chapter i

.[387]

6. The druids, being held in high veneration, were greatly followed by the young men for the sake of their instructions. They decided almost all public and private controversies, and determined disputes relative to inheritance or the boundaries of lands. They decreed rewards and punishments, and enforced their decisions by an exclusion from the sacrifices. This exclusion was deemed the severest punishment; because the interdicted, being deemed impious and wicked, were shunned as if contagious; justice was refused to their supplications, and they were allowed no marks of honour.[388]

7. Over the druids presided a chief, vested with supreme authority. At his death he was succeeded by the next in dignity; but if there were several of equal rank, the contest was decided by the suffrages of their body; and sometimes they even contended in arms for this honour.[389]

8. The druids went not to war, paid no tribute like the rest of the people, were exempted from military duties, and enjoyed immunities in all things. From these high privileges many either voluntarily entered into their order, or were placed in it by friends or parents.

9. They learned a number of verses, which were the only kind of memorials or annals in use among them.[390] Some persons accordingly remained twenty years under their instruction, which they did not deem it lawful to commit to writing, though on other subjects they employed the Greek alphabet. "This custom," to use the words of Julius Caesar, "seems to have been adopted for two reasons: first, not to expose their doctrines to the common people; and, secondly, lest their scholars, trusting to letters, should be less anxious to remember their precepts; for such assistance commonly diminishes application, and weakens the memory."

10. In the first place they circulated the doctrine that souls do not die, but migrate into other bodies.[391] By this principle they hoped men would be more powerfully actuated to virtue, and delivered from the fear of death. They likewise instructed students in the knowledge of the heavenly bodies, in geography, the nature of things, and the power of the gods.[392]

11. Their admiration of the mistletoe must not be omitted. The druids esteemed nothing more sacred than the mistletoe, and the tree on which it grew, if an oak. They particularly delighted in groves of oaks,[393] and performed no sacred rite without branches of that tree, and hence seems to be derived their name of druids, [Greek: Druides]. Whatever grew on an oak was considered as sent from heaven, and as a sign that the tree was chosen by God himself. The mistletoe was difficult to be found, and when discovered was gathered with religious ceremonies,

## particularly at the sixth day of the moon (from which period they dated

their months and years, and their cycle of thirty years,) because the moon was supposed to possess extraordinary powers when she had not completed her second quarter. The mistletoe was called in their language _all heal_.[394] The sacrifice and the feast being duly prepared under the tree, they led thither two white bulls, whose horns were then bound for the first time.[395] The priest, clothed in a white vestment, ascending the tree, cut off the mistletoe with a golden bill, and received it in a white cloth. They then slew the victims, invoking the favour of the Deity on their offering. They conceived that the mistletoe cured sterility in animals; and considered it as a specific against all poisons. So great was the superstition generally prevailing among nations with respect to frivolous objects.

13. At a certain time of the year the druids retired to a consecrated grove in the island of Mona, whither all persons among whom controversies had arisen, repaired for the decision of their disputes.

14. Besides the druids, there were among the Gauls and Britons poets, called bards,[396] who sang in heroic measures the deeds of the gods and heroes, accompanied with the sweet notes of the lyre.

