between Micuipampa and Caxamarca, at an elevation of 11,722 feet, and on the western declivity of the Cordillera it attains the thickness of many thousand feet. Since Leopold von Buch has proved that the cretaceous formation is widely extended, even in the highest chains of the Andes, and on both sides of the isthmus of Panama, it may be concluded that the quartz formation, of which I have just made mention (perhaps transformed in its texture by the action of volcanic power), belongs to the free sandstone intervening between the inner chalk and the gault and greensand. From the genial valley of the Magdalena we again proceeded westward, and, for the space of two hours and a half, we ascended a steep wall of rock 5116 feet high, which rises opposite to the porphyritic groups of the Alto de Aroma. In this ascent we felt the change of temperature the more sensibly, as the rocky acclivity was frequently overhung with cold mist.

After having travelled for eighteen months without intermission, within the restricted boundaries of the interior of a mountainous country, we felt an ardent desire to enjoy a view of the open sea, a desire which was heightened by repeated disappointments. Looking from the summit of the volcano of Pichincha, over the thick forests of the Provincia de las Esmeraldas, no sea horizon is distinctly discernible owing to the great distance and the height of the point of view. It is like looking down from a balloon into empty space; the fancy divines objects which the eye cannot distinguish. Afterwards, when, between Loxa and Guancabamba, we arrived at the Paramo de Guamani (where there are many ruins of buildings of the times of the Incas), our mule-drivers confidently assured us that, beyond the plain, on the other side of the low districts of Piura and Lambajeque, we should have a view of the sea. But a thick mist overhung the plain and obscured the distant coast. We beheld only variously-shaped masses of rock, now rising like islands above the waving sea of mist, and now vanishing. It was a view similar to that which we had from the Peak of Teneriffe. We experienced a similar disappointment whilst proceeding through the Andes Pass of Guangamarca, which I am now describing. Whilst we toiled along the ridges of the mighty mountain, with expectation on the stretch, our guides, who were not very well acquainted with the way, repeatedly assured us that, after proceeding another mile, our hopes would be fulfilled. The stratum of mist, in which we were enveloped, seemed sometimes to disperse for a moment, but whenever that happened, our view was bounded by intervening heights.

The desire which we feel to behold certain objects is not excited solely by their grandeur, their beauty, or their importance. In each individual this desire is interwoven with pleasing impressions of youth, with early predilections for particular pursuits, with the inclination for travelling, and the love of an active life. In proportion as the fulfilment of a wish may have appeared improbable, its realization affords the greater pleasure. The traveller enjoys, in anticipation, the happy moment when he shall first behold the constellation of the Cross, and the Magellanic clouds circling over the South Pole; when he shall come in sight of the snow of the Chimborazo, and of the column of smoke ascending from the volcano of Quito; when, for the first time, he shall gaze on a grove of tree-ferns, or on the wide expanse of the Pacific Ocean. The days on which such wishes are fulfilled mark epochs in life, and create indelible impressions; exciting feelings which require not to be accounted for by any process of reasoning. The longing wish I felt to behold the Pacific from the lofty ridges of the Andes was mingled with recollections of the interest with which, as a boy, I had dwelt on the narrative of the adventurous expedition of Vasco Nunez de Balboa[128]. That happy man, whose track Pizarro followed, was the first to behold, from the heights of Quarequa, on the isthmus of Panama, the eastern part of the great “South Sea.” The reedy shores of the Caspian, viewed from the point whence I first beheld them, viz., from the Delta formed by the mouths of the Volga, cannot certainly be called picturesque, yet the delight I felt on first beholding them, was enhanced by the recollection that, in my very earliest childhood, I had been taught to observe, on the map, the form of the Asiatic inland sea. The impressions aroused within us in early childhood, or excited by the accidental circumstances of life[129], frequently, in after years, take a graver direction, and become stimulants to scientific labours and great enterprises.

After passing over many undulations of ground, on the rugged mountain ridges, we at length reached the highest point of the Alto de Guangamarca. The sky, which had so long been obscured, now suddenly brightened. A sharp south-west breeze dispersed the veil of mist; and the dark blue canopy of heaven was seen between the narrow lines of the highest feathery clouds. The whole western declivity of the Cordillera (adjacent to Chorillos and Cascas), covered with huge blocks of quartz 13 or 15 feet long; and the plains of Chala and Molinos, as far as the sea coast near Truxillo, lay extended before our eyes, with a wonderful effect of apparent proximity. We now, for the first time, commanded a view of the Pacific. We saw it distinctly; reflecting along the line of the coast an immense mass of light, and rising in immeasurable expanse until bounded by the clearly-defined horizon. The delight which my companions, Bonpland and Carlos Montufar, shared with me in viewing this prospect, caused us to forget to open the barometer on the Alto de Guangamarca. According to a calculation which we made at a place somewhat lower down (an isolated farm called the Hato de Guangamarca), the point at which we first gained a view of the ocean, must have been at no greater an elevation than between 9380 and 9600 feet.

The view of the Pacific was solemnly impressive to one, who, like myself, was greatly indebted for the formation of his mind, and the direction given to his tastes and aspirations, to one of the companions of Captain Cook. I made known the general outline of my travelling schemes to John Forster, when I had the advantage of visiting England under his guidance, now more than half a century ago. Forster’s charming pictures of Otaheite had awakened throughout Northern Europe a deep interest (mingled with a sort of romantic longing), in favour of the islands of the Pacific Ocean. At that period, when but few Europeans had been fortunate enough to visit those islands, I cherished the hope of seeing them, at least in part; for the object of my visit to Lima was twofold: first, to observe the transit of Mercury over the solar disc, and secondly, to fulfil a promise I had made to Captain Baudin, on my departure from Paris. This promise was to join him in the circumnavigatory voyage which he was to undertake as soon as the French Republic could furnish the necessary funds.

American papers circulated in the Antilles announced that the two French corvettes, _Le Géographe_ and _Le Naturaliste_, were to sail round Cape Horn, and to touch at Callao de Lima. This information, which I received when in the Havannah, after having completed my Orinoco journey, caused me to relinquish my original plan of proceeding through Mexico to the Philippines. I lost no time in engaging a ship to convey me from Cuba to Carthagena de Indias. But Captain Baudin’s expedition took quite a different course from that which had been expected and announced. Instead of proceeding by the way of Cape Horn, as had been intended at the time when it was agreed that Bonpland and I should join it, the expedition sailed round the Cape of Good Hope. One of the objects of my visit to Peru, and of my last journey across the chain of the Andes, was thus thwarted; but I had the singular good fortune, at a very unfavourable season of the year, in the misty regions of Lower Peru, to enjoy a clear bright day. In Callao I observed the passage of Mercury over the sun’s disc, an observation of some importance in aiding the accurate determination of the longitude of Lima[130], and of the south-western part of the new continent. Thus, amidst the serious troubles and disappointments of life, there may often be found a grain of consolation.

ILLUSTRATIONS AND ADDITIONS.

Footnote 111:

p. 390—“_On the Ridge of the Andes or Antis._”

The Inca Garcilaso, who was well acquainted with the native language of his country, and who loved to trace etymologies, invariably calls the chain of the Andes, “las Montañas de los Antis.” He states positively that the great mountain-chain, eastward of Cuzco, derives its name from the race of the Antis and from the province Anti, which was situated to the east of the capital of the Incas. The quaternary divisions of the Peruvian empire, according to the four cardinal points, reckoning from Cuzco, did not derive their names from the very circumstantial words (having reference to the sun) which in the Quichua language signify east, west, north, and south (intip llucsinanpata, intip yaucunanpata, intip chaututa chayananpata, intip chaupunchau chayananpata). Those divisions were named from provinces and races of people (Provincias llamadas Anti, Cunti, Chincha y Colla) situated to the east, west, north, and south, with reference to the city of Cuzco, which was the centre of the empire. The four divisions of the Inca theocracy were accordingly named Antisuyu, Cuntisuyu, Chinchasuyu, and Collasuyu; the word _Suyu_ signifying _strip_ or _part_. Notwithstanding the great distance between them, Quito belonged to Chinchasuyu; and in proportion as the Incas, by their religious wars, extended their faith, their language, and their despotic government, these Suyus acquired greater dimensions and became more unequal in magnitude. With the names of the provinces was thus associated an indication of their position; and “to name those provinces,” observes Garcilaso, “was the same as to say to the east or to the west.” (Nombrar aquellos Partidos era lo mismo que decir al Oriente, ó al Poniente.) The snow-chain of the Andes was regarded as an eastern chain. “La Provincia Anti da nombra á las Montañas de los Antis. Llamáron à la parte del Oriente Antisuyu, por la qual tambien llaman Anti á toda aquella gran Cordillera de Sierra Nevada que pasa al Oriente del Peru, por dar á entender, que está al Oriente.” (_Commentarios Reales_, p. i. pp. 47, 122.)[RR] Later writers have supposed the name of the Andes chain to be derived from the word Anta, which, in the Quichua language, signifies copper. That metal was indeed of the highest importance to a people who for their edged-tools or cutting instruments, employed not iron, but a sort of copper mixed with tin; but still the name of copper mountains would scarcely have been extended over so vast a chain. Professor Buschmann has justly observed, that the final “_a_” is retained in the word _anta_ when it forms part of a compound; and Garcilaso expressly adduces as an example _anta_, copper, and _antamarca_, province of copper. Moreover in the ancient language of the Inca empire (the Quichua), words and their compounds are so simple in formation that the conversion of “_a_” into “_i_” out of the question; so that _Anta_, copper, and _Anti_ or _Ante_ (the country or an inhabitant of the Andes or the mountain-chain itself) must be regarded as words totally distinct from each other. In dictionaries of the Quichua language, with explanations in Spanish, the word _Anti_ or _Ante_ has the following interpretations: _la tierra de los Andes_;—_el Indio, hombre de los Andes_;—_la Sierra de los Andes_. The original signification or derivation of the word is buried in the darkness of past ages. Besides Antisuyu, some other compounds of which Anti or Ante forms a part, are, Anteruna (the native inhabitant of the Andes), Anteunccuy or Antionccoy (the sickness of the Andes; _mal de los Andes pestifero_.)

Footnote 112:

p. 390—“_The Countess de Chinchon_.”

This lady was the wife of the Viceroy Don Geronimo Fernandez de Cabrera, Bobadilla y Mendoza, Conde de Chinchon, who governed Peru from 1629 to 1639. The cure of the Vice-Queen took place in the year 1638. A tradition which is current in Spain, but which I have frequently heard contradicted in Loxa, names Juan Lopez de Cañizares, Corregidor of the Cabildo de Loxa, as the person by whom the Quina (Cinchona) bark was first brought to Lima, and universally recommended as a medicine. In Loxa, I have heard it affirmed that the salutary properties of the tree were long previously, though not generally, known in the mountainous regions. Immediately after my return to Europe, I expressed doubts whether the discovery had really been made by the natives in the vicinity of Loxa, for the Indians in the neighbouring valleys, where intermittent fevers are very prevalent, have an aversion to the Quina bark.[RS] The story which sets forth that the natives learned the virtues of the Cinchona from the lions, “who cure themselves of intermittent fever by gnawing the bark of the Quina tree,”[RT] appears to be merely a monkish fiction, and wholly of European origin. No such disease as the lion’s fever is known in the New Continent; for the so-called great American lion (_Felis concolor_) and the small mountain lion (the _Puma_, whose footmarks I have seen on the snow) are never tamed, consequently never become the subjects of observation. Nor are the various species of the feline race, in either continent, accustomed to gnaw the bark of trees. The name “Countess’s Powder” (_Pulvis Comitissæ_) originated in the circumstance of the bark having been dealt out as a medicine by the Countess de Chinchon. But this name was subsequently metamorphosed into “Cardinal’s” or “Jesuit’s” Powder, because Cardinal de Lugo, Procurator-General of the Order of the Jesuits, made known the medicine, whilst he was on a journey through France, and recommended it the more urgently to Cardinal Mazarin, as the brethren of the Order were beginning to carry on a profitable trade in the South American Quina bark, which they contrived to obtain through their missionaries. It is scarcely necessary to mention that Protestant physicians suffered themselves sometimes to be influenced by religious intolerance and hatred of the Jesuits, in the long controversy that was maintained, respecting the good or evil effects of the fever bark.

Footnote 113:

p. 393—“_Aposentos de Mulalo_.”

The Aposentos are dwellings or inns. They are called in the Quichua language _Tampu_, whence the Spanish term _Tambo_ (an inn). On the subject of these Aposentos see Cieça’s _Chronica del Peru_ (cap. 41 ed. de 1544, p. 108), and my _Vues des Cordillères_ (Pl. xxiv).

Footnote 114:

p. 394—“_The fortress of the Cañar_.”

This fortress is situated near Turche, and at an elevation of about 10,640 feet.[RU] Not far distant from the Fortaleza del Cañar is situated the celebrated ravine of the sun, called the Inti-Guaycu (in the Quichua language _huaycco_). In this ravine there are some rocks on which the natives imagine they see the image of the sun, and a bench called the Inga-Chungana (Incachuncana), the Inca’s play. I made drawings of both. (_Vues des Cord._, pl. xviii. et xix.)

Footnote 115:

p. 394—“_Causeways covered with cemented gravel_.”

See Velasco’s _Historia de Quito_, 1844, (t. i. p. 126–128), and Prescott’s _History of the Conquest of Peru_, (vol. i. p. 157.)

Footnote 116:

p. 395—“_Flights of Steps_.”

See Pedro Sancho in Ramusio, vol. iii. fol. 404, and the Extracts from Manuscript Letters of Hernando Pizarro, of which Mr. Prescott, the great historical writer, now at Boston, has so advantageously availed himself (vol. i. p. 444). “El camino de las sierras es cosa de ver, porque en verdad en tierra tan fragosa en la cristiandad no se han visto tan hermosos caminos, toda la mayor parte de calzada.”[RV]

Footnote 117:

p. 396—“_Greeks, Romans, &c., present examples of these contrasts_.”

“The Greeks,” says Strabo, (lib. v. p. 235, Casaub,) “in building their cities sought to produce a happy result by aiming at the union of beauty and solidity; but, on the other hand, the Romans directed

## particular attention to objects which the Greeks neglected; paving the

streets with stone, building aqueducts to provide a plentiful supply of water, and constructing drainage for carrying all the uncleanliness of the city into the Tiber. They likewise paved all the roads in the country, so that the merchandize brought by trading vessels might be conveniently transported from place to place.”

Footnote 118:

p. 397—“_Nemterequeteba, the messenger of God_.”

Civilization in Mexico (the Aztec country of Anahuac), and in that country which, in the Peruvian theocracy, was called the Empire of the Sun, has so rivetted the attention of Europe, that a third point of dawning civilization, the mountainous regions of New Granada, was long totally lost sight of. I have already treated this subject in some detail.[RW] The government of the Muyscas of New Granada bore some resemblance to the constitution of Japan: the temporal ruler corresponded with the Cubo or Seogun at Jeddo, and the spiritual ruler was like the sacred Daïri at Meaco. The table-land of Bogota was called by the natives of the country Bacata, _i. e._, the utmost limit of the cultivated plains considered with reference to the mountain wall. When Gonzalo Ximenez de Quesada advanced thither he found the country ruled by three powers, whose relative subordination one to another is not now clearly understood. The spiritual chief was the electoral high priest of Iraca or Sogamoso (Sugamuxi, the place at which Nemterequeteba is said to have disappeared), the temporal princes were the Zake (Zaque of Hunsa or Tunja), and the Zipa of Funza. The last-named prince seems to have been, in the feudal constitution, originally subordinate to the Zake.

The Muyscas had a regular system of computing time, with intercalation for the amendment of the lunar year. For money they made use of small circular gold plates, cast, and all equal in diameter, (a circumstance worthy of remark, as traces of coinage even among the ancient and highly civilized Egyptians have hitherto been sought in vain). Their temples of the Sun were built with stone columns, some vestiges of which have recently been discovered in Leiva.[RX] The race of the Muyscas should properly be distinguished by the denomination Chibchas; for Muysca, in the Chibcha language, merely signifies _men_ or _people_. The origin and the elements of civilization, introduced among the Muyscas, were attributed to two mythical beings, Bochica and Nemterequeteba, who are frequently confounded one with another. Bochica was the most mythical of the two; having been in some degree regarded as divine and even equal to the Sun. His fair companion Chia or Huythaca occasioned, through her magical art, the submersion of the beautiful valley of Bogota, and for that reason she was banished from the earth by Bochica, and made to revolve round it as the moon. Bochica struck the rocks of Tequendama, and thereby opened a passage through which the waters flowed off in the neighbourhood of the Giants’ Field (Campo de Gigantes), where, at the elevation of 8792 feet above the level of the sea, the bones of elephant-like Mastodons have been discovered. It is stated by Captain Cochrane,[RY] and by Mr. John Ranking,[RZ] that animals like the Mastodon still live in the Andes, and that they cast their teeth. Nemterequeteba, surnamed Chinzapogua, (_el enviado de Dios_, the envoy of God,) was regarded as a human being. He is represented as a bearded man, who came from the East, from Pasca, and who disappeared at Sogamoso. The foundation of the sanctuary of Iraca is sometimes ascribed to Nemterequeteba and sometimes to Bochica. The latter, it would appear, also bore the name of Nemterequeteba, and, therefore, that the one should have been confounded with the other, on such unhistoric ground, is a circumstance easily accounted for.

My old friend Colonel Acosta, in his admirable work entitled _Compendio de la Historia de la Nueva Granada_, endeavours to show, through the evidence of the Quichua language, that New Granada is the native land of the potato plant. In the _Compendio_ (p. 185), he observes, “that as the potato (_Solanum tuberosum_) is known in Usmè by the indigenous name _Yomi_, and not by the Peruvian name, and as it was found by Quesada, cultivated in the province of Velez in 1537, a period when its introduction from Chile, Peru, and Quito must have been improbable, the plant may be regarded as indigenous to New Granada.” It must, however, be borne in mind that the Peruvians had invaded Quito, and made themselves completely masters of it before 1525, in which year the death of the Inca Huayna Capac occurred. Indeed, the southern provinces of Quito fell under the dominion of Tupac Inca Yupanqui at the close of the fifteenth century.[SA] The history of the first introduction of the potato into Europe is, unfortunately, involved in much obscurity, but the merit of the introduction is still very generally supposed to be due to Sir John Hawkins, who is said to have brought the plant from Santa Fé in the year 1563 or 1565. But a fact, which appears to be better authenticated, is, that the first potatoes grown in Europe were those planted by Sir Walter Raleigh on his estate at Youghal in Ireland, from whence they were conveyed to Lancashire. The Banana-tree (_Musa_), which, since the arrival of the Spaniards, has been cultivated in all the warmer parts of New Granada, is believed, by Colonel Acosta (p. 205), to have been known only in Choco before the Conquista. The name Cundinamarca, which by affected erudition was applied to the young republic of New Granada in the year 1811, a name suggestive of golden dreams (sueños dorados), would properly be Cundirumarca, not Cunturmarca.[SB] Luis Daza, who accompanied the small invading army commanded by the Conquistador Sebastian de Belalcazar, who advanced from the south, mentions having heard of a distant country, rich in gold, and inhabited by the race of the Chicas. This country, Daza states, was called Cundirumarea, and its prince solicited auxiliary troops from Atahuallpa in Caxamarca. The Chichas have been confounded with the Chibchas or Muyscas of New Granada; and by a similar mistake the name of the unknown more southerly region has been transferred to this country.

Footnote 119:

p. 400—“_Fall of the Rio de Chamaya_.”

See my _Recueil des Observ. Astron._, vol. i. p. 304; Nivellement Barométrique, No. 236–242. I made a drawing of the swimming courier, representing him in the act of winding round his head the handkerchief containing the letters. See _Vues des Cordillères_, pi. xxxi.

Footnote 120:

p. 401—“_A point of some importance to the geography of South America, on account of an old observation of La Condamine_.”

My object was to connect chronometrically, Tomependa, (the starting-point of La Condamine’s journey) and other places on the Amazon river, geographically determined by him, with the town of Quito. La Condamine was in Tomependa in June, 1743; consequently, 59 years before I visited that place, which I found, after astronomical observations made during three consecutive nights, to be situated in south lat. 5° 31′ 28″, and west long. 78° 34′ 55″). By my observations, and a laborious recalculation of all those previously made, Oltmanns has shewn that until the time of my return to France the longitude of Quito had been erroneously determined, and that the error made a difference of full 50½ arc-minutes.[SC] Jupiter’s satellites, lunar distances, and occultations afford a satisfactory accordance, and all the elements of the calculation are before the public. The too easterly longitude which had been determined for Quito was, by La Condamine, carried to Cuenca and the Amazon river. “Je fis,” says La Condamine, “mon premier essai de navigation sur un radeau (_balsa_) en descendant la rivière de Chinchipe jusqu’à Tomependa. Il fallut me contenter d’en déterminer la latitude et de conclure la longitude par les routes. J’y fis mon testament politique en rédigeant l’extrait de mes observations les plus importantes.”[SD]

Footnote 121:

p. 403—“_At the elevation of nearly 12,800 feet above the sea, we found marine fossils_.”

See my _Essai géognostique sur le Gisement des Roches_, 1823, p. 236; and for the first zoological determination of the fossils contained in the cretaceous formation of the Andes chain, see Leopold de Buch, _Pétrifications recueillies en Amérique_ par Alex. de Humboldt et Charles Degenhardt, 1839 (in fol.), pp. 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 18, 22. Pentland found fossil shells of the Silurian formation in Bolivia, and on the Nevado of Antakana at the elevation of 17,480 feet. (See Mary Somerville’s _Physical Geography_, 1849, vol. i. p. 185.)

Footnote 122:

p. 407—“_The point at which the Andes-chain is intersected by the magnetic equator_.”

See my _Rélation Hist. du Voyage aux Régions Equinoxiales_, t. iii. p. 622; and _Cosmos_, vol. i. pp. 191, 432; where, through errors of the press, the longitude is in one place marked 48° 40′, and in another 80° 40′, whereas it ought to be 80° 54′.

Footnote 123:

p. 409—“_Tedious court ceremonies_.”

Conformably with an ancient ceremonial, Atahuallpa spat, not on the ground, but into the hand of a distinguished lady of the Court circle. “This was done,” observes Garcilaso, “by reason of his majesty.” “El Inca nunca escupia en el suelo, sino en la mano de una Señora mui principal, por Magestad.” (Garcilaso, _Comment. Reales_, p. ii. p. 46.)

Footnote 124:

p. 410—“_Captivity of Atahuallpa_.”

The captive Inca was, at his own desire, a short time before he was put to death, conducted into the open air, for the purpose of seeing a large comet, described to have been of a greenish black hue, and nearly as thick as a man’s body; (“_una cometa verdinegra, poco menos gruesa que el cuerpo de un hombre_,” Garcilaso, p. ii. p. 44). This comet, which Atahuallpa saw shortly before his death, (therefore, in July or August, 1533), he supposed to be the same comet of evil omen, which had appeared at the death of his father Huayna Capac, and was certainly identical with that observed by Appian.[SE] The comet was seen by Appian, on the 21st of July, standing high in the north, near the constellation of Perseus; and it appeared like a sword held by Perseus, in his right hand.[SF] The year in which the Inca Huayna Capac died, is considered by Robertson not to be satisfactorily determined; but the investigations of Balboa and Velasco shew, that the event must have occurred about the end of 1525. The statements of Hevelius (_Cométographie_, p. 844), and of Pingré (vol. i. p. 485), obtain additional confirmation from the testimony of Garcilaso. (p. i. p. 321,) and the traditions preserved among the Amautas (“que son los filosofos de aquella republica”). I may here add the remark, that Oviedo is certainly incorrect in stating in the yet unpublished continuation of his “_Historia de las Indias_,” that the name of the Inca was not Atahuallpa, but Atabaliva. See Prescott’s _Conquest of Peru_, vol. i. p. 498.

Footnote 125:

p. 410—“_Ducados de Oro_,” (3,838,000 _golden ducats_.)

The sum mentioned in the text is that stated by Garcilaso de la Vega.[SG] On this subject, however, Padre Blas Valera and Gomera give different accounts.[SH] Moreover, it is difficult to ascertain the precise value of the Ducado Castellano or Peso de Oro.[SI] The intelligent historian, Prescott, has had the opportunity of consulting a manuscript, bearing the promising title of “_Acta de Reparticion del Rescate de Atahuallpa_,” (Act of assessment for the ransom of Atahuallpa). The Peruvian booty shared by the brothers Pizarro and by Almagro, appears to be too highly estimated by Prescott, who says it amounted to 3,500,000_l._ sterling, but the ransom money, the treasures of the different temples of the Sun, and of the Huertas de Oro, were all included in that amount.[SJ]

Footnote 126:

p. 412—“_The great Huayna Capac, who, for a Child of the Sun, was somewhat disposed to free-thinking_.”

The nightly disappearance of the sun excited, in the mind of the Inca, many philosophic doubts respecting the government of the world by that luminary. Among the Inca’s remarks on this subject, as recorded by Padre Bias Valera, are the following:—“Many maintain that the sun lives and is the creator and maker of all things (_el hacedor de todas las cosas_); but whosoever desires to do a thing completely must continue at his task without intermission. Now many things are done when the sun is absent, therefore, he cannot be the creator of all. It may also be doubted whether the sun be really living, for, though always moving round in a circle, he is never weary (_no se cansa_). If the sun were a living thing he would, like ourselves, become weary; and if he were free, he would, doubtless, sometimes move into parts of the heavens in which we never see him. The sun is like an ox bound by a rope, being obliged always to move in the same circle (_como una Res atada que siempre hace un mismo cerco_), or like an arrow which can only go where it is sent, and not where it may itself wish to go.” (Garcilaso, _Comment. Reales_, p. i. lib. viii. cap. 8, p. 276.) The Inca’s simple comparison of the circling movement of a heavenly body to that of an ox fastened by a rope is very curious, owing to a circumstance which may be explained here. Huayna Capac died at Quito in 1525 (seven years prior to the invasion of the Spaniards), and his empire was divided between Huascar and Atahuallpa. Now, in the native language of Peru, the name Huascar signifies rope, and Atahuallpa means a cock or a fowl. Instead of _res_ Huayna Capac probably used the word signifying, in his native language, _animal_ generally; but, even in Spanish, the word _res_ is not applied exclusively to oxen, but is employed to denote cattle of all kinds. How far the Padre, with the view of weaning the natives from the dynastic service of the Inca, may have mingled passages from his own sermons with the heresies of the Inca, we need not here inquire. That it was deemed very important to keep these doubts from the knowledge of the lower classes of the people is evident, from the very conservative policy and the state maxims of the Inca Roca, the conqueror of the province of Charcas. This Inca founded schools exclusively for the higher classes, and, under heavy penalties, prohibited instruction being given to the common people, lest it should render them presumptuous, and cause them to disturb the State. (No es licito que enseñen á los hijos de los Plebeios las Ciencias, porque la gente baja no se eleve y ensobervezca y menoscabe la Republica; Garcilaso, p. i. p. 276.) Thus the theocracy of the Incas may be said to have resembled the Slave States in the free land of the North American Union.

Footnote 127:

p. 415—“_Expected restoration of the Inca rule_.”

I have treated this subject at length in another work.[SK] Sir Walter Raleigh had heard of an old prophecy current in Peru, which foretold “that from Inglaterra those Ingas shoulde be againe in time to come restored and deliuered from the seruitude of the said conquerors. I am resolued that if there were but a small army afoote in Guiana marching towards Manoa, the chiefe citie of Inga, he would yield her Majesty by composition, so many hundred thousand pounds yearely, as should both defend all enemies abroad and defray all expenses at home, and that he woulde besides pay a garrison of 3000 or 4000 soldiers very royally to defend him against other nations. The Inca will be brought to tribute with great gladnes.”[SL] A restoration project, which promised to be highly satisfactory to both parties, but, unfortunately for the success of the scheme, the dynasty which was to be restored and which was to pay for the restoration was wanting.

Footnote 128:

p. 418—“_The adventurous expedition of Vasco Nuñez de Balboa_.”

I have, in another work, mentioned the fact that Columbus, long before his death, full ten years prior to Balboa’s expedition, was aware of the existence of the South Sea, and its near proximity to the eastern coast of Veragua.[SM] Columbus was led to the knowledge of this fact, not by theoretical speculations on the configuration of Eastern Asia, but by positive and local information obtained from the inhabitants themselves, information which he collected on his fourth voyage (11th May, 1502, to the 7th November, 1504). This fourth voyage led the Admiral from the coast of Honduras to the Puerto de Mosquitos, and even as far as the western extremity of the Isthmus of Panama. The natives reported (and Columbus commented on their reports in the _Carta rarissima_ of the 7th of July, 1503), “that not far from the Rio de Belen, the other sea (the South Sea), turns (boxa) to the mouths of the Ganges; so that the countries of the Aurea (_i.e._, the Chersonesus Aurea of Ptolemy) are situated, in relation to the eastern shores of Veragua, as Tortosa (at the mouth of the Ebro) is in relation to Fuentarabia (on the Bidassoa) in Biscay, or as Venice in respect to Pisa.” But, although Balboa first saw the South Sea from the heights of the Sierra de Quarequa, on the 25th of September,[SN] it was several days later before Alonzo Martin de Don Benito, who had discovered a passage from the mountains of Quarequa to the gulf of San Miguel, embarked on the South Sea in a canoe.[SO]

The recent acquisition of the western coast of the New Continent by the United States of North America, and the fame of the golden treasures of New (now called Upper) California, have rendered the question of forming a direct communication between the shores of the Atlantic and the western regions, by the isthmus of Panama, more urgent than ever. I, therefore, consider it my duty here once more to direct attention to the fact, that the shortest route to the shores of the Pacific, as pointed out by the natives to Alonzo Martin de Don Benito, is in the eastern part of the Isthmus, and led to the Golfo de San Miguel. We know that Columbus[SP] sought for a narrow pass (estrecho de tierra firme); and in the official documents extant, of the dates of 1505, 1507, and especially in that of 1514, mention is made of the sought-for opening (abertura), and of the pass (passo), which, in this district, should lead directly to the “Indian Land of Spices.” A channel of communication between the Atlantic and the Pacific, is a subject which has more or less occupied my attention for the space of forty years; and in my published works, as well as in the several memoirs which, with honourable confidence, the Free States of Spanish America have requested me to write, I have constantly recommended a hypsometrical survey of the Isthmus throughout its whole length, but more especially at two points, viz., where at Darien and what was formerly the deserted province of Biruquete, it joins the South American Continent, and where, between Atrato and the Bay of Cupica, on the shore of the Pacific, the mountain chain of the Isthmus almost entirely disappears.[SQ]

In the year 1828 and 1829, General Bolivar, at my request, caused the Isthmus between Panama and the mouth of the Rio Chagres to be accurately levelled by Lloyd and Falmarc.[SR] Since that time, other measurements have been executed by intelligent and experienced French engineers, and plans have been drawn out for canals and railways with locks and tunnels. But these measurements have invariably been made in the meridian direction between Porto-bello and Panama, or westward from thence, towards Chagres and Cruces. The most important points of the eastern and south-eastern parts of the Isthmus, on both shores, have in the meantime been overlooked. Until those parts shall be described geographically, according to accurate (but easily obtained) chronometrical determinations of latitude and longitude; and hypsometrically, with reference to their superficial conformation, by barometrical measurements and elevations, I see no reason to alter the views I have always entertained on this subject. Accordingly, at the present time (1849), I here repeat the opinion I have often before expressed; viz., _that the assertion is groundless and altogether premature_, that the Isthmus of Panama is unsuited to the formation of an Oceanic Canal—one with fewer sluices than the Caledonian Canal—capable of affording an unimpeded passage, at all seasons of the year, to vessels of that class which sail between New York and Liverpool, and between Chili and California.