15. Concerning the druids and bards, I shall conclude this chapter in the words of Lucan:--

"You too, ye bards! whom sacred raptures fire. To chant your heroes to your country's lyre; Who consecrate, in your immortal strain, Brave patriot souls, in righteous battle slain, Securely now the tuneful task renew, And noblest themes in deathless songs pursue. The druids now, while arms are heard no more, Old mysteries and barbarous rites restore, A tribe who singular religion love, And haunt the lonely coverts of the grove. To these, and these of all mankind alone, The gods are sure revealed or sure unknown. If dying mortals' doom they sing aright, No ghosts descend to dwell in dreadful night; No parting souls to grisly Pluto go, Nor seek the dreary silent shades below; But forth they fly immortal in their kind, And other bodies in new worlds they find; Thus life for ever runs its endless race, And like a line death but divides the space, A stop which can but for a moment last, A point between the future and the past. Thrice happy they beneath their northern skies, Who that worst fear--the fear of death--despise Hence they no cares for this frail being feel, But rush undaunted on the pointed steel; Provoke approaching fate, and bravely scorn To spare that life which must so soon return." _Rowe's Lucan_, book i.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 386: This passage has puzzled the British antiquaries, because it militates against the grand principle of the druidic theology, and because, as they assert, no traces of the Greek or Roman deities are found among the early Britons. Possibly some of the British tribes might have brought this mode of worship from Gaul; but more probably the assertion was derived from the misconception of the ancient authors themselves, who gave the names of their own deities to the objects of adoration distinguished by similar attributes in other countries. The account is borrowed from Caesar's description of the Gauls, lib. vi. Sec. 15.]

[Footnote 387: "And the _evening_ and the morning were the first day," &c. ver. 5. We also still say a se'n_night_, a fortnight.]

[Footnote 388: Like the excommunication of the catholic church.]

[Footnote 389: Such a custom would contravene the principles of the druidic or bardic system, which prohibited them from using arms. The remark seems to have been extended to a general application by Richard, from a single instance recorded by Caesar, of a druidic election in Gaul thus decided.]

[Footnote 390: According to the opinion of the Welsh antiquaries, the system of druidical knowledge forms the basis of the Triads. If this be the case, it must be confessed that the bards possessed a profound knowledge of human nature, uncommon critical sagacity, and a perfect acquaintance with the harmony of language and the properties of metre. For example, the subjects of the poetical Triads are,

The Welsh language. Fancy and invention. The design of poetry. Nature of just thinking. Rules of arrangement. Rules of description. Variety of matter and invention. Rules of composition; comprising the laws of verse, rhyme, stanzas, consonancy or alliteration, and accent.

We quote a few of these Triads to show their nature and structure.

The three qualifications of poetry;--endowment of genius, judgment from experience, and happiness of mind.

The three foundations of judgment;--bold design, frequent practice, and frequent mistakes.

The three foundations of learning;--seeing much, suffering much, and studying much.

The three foundations of happiness;--a suffering with contentment, a hope that it will come, and a belief that it will be.

The three foundations of thought;--perspicuity, amplitude, and justness.

The three canons of perspicuity;--the word that is necessary, the quantity that is necessary, and the manner that is necessary.

The three canons of amplitude;--appropriate thought, variety of thought, and requisite thought.]

[Footnote 391: According to the Triads, the theology of the bards was pure monotheism. They taught also the transmigration of souls; believing that the soul passed by death through all the gradations of animal life, from Anoom, the bottomless abyss, or lowest degree of animation, up to the highest degree of spiritual existence next to the Supreme Being. Human nature was considered as the middle point of this scale. As this was a state of liberty, in which the soul could attach itself to either good or evil; if evil predominated, it was after death obliged to retrace its former transmigrations from a point in the animal creation equal to its turpitude, and it again and again became man till it was attached to good. Above humanity, though it might again animate the body of man, it was incapable of relapse; but continued progressively rising to a degree of goodness and happiness, inferior only to the Deity.

It is remarkable that many singular points of coincidence have been discovered in comparing the religious system of the Hindoos with that of the ancient Britons; and in the languages of these two people some striking similarities occur in those proverbs and forms of expression which are derived from national customs and religious ceremonies.]

[Footnote 392: This account of the druids, like some of the preceding paragraphs, is borrowed from Caesar's description of the Gauls.]

[Footnote 393: Gen. xxi. 33.]

[Footnote 394: The worship and religious ceremonies of the druids have formed the subject of many and voluminous dissertations; and the mistletoe, from its connection with their sacred rites, is a plant that has always been interesting to antiquaries. In a letter recently received by the editor from the learned and scientific Professor of Botany, Dr. Daubeny, of Magdalen College, Oxford, that gentleman observes, that though the mistletoe is occasionally found on the oak in Britain, yet this occurs so rarely that it is difficult to suppose the druids could have got a supply for their purposes from such a source.

"There is a plant nearly allied to the mistletoe, the Loranthus Europaeus, which grows freely on the oak, when it occurs; but unfortunately the most western locality known is the garden of Schoenbrunn near Vienna, but out of the limits, I believe, within which the druidical worship existed: it is very uncommon in Hungary.

"This circumstance has given rise to an hypothesis, which I may repeat without attaching to it any very great importance, namely, that the Loranthus is the mistletoe of the druids, and that when the druidical worship was exterminated, this plant, as being introduced into their rites, was extirpated from all those parts of Europe, where the druids were known."

The oak among the ancient Britons was peculiarly sacred as the place of worship, and consequently branches of this tree were used to adorn the altar, and garlands of its leaves to decorate the priest or druid; and the mistletoe, being so seldom found on the oak, was considered so great and desirable an appendage, that no solemn festival was held without it. It has been observed by naturalists that the blossom of the mistletoe falls within a few days of the summer solstice, and the berry within a few days of the winter solstice. These incidents therefore marked the return of two of the usual seasons for holding the bardic conventions and festivals. When the sacrifice was over, the berries of this plant were taken by the ovate, the physician of the tribe, and converted to medical purposes. That these berries possessed medicinal virtues can hardly be doubted. The following passage respecting this sacred plant occurs in Bacon:--"Mistletoe groweth chiefly upon crab trees, apple trees, sometimes upon hazels, and rarely upon oaks; the mistletoe whereof is counted very medicinal. It is ever green, winter and summer, and beareth a white glistening berry: and it is a plant utterly differing from the plant on which it groweth."

Sir John Colbach published a Dissertation on the efficacy of the mistletoe in 1720; but in medicine, as in fashion, what is deemed of high value in one age is discontinued in the next, and thought nothing of. Such is the fate of the mistletoe in the present day as to any medicinal use that is made of it.]

[Footnote 395: As the plough was fastened to the horns of the beasts, this expression signifies that the animal had never been employed in labour.

The doctrine of the druids is said to have been first invented in Britain, and from thence carried into Gaul; on which account Pliny says (in his thirtieth book), "But why should I commemorate these things with regard to an art which has passed over the sea, and reached the bounds of nature? Britain even at this time celebrates it with so many wonderful ceremonies, that she seems to have taught it to the Persians." Julius Caesar affirms the same in his Commentaries: "And now those persons who wish to acquire a more extensive knowledge of such things, repair to Britain for information."

It is a singular coincidence of circumstances that bulls perfectly white were sacrificed by the Egyptians to Apis. When such an animal was found unblemished, and without a single black hair, the priest tied a fillet about his horns, and sealed it with the signet of his ring; it being a capital crime to sacrifice one of these animals except it was thus marked.--_Herodotus._]

[Footnote 396: According to the Welsh antiquaries, these distinctions are erroneous. The druidical, or rather bardic, system consisted of three classes: the bard proper, whose province was philosophy and poetry; the druid, or minister of religion; and the ovate, or mechanic and artist. For a curious account of the bardic system and institutions the reader is referred to the Introduction to Owen's Translations of the Elegies of Llywarch Hen.]

CHAP. V.

1. This island is rich in corn and wood, is well adapted for the maintenance of flocks and cattle, and in some places produces vines. It also abounds with marine and land birds, and contains copious springs, and numerous rivers, stored with fish, and plentifully supplied with salmon and eels.

2. Sea-cows or seals,[397] and dolphins are caught, and whales, of which mention is made by the satirist:

"Quanto delphinis balaena Britannica major."

3. There are besides several sorts of shell-fish, among which are muscles, containing pearls often of the best kind, and of every colour: that is, red, purple, violet, green (_prasini_), but principally white, as we find in the venerable Bede's Ecclesiastical History.

4. Shells[398] are still more abundant, from which is prepared a scarlet dye of the most beautiful hue, which never fades from the effect of the sun or rain, but becomes finer as it grows older.