According to examinations, the results of which the Directors of the Deposito Hidrografico of Madrid have caused to be inserted in all their maps since 1809, it appears that on the Antillean shore of the Isthmus, the creek called the Ensenada de Mandinga, stretches so far to the south that its distance from the Pacific shore, eastward of Panama, appears to be only between 4 and 5 German geographical miles (15 to an equatorial degree) or 16 to 20 English geographical miles. On the Pacific coast also, the deep Golfo de San Miguel, into which falls the Rio Tuyra, with its tributary the river Chuchunque (Chucunaque), runs far into the Isthmus. The river Chuchunque too, in the upper part of its course, runs within 16 geographical miles of the Antillean shore of the Isthmus, westward of Cape Tiburon. For upwards of twenty years I have been repeatedly consulted on the problem of the Isthmus of Panama, by companies having ample pecuniary means at their disposal; but in no instance has the simple advice I have given been followed. Every engineer who has been scientifically educated knows the fact that between the tropics, even without corresponding observations, good barometrical measurements (horary variations being taken into account) may be relied on as correct, within from 75 to 96 feet. Besides it would be easy to establish, for the space of a few months, one on each shore, two fixed barometric stations; and frequently to compare the portable instruments used in the preliminary levelling with each other, and with those at the fixed stations. The point demanding the most attentive examination is that where the range of mountains between the Isthmus and the main continent of South America sinks into hills. Considering the importance of this subject to the commercial interests of the whole world, the examination should not, as heretofore, be restricted within narrow bounds. A complete comprehensive survey, including the whole eastern part of the Isthmus—the results of which would be alike useful in facilitating every possible scheme, whether of canals or railroads—can alone decide the much discussed problem, either affirmatively or negatively. This work will in the end be undertaken, but had my advice been adopted, it would have been done at first.

Footnote 129:

p. 418—“_Impressions excited by the accidental circumstances of life_.”

In _Cosmos_ I have adverted to the incitements to the Study of Nature. (Vol. ii. p. 371, Bohn’s edition.)

Footnote 130:

p. 420—“_Of importance in determining the longitude of Lima_.”

At the time of my expedition the longitude of Lima, as determined by Malaspina and marked in the maps published by the Deposito Hidrografico de Madrid, was 5^h 16′ 53″. The transit of Mercury over the Sun’s disc, on the 9th of November, 1802 (which I observed at Callao, the port of Lima, from the Round Tower of the Fort of San Felipe), gave for Callao, by the mean of the contact of both limbs, 5^h 18′ 16″ 5; by the external contact only, 5^h 18′ 18″ (79° 34′ 30″). This result, obtained from the transit of Mercury, has been confirmed by Lartigue and Duperrey; and by observations made during Capt. Fitzroy’s expeditions of the “Adventurer” and the “Beagle.” Lartigue fixed the longitude of Callao at 5^h 17′ 58″; Duperrey made it 5^h 18′ 16″; and Capt. Fitzroy 5^h 18′ 15″. After having calculated the longitudinal difference between Callao and the Convent of San Juan de Dios at Lima, by carrying chronometers from the one place to the other during four journeys, I found that the observations of the transit of Mercury determined the longitude of Lima to be 5^h 17′ 51″ (79° 27′ 45″ W. from Paris, or 77° 6′ 3″ W. from Greenwich.) See my _Recueil d’observations astron._, vol. ii. p. 397, and _Relation hist._, t. iii. p. 592.

POTSDAM, _June, 1849_.

THE END.

INDEX.

Abyssinia, elevation of the mountains of, 116, 118.

Acaciæ, various species of, in South America, 307; of Australia, 313.

Accaouais, tribe of the, 184.

Achaguas, savage tribe of, 197.

Acicular, or needle-leaved trees, natural history of, and their extensive geographical diffusion, 314, _et seq._; varieties of, 325, 328.

Aconcagua, elevation of the volcano of, 205.

## Actiniæ, the, 252.

Adansonia, a colossal species of dragon-tree (known as the Baobab or monkey-bread tree), 270, 271, 273.

Aërial Ocean, the influence of its pressure on plants, 292, 295, 296.

Africa, extensive barren plains in the interior of, 2; deserts of, uninhabitable by man, 3; Oasis of, 2; deserts of described by Herodotus, 9; causes of excessive heat, 9; mountains of, 9; Northern Africa one connected sea of sand, 9, 110; character of its vegetation, 10; two races of men separated by the great north desert, 19, 140; nomadic tribes of, 50.

Agouti, the antelope of South America, 12.

Aguas Calientes, elevation of, 208.

Ahuahuetes, a colossal species of tree, 274.

Air, currents of, on the vertical ascent of, 266; influence of its pressure on plants, 292, 295, 296.

Alders, 231.

Allco, a Peruvian dog, 218.

Alleghanys, temperature of the, 102, 103.

Almond tree, the Bertholletia excelsa, 158, 179.

Aloes, one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 228, 332; various species of, 334.

Alpine regions, elevation and temperature of, 84.

Altai, mountain plateau of, 53; the mountain-chain of, 63, 64.

Aluates, the plaintive cry of the, 199.

Amazon, plain of the, 6; the wild luxuriance of its regions, 19; called the “Great River” by the natives, 155; its extent, 157; boundless wooded plain of the, 161.

——, Upper, plains of, 390; breadth of, at Tomependa, 401.

Amentaceæ, 194, 285.

America, migrations to, through Northern Asia, 11, 131; absence of cereal food in, 12; pastoral life unknown to the aborigines, 12; on the cosmological origin of, 105; the southern hemisphere cooler than the northern, 107.

——, North, inclination of the eastern shore, 29; natural features and configuration of, 31–40; no pastoral tribes discovered among the aborigines, 42; on the climate and distribution of heat in, 102 _et seq._

——, South, the vast Steppes of, 6, 8, 85; physical causes of the diminution of heat, 7, 96 _et seq._; presents a remarkable similarity to the south-western continent of the old world, 8, 105; character of its vegetation, 10; aborigines of, 11; cattle of, 11; quadrupeds of, 12, 133; the regions by which the Steppes of, are bounded, 19; the wild luxuriance of nature, 19; various races of man, 20; mountain systems of, 30, 31; forests of, 98; general disquisition on the climate of, 96–109; vast savannahs of, 98; early civilization of, 130, 131; limits of European civilization in, 140; carved rocks found in, 147–151; the great rivers of, 155 _et seq._; different routes proposed in the unknown portions of, 177; Schomburgk’s journey across the continent of, 176, 177; the early maps of, 181; their uncertainty, 182; immense extent of the woody region between the plains of Venezuela, and the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, 194; the vegetable kingdom of, as yet imperfectly explored, 292–294; Humboldt’s journey across, from Caxamarca to the Pacific, 393–420.

Ammon, temple of, 2; nomos of, 44; the probability of its having stood on the sea-shore, 264.

Ammonites, found on the Andes, 403.

Amucu, lake of, 159, 179, 184, 185; where situated, 186, 187.

Amygdaleæ, 95.

Anai, village of, 187.

Andes, chain of the, 31; the seat of active volcanos, 43; inhabited by the Spanish race, 192; chain of, in Bolivia, various elevations of the, 205; sojourn on the ridge of the, 290; paramos of the, 292; Humboldt’s journey across, from Caxamarca to the Pacific Ocean, 390–420; elevation of, at the Paramo del Assuay, 393; succession of Paramos, 407; picturesquely marked by masses of erupted porphyry and trachyte, 403; marine fossils found 12,800 feet above the level of the sea, 403; illustrative notes of the, 421; derivation of, 423; the point where they are intersected by the magnetic equator, 407, 429.

Animal kingdom, great divisions of the, 222.

Animal life existing in the solitudes of the loftiest mountains, 210; in the atmosphere, in the waters, and the earth, 211–214.

Animalcules of the atmosphere, the water, and the earth, 211–214.

Animals which yield milk, 11, 125, 126; of South America, 12, 133; struggles and conflicts of, 17; on the hybernation of, 242, 243; domestic, inquiry respecting the origin of, 52; nocturnal life of, in the primeval forests of South America, 191 _et seq._; traits of, 198, 199; various cries of, 199, 200; illustrative notes, 202.

Antilles, sea of the, 23; springs among the islands of the, 155, 174; inhabited by the Spanish race, 191.

Antisana, mountainous plain of, 17; great elevation of, 139; cavern of, its great elevation, 237; volcano of, 371.

Anurahdepura, the sacred fig-tree of, 275.

Aparecidas las islands so called, 24.

Apes, the foreboders of rain, 20, 141; nocturnal cry of, 199, 203.

Aposentos de Mulalo, of the Andes, 393, 423.

Apure, River, steppes of the, 6; observations on, 194.

——, Llanos de, temperature of, 137.

Aqueducts, of the Peruvians, 398.

Aragua, valley of, 24.

Arborescent vegetation, 322.

Aristolochia, immense blossoms of the, 230, 348.

Armadillo, of South America, 12.

Arum cordifolium, vital heat of the, 330.

Arundinaria, 180.

Ascaris, 213, 251.

Asia, Central, contains the largest steppes in the world, 3, 4, 94; the mountain plateaux of, 53–62; table of elevations, 58; general review of the mountain chains of, 63–73; the volcanos of, distant from the sea, 65; vegetation of the steppes of, 95.

Astrææ, the, 253.

Atabapo, the river, 159; blackness of its water, 160.

Atahuallpa, the ancient fortress and palace of, 408–411; his captivity, 410, 429; historical notices of, 411 _et seq._; death of, and the appearance of a comet, 429; his descendants at Caxamarca, 11, 411–413.

Ataruipe, cave of, the tomb of an extinct tribe, 171, 188; numerous skeletons found, 171, 172.

Atlantic Ocean, northern waters of, agitated by a gyratory movement, 120–122; form of a longitudinal furrowed valley, 154, 174; calmness of its surface in certain latitudes, 154, 174.

Atlantic and Pacific, immense advantages to be derived from a communication, 433.

Atlantis, Island of, 55.

Atlas, Mount, covered with perpetual snow, 9; inhabitants to the north of, 19; Greater and Lesser, remarks on, 88, 89; elevation of, 89; on the position of the Atlas of the ancients, 110–113.

Atmosphere, animalcules of the, 211; the influence of its pressure on plants, 222, 295, 296.

Atolls (coral-walls), situation of, 254; origin of, 259; process of formation of, 262.

Atures, cataracts of the, 153 _et seq._; general account of, 162 _et seq._

——, the brave Indian tribe, melancholy legend of, 172; verses on the parrot of, 189.

Australia, Acacias, Myrtaceæ, and Casuarinæ, the principal vegetable forms of, 313.

Auvergne, plateau of, its elevation, 58.

Avars, early migration of the, 5.

Avenacecæ, 128.

Axum, plateau of, its elevation, 58.

Azteks, ruins of the fortress of the, 127; seat of the, 207; relics of civilization found, 207; pyramidal buildings of the, 398.

Badger, hybernation of the, 244.

Balboa, Vasco de, his adventurous expedition over the South American Continent, 418, 432.

Balch Pass, elevation of the, 79.

Bambusaceæ, one of the most beautiful ornaments of tropical climates, 334, 335.

Bananas, 221; one of the plants by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 224, 227; cultivated from the earliest infancy of civilization, 305.

Banisterias, 173.

“Banks,” of steppes, probably the marine shoals of the primeval world, 1, 26; phenomena of, explained, 27; composed of floetz strata, 28; immense tracts of, in the deserts of Africa and Asia, 28.

Banyan-tree, colossal size of, 275.

Baobab, colossal dimensions of the, 271, 272.

Baraguan, narrow pass of, 162.

Barjikang Pass, elevation and vegetation of the, 78.

Basalt, formation of, 218.

Bats of the South American steppes, 15.

Bavaria, plateau of, its elevation, 58.

“Bay of Sadness,” 155.

Bear, hybernation of the, 224.

Bees, discovered at the summit of the Rocky Mountains, 33.

Befaria, the purple-flowering, 23.

Beke, on the Mountains of the Moon, 115, 116.

Bengal, bay of, an arrested effort of Nature to form an inland sea, 254.

Bertholletia excelsa, colossal size of, 158, 179.

Bignonia, 173.

Binimi, fatal expedition to, 188.

Birds, hybernation of, 242; the ratio of their numerical distribution, 288.

Bison, of North America, 40–42.

Bixa Orellana, pigment of, 171.

Black Sea. See Euxine.

Boa-constrictor of the Orinoco, 20, 142; periodic torpidity of, 243.

Bolivia, geographical observations on, 204, 205.

Bolson de Massimi, el, elevation of, 208.

Bombaceæ, one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 224.

Botany. See Plants and Vegetation.

Bougainvillæa, new and beautiful species of, 400, 401.

Brahmins, geographical notions of the, 67.

Branco River, 178, 181, 182, 183, 184.

Buenos Ayres, situation and temperature of, 109.

Buffalo, of South America, 11, 125, 126; of the Mississippi, 40–42.

Butterflies, on the summit of Mont Blanc and on the Chimborazo, 232, 233.

Cacao, Montes de, 194–202.

Cactus, the, 15, 138; one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 225; indigenous to America, 310; its natural history, 311, 312.

Caladium, belongs exclusively to tropical climates, 329.

California, mountain coast-range of, 36, 37; volcanos still active in, 37; its golden treasures, and the advantages of the discovery, 433.

Cameji, on the Orinoco, 163; mouth of the, 166.

Camel, “the ship of the desert,” 3, 51; great utility of the, 51; natural history of the, 52, 53.

Camosi, rock of, 165.

Canada, monument discovered in the prairies of, 82.

Cañar, fortress of, 394, 424.

Canaries, inhabited by the Spanish race, 191.

Caouac, the food of the Indians, 145.

Cape Nun, situation of, 93.

Cape Town, situation and temperature of, 139.

Capybara, of the Orinoco, 198.

Caracas, alpine valleys of 1, 2, 4; the vast steppes of, 6; littoral chain of, 22; a mountainous region, 23; sugar-cane of, 26; Llanos of, 26, 94; plateau of, its elevation, 58.

Carguairazo, volcano of, falling in of the summit from an eruption, and curious phenomenon, 367.

Caribbean Gulf, 1.

—— Islands, disintegration of the, 23.

Carichana, Indian mission of, 161.

Carolinias, 160.

Carpathian Mountains, general features of the, 40.

Casas Grandas, ruins of an Aztek palace, 126.

Caschmere, valley of, 69.

Cassiquiare, the river of, 159, 160.

Cactaceæ, 138.

Castille, plateau of, its elevation, 58.

Casuarineæ, 221; one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 226; the principal vegetable form of Australia, 313, 314; physiognomy of the, 330.

Cataracts of the Orinoco, dissertation on the, 139 _et seq._; illustrative notes to, 174–190.

—— of Maypures and Atures, general account of, 162 _et seq._

Cattle of South America, 11, 125; vast quantities of, in the Pampas of, 14, 137.

Caura, sources of the, 162.

Causeways of the Inca road over the Andes, 394, 424.

Caxamarca (the ancient capital of the Inca Atahuallpa), Humboldt’s journey over the plateau or table-land of, 390–420; the scene of the sanguinary history of the Spanish conquest, 403; originally called Cassamarca, the “City of Frost,” 407; fertile valley of, 407; general description of, 408; ancient fort and palace of Atahuallpa, 408–411; descendants of the Inca resident at, 411–415; Humboldt’s departure from, 415; and arrival at the Pacific, 419; illustrative notes on, 421–436.

Cayos Flamenco, Bonito, &c. coral islands of, 257.

Celaya, elevation of the, 208.

Central fire of the earth connected with volcanic eruptions, 65, 66, 67, 360, 361, 372.

Cereals, on the culture of, 128, 129.

Cerro Duida River, 178.

Cervus Mexicanus, 133.

Cesalpineæ, 220.

Chagos Bank, formed of coral, 254, 255.

Chamaya, Rio de, 399, 400, 401; fall of its waters, 400, 427.

Chasars, early migration of the, 5.

Cherson, situation and temperature of, 104.

Chiguires, herds of, in South America, 12, 135.

Chihuahua, elevation of, 208.

Chimborazo, elevation of, 43; butterflies and other winged insects found on the summit of, 210, 232; peculiar colour of the water flowing from, 160; elevation of the four peaks, Pomarape, Gualateiri, Parinacota, and Sahama, 204; the vertical height, 234; probable derivation of the name, 234; defined as “the snow of Chimbo,” 235; the name probably transmitted from a bygone age, 235.