5. In Britain are salt and warm springs, from which are formed hot baths, suited to all ages, with distinct places for the two sexes.[399]

6. White lead is found in the midland regions, and iron in the maritime, but in small quantities gold and silver are also produced, but brass is imported. Jet of the purest quality abounds; it is of a shining black, and highly inflammable.[400] When burned, it drives away serpents, and when warmed by friction attracts bodies, like amber.

7. Britain being situated almost under the north pole, the nights are so light in summer, that it is often doubtful whether the evening or morning twilight prevails; because the sun, in returning to the east, does not long remain below the horizon. Hence, also, according to Cleomenes, the longest day in summer, and the longest night in winter, when the sun declines towards the south, is eighteen hours; and the shortest night in summer, and day in winter, is six hours. In the same manner as in Armenia, Macedon, Italy, and the regions under the same parallel, the longest day is fifteen, and the shortest nine hours.

8. But I have given a sufficient account of Britain and the Britons in general. I shall now descend to particulars; and in the succeeding pages, shall describe the state and revolutions of the different nations who inhabited this island, the cities which ennobled it, with other

## particulars, and their condition under the Roman dominion.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 397: We do not find that Pennant mentions, among the amphibious animals, the _Vituli Marini_, by which Richard probably meant seals.]

[Footnote 398: Richard calls these shells _Cochleae_, or snails, though he probably alludes to the species styled by naturalists _Murea_, which contained the famous Tyrian purple, so much valued by the ancients. Yet, whatever our island may have formerly produced, we discern no traces in later ages, of any testaceous animal yielding a purple or scarlet dye.]

[Footnote 399: Richard here doubtless principally alludes to Bath, the Aquae Solis of the ancients.]

[Footnote 400: This substance appears to have been wrought into ornaments for the person. In the barrows, jet beads of a long elliptical form were found, together with others of amber, and a coarse blue glass.]

CHAP. VI.

1. Britain, according to the most accurate and authentic accounts of the ancients, was divided into seven parts, six of which were at different times subjected to the Roman empire, and the seventh held by the uncivilized Caledonians.

2. These divisions were called Britannia Prima, Secunda, Flavia, Maxima, Valentia, and Vespasiana, which last did not long remain under the power of the Romans. Britannia Prima is separated by the river Thamesis from Flavia, and by the sea[401] from Britannia Secunda. Flavia begins from the German Ocean, is bounded by the Thamesis,[402] by the Sabrina,[403] on the side of the Silures and Ordovices, and trends towards the north and the region of the Brigantes.[404] Maxima, beginning at the extreme boundary of Flavia, reaches to the wall,[405] which traverses the whole island, and faces the north. Valentia occupies the whole space between this wall and that built by the emperor Antoninus Pius, from the estuary of the Bdora[406] to that of the Clydda.[407] Vespasiana stretches from the estuary of the Bdora to the city of Alcluith,[408] from whence a line drawn to the mouth of the Varar[409] shows the boundary. Britannia Secunda faces the Irish Sea to the north and west. But sufficient notice has now been taken of the provinces.

3. Before we proceed to a more minute description, let us touch upon the form of government. In remote times all Britain was divided among petty princes and states, some of whom are said to have existed after the country was occupied by the Romans; though, under the Roman domination, they retained scarcely the shadow of regal authority. A legate being appointed by the emperor over the conquered countries, Britain became a proconsular province. This form of government continued several ages, although in the meantime the island underwent many divisions, first into the Upper and Lower districts, and then, as we have before shown, into seven parts. It afterwards became the imperial residence of Carausius and those whom he admitted to a share of his power. Constantine the Great, the glory and defence of Christianity, is supposed to have raised Maxima and Valentia to consular provinces, and Prima, Secunda, and Flavia, to praesidials. But over the whole island was appointed a deputy-governor, under the authority of the praetorian prefect of Gaul. Besides whom, an ancient volume, written about that period, mentions a person of great dignity, by the title of _comes_, or count of the Britons, another as count of the Saxon coast, and a third as leader or duke of Britain; with many others, who, although possessed of great offices, must be passed over in silence, for want of certain information.[410]

4. I now commence my long journey, to examine minutely the whole island and its particular parts, and shall follow the footsteps of the best authors. I begin with the extreme part of the first province, whose coasts are opposite Gaul. This province contains three celebrated and powerful states, namely, Cantium, Belgium, and Damnonium, each of which in particular I shall carefully examine.

First of Cantium.

5. Cantium,[411] situated at the extremity of Britannia Prima, was inhabited by the Cantii, and contains the cities of Durobrobis[412] and Cantiopolis,[413] which was the metropolis, and the burial-place of St. Augustine, the apostle of the English; Dubrae,[414] Lemanus,[415] and Regulbium[416] garrisoned by the Romans; also their primary station Rhutupis,[417] which was colonized and became the metropolis, and where a haven was formed capable of containing the Roman fleet which commanded the North Sea. This city was of such celebrity that it gave the name of Rhutupine to the neighbouring shores; which Lucan,

"Aut vaga quum Thetis Rhutupinaque littora fervent."

From hence oysters of a large size and superior flavour were sent to Rome, as Juvenal observes,

"Circaeis nata forent, an Lucrinum ad saxum, RHUTUPINOVE edita fundo Ostrea, callebat primo deprendere morsu."

It was the station of the second Augustan legion, under the count of the Saxon coast, a person of high distinction.

6. The kingdom of Cantium is watered by many rivers. The principal are Madus[418], Sturius,[419] Dubris,[420] and Lemanus,[421] which last separates the Cantii from the Bibroci.

7. Among the three principal promontories of Britain, that which derives its name from Cantium[422] is most distinguished. There the ocean, being confined in an angle, according to the tradition of the ancients, gradually forced its way, and formed the strait which renders Britain an island.

8. The vast forest called by some the Anderidan, and by others the Caledonian, stretches from Cantium a hundred and fifty miles, through the countries of the Bibroci and the Segontiaci, to the confines of the Hedui. It is thus mentioned by the poet Lucan:--

"Unde Caledoniis fallit turbata Britannos."

9. The Bibroci[423] were situated next to the Cantii, and, as some imagine, were subject to them. They were also called Rhemi, and are not unknown in record. They inhabited Bibrocum,[424] Regentium,[425] and Noviomagus,[426] which was their metropolis. The Romans held Anderida.[427]

10. On their confines, and bordering on the Thames, dwelt the Atrebates,[428] whose primary city was Calleba.[429]

11. Below them, nearer the river Kunetius,[430] lived the Segontiaci,[431] whose chief city was Vindonum.[432]

12. Below, towards the ocean, and bordering on the Bibroci, lived the Belgae,[433] whose chief cities were Clausentum,[434] now called Southampton; Portus Magnus;[435] Venta,[436] a noble city situated upon the river Antona. Sorbiodunum[437] was garrisoned by the Romans. All the Belgae are Allobroges, or foreigners, and derived their origin from the Belgae and Celts. The latter, not many ages before the arrival of Caesar, quitted their native country, Gaul, which was conquered by the Romans and Germans, and passed over to this island: the former, after crossing the Rhine, and occupying the conquered country, likewise sent out colonies, of which Caesar has spoken more at large.[438]

13. All the regions south of the Thamesis[439] were, according to ancient records, occupied by the warlike nations of the Senones. These people, under the guidance of their renowned king Brennus, penetrated through Gaul, forced a passage over the Alps, hitherto deemed impracticable, and would have razed proud Rome, had not the fates, which seemed like to carry the republic in their bosom, till it reached its destined height of glory, averted the threatened calamity. By the cackle of a goose Manlius was warned of the danger, and hurled the barbarians from the capitol, in their midnight attack. The same protecting influence afterwards sent Camillus to his assistance, who, by assailing them in the rear, quenched the conflagration which they had kindled, in Senonic blood, and preserved the city from impending destruction. In consequence of this vast expedition, the land of the Senones,[440] being left without inhabitants, and full of spoils, was occupied by the above-mentioned Belgae.