Chinchilla, the, 233.

Chinchon, Countess de, biographical notices of, 390, 422.

Chinese, ancient orographic knowledge of the, 56.

Choropampa, plain of, 406.

Chota, ruins of, 204; silver mines of, 402, 403.

Cidaris, species of, 403.

Cinchona, its first discovery and medical virtues, 390, 422; its habitat and natural history, 391.

Cinchona bark hunters, 281.

Civilization, limits of, in South America, 19, 140; and remains of, 207; progressive stages of, 398; in ancient Mexico and Peru, 425.

Climate, of South America, 7; general disquisition on, 95 _et seq._; of North America, 100 _et seq._; forms the various characteristics of nations, 219.

Climbing plants, 331, 332.

Coast Reefs, situation of, 253.

Cochabamba, Cordilleras of, 84.

Cocuyza, el Mogote de, rock of, 161.

Cœlebogyne, germination of the, 245.

Colossochelys, 222.

Columbia, cataracts and shores of the, 37.

Columbus, his voyage through the fucus banks of the ocean, 49, 50; his first discovery of the new continent, 156, 175, 432; his observations on the equinoctial currents, 175.

Compositæ, numerical relations of the, 279, 280, 281, 283, 284, 286; numerous species of, 291.

Condor, the giant among vultures, 210, 237; various names of the, 237; its native region, 237; immense altitude to which it soars, 237, 238; its habits, 239; mode of capture, 239.

Coniferæ, 194, 221; on the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 227; their extensive geographical diffusion, 314, 322, 323, _et seq._

Coral animals, labours of the, 214.

—— animalcules, wonderful formation of, 252 _et seq._; depth at which they can exist, 259.

—— Islands, 257.

—— Reefs, natural history of, 253, 257 _et seq._

Corals, the greatest number in the Ægean Sea, 259; various forms of, in the Red Sea, 255.

Cordilleras, of South America, vast extent of, 42; names of the highest points, 43; of Cochabamba, 84; of Peru, 210; deserts of the, 393; remains of the great road of the Incas across the, 393.

Corentyn River, exploration of the, 150.

Cormolache, mountain of, 404.

Cosiquiriachi, elevation of, 208.

Cosmos, quoted. See Humboldt.

Creeping Plants, 227, 331.

Crescentia, delicate blossoms from the rough bark, 230, 348.

Crocodile, of the Orinoco, 20, 142, 198; periodic torpidity of, 243.

Crotalus, the, 251.

Cruciferæ, 95, 285, 286.

Cryptogamia, 215; wonderful regermination of the, 241; numerical distribution of, 337.

Cumadanimari, hills of, 164.

Cumana, expedition to, 181.

Cunabami, mountain group of, 162.

Cupiliferæ, their geographical distribution, 322.

Curata, the Indian name of the colossal grass of South America, 180.

Curare, an Indian poison, 151, 152.

Curtius, Professor, his verses on the Parrot of the Atures, 189.

Cuzco, the capital of the Incas of Peru, 395; ancient fortress of, 397, 398.

Cyathea speciosa, 338.

Cyclidiæ, the, 213.

Cynometia, delicate blossoms spring from the rough bark, 348.

Cyperaceæ (Cypresses), 94, 95, 231, 284; gigantic forms of, 326.

Date Palms, geographical situation of, 297, 302.

Dead, Indian method of preserving the, 171.

Dead Sea, specimens of the Porites elongata from the, 260.

Delf and Pottery, remains of, found in South America, 207.

Deserts, general view of, 1 _et seq._; of Africa, 2, 3; probable causes of their sterility, 10; of Northern Africa, 110. See Steppes.

Dhawalagiri, elevation of the, 68, 71, 236.

Dicotyledons, numerous species of, 292.

Diodorus, his traditions respecting the primeval formation of the Mediterranean and of Samothrace, 262, 263.

Diœcious Plants, fructification of, 244, 246.

Djawahir, elevation of the, 69, 71.

Djebel-al-Komr, the Mountains of the Moon, 9.

Dogs, wild, herds of, in South America, 85; objects of Indian adoration, 85; natural history of, 86–88.

Dolphins of the Orinoco, 199, 202.

Dorado, fabulous, 185, 188.

“Dormideras,” the name of, applied to certain plants, 94.

Dormouse, hybernation of the, 243.

Dragon Tree, colossal dimensions of the, 220, 268 _et seq._; its habitats, 268; its prodigious age, 269, 270.

Dragon’s Mouth, at the entrance of the Orinoco, 155, 175.

Drought of the Steppes, 14, 15; effects of the change from, 16, 139.

Duida, the mountain of, described, 158.

Durango, in Mexico, elevation of, 268.

Earth, the food of the Otomaks and other Indians, 142–146; on the indurating and heat-emitting mass of the, 218, 267, 268.

Earthquake, submersion of a forest by an, 28; evidence of subterranean fire communications, 360; of 1811 and 1813, which shook the various parts of the New Continent, 260.

Eels, electric, 17; mode of capturing, 18; experiments on, 113.

Egypt, once overflowed by the sea, 264; left uncovered by the retreat of the Mediterranean, 264.

El Dorado, the fable of, 159.

Elater Noctilucus, phosphorescence emitted from the, 250.

Elbow Lake, situation of, 40.

Electric Fishes, 248.

Electricity, operations and extent of, 19, 140.

Elements, perpetual struggle of the, 387.

Elias, Mount, an active volcano, 37.

Elysian Plains, of the ancients, 111.

Encaramada, engravings on the rock of, 164.

Engravings on the rocks of central America, 147, 148; on the rocks of Uruana and Encaramada, 164.

Ephedra, the different species of, 328.

Epicharmus, the philosopher of Syracuse, his illustrations of vital force from the painting of the “Rhodian Genius,” 383–385.

Equinoctial Current, observations on the, 175.

Eratosthenes, geographical views of, 67.

Ericaceæ, 308, 310; the vegetable covering of the earth’s surface, 110, 225. See Heaths.

Escalloniæ, of the family of the Eriaceæ, geographical distribution of, 344.

Esmeralda, town of, 176, 179.

Esquimaux. See Indians.

Euglenes, the, 213.

Euphorbiaceæ, 197, 245, 285.

Euxine, primeval outburst of the waters of, 262; originally an inland lake, 263; forced the passage of the Dardanelles, 263; extract from Strabo, recording the primeval convulsion of its waters on the authority of Strato, 263.

Fan Palms of South America, 12, 13, 135, 136.

Fair Weather, Mount, an active volcano, 38.

Ferns, growth of, in different climates, 108; one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 229, 337–340; numerical relation and geographical distribution of, 280, 337; climatic relations under which they flourish, 339, 340.

Fish, the swimming-bladder of, 251.

Flamingoes, multitudes of, 197.

Floetz, strata of, 1.

Flora Japonica, curious properties of the, 320.

Forests of South America, 19, 98; plants composing the, 280.

—— primeval, on the nocturnal life of animals in the, 191 _et seq._; between the Orinoco and the Amazon, 193; definition and description of, 193; the Spanish word _Monte_ applied both to a forest and a mountain, 193; between the plains of Venezuela and Pampas of Buenos Ayres, immense extent of, 194; of Europe and Northern Asia, 194; impenetrability of some portions of, 195; illustrative notes, 202.

Fort George, situation and temperature of, 104.

Fossils, Marine, found on the Andes, 403, 428.

“Fountain of Youth,” fatal expedition to discover the, 188.

Frémont, Captain, geographical investigations of, 29, 32; lofty peak called after his name, 32, 33.

Fresnillo, elevation of, 208.

Frogs, vitality of, under water, 242.

Fucus, immense size of the marine Macrocystis pyrifera, 276; banks of the ocean, 47–50.

Galapagos, the, 256.

Gallinazos, different species of, 239; appreciated for their utility, 240.

Gallionellæ, 212.

Gambia, the river, 3.

Gebette River, 179.

Geneva, situation and temperature of, 104.

Geognostic (or Geological) profiles, 33.

Gerard, Dr., his visit to Shahil Pass, 76.

Gila River, delf and pottery found on the banks of, 207.

Globe, primeval, distribution of land and water different from the present, 164.

Glumaceæ, 95; numerical relation of the, 279, 283, 284.

Gobi, Steppe of, 5, 58; elevation of, 59.

Gomphrenas, 214.

Gonzales, Juan, shipwrecked, 172.

Gothard, Mont, height of, 35.

Gottenburg, situation and temperature of, 104.

Gramineæ, 94, 285, 286.

Granite, masses of leaden-coloured, 19, 141; turned black by the waters of the Orinoco, 163, 164.

Grasses of the Steppes, 16; farinaceous, culture of, 128; colossal stalks of a species of, 158, 180; arborescent, 221; one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 228, 334–337.

Greeks, extent of their maritime discoveries, 111.

Grossulariaceæ, 310.

Guaharibes, waterfall of the, 158.

Guaicas, tribe of the, 158.

Guainia, the river, 159, 160.

Gualgaya, argentiferous mountain of, 404; value of silver obtained from, 405.

Guamani, Paramo de, 417.

Guanaco, of South America, 126.

Guanaxuato, elevation of, 208.

Guancabamba, Rio de, 398; the swimming couriers of, 399, 400.

Guanches, race of the, 51.

Guangamarca, Andes pass of, 417, 418.

Guaranes, a tribe of South America, 12, 13, 134, 135.

Guareke Indians, savannahs inhabited by the, 163; melancholy legend of the, 172; their extinction, 172; skeletons and skulls of, 172.

Guaviare, the river, 159, 160.

Guayaquil, Rio de, peculiar blackness of its water, 160.

Guaycas, Indians, 178.

Guiana, the granitic stones of, 155; impenetrable forests of, 161; method of preserving the dead among the tribes of, 171; observations on the coast of, 176.

Guinea, negroes of, eat earth, 145.

Guirion, mission of, 182.

Gulf-stream of Mexico, 121–124.

Gustavia, delicate blossoms spring from the rough bark, 230, 348.

Gymnotus, the electric eel, 17; mode of capturing, 18; experiments on, 139.

Hami, oasis of, 62.

Hanno, Periplus of, 113.

Harudsch, desert near the mountains of, 2; basaltic mountains of, 44; geological features of, 45.

Heat, physical causes for the diminution of in South America, 7; general disquisition on, 96 _et seq._; of North America, 103 _et seq._; of the interior of the earth, 373, 379.

Heaths, of northern Europe, may be regarded as steppes, 2.

——, (Ericaceæ), one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of nature is principally determined, 225; the habitats and natural history of, 308, 309.

Hedgehog, hybernation of the, 212.

“Hell’s Mouth,” the whirlpool so called, 162.

Hermesia castanifolia, 197, 202.

Herodotus, has described the deserts of Northern Africa, 9.

Herrera, his observations on the voyage of Columbus, 156, 175.

Hesperides, of the ancients, 111.

Hillhouse, Mr., navigates the Massaruni, 184, 185.

Himalaya, estimated height of the, 32; mountain plateau of the, 54; the mountain chain of, 63, 68; observations of various travellers, 70; general elevation of, 71; on the perpetual snow-line of the, 74.

Hindoo-Coosh, situation of the, 67.

Hiongnu, a tribe of Eastern Asia, 52, 80, 81.

Hobart Town, situation and temperature of, 109.

Hordaceæ, 128.

Horse, the constant attendant of man, 17; everywhere exposed to attack, 17.

Huancaya, canine worship of the Indians of, 85.

Huayna Capac, of the family of the Incas, 412, 430, 431.

Humboldt, Alexander von, his journey over the plateau or table-land of Caxamarca to the shores of the Pacific, 390–420 (see Caxamarca); illustrative notes of the journey, 421–436.

——, works of, referred to in various notes;— Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 152, 278. Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 205, 255, 258, 328. Asie Centrale, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 69, 71, 73, 89, 91, 97, 99, 113, 234, 260. Cosmos, 41, 49, 53, 73, 114, 118, 124, 265, 273, 303, 305, 346, 388, 389. De Distributione geographica plantarum, 278, 296, 304, 338, 343. Essai Politique sur la Nouvelle Espagne, 31, 34, 37, 43, 88, 206, 257, 305, 306, 430, 434. Essai sur la Géographie des Plantes, 84, 129, 136, 138, 277, 281, 305, 306. Examen Critique de l’Histoire de la Géographie, 32, 48, 50, 88, 134, 236, 265, 271, 316, 322. Fragment d’un tableau géologique de l’Amérique Méridionale, 23. Letter to the Editor of the Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 249. Mémoire sur les Montagnes de l’Inde, 53. Mémoire sur les Lignes Isothermes, 87. Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, 185. Recueil d’Observations Astronomiques, 234, 238, 428. Recueil d’Observations de Zoologie et d’Anatomie Comparée, 24, 139, 141, 203, 237, 251. Relation Historique du Voyage aux Régions équinoxiales, 29, 29, 46, 48, 82, 85, 133, 134, 137, 139, 141, 144, 147, 152, 180, 202, 203, 242, 250, 269, 305, 336, 338, 432, 434. Sur la Fixation des limites des Guyanes Française et Portuguaise, 178. Treatise on the Quina Woods, 423. Uber die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser, 295. Vues des Cordillères et Monumens des Peuples indigènes de l’Amérique, 131, 236, 269, 424, 425.

Humming-birds, seen at an elevation of 14,600 feet, 237.

Huns, early migration of the, 5; various races of, 80, 81.

Hybernation of animals, 242, 243.

Hydras, the, 252.

Hylæa, of the Amazon, 6.

Hymeneæ, 220.

Hypsometric observations on the heights of mountains and their peaks, 204–209.

Illimani Peaks, situation and elevation of, 204.

Inca roads of Peru, remains of, 393–397, 424; flights of steps, 395, 424.

Inca Roca, State policy of, 431.

Incas of Peru, their early conquest of Quito, 236; ancient fort and palace of the, at Caxamarca, 408–411; descendants of, 411–413; treasures taken from their temples by the Spaniards, 410, 430; their worship of the Sun, 430, 431; expected restoration of their ancient rule, 415, 432. See Atahuallpa.

India, mountain plateaux of, 55.

Indians, driven on the coast of Germany, 124; of the Orinoco, method of preserving their dead, 171.

Infusoria, vital tenacity of, 241, 242, 244; marine, luminosity of the, 247 _et seq._

Insect life in the atmosphere, the ocean, and the earth, 211–214.

Insects, carried to an elevation of 19,000 feet above the plains, 232, 233.

“Inundation, the Valley of,” 183.

Ipomucena Islands, 187.

Ipurucotos, tribe of the, 182.

Islands formed of coral reefs, 257.

Italian scenery, 216; sky, 217.

Jagua Palm, beauties of the 392.

Jaguar, of South America, 12; traits of the, 195, 196, 197.

Jainti-dhára, elevation of the, 80.

Jao, sources of the, 162; mouth of, 164.

Japan, history of the peopling of, 12, 131; the character of its vegetation different from that of the Asiatic continent, 320.

Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, rich collections of the, 287, 288.

Jardines del Rey, 257.

Jarures, race of the, 20.

Juncaceæ, 95, 285.

Kalmuck-Kirghis tribes, extensive steppes occupied by, 3.

Kashmir, valley of, its elevation, 59.

Keeling-Atoll, a coral lagoon, 255.

Keri, rocks of, 163, 164, 165.

Kinchinjinga, the highest point of the Himalaya, 68.

Kuen-lün, the mountain plateau of, 53; the mountain chain of, 63, 66, 67.

Kyllyngiæ, the steppes covered with, 16.

Kyungar Pass, elevation and vegetation of, 79.

Labiatæ, 285, 286.

Lagoon Islands, 254; hypothesis respecting, 261.

Lagos, elevation of, 208.

Lake Istaca, sources and elevation of, 40.

—— Superior, its elevation, 39.

Lakhur Pass, ascent to the, 80.

Lama, of South America, 126.

Landscape-painters, leading forms of vegetation, instructions to, 346.

—— painting, on the beauties of, as derived from the vegetable kingdom, 346, 347.

Languages, variety of, in the South American wilds, 20; changes in the terms of, 191; in language truth to nature should be the chief object, 192.

Latent life, disquisition on, 242, 243.

Lecideæ, 10, 125.

Leguminosæ, 280, 284, 285, 286.

Lemaur, Don F., his trigonometrical survey of the Bahia de Xagua, 174.

Lepidosiren, periodic torpidity of, 243.

Leprariæ, the, 214.

Leucopria, 213; modulata, 251.

Lianes, or creeping plants, one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 227, 331.

Lichens, 10, 125.

Liliaceæ, one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is chiefly determined, 229, 341.

Lima, observations for determining the longitude of, 420, 435, 436.

Limande, of the Orinoco, 203.

Lions, of South America, 12; nocturnal roar of, 199; not to be found in the Sahara, 90.

Lithodendra, the, 253.

Lithophytes, the, 214, 251 _et seq._

Llanos of South America, 2; the great plains of the, 7; extent of, 8; adapted for breeding cattle, 10; have become habitable to man, 13, 14; extension of, 22; of Caracas, 26, 27, 94; elevation of, 27; of Barcelona, 28; effect of, on the mind, 28; general observations on, 29; of the valley of the Amazon, 83; situated in the torrid zone, 88; de Apure, temperature of, 137; extensively overflowed by the Orinoco, 185.

Löffling’s expedition to Cumana, 181.

London’s Arboretum, &c., quoted, 273.

Loxa, town of, 390.

Luminosity of sea-water, 246; attributed to Mollusca, 247 _et seq._

Lupata, Cordilleras of, covered with eternal snow, 9; mountain range of, 120.

Lyctonia, ancient land of, 265, 266.

Macos, race of the, 20.

Macrocystis pyrifera, a species of marine fucus, colossal size of, 276.

Macusi Indians, religious traditions of the, 147.

Madagascar River, hedgehogs and tortoises of, 242, 243.

Madrepores, the, 253.

Magdalena River, called “The Great Water,” by the natives, 155; valley of, 416.

Magellan, straits of, the temperature of, 107.

Magnetic needle, physical effects of the sudden variations of the, 249.

Mahu River, description of the, 186.

Majonkong Indians, mountainous country of the, 176, 180.

Malvaceæ (Mallows), one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 224; its various families, 305, 306; on the natural history of the, 306.

Mammalia, the ratio of their numerical distribution, 287, 288.

Man, various races of, in the South American wilds, 20, 142; his ferocity in a savage state, 20, 151; discordant elements of, even in civilized life, 21; everywhere is man opposed to man, 21; the monuments of his creative genius pass away, while the life-springs of Nature remain eternal, 173.

Manco Capac, his mysterious appearance in Peru, 397.

Manimi, perilous cataract ledges of, 166.

Mapires, the coffins of the Indians, 171.

Maps, of South America, 181.

Maquitares, race of the, 20.

Mar de Sargasso, geographical situation of, 48.

Marañon, valley of, 402.

Maravaca, mountain of, 179.

Marmot, the, 233.

Massaruni River, navigated, 184, 185.

Mastodons, elephantine, 222.

Matter, vital force of, affinitive and repulsive, 383; various combinations of, 384, 385.

Mauritia-palms of South America, 12; useful and nutritious properties of, 13, 135, 136.

Maypures, cataracts of, 153 _et seq._; general account of the waterfalls of, 162, _et seq._; missionary village of, 163; Parrot of, 172.

Mediterranean, great catastrophe by which it was formed, 216, 262–265; Strato’s account of, 263.

——, three peninsulas of the, Iberian, Italian, and Hellenic, 265.

Medusa hysocella, electric light struck from the, 249.

Mehemet Ali, his exploring expeditions to the Mountains of the Moon, 117.

Melastomaceæ, 160; one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 229, 346.

Melocactuses, the, 15, 138, 226; vegetable springs, 312.

Meta, whirlpool and rock at the entrance of the, 161.

Mexican Gulf, rotatory stream of the, 121–124; coral islands in the, 256.

Mexico, plateau of, its elevation, 58; elevation of, in the equinoctial zone, 208; general elevation of, 209; the Coniferæ and oaks of, 315 _et seq._

Microscope, wonderful discoveries of the, 211.

Migrations, through northern Asia to the western coast of America, 11, 131.

Mimosas, the steppes of South America covered with, 16, 216; one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 224; the habitat and natural history of, 307, 308.

Mirage, deceptive appearances of the, 13, 137.

Mississippi, its sources and elevation, 39; the forest, prairies of, 40; temperature of the valley of the, 102, 103.

Missouri, deposits of the, 38.

Mœris, Lake, probably once connected with the sea, 244.

Mollusca, marine luminosity of the, 246, 247 _et seq._

Monad, question respecting the, 241.

Mongolian Steppe, in Central Asia, 4, 19

Monkeys of South America, cries of, 199, 203.

Monocotyledons, numerous species of, 212.

Moon, natural representations of, 165.

——, Mountains of the, 9; disquisition on, 114, 115.

Mont Blanc, 210.

Monte, the term, in Spanish, applied both to mountain and forest, 194.

Monte Video, situation and temperature of, 104.

—— Nuovo, in the Peloponnesus, 356.

Mouflon, the long-horned, of South America, 11.

Mountains, of South America, system of, 30, 31; plan for measuring the heights of, 33; vast range in North America, 35–38; the Cordilleras the longest chain in the world, 42, 43; plateaux of Asia, 53–62; table of elevations, 68; general view of the great mountain chains of Asia, 63–73; on the snow-lines of, 73 _et seq._; masses of, in South America, 84; numerous terms for, in the Castilian dialects, 191, 202; the names of, derived from the most ancient relics of languages, 236; transparency of the atmosphere of, 238; process of their formation, 262.

Mule, instinctive cunning of the, for allaying his thirst, 15.

Musk Ox, of South America, 11, 125; of the Mississippi, 40.

Muyscas, the ancient inhabitants of New Granada, 425; civilization of, 426.

Mylodon robustus, 222.

Myrtaceæ (Myrtles), 179, 280; of Australia, 312; one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 229, 343–345.

Mysore, plateau of, its elevation, 58.

Naiads, the, 213.

Nations, characteristics of, formed by climate, 219.

Natron Lakes, of Egypt, 44.

Nature, the study of, conducive to intellectual repose, 21; her powerful influence in the regions of the tropics, 154, 215; the life-springs of, ever prolific and eternal, 173; the many voices of, revealed in animal existence, 200–201; periodic stagnation of 215; great convulsion of, in the Mediterranean, 216, 262–265; general physiognomy of, 218, 219; principally determined by sixteen forms of plants, 221; vital force of, illustrated by Epicharmus, 383–385.

Negroes, various hordes of, in Africa, 19.

Nemterequeteba, the ancient Peruvian “messenger of God,” 397, 425, 426.

Nevado de Sorata, immense elevation of, 43.

—— de Illimani, elevation of, 43.

—— situation and elevation of peaks, 204.

New Granada, the ancient seat of civilization, 425, 426; the native land of the potato, 426, 427.

Niagara, origin of the falls of, 165.

Nile, on the sources of the, 115–129; windings of, in Abyssinia, 157.

Noon-day, the stillness of in the tropics, contrasted with the night, 200; all larger animals then take refuge in the forest, 201.

Oaks, cover the mountain plains of the equator in South America, 231; immense size and age of an oak in the department of Charente, 275; elevated situation of, growing in Mexico, 135.

Oases, of the African desert, 2, 3; number of, in Egypt, 44; the name of, Egyptian, 45.

Ocean, vegetation of the, 48, 49; phosphorescence of the, 212, 245.

Ocellinæ, the, 253.

Oco, rock of, 163.

Opuntiaceæ, 310.

Orange River, its elevation, 58.

—— trees, number and magnitude of, in the Huertas de Pucara, 400.

Orchideæ, natural history of the, 312, 313; one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 226, 227.

Oregon, territory of, 35; temperature of, 104.

Orinoco, the wild luxuriance of its regions, 19; rock engravings on the banks of, 82; the great steppe extending from the mouth of the, 81; accounts of the cataracts of, 153 _et seq._; the name unknown in the interior of the country, 155; simply called “the river,” 155; current produced by the, 155; the mighty waters of poured into the Atlantic, 156; general description of, 157 _et seq._; its general course and remarkable windings, 159; picturesque rocky vales of, 161; its course along the chain of the Parime, 161, 162; separates the forest of Guiana from the extensive savannahs, 162; danger to boatmen from floating forest trees, 162; possesses the singular property of colouring black the reddish masses of granite, 163, 164; on the sources of the, 158, 175, 176, 178, 180; the ancient water level considerably depressed, 164; illustrative notes, 174–190; passes through the mountains of the Parime, 200.

Orotava, colossal dragon-tree of, 268, 269.

Orphic Argonaut, mythical narrations of, 265.

Otaheiti, sugar cane of, 25.

Otomacs, or Ottomaks, a tribe of Indians who eat earth, lizards, &c., 20, 142, 143; observations on, 144, 145; the poison curare used by, 151.

Ox, the constant attendant of man, 17; everywhere exposed to attack, 17.

Pacaraima Mountains, 182, 183, 184.

——, latitude of, 185, 186.

Pachydermata, 222.

Pacific Ocean, first view of, from the Guangamarca of the Andes, 419; immense advantages to be derived from a direct communication with the Atlantic, 433.

Paco, of South America, 126.

Padano River, 176, 179.

Padurello, 212.

Palms of South America, 12, 13, 135, 136, 298; the Piriguao, one of the noblest forms of the, 161, 185; the family of, 221; the most stately of all vegetable forms, by which the aspect of nature is principally determined, 223; on the habitat and natural history of, 297–304; form and colour of the fruit, 303.

Pampa de Navar, 406.

Pampas of South America, 2; general observation on, 29.

Panama, Isthmus of, various measurements of, 434, 435.

Paragua, a general name for water or sea, 193.

Paraguamusi River, 183.

Paramo de la Suma Paz, the mountain group of the Caracas, its elevation, vegetation, &c., 4, 84; the highest Alpine regions, 83, 94; of the Andes, in Peru, elevation and description of, 392, 407.

Paramu River, 176.

Parasitic vermes, 251.

Parime, mountain chain of the, 161, 162, 200; the terra incognita of South America, 178; the lake of, alleged to be the source of the Orinoco, 181, Zabulon, 187; a general name for water or sea, 183; the great Mar de la, proved to be the Lake Amucu, 188.

Paropanisus, the snow-crowned summits of 155, 175.

Parras, elevation of, 208.

Paspalum, the steppes covered with, 16.

Passo del Norte, elevation of, 208.

Pastos, Province de los, its elevation, 58.

Peccary, tracts of the, 197.

Pentastoma, 213; a division of the parasitic vermes, 251.

Peru, remains of the great road formed by the Incas, 393–397.

Periplus of Scylax, 46.

Peru, Pizarro’s invasion of, 395, 397; historical notions of, 397; treasures taken from the temples of, by the Spaniards, 410, 430; ancient worship of the sun, 430, 431.

Petrifactions, wonderful phenomena presented by the study of, 373.

Phanerogamic plants, 220, 233, 276; immense variety of, 276–278; numerical relations of 279 _et seq._

Philippines, inhabited by the Spanish race, 191.

Phœnicians, extent of their discoveries, 110, 111.

Phosphorescence of the ocean, 212, 245.

Photocharis, luminosity of the, 247.

Phyllodia, 345.

Phyto-corals, 252, 253.

Pinduri, perpetual snow-line of the, 77.

Pine forest at Chilpanzingo, 328, 329; of South America, 194, 231; elevated situation of some growing in Mexico, 315; various species of, in Europe, 318; their geographical distribution, 321; gigantic forms of, 323–325.

Pinnate leaves, physiognomy of, 352.

Piragua, mouth of the, 166.

Pirara River, course of the, 186.

Pirigara, singular properties of the, 348.

Piriguao, one of the noblest species of palm-trees, 161, 185.

Pizarro’s invasion of Peru, 395, 397.

Plains, desert, of Africa, 2; vast extent of, 3; of Asia, 4.

Plains. See Steppes, Llanos, &c.

Plantains, one of the plants by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 224, 227; immense one in Lycia, 272.

Plants, various species of, in the great Asiatic Steppes, 4; different characteristics of, in Africa and South America, 10; on the cultivation of, in elevated plateaux, 62; in the Llanos of the Caracas, 94; the farinaceous grasses, 128; ideas on the physiognomy of, 210–231; illustrative notes, 232–352; universality of their existence, 214; causes of the absence of, over large tracts of land, 216, 217; sixteen forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 221–229 _et passim_; Palms, 223; Plantains, or Bananas, Malvaceæ and Bombaceæ, 224; Mimosas, Heaths, 225; Cactuses, Orchideæ, Casuarineæ, 226; Coniferæ, Pothos, Lianes, 227; Aloes, Grasses, 228; Ferns, Liliaceæ, Willows, Myrtaceæ, Melastomaceæ, and Laurineæ, 229; on the numerous species of Phanerogamia, and their extensive geographical distribution, 276–294; illustrative notes on the various forms of plants which principally determine the aspect of Nature, 296–346 _et passim_; as yet imperfectly explored in South America, 292–294; gigantic pines and cypresses, 323, 324, 326; beauties of the aspect of, 346, 349; general view of the physiognomy of, 349–352; on the similarity of vegetative forms, 351.

In addition to the plants above enumerated, the following which occur _passim_, are referred to under their respective alphabetical entries:— Acaciæ, Alders, Amentaceæ, Amygdaleæ, Aristolochias, Arundaria, Bambusaceæ, Banyans Bignonias, Carolinas, Caladiums, Cæsalpina, Compositæ, Crescentia, Cruciferæ, Cryptogamia, Cupuliferæ, Custaceæ, Cyaceæ, Cynometia, Cyperaceæ, Diœciæ, Dicotyledons, Ephidiæ, Ericaceæ, Escalloneæ, Euphorbiaceæ, Fucus, Glumaceæ, Gustavia, Hymeneæ, Juncaceæ, Labiatæ, Leguminosæ, Melastomas, Melocactus, Monocotyledons, Oaks, Opuntiaceæ, Phyllodia, Piniferæ, Polypodiaceæ, Portulaceæ, Rosaceæ, Rubraceæ, Saxifrage, Synanthereæ, Terebinthaceæ, Theobroma, Tiliaceæ, Umbelliferæ, Urticeæ, Yews, &c.

Plata, Steppes of, 6.

Plateaux, mountain, of Mexico, general elevation of, 209; of Caxamarca, Humboldt’s journey over the, 390–420; of Asia, 53–62; table of elevations, 58.

Pleuronectes, a species of sea-fish, 260.

Pliny’s account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, 369, 370.

Podocarpus taxifolia, its geographical distribution, 322.

Poison, used by the Otomaks, 151, 152.

Polygastrica, 212.

Polypodiaceæ, family of the, 338.

Polyps, natural history of the, 253.

Pompeii buried by an eruption of Vesuvius, 369.

Pongo River, 401, 402.

Pontus. See Euxine.

Popayan, plateau of, its elevation, 58.

Popocatepetl, volcano of, 65.

Porites elongata, 260, 261.

Porlieria hygrometrica, 401.

Port Famine, situation and temperature of, 109.

Portulacas, 214.

Potato plant, the native produce of New Granada, 426, 427.

Pothos, one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 227, 329; belongs exclusively to tropical climates, 329.

Prairies on the Missouri, 2.

Primeval Forest. See Forest.

Pumacena, the island of, 159.

Pumice, volcanic origin of, 369.

Purimarimi, perilous cataract ledge of, 166.

Quad-Dra, the river, its course through the Sahara, 92.

Quadrupeds of South America, 12, 133; of the Mississippi, 40.

Queretaro, elevation of, 208.

Quina Bark and Tree, notices of, 423.

Quito, plateau of, its elevation, 58; the first conquest of, by the Incas of Peru, 236; the table-land of, one volcanic hearth, 360; one of the capitals of the Incas, 396.

Rafflesia, immense flowers of the, 231.

Rain, general effects of, after drought in the Steppes, 16, 138.

Rattlesnake, vermes which inhabit the lungs of the, 251.

Raudal, the cataract of, 165; dangerous navigation of, 166.

Red Sea, coral reefs in the, 255.