14. Near the Sabrina and below the Thamesis lived the Hedui,[441] whose principal cities were Ischalis[442] and Avalonia.[443] The baths,[444] which were also called Aquae Solis, were made the seat of a colony, and became the perpetual residence of the Romans who possessed this part of Britain. This was a celebrated city, situated upon the river Abona, remarkable for its hot springs, which were formed into baths at a great expense. Apollo and Minerva[445] were the tutelary deities, in whose temples the perpetual fire never fell into ashes, but as it wasted away turned into globes of stone.

15. Below the Hedui are situated the Durotriges, who are sometimes called Morini. Their metropolis was Durinum,[446] and their territory extended to the promontory Vindelia.[447] In their country the land is gradually contracted, and seems to form an immense arm which repels the waves of the ocean.

16. In this arm was the region of the Cimbri,[448] whose country was divided from that of the Hedui by the river Uxella.[449] It is not ascertained whether the Cimbri gave to Wales its modern name, or whether their origin is more remote. Their chief cities were Termolus[450] and Artavia.[451] From hence, according to the ancients, are seen the pillars of Hercules, and the island Herculea[452] not far distant. From the Uxella a chain of mountains called Ocrinum extends to the promontory known by the same name.

17. Beyond the Cimbri the Carnabii inhabited the extreme angle of the island,[453] from whom this district probably obtained its present name of Carnubia (Cornwall). Their chief cities were Musidum[454] and Halangium.[455] But as the Romans never frequented these almost desert and uncultivated parts of Britain, their cities seem to have been of little consequence, and were therefore neglected by historians; though geographers mention the promontories Bolerium and Antivestaeum.[456]

18. Near the above-mentioned people on the sea-coast towards the south, and bordering on the Belgae Allobroges, lived the Damnonii, the most powerful people of those parts; on which account Ptolemy assigns to them all the country extending into the sea like an arm.[457] Their cities were Uxella,[458] Tamara,[459] Voluba,[460] Cenia,[461] and Isca,[462] the mother of all, situated upon the Isca. Their chief rivers were the Isca,[463] Durius,[464] Tamarus,[465] and Cenius.[466] Their coasts are distinguished by three promontories, which will be hereafter mentioned. This region was much frequented by the Phoenician, Grecian, and Gallic merchants, for the metals with which it abounded, particularly for its tin. Proofs of this may be drawn from the names of the above-mentioned promontories, namely Hellenis,[467] Ocrinum,[468] and [Greek: Kriou metopon][469] as well as the numerous appellations of cities, which show a Grecian or Phoenician derivation.

19. Beyond this arm are the isles called Sygdiles,[470] which are also denominated Oestromenides and Cassiterides.

20. It is affirmed that the emperor Vespasian fought thirty battles with the united forces of the Damnonii and Belgae. The ten different tribes who inhabited the south banks of the Thames and Severn being gradually subdued, their country was formed into the province of Britannia Prima, so called because it was the first fruit of victory obtained by the Romans.

21. Next in order is Britannia Secunda, which is divided from Britannia Prima by the countries already mentioned, and from the Flavian province by the Sabrina[471] and the Deva;[472] and the remaining parts are bounded by the internal sea. This was the renowned region of the Silures,[473] inhabited by three powerful tribes. Among these were

## particularly distinguished the Silures Proper, whom the turbid estuary

of the Severn divides from the country we have just described. These people, according to Solinus, still retain their ancient manners, have neither markets nor money, but barter their commodities, regarding rather utility than price. They worship the gods, and both men and women are supposed to foretell future events. 22. The chief cities of the Silures were, Sariconium,[474] Magna,[475] Gobanium,[476] and Venta[477] their capital. A Roman colony possessed the city built on the Isca,[478] and called after that name, for many years the station of the second or Augustan legion, until it was transferred to the Valentian province, and Rhutupis.[479] This was the primary station of the Romans in Britannia Secunda.