Reinaud, M., on the Mountains of the Moon, 115.

Remora, the sucking fish, an agent for catching turtle, 257, 258.

“Rhodian Genius,” dissertation on the mysterious painting so called, 380–385; the principles of vital force illustrated from, by Epicharmus, 383; illustrative note, 386–389.

Rhopala ferruginea, 401.

Rio de la Plata, its magnitude, 156.

Rivers, effects of, overflowing their banks, 17; of South America, 156; of the Caracas, the peculiar blackness of the water, 160; a generic name for, usually adopted by those inhabiting their banks, 183; the only means of traversing the continent of South America, 195; the names of, derived from the most ancient relics of languages, 236.

Roads, remains of the great road of the Incas, 393–397.

Rocca del Palo, the highest northern margin of the crater of Vesuvius, 376.

“Rock of Patience,” at the entrance of the River Meta, 161.

Rocks of South America, images graven in, 20, 147, 148.

Rocky Mountains, estimated height of, 32; extent of, 35; observations on the, 205, 206.

Rome, temperature of, 108.

Rose Tree, great size and longevity of one in the Cathedral of Hildesheim, 275, 276.

Rosaceæ, growing in the Asiatic Steppes, 4, 95; ratio of their distribution, 321.

Rotation Stream of the Atlantic, 120–122.

Rotifera, wonderful revivification of the, 211, 240, _et seq._

Rubiaceæ, 280, 285.

Rupunuri, Lake of, 187.

Sabrina, sudden appearance of, attributed to volcanic subterranean fire, 360.

Sacramento River in California, 207.

Sahama, elevation of the, 205.

Sahara, the great desert of, two races of men separated by the, 19, 140; disquisition on, 89–93; traverses Africa like a dried-up arm of the sea, 110.

St. Bernard, Mount, height of, 35.

Salamanca, in Mexico, elevation of, 208.

Salt Lake, Great, 206.

Saltillo, elevation of, 208.

Samarang, edible clay of, 146.

Samothrace, traditions of, 216, 262, 265; aborigines of, 262; position of, 262.

San Fernando de Atabapo, 161.

San Juan del Rio, elevation of, 208.

San Luis Potosi, elevation of, 208.

Sanariapo, on the Orinoco, 163.

Sand-martin, hybernation of the, 242.

Sand-spouts, fury of, when passing over the steppes, 14, 137, 266.

Santa Barbara de Arichuna, mission of, 198.

Santa Fé del Nueva Mexico, elevation of, 208.

Sapajous, nocturnal cry of the, 199.

Sarcoramphus Papa, the, 240.

Saussureæ, growing on the Asiatic steppes, 4.

Savannahs of South America, 98; on the borders of the Orinoco, 162; inhabited by the Guareke Indians, 163; overflowed in April, 187.

Saxifrage, 233.

Schomburgk, Sir R., his antiquarian researches in South America, 147–151; his observations on the sources of the Orinoco, 176; his journey across the continent of South America, 177; his account of the Lake of Amucu, 186.

Sculptured rocks, in South America, 147–151.

Sea, on the uniformity of its level, 264, 265.

Sea-coasts, length of time before vegetation appears on the, 10.

Sea-water, on the phosphorescence of, 245; attributed to luminous mollusca, 246, 247.

Sea-weeds, phenomenon of their accumulation on the western coast of Africa, 56; of the ocean, 47–50.

Seeds, transferred to barren rocks, 214.

Senegal, inhabitants to the south of, 19.

Serpents, periodic torpidity of, 243.

Shátúl Pass, elevation of, 76.

Sierra Nevada of California, observations on the, 205, 206; situation of, 207.

Sierra Parime, mountain-chain of the, 22.

Silao, elevation of, 208.

Silla, ascent to the summit of the, 232.

Silver, value of, obtained from the mines of Gualgayoc and other Peruvian mountains, 405.

Simplon, Mount, height of, 35.

Sipapo, on the Orinoco, 163.

Sisgun, elevation of the plain of, 234.

Sitka, situation and temperature of, 104.

Siwah, oasis of, 44.

Snow, mountains eternally covered with, 9.

Snow-line of mountains, 73 _et seq._; of the Himalaya, 236.

Solano, Don José, documents of, 181.

Spanish race, inhabitants of parts of the Andes, the Canaries, the Antilles, and the Philippines, 192.

Springs from the bed of the ocean, 155, 174; which rise from different depths, dependent on internal heat, 373–379.

Stag, a native of South America, 133.

Stars, glorious spectacle of the, at the Equator, 231, 349.

Steppes and Deserts, general view of, 1–21; in the Caracas, 1; sterility and monotony of, 2; the heaths of northern Europe may be regarded as such, 2; in the interior of Africa, 3, 9; in central Asia the largest in the world, 3; covered with various plants and herbs, 4; have retarded civilization, 5; of South America, 6 _et seq._; of Africa, causes of their sterility, 10; towns sprung up on the rivers of, in South America, 14, 137; fury of the whirlwinds passing over the, 14; drought of the, and mirage, 15; genial effects of rain after drought, 16, 138; like a vast inland sea, 17, 139; the view of the regions by which they are bounded in Africa and America, 19, 140; illustrative notes to the article on, 22–125; tracts of, covered with naked rock, 28; of northern Asia, 57; extending from the mouth of the Orinoco, 83; of Central Africa, 94, 95; vegetation of, 95; the different features of, in Africa and Asia, 153; various terms for expressing in the Arabic and Persian languages, 191, 202; of South America, may be regarded as mere local phenomena, 216.

Strachey, Lieut., his observations on the snow-line of the Himalaya, 74.

Strato, his statement respecting the primeval convulsion of the waters of the Mediterranean and the Euxine, 163.

Strychnos, an Indian poison, 152.

Stylites, seat of the, 13, 136.

Sugar-cane, varieties of the, 24, 25, 26.

Sun, worship of, by the Peruvians, 430, 431.

Sun and Moon, representations of, on the rocks of the Orinoco, 165.

Swimming couriers of the Rio de Guancabamba, 399, 400.

Swiss scenery, 217.

Sydney, situation and temperature of, 109.

Synanthereæ, 95.

Syracuse, the painting of “The Rhodian Genius” at, 380–385.

Tacarigua, lake of, 1; its surrounding scenery and vegetation, 22.

Tapir, traits of the, 197.

Tartar steppes, 4.

Tayé, an animal of California, 127.

Taxus baccata, peculiar properties of, 320.

Teboco, rocky falls of, 185.

Teguayo, Lake of, 207.

Temi, the river, blackness of its water, 160.

Temperatures, mean annual, of South America and Europe, tables of, 100, 101.

Teneriffe, Peak of, the volcano, 371, 379.

Tepu-mereme, carved rock of, 148.

Terebinthiaceæ, 280.

Terra del Fuego, temperature of, 108.

Terra-firma, coast of, 23.

Theobroma, delicate blossoms spring from the roots, 230, 348.

Theobroma Cacao, of South America, 26.

Thian-schan, the mountain-chain of, 63, 64, 66.

Thibet, mountain plateau of, 55; elevation and geographical situation of, 60 plains of, 61.

Tibbos, nomadic tribes of Africa, 50.

Tiger, American, traits of the, 195, 196, 197; its nocturnal roar, 199.

Tiliaceæ, 194.

Timpanogo, Lake of, supposed to be the Great Salt Lake, 35; longitude of, 206.

Titicaca, Lake of, elevation of the plateau of, 58.

Tomependa, town of, on the Andes, 401, 428.

Tomo, island of, 164.

Toparo, on the Orinoco, 163; mouth of the, 166.

Tortoises, periodic torpidity of, 243.

Trees, immense size and antiquity of, 271–276; on the relation existing between the annular rings and their age, 274; natural families of, 274; heights to which they grow, 327.

Trinidad, asphaltic island of, 155; originally torn from the mainland, 175.

Tropical winds favourable to the mariner, 154, 174.

Tropics, beauties of evening scenery, 173; contain every variety and magnitude of vegetable forms, 217, 231.

Tuamini, the river, blackness of its water, 160.

Tuaryks, nomadic tribes of Africa, 50.

Tukiuish, an Asiatic tribe, 5.

Tula, elevation of, 208.

Tundra, the name of cryptogamic plants in the arctic regions, 95, 96.

Turtle, curious mode of catching, by means of the sucking-fish, 257, 258.

Tuyu, a bird of South America, 6.

Tzana, lake of, its elevation, 58.

Uivitari, island of, 163, 165.

Umbellaria Grœnlandica, 266.

Umbellifera, 285, 286.

Ummibida, ruins of, 44.

Uniami, mountain of, 163.

Ural chain of mountains, 63.

Uraricapara river, 183, 184.

Urns used for preserving the ashes of the dead, 171, 172.

Urticeæ, 245.

Uruana, engraving on the rocks of, 164.

Valencia, lake of, 24.

Vanilla form of the Orchideæ, 173, 226, 230; the fragrant, 230.

Vapour, the precipitation of, 217, 266.

Vegetation, length of time before it fixes itself on the sea coast, 10; different characters of, in Africa and South America, 10; natural history of the vegetable covering of the earth, 214; vegetation most exuberant in the tropics, 217, 220, 231; entire families of, 221; the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 221–229; their numerical relations and geographical distribution, 276 _et seq._; ratio of distribution, 285; as yet imperfectly explored in South America, 292–294; the leading vegetable forms instructive to the landscape painter, 346; general view of, 349–352; similarity of vegetable forms, 351. See Plants.

Venezuela, littoral chain of, 22; its extent and elevation, 22; description of, 23.

Vermes, parasitical, 251.

Vesuvius, elevation of, and various measurements of the margins of the crater, 363, 376, 377; great eruptions of, 364–366, 368 _et seq._; Rocca del Palo, the highest northern margin of the crater of, 376, 377; measurement of the Punta Nasone, and of the Hermitage of Salvatore, 377; height to which the scoriæ rise from the bottom of the crater, 378.

Vilfa, species of, 232.

Villa de Leon, elevation of, 208.

Vital force, dissertation on, 380–389; illustrated by Epicharmus from the painting of the “Rhodian Genius,” 383; symbols of its existence and extinction, 384; definition of, 386; illustrative note, 386–389.

Viverræ, a native of South America, 12, 134.

Volcanos, still active in the Californian chain of mountains, 37, 38; of Aconcagua, 205; of the interior of Asia and of the New World, 65; general view of their structure and mode of action in different parts of the earth, 353–375; previous to the eighteenth century, all our knowledge derived from observations of Vesuvius and Etna, 355; sudden volcanic fissures in various parts of the earth, 356, 357; various heights of, 358; craters of elevation, the importance of, 359; various groups of, with fire-emitting mouths, 359; the table-land of Quito one immense volcanic hearth, 360; the subterranean fire progressive from north to south, 360; earthquakes evidence of subterranean volcanic communication, 360, 361; elevation of Vesuvius, and various measurements of the margins of the crater, 373, 376, 377; great eruptions of, 364–366, 368 _et seq._; in the chain of the Andes, penetrate above the snow-line, 367; caused the lofty summit of Mount Carguairazo to fall in, when the whole surrounding country was covered with mud and fishes, 367; volcanic origin of pumice, 369; Pompeii buried by an eruption of Vesuvius, 369; Pliny, account of, 369, 370; the summits of upheaved masses of trachyte and lava, 370; Peak of Teneriffe, 371; sudden appearance and disappearance of, 371; what generates the heat of, 372–374; volcanic phenomena the result of connection between the interior and exterior of our planet, 373; illustrative notes of, 376–378.

Waraputa, cascade of, 149.

Wada-dhára, elevation and vegetation of, 79.

Water, peculiar blackness of some of the South American rivers, 160.

West wind, phenomenon of its prevalence on the African coast, 46.

Western currents of the ocean favourable to the mariner, 154, 174.

Wha-satch mountains, 207.

Wheat, first culture of, in New Spain, 130.

Wheel animalcules, wonderful revivification of the, 211, 240, 241.

White Sea, myth of the, 185.

Willows, one of the vegetable forms by which the aspect of Nature is principally determined, 229, 331, 342.

Words, changes in the meaning of, 191.

Worms, immense variety in the depth of the waters, 212.

Xagua, gulf of, springs of fresh water in the, 174.

Yanaguanga, paramo of, 407.

Yaruros, savage tribe of, 197.

Yew, its geographical distribution, 322; its great longevity, 273.

Yucatan, architectural remains in, 131, 132.

Zacatecas, elevation of, 208.

Zahara, phenomenon of the west winds on the African coast attributable to, 46.

Zambos, tribe of the, 197.

Zoophytes, the calcareous, 251.

LONDON: PRINTED BY HARRISON AND SON, ST. MARTIN’S LANE.

-----

Footnote A:

To instance a few, see pp. 241, 245, 255, 259, 304, 320, 325, 326, 386, 422, 424.

Footnote B:

These lines are from Schiller’s _Bride of Messina_, as translated by A. Lodge, Esq. See Schiller’s works (Bohn’s ed.) vol. iii. p. 509.

Footnote C:

It is not intended in every instance to trouble the reader with duplicate measurements; but they will be introduced occasionally. Wherever only one measurement is given, it must be understood as English.—ED.

Footnote D:

The Huns, on being driven from their ancient pastures by the Chinese, traversed Asia, (1300 leagues,) and, swelled by the numerous hordes they conquered _en route_, entered Europe, and gave the first impulse to the great migration of nations. Deguires traces their progress with geographical minuteness, and Gibbon tells their story with his usual eloquence in Chap. XXVI.—ED.

Footnote E:

This effect is well represented in Grindlay’s _Scenery of the Western Side of India_, plate 18.—ED.

Footnote F:

Modern naturalists affirm that _all_ bats are insectivorous.—ED.

Footnote G:

Ipsa suæ meminit stirpis, seseque Deisque Mens fruitur felix, et novit in astra reverti. _Barclaii Argenis_, lib. v.—ED.

Footnote H:

_Examen critique de l’Hist. de la Géographie_, t. iii., pp. 104–108.

Footnote I:

See my _Observations de Zoologie et d’Anatomie comparée_, t. ii., pp. 179–181.

Footnote J:

_Relation Hist._, t. ii., p. 279.

Footnote K:

See my _Essai Politique sur la Nouvelle Espagne_. 2me édit., t. i., pp. 82 and 109.

Footnote L:

See _Long’s Expeditions_, vol. ii., pp. 36, 362, 382. Ap. p. xxxvii.

Footnote M:

_Critical Researches on Philology and Geography_, 1824, p. 144.

Footnote N:

_Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in the year 1842, and to Oregon and North California, in the years 1843–1844_, p. 78.

Footnote O:

Chappe d’Auteroche, _Voyage en Sibérie, fait en 1761_. 4 vols., 4to., Paris, 1768.

Footnote P:

Frémont, _Report of the Exploring Expedition_, pp. 154, and 273–276.

Footnote Q:

Humboldt, _Atlas Mexicain_, pl. ch. 2; _Essai politique sur la Nouv. Esp._, t. i. p. 231; t. ii. pp. 243, 313, and 420. Frémont, _Upper California_, 1848, p. 9. See also Duflot de Mofras, _Exploration de l’Orégon_, 1844, t. ii. p. 140.

Footnote R:

In the _Archæologia Americana_, vol. ii. p. 140.

Footnote S:

Frémont’s _Report_, pp. 3, 60, 70, 100, and 129.

Footnote T:

Compare Erman’s _Reise um die Erde_, Abth. i. Bd. 3, s. 8, Abth. ii. Bd. 1. s. 386, with his _Archiv für Wissenschaftliche Kunde von Russland_, Bd. vi. s. 671.

Footnote U:

See my _Essai polit. sur la Nouv. Espagne_, t. ii. p. 314.

Footnote V:

Frémont, _Geographical Memoir upon Upper California_, 1848, p. 6.

Footnote W:

_Report_, p. 274 (or _Narrative_, p. 300).

Footnote X:

Compare Frémont’s _Report_, pp. 164, 184, 187, 193, and 299, with Nicollet’s _Illustration of the Hydrographical Basin of the Upper Mississippi River_, 1843, pp. 39–41.

Footnote Y:

Compare my _Relation Historique_, t. iii. p. 234, and Nicollet, _Report to the Senate of the United States_, 1843, pp. 7, 57.

Footnote Z:

Nicollet, op. cit. pp. 99, 125, 128.

Footnote AA:

Maximilian, Prinz zu Wied, _Reise in das innere Nord-Amerika_, bd. i., 1839, s. 443.

Footnote AB:

See _Cosmos_, vol. ii. p. 674 (Bohn’s edition).

Footnote AC:

_Historia general de las Indias_, cap. 214.

Footnote AD:

_Archæologia Americana_, vol. ii., 1836, p. 139.

Footnote AE:

Darwin, _Journal of Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the Countries visited 1832–1836 by the Ships Adventure and Beagle_, p. 266.

Footnote AF:

Humboldt, _Essai politique_, t. ii. p. 173.

Footnote AG:

Cailliaud, _Voyage à Syouah_, p. 14; Ideler, _Fundgruben des Orients_, bd. iv. s. 399–411.

Footnote AH:

Strabo, lib. ii. p. 130, lib. xvii. p. 813, Cas.; Herod, lib. iii. cap. 26. p. 207, Wessel.

Footnote AI:

See Ritter’s _Afrika_, 1822, s. 885, 988, 993, and 1003.

Footnote AJ:

Humboldt, _Relat. hist._, t. ii. p. 142, and Long’s _Expedition to the Rocky Mountains_, v. ii. pp. 91 and 405.

Footnote AK:

Compare _Scyl. Caryand. Peripl._, in Hudson, vol. ii. p. 53, with Aristot. _de Mirab. Auscult._ in _Op. omnia_, ex rec. Bekkeri, p. 884, § 136.

Footnote AL:

See also Edrisi, _Geogr. Nub._, 1619, p. 157.

Footnote AM:

_Ora Maritima_, v. 109, 122, 388, and 408.

Footnote AN:

Aristot. _Meteorol._, ii. 1, 14.

Footnote AO:

Acosta, _Historia natural y moral de las Indias_, lib. iii. cap. 4.

Footnote AP:

Compare Humboldt, _Relation historique_, t. i. p. 202, and _Examen Critique_, t. iii. pp. 68–69, with Rennell’s _Investigation of the Currents of the Atlantic Ocean_, 1832, p. 184.

Footnote AQ:

See _Cosmos_, vol. ii. p. 631, and note; Bohn’s edition.

Footnote AR:

See my _Examen Critique_, t. iii. pp. 64–99; and _Cosmos_, vol. ii. p. 655. Bohn’s edition.

Footnote AS:

_Exploration scientifique de l’Algérie_, t. ii. p. 343.

Footnote AT:

Chardin, _Voyages_, nouv. éd. par Langlès, 1811, t. iii. p. 376.

Footnote AU:

_Asien_, Bd. viii., Abth. 1, 1847, s. 610, 758.

Footnote AV:

_Historia Regionum Occidentalium, quæ Si-yu vocantur, visu et auditu cognitarum._

Footnote AW:

_Règne animal_, t. i. p. 257.

Footnote AX:

Ritter, _Asian_, Bd. viii. s. 670, 672, and 746.

Footnote AY:

Humboldt, _Cosmos_, Bohn’s ed., vol. i. p. 281.

Footnote AZ:

_Singapore Journal of the Indian Archipelago_, 1847, p. 286.

Footnote BA:

Sartorius von Waltershausen, _Physisch-geographische Skizze von Island_, 1847, s. 41.

Footnote BB:

Humboldt, _Premier Mémoire sur les Montagnes de l’Inde, in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique_, t. iii. 1816, p. 303; _Second Mémoire_, t. xiv. 1820, pp. 5–55.

Footnote BC:

_De Aëre et Aquis_, § xcvi. p. 74.

Footnote BD:

Strabo, lib. ii. p. 102; and lib. xiii. p. 598, Casaub.

Footnote BE:

Compare Strabo, lib. ii. pp. 71, 128; lib. iii. p. 137; lib. iv. pp. 199, 202; lib. v. p. 211, Casaub.

Footnote BF:

Humboldt, _Asie centrale_, t. ii. p. 141; Klaproth, _Asie polyglotta_, p. 232.

Footnote BG:

Compare my _Asie centrale_, t. iii. p. 310, with the _Journal of the Asiatic Soc. of Bengal_, vol. x. 1841, p. 114.

Footnote BH:

See his _Kashmir_, Bd. ii. s. 196.

Footnote BI:

Vigne, _Travels in Kashmir_, 1842, vol. i. pp. 237–293.

Footnote BJ:

Humboldt, _Asie centrale_, t. iii. pp. 281–325.

Footnote BK:

_Il Milione di Marco Polo_, pubbl. dal Conte Baldelli, t. i. pp. 32 and 87.

Footnote BL:

500 toises in the German, accurately 3197 feet. TR.

Footnote BM:

_Asie centrale_, t. ii. pp. 48–52 and 429.

Footnote BN:

In the learned Analysis of his _Karte von Inner Asien_, 1841, s. 99.

Footnote BO:

Ed. Schweighaüser, t. v. p. 204.

Footnote BP:

_Asie centrale_, t. i. p. 247.

Footnote BQ:

_Asie centrale_, t. ii. p. 138.

Footnote BR:

Jacob Grimm, _Gesch. der deutschen Sprache_, 1848, Th. i. s. 227.

Footnote BS:

_Asie centrale_, t. ii. pp. 18–20.

Footnote BT:

Klaproth, _Tableau hist. de l’Asie_, p. 108.

Footnote BU:

_Annales des Mines_, t. v. 1820, p. 137.

Footnote BV:

_Asie centrale_, t. ii. pp. 16–55, 69–77, 341, 356.

Footnote BW:

Baron von Meyendorff in the _Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France_, t. ix. 1837–1838, p. 230.

Footnote BX:

_Asie centrale_, t. i. pp. xxiii et 118–159; t. ii. pp. 431–434, 465.

Footnote BY:

Strabo, lib. ii. p. 68; lib. xi. pp. 490, 511; lib. xv. p. 689.

Footnote BZ:

Montfaucon, _Collectio nova Patrum_, t. ii. p. 137.

Footnote CA:

Compare _Asie centrale_, t. i. pp. xxiii et 122–138; t. ii. pp. 430–434, with _Cosmos_, vol. ii. p. 543, Bohn’s ed.

Footnote CB:

_Travels_, p. 97.

Footnote CC:

_Asie centrale_, t. ii. pp. 427, 483.

Footnote CD:

From a letter of Dr. Joseph Hooker, the learned botanist to the last Antarctic expedition, dated Darjeeling, 25th of July, 1848.

Footnote CE:

_Asie centrale_, t. i. pp. 138, 154, 198; t. ii. p. 367.

Footnote CF:

Compare Turner in the _Asiatic Researches_, vol. xii. p. 234, with Elphinstone, _Account of the Kingdom of Caubul_, 1815, p. 95, and Francis Hamilton, _Account of Nepal_, 1819, p. 92.

Footnote CG:

_Recueil d’Observations astronomiques_, t. i. p. 73.

Footnote CH:

_Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes pour 1830_, pp. 320, 323.

Footnote CI:

See Illustration (5), p. 44.

Footnote CJ:

See Lloyd and Gerard, _Tour in the Himalaya_, 1840, vol. i., pp. 143, 312, and _Asie centrale_, t. iii., p. 324.

Footnote CK:

Colebrooke, in the _Transactions of the Geological Society_, vol. vi. p. 411.

Footnote CL:

Compare my investigation regarding the snow-limit on both declivities of the Himalaya in my _Asie centrale_, t. ii., pp. 435–437; t. iii., pp. 281–326; and in _Cosmos_, vol. i., p. 337, Bohn’s ed.

Footnote CM:

_Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal._ New Series. No. xxviii. p. 287.

Footnote CN:

_Hist. gén. des Huns, des Turcs, etc._, 1756, t. i. P. 1, p. 217, P. 2, pp. 111, 125, 223, 447.

Footnote CO:

See Klaproth, _Asia Polyglotta_, pp. 183, 211; _Tableaux Historiques de l’Asie_, pp. 102, 109.

Footnote CP:

See Kalm’s _Reise_, Th. iii. p. 416.

Footnote CQ:

_Archæologia, or Miscellaneous Tracts published by the Society of Antiquarians of London_, vol. viii. 1787, p. 304.

Footnote CR:

_Relat. hist._ t. iii. p. 155.

Footnote CS:

_Chronica del Peru_, P. 1, cap. 87. (Losa con letras en los edificios de Vinaque.)

Footnote CT:

_Origen de los Indios_, 1607, lib. iii. cap. 5, p. 258.

Footnote CU:

Navarrete, _Viages de los Españoles_, t. i. p. 67.

Footnote CV:

Humboldt et Bonpland, _Plantæ æquinoctiales_, fasc. ii.

Footnote CW:

See Humboldt’s geognostic view of South America, in his _Relation historique_, t. iii. pp. 188–244.

Footnote CX:

Garcilaso de la Vega, _Commentarios Reales_, P. i., p. 184.

Footnote CY:

Frémont’s _Exploring Expedition_, 1845, p. 42.

Footnote CZ:

Clavigero, _Storia antica del Messico_, 1780, t. i. p. 73.

Footnote DA:

Buffon, t. xv., p. 155.

Footnote DB:

Azara, _Sur les Quadrupèdes du Paraguay_, t. i. p. 315.

Footnote DC:

On the dogs of America, see Smith Barton’s _Fragments of the Natural History of Pennsylvania_, p. i., p. 34.

Footnote DD:

J. J. von Tschudi, _Untersuchungen über die Fauna Peruana_, s. 247–251.

Footnote DE:

Garcilaso, P. i. 1723, p. 326.

Footnote DF:

Humboldt, _Essai polit._, t. ii. p. 448, and _Relation hist._, t. ii. p. 625.

Footnote DG:

_Geogr._, lib. iii. cap 1.

Footnote DH:

Humboldt, _Asie centrale_, t. i. pp. 247, 252.

Footnote DI:

_Exploration scientifique de l’Algérie, de 1840 à 1842, publiée par ordre du Gouvernement; Sciences hist. et géogr._, t. viii., 1846, pp. 364, 373.

Footnote DJ:

_Exploration scientif. de l’Algérie, Hist. et géogr._, t. ii. p. 332.

Footnote DK:

Ibid. t. ii. pp. 126–129, and t. vii. pp. 94, 97.

Footnote DL:

Fournel, _Sur les Gisemens de Muriate de Soude en Algérie_, p. 6, in the _Annales des Mines_, 4me serie, t. ix. 1846, p. 546.

Footnote DM:

_Asie centrale_, t. ii. p. 320.

Footnote DN:

_Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, t. xx. 1845, pp. 170, 882, 1305.

Footnote DO:

See Shaw, _Voyages dans plusieurs parties de la Berbérie_, t. i. p. 169, and Rennel, _Africa_, Append. p. lxxxv.

Footnote DP:

Fournel, _Sur les Gisemens de Muriate de Soude en Algérie_, pp. 28–41; and Karsten, _Ueber das Vorkommen des Kochsalzes auf der Oberfläche der Erde_, 1846, s. 497, 648, 741.

Footnote DQ:

_Memoria sull’ abbassamento di temperatura durante le notti placide e serene_, 1847, p. 55.

Footnote DR:

Consult, also, on African Meteorology, Aimé, in the _Explor. de l’Algérie, Phys. Gêner._ t. ii., 1846, p. 147.

Footnote DS:

_Explor. de l’Alg., Hist. et Géogr._ t. viii, pp. 65–78.

Footnote DT:

_Relation de l’Expedition de la Malouine._

Footnote DU:

Göbel, _Reise in die Steppe des südlichen Russlands_, 1838, th. ii. s. 244, 301.

Footnote DV:

Humboldt, _Mémoire sur les Lignes Isothermes_, 1817, p. 54. _Asie centrale_, t. iii. Mahlmann, Table IV.

Footnote DW:

_Asie centrale_, t. iii. p. 176.

Footnote DX:

_Meteor. Essays_, 1827, pp. 230, 278.

Footnote DY:

_Sull’ Abbassamento di Temperatura durante le Notti placide e serene_, 1847, pp. 47, 53.

Footnote DZ:

_Asie centrale_, t. iii. pp. 195–205.

Footnote EA:

_Temperatur-tafeln nebst Bemerkungen über die Verbreitung der Wärme auf der Oberfläche der Erde_, 1848, s. 95.

Footnote EB:

See the admirable treatise by Samuel Forry, on _The Climate of the United States_, 1842, pp. 37, 39, 102.

Footnote EC:

Forry, _Op. Cit._, pp. 97, 101, 107.

Footnote ED:

_Message from the President of the United States to Congress_, 1844, p. 160, and Forry, _Op. Cit._, pp. 49, 67, 73.

Footnote EE:

_Fragments of the Nat. Hist. of Pennsylvania_, P. I., p. 4.

Footnote EF:

See _Neue Berlinische Monatschrift_, Bd. xv., 1806, § 190.

Footnote EG:

On the vegetable remains found in the lignite formations of the north of America and of Europe, compare Adolph Brongniart, _Prodrome d’une Hist. des Végétaux Fossiles_, p. 179, and Charles Lyell’s _Travels in North America_, vol. ii., p. 20.

Footnote EH:

_Relacion del Viage al Estrecho de Magallanes_ (Apendice, 1793), p. 76.

Footnote EI:

See Robert Brown, _Appendix to Flinders’ Voyage_, pp. 575, 584; and Humboldt, _De Distribution Geographica Plantarum_, pp. 81–85.

Footnote EJ:

Jos. Hooker, _Flora Antarct._, 1844, p. 107.

Footnote EK:

Compare Darwin in the _Journal of Researches_, 1845, p. 244, with King in vol. i. of the _Narr. of the Voyages of the Adventure and the Beagle_, p. 577.

Footnote EL:

_Od._, i. 52.

Footnote EM:

_Il._, iv. 561.

Footnote EN:

_Theog._, v. 517.

Footnote EO:

_Op. et Dies_, v. 167.

Footnote EP:

_De Originibus Americanorum_, p. 195.

Footnote EQ:

On the connexion of purely mythical ideas and geographical traditions, and on the manner in which the Titan Atlas gave occasion to the image of a mountain beyond the Pillars of Hercules supporting the heavens, see Letronne, _Essai sur les Idées cosmographiques qui se rattachent au nom d’Atlas_, in Férussac’s _Bulletin universel des Sciences_, Mars 1831, p. 10.

Footnote ER:

_Asie centrale_, t. i., p. 179.

Footnote ES:

Lib. iii., 53, 55.

Footnote ET:

Maximus Tyrius, viii., 7, ed. Markland.

Footnote EU:

Lib. iv., cap. 9.

Footnote EV:

_Cosmos_, vol. ii., p. 559. Bohn’s ed.

Footnote EW:

Edition de 1810, pp. 7, 353.

Footnote EX:

See _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London_, vol. xvii., 1847, pp. 74–76.

Footnote EY:

_Viaggio nella Ethiopia_ (Ramusio, vol. i., p. 249).

Footnote EZ:

Compare Ayrton, in the _Journal of the Royal Geog. Soc._, vol. xviii., 1848, pp. 53, 55, 59–63, with Ferd. Werne’s instructive _Exped. zur Entd. der Nil-Quellen_, 1848, s. 534–536.

Footnote FA:

Lib. iv., cap. 9.

Footnote FB:

See Rüppell, _Reise in Abyssinien_, bd. i., s. 414; bd. ii., s. 443.

Footnote FC:

Humboldt, _Asie centrale_, t. iii., p. 272.

Footnote FD:

_Op. cit._, t. iii., p. 235.

Footnote FE:

Hakluyt, _Voyages_, vol. iii. p. 14.

Footnote FF:

Rennell, _Investigation of the Currents of the Atlantic Ocean_, 1832, pp. 96, 136.

Footnote FG:

_Account of the Islands of Orkney_ (1700), p. 60.

Footnote FH:

Bembo, _Historiæ Venetæ_, ed. 1718, lib. vii. p. 257.

Footnote FI:

Ed. Van. Staveren, cur. Bardili, t. ii. 1820, p. 356.

Footnote FJ:

Lib. iii, cap. 5, § 8.