23. The country of the Silures was long powerful, particularly under Caractacus, who during nine years withstood the Roman arms, and frequently triumphed over them, until he was defeated by Ostorius, as he was preparing to attack the Romans. Caractacus, however, escaped from the battle, and in applying for assistance to the neighbouring chieftains was delivered up to the Romans, by the artifices of a Roman matron, Cartismandua, who had married Venutius, chief of Brigantia. After this defeat the Silures bravely defended their country till it was overrun by Veranius, and being finally conquered by Frontinus, it was reduced into a Roman province under the name of Britannia Secunda.

24. Two other tribes were subject to the Silures. First the Ordovices, who inhabited the north towards the isle of Mona;[480] and secondly the Dimetiae, who occupied the west, where the promontory Octorupium[481] is situated, and from whence is a passage of thirty miles[482] to Ireland. The cities of the Dimetiae were Menapia[483] and Maridunum[484] the metropolis. The Romans seized upon Lovantium[485] as their station. Beyond these, and the borders of the Silures, were the Ordovices, whose cities were Mediolanum[486] and Brannogenium.[487] The Sabrina, which rises in their mountains, is justly reckoned one of the three largest rivers of Britain, the Thamesis (Thames) and the Tavus (Tay) being the other two. The name of the Ordovices is first distinguished in history on account of the revenge which they took for the captivity of their renowned chief. Hence they continually harassed the Roman army, and would have succeeded in annihilating their power, had not Agricola turned hither his victorious arms, subdued the whole nation, and put the greater part to the sword.

25. The territory situated north of the Ordovices, and washed by the ocean, was formerly under their dominion. These parts were certainly inhabited by the Cangiani, whose chief city was Segontium,[488] near the Cangian promontory,[489] on the Minevian shore, opposite Mona,[490] an island long distinguished as the residence of the druids. This island contained many towns, though it was scarcely sixty miles in circuit; and, as Pliny asserts, is distant from the colony of Camalodunum two hundred miles. The rivers of the Cangiani were Tosibus,[491] called also Canovius, and the Deva,[492] which was their boundary. In this region is the stupendous mountain Eriri.[493] Ordovicia, together with the regions of the Cangiani and Carnabii, unless report deceives me, constituted a province called Genania, under the reign of the emperors subsequent to Trajan.

26. I now proceed to the Flavian province; but for want of authentic documents, am unable to ascertain whether it derived its name from Flavia Julia Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, who was born in these parts, or from the Flavian family.

27. Towards the river Deva were situated, in the first place, the Carnabii.[494] Their principal places were Benonae,[495] Etocetum,[496] and Banchorium,[497] the last the most celebrated monastery in the whole island, which being overthrown in the dispute with Augustine was never afterwards restored; and the mother of the rest, Uriconium,[498] esteemed one of the largest cities in Britain. In the extreme angle of this country, near the Deva, was the Roman colony Deva,[499] the work of the twentieth legion, which was called Victrix, and was formerly the defence of the region. This place is supposed to be what is now termed West Chester.

28. Below these people stretched the kingdom, or rather the republic, of the Cassii, called by Ptolemy Catieuchlani, which arose from the union of two nations. Those nearest the Sabrina were called the Dobuni, or, according to the annals of Dio, the Boduni.[500] In their country the Thames rises, and, proceeding through the territories of the Hedui, Atrebates, Cassii, Bibroci, Trinobantes, and Cantii, after a long course flows into the German Ocean. The cities of the Dobuni were Salinae,[501] Branogena,[502] on the left of the Sabrina [Severn], Alauna,[503] and the most venerable of all, Corinium,[504] a famous city supposed to have been built by Vespasian. But Glevum,[505] situated in the extreme part of the kingdom, towards the territory of the Silures, was occupied by a Roman colony, which, according to the writers of those times, was introduced by Claudius Caesar. Adjoining to these were the Cassii, whose chief cities were Forum Dianae[506] and Verulamium.[507] But when the last was raised by the Romans to the municipal rank, it obtained the pre-eminence over the other cities. St. Alban the martyr was here born. This city was involved in the ruin of Camalodunum[508] and Londinium,[509] in the insurrection of Bonduica, which is related by Tacitus. The Cassii were conspicuous above the other nations of the island; and Caesar in his second invasion had the severest conflicts with their renowned chief Cassibellinus, to whom many people were tributary; and was repulsed by the Cassii in league with the Silures; to which Lucan alludes:--"_Territa quaesitis ostendit terga Britannis._" But on the coming of Claudius, they, with the neighbouring people, were subdued, and their country reduced to a Roman province, first called Caesariensis, and afterwards Flavia.