Footnote FK:

_Hist. Nat._ ii. 67.

Footnote FL:

_Historia Gen. de las Indias._ Saragossa, 1553, fol. vii.

Footnote FM:

See _Cosmos_, vol. ii. p. 604 (Bohn’s ed.) and _Examen critique de l’Hist. de la Géographie_, t. ii. pp. 247–278.

Footnote FN:

Sartorius von Waltershausen, _Physisch-geographische Skizze von Island_, 1847, s. 22–35.

Footnote FO:

Prescott, _Conquest of Mexico_, vol. iii. p. 416.

Footnote FP:

_Chronica del Peru_, Sevilla, 1553, cap. 110, p. 264.

Footnote FQ:

See Gay, _Zoologia de Chili, Mamiferos_, 1847, p. 154.

Footnote FR:

See the Inca Garcilaso, _Commentarios Reales_, P. 1, lib. v. cap. 2, p. 133; and Prescott, _Hist. of the Conquest of Peru_, 1847, vol. i. p. 136.

Footnote FS:

_Fragments of the Nat. Hist. of Pennsylvania_, P. 1, p. 4.

Footnote FT:

Tschudi, _Fauna Peruana_, s. 256.

Footnote FU:

_Reise um die Erde_, th. iii. s. 64.

Footnote FV:

Tschudi, s. 228. 237.

Footnote FW:

See the pleasing descriptions in Darwin’s _Journal_, 1845, p. 66.

Footnote FX:

See a rare work printed at Mexico, in 1792, and entitled _Cronica seráfica y Apostólica del Colegio de Propaganda Fide de la Santa Cruz de Querétaro_, por Fray Juan Domingo Arricivita.

Footnote FY:

Jacob Grimm, _Gesch. der Deutschen Sprache_, 1848, th. i. s. 62.

Footnote FZ:

lib. v. pp. 199, 232. Wessel.

Footnote GA:

Strabo, xv. 1017.

Footnote GB:

_Geogr. Armen._, ed. Whiston, 1736, p. 360.

Footnote GC:

Ramusio, vol. ii. p. 10.

Footnote GD:

_Abhandl. der Berl. Akad. 1816_, s. 123.

Footnote GE:

_Essai sur la Géographie des Plantes_, 1805, p. 28.

Footnote GF:

Carl Koch, _Beiträge zur Flora des Orients_. Heft. 1, s. 139, 142.

Footnote GG:

Jacob Grimm, _Gesch. der deutschen Sprache_, th. i. s. 69.

Footnote GH:

_Vues des Cordillères et Monuments des peuples indigènes de l’Amérique_, 2 tomes.

Footnote GI:

Compare the work of D. Antonio del Rio, entitled _Description of the Ruins of an Ancient City discovered near Palenque_, 1822, translated from the orig. manuscr. report by Cabrera, p. 9, tab. 12–14 (Rio’s researches were made in the year 1787); with Stephens, _Incidents of Travel in Yucatan_, 1843, vol. i. pp. 391, 429–434, and vol. ii. pp. 21, 54, 56, 317, 323; with the magnificent work of Catherwood, _Views of Ancient Monuments in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan_, 1844; and lastly with Prescott, _The Conquest of Mexico_, vol. iii. Append. p. 360.

Footnote GJ:

Stephens, _Incid. of Travel in Yucatan_, vol. i. p. 439, and vol. ii. p. 278.

Footnote GK:

Klaproth, _Tableaux historiques de l’Asie_, 1824, p. 79; _Nouveau Journal asiatique_, t. x. 1832, p. 335; and Humboldt, _Examen critique_, t. ii. pp. 62–67.

Footnote GL:

_Rélat. hist._ t. iii. pp. 155–160.

Footnote GM:

Gomara, _Hist. general de las Indias_, p. 117.

Footnote GN:

Compare my _Relation historique_, t. i. p. 492, t. ii. pp. 653, 703, with Richard Schomburgk, _Reisen in Britisch Guiana_, th. i. 1847, s. 2, 120, 173, 194.

Footnote GO:

_Historiæ Venetæ_, 1551, p. 88.

Footnote GP:

See text of Riccardi in my _Examen crit._ t. iv. p. 496.

Footnote GQ:

Raleigh, _Discovery of Guiana_, 1596, p. 90.

Footnote GR:

_Brevis et admiranda Descriptio regni Guianæ_ (Norib. 1599), tab. 4.

Footnote GS:

Gumilla, _Historia natural, civil y geografica de las Naciones situadas en las riveras del Rio Orinoco_, nueva impr., 1791, pp. 143, 145, 163.

Footnote GT:

See _Journal of the Royal Geogr. Society_, vol. xii. 1842, p. 175, and _Description of the Murichi, or Ita Palm, read in the meeting of the British Association held at Cambridge, June 1845_ (_published in Simond’s Colonial Magazine_).

Footnote GU:

See also Sir Robert Schomburgk’s new edition of _Raleigh’s Discovery of Guiana_ (1848), p. 50.

Footnote GV:

Bernau, _Missionary Labours in British Guiana_, 1847, pp. 34, 44.

Footnote GW:

Humboldt, Bonpland, et Kunth, _Nova genera et species Plantarum_, t. i. p. 310.

Footnote GX:

Mosheim, _Institut. Hist. Eccles._, 1755, p. 215.

Footnote GY:

See my _Rélat. hist._, t. i. pp. 296, 625; t. ii. p. 161.

Footnote GZ:

Lib. iii. p. 184, Rhod., p. 219, Wessel.

Footnote HA:

Humboldt, Bonpland, et Kunth, _Synopsis Plantarum æquinoct. Orbis Novi_, t. iii. p. 370.

Footnote HB:

Compare Arago in my _Rélation hist._, t. i. p. 623.

Footnote HC:

See my _Rélat. histor._, t. ii. pp. 196, 626.

Footnote HD:

_Observations de Zoologie et d’Anatomie comparée_, t. i. pp. 83–87, and _Rélat. hist._, t. ii. pp. 173–190.

Footnote HE:

_Untersuchungen über thierische Electricität_, von Emil du Bois-Raymond, 1848, bd. i. s. xv.

Footnote HF:

_Reisen in Guiana und am Orinoko_, s. 212.

Footnote HG:

See my _Rélat. hist._ t. ii. pp. 299–304.

Footnote HH:

See my anatomical treatise in _Recueil d’Observations de Zoologie_, vol. i. p. 18.

Footnote HI:

On the Ethiopian Boa, see Diodor. Sicul., lib. iii. p. 204, ed. Wesseling.

Footnote HJ:

_Rélat. hist._, t. ii. pp. 618–620.

Footnote HK:

_Historia del Rio Orinoco_, nueva impr., 1791, t. i. p. 179.

Footnote HL:

This was also observed by Gilj, _Saggio di Storia Americana_, t. ii. p. 311.

Footnote HM:

Thibault de Chanvalon, _Voyage à la Martinique_, p. 85.

Footnote HN:

_Voyage à la Recherche de La Pérouse_, t. ii. p. 322.

Footnote HO:

_Bericht über die Verhandl. der Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin aus dem J. 1848_, s. 222–225.

Footnote HP:

_Voy. à la Rech. de La Pérouse_, t. ii. p. 205.

Footnote HQ:

See Ehrenberg, _Ueber das unsichtbar wirkende organiche Leben_, 1842, s. 41.

Footnote HR:

_Reisen in Guiana und am Orinoko_ übersetzt von Otto Schomburgk, 1841, s. 500.

Footnote HS:

Compare _Rélation historique_, t. ii. p. 589, with Martius, _Ueber die Physiognomie des Pflanzenreichs in Brasilien_, 1824, s. 14.

Footnote HT:

Richard Schomburgk, _Reisen in Britisch Guiana_, th. i. s. 320.

Footnote HU:

_Archæologia Britannica_, vol. v. 1779, pp. 318–324; and vol. vi. 1782, p. 107.

Footnote HV:

See my _Rélat. historique_, t. ii. pp. 547–556.

Footnote HW:

_Reisen in Britisch Guiana_, th. i. s. 441–461.

Footnote HX:

Compare also the older chemical analysis of Boussingault, in the _Annales de Chimie et Physique_, t. xxxix. 1828, pp. 24–37.

Footnote HY:

Humboldt, in this and other pages of his lecture, addressed, it should be remembered, to the citizens of Berlin, in 1806, evidently alludes to the troubles of the times.—ED.

Footnote HZ:

_Hist._, lib. vi., initio.

Footnote IA:

This subject is elaborately discussed in Heeren’s various works.—ED.

Footnote IB:

_Blumenbach, Collectiones suæ Craniorum diversarum gentium_, &c., 4to, Götting., 1798–1828.—ED.

Footnote IC:

Gilbert’s _Annalen der Physik_, bd. xvi. 1804, s. 394–449.

Footnote ID:

Navarrete, _Viages y Descubrimientos que hiciéron por mar los Españoles_, t. i. pp. 253, 260; t. iii. pp. 539, 587.

Footnote IE:

Diodor. Sicul., lib. xvii. p. 553 (Rhodom.).

Footnote IF:

_Reisen in Guiana_, 1841, s. 448.

Footnote IG:

See the Memoir which I drew up at the request of the Portuguese Government, in 1817, “_Sur la fixation des limites des Guyanes Française et Portuguaise_.” Schoell, _Archives historiques et politiques, ou Recueil de Pièces officielles, Mémoires, &c._ t. i. 1818, pp. 48–58.

Footnote IH:

_Relation historique_, t. ii. pp. 474–496, 558–562.

Footnote II:

_Reisen in Guiana und am Orinoko_, 451.

Footnote IJ:

_Nouvelles Annales des Voyages_, 1836, Sept. p. 316.

Footnote IK:

Humboldt, _Relation historique_, t. ii. p. 158.

Footnote IL:

See my _Relation historique_, t. ii. pp. 223, 239, 406–413.

Footnote IM:

_Recueil d’Observations de Zoologie et d’Anatomie comparée_, t. i. pp. 306–311, tab. xxviii.

Footnote IN:

_Op. cit._, t. ii. p. 340.

Footnote IO:

Vol. v. (1835), p. 77.

Footnote IP:

Hertha, _Zeitschrift für Erd und Völkerkunde_, von Berghaus, bd. xiii. 1829, s. 3–29.

Footnote IQ:

_Annales des Sciences Naturelles_, t. iv. 1825, pp. 225–253.

Footnote IR:

Berghaus, _Zeitschrift für Erdkunde_, band. ix. s. 322–326.

Footnote IS:

Fitzroy, _Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle_, 1839, vol. ii. p. 481; Darwin, _Journal of Researches_, 1845, pp. 253 and 291.

Footnote IT:

Mary Somerville, _Physical Geogr._, 1849, vol. ii. 425.

Footnote IU:

_Geographical Memoir upon Upper California, an illustration of his Map of Oregon and California_, 1848.

Footnote IV:

_Memoir of a Tour in Northern Mexico, connected with Col. Doniphan’s Expedition_, 1848.

Footnote IW:

_Expedition on the Upper Arkansas, 1845_, and _Examination of New Mexico in 1846 and 1847_.

Footnote IX:

Humboldt, _Essai polit. sur la Nouvelle Espagne_, t. i. pp. 127–136.

Footnote IY:

Frémont, _Geogr. Mem. of Upper California_, 1848, pp. 8 and 67; see also Humboldt, _Essai politique_, t. ii. p. 261.

Footnote IZ:

Compare Abert’s _Examination of New Mexico_, in the _Documents of Congress_, No. 41, pp. 489 and 581–605, with my _Essai pol._, t. ii. pp. 241–244.

Footnote JA:

Fossil remains of this gigantic antediluvian tortoise are now in the British Museum.—ED.

Footnote JB:

The weight of the lower branches bends them to the ground, so that a single tree forms a hemispherical mass of verdure sometimes 150 feet in diameter.—ED.

Footnote JC:

_Actes de la Société Helvétique_, 1843, p. 324.

Footnote JD:

Claudio Gay, _Historia fisica y politica de Chile, Zoologia_, 1844, p. 91.

Footnote JE:

Compare my _Asie centrale_, t. iii. p. 262, with Hooker, _Journal of Botany_, vol. i. 1834, p. 327, and the _Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal_, vol. xvii. 1834, p. 380.

Footnote JF:

_Recueil d’Observ. astron._, t. i. Intr. p. lxxii.

Footnote JG:

_Voyage à l’Equateur_, 1751, p. 184.

Footnote JH:

_Vocabulario de la Lengua general de todo el Peru llamada Lengua Quichua ó del Inca_, Lima, 1608.

Footnote JI:

See the word in Juan de Figueredo’s vocabulary of Chinchaysuyo words appended to Diego de Torres Rubio, _Arte, y Vocabulario de la Lengua Quichua_, reimpr. en Lima, 1751, fol. 222, b.

Footnote JJ:

Velasco, _Historia de Quito_, t. i. p. 185.

Footnote JK:

_Hist. of the Conquest of Peru_, vol. i. p. 125.

Footnote JL:

See my _Vues des Cordillères et Monumens des peuples indigènes de l’Amérique_, t. i. p. 116; and the Memoir entitled _Ueber zwei Versuche den Chimborazo zu besteigen, 1802 and 1831_, in Schumacher’s _Jahrbuch für 1837_, S. 176.

Footnote JM:

_Critical Researches on Philology and Geography_, 1824, p. 144.

Footnote JN:

See my _Recueil d’Observations de Zoologie et d’Anatomie comparée_, vol. i. p. 26–45.

Footnote JO:

_Fauna Peruana, Ornithol._ p. 12.

Footnote JP:

_Voyage de l’Amérique méridionale_, t. ii. p. 2. 1752; _Observations astronomiques et physiques_, p. 110.

Footnote JQ:

Claudio Gay, _Historia fisica y politica de Chile_, publicada bajo los auspicios del Supremo Gobierno; Zoologia, pp. 194–198.

Footnote JR:

On the action of water, see my _Versuche über die gereizte Muskel-und Nervenfaser_, Bd. ii. S. 250.

Footnote JS:

See his _Mémoire sur les Tardigrades et sur leur propriété de revenir à la vie_ (1842).

Footnote JT:

Doyère, _Op. cit._ p. 119.

Footnote JU:

Doyère, _Op. cit._ pp. 130–133.

Footnote JV:

Doyère, _Op. cit._ pp. 117 and 129.

Footnote JW:

_Règne animal_, 1829, t. i. p. 396.

Footnote JX:

Lavoisier, _Mémoires de Chimie_, t. i. p. 119.

Footnote JY:

Milne Edwards, _Eléments de Zoologie_, 1834, p. 543.

Footnote JZ:

_Relat. hist._, t. ii. pp. 192, 626.

Footnote KA:

_Grundriss der Kräuterkunde_, 4te Aufl. Berl. 1805. s. 405–412.

Footnote KB:

Auguste de St. Hilaire, _Leçons de Botanique_, 1840, pp. 565–571.

Footnote KC:

Adrien de Jussieu, _Cours élémentaire de Botanique_, 1840, p. 463.

Footnote KD:

Joh. Reinh. Forster, _Bemerkungen auf seiner Reise um die Welt_, 1783, s. 57; Le Gentil, _Voyage dans les Mers de l’Inde_, 1772, t. i. pp. 685–698.

Footnote KE:

Forskaal, _Fauna ægyptiaco-arabica, s. Descriptiones animalium quæ in itinere orientali observavit_, 1775, p. 109.

Footnote KF:

Bory de St.-Vincent, _Voyage dans les Iles des Mers d’Afrique_, 1804 t. i. p. 107, pl. vi.

Footnote KG:

Michaelis, _Ueber das Leuchten der Ostsee bei Kiel_, 1830, s. 17.

Footnote KH:

_Abhandlungen der Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin aus dem J. 1833_, s. 307, 1834, s. 537–575, 1838, s. 45, 258.

Footnote KI:

Ehrenberg, _Ueber das Leuchten des Meeres, 1836_, s. 110, 158, 160, 163.

Footnote KJ:

_Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser_, bd. i. s. 438–441; see also _Obs. de Zoologie et d’Anatomie comparée_, vol. i. p. 84.

Footnote KK:

_Philosophical Transactions for the year 1834_,