29. Near the Cassii, where the river Thamesis approaches the ocean, was the region of the Trinobantes,[510] who not only entered into alliance with the Romans, but resigned to them Londinium their metropolis, and Camalodunum situated near the sea, for the purpose of establishing colonies. In this city was supposed to be born Flavia Julia Helena, the pious wife of Constantine Chlorus and mother of Constantine the Great, who was descended from the blood of the British kings. It was the chief colony of the Romans in Britain, and distinguished by a temple of Claudius, an image of Victory, with many ornaments.[511] But Londinium was and ever will be a city of great eminence. It was first named Trinovantum, then Londinium, afterwards Augusta, and now again Londona. According to the chronicles it is more ancient than Rome. It is situated upon the banks of the Thamesis, and is the great emporium of many nations trading by land or sea. This city was surrounded with a wall by the empress Helena, the discoverer of the Holy Cross; and, if reliance may be placed on tradition, which is not always erroneous, was called Augusta, as Britain was distinguished by the name of the Roman Island.

30. The boundary of this people towards the north was the river Surius,[512] beyond which lived the Iceni, a famous people divided into two tribes. The first of these, the Cenomanni, dwelt to the north towards the Trinobantes and Cassii, and bordered on the ocean towards the east. Their cities were Durnomagus,[513] and their metropolis Venta.[514] Camboricum[515] was a Roman colony. A tongue of land stretching into the sea towards the east was called Flavia Extrema.[516] Their most remarkable rivers are the Garion,[517] the Surius,[518] and the Aufona[519] which falls into the bay of Metaris.[520] Beyond the Aufona, bordering on the Carnabii, Brigantes, and the ocean, lived the Coitani,[521] in a tract of country overspread with woods, which, like all the woods of Britain, was called Caledonia.[522] This is mentioned by the historian Florus.[523] The chief city of the Coitani was Ragae.[524] Besides this was Lindum,[525] a Roman colony, on the eastern extremity of the province. The river Trivona[526] divides the whole country into two parts. The nation of the Iceni, being of a warlike character, neglected husbandry as well as the civil arts; they voluntarily joined the Romans; but, revolting, and exciting others to follow their example, were first subdued by Ostorius. A few years afterwards, Praesutagus their king, at his decease, made Caesar and his descendants his heirs. But the Romans, abusing the friendship of these people and giving themselves up to every species of debauchery, excited their resentment, and the Iceni with their allies, under the warlike Bonduica, widow of Praesutagus, destroyed their colonies, and massacred eighty thousand Roman citizens. They were afterwards reduced by the legate Suetonius, a man highly esteemed for prudence.

31. On the northern part of this region is the river Abus,[527] which falls into the ocean, and was one of the boundaries of the province Maxima, as Seteja[528] was the other. This province was also called the kingdom of Brigantia, because it comprehended the region of that name inhabited by three nations. At the eastern point,[529] where the promontories of Oxellum[530] and of the Brigantes[531] stretch into the sea, lived the Parisii, whose cities were Petuaria[532] and Portus Felix.[533]

32. Above, but on the side of the Parisii, are the proper Brigantes,[534] a numerous people who once gave law to the whole province. Their towns were Epiacum,[535] Vinovium,[536] Cambodunum,[537] Cataracton,[538] Galacum,[539] Olicana,[540] and the chief city Isurium.[541] Eboracum,[542] on the Urus,[543] was the metropolis, first a colony of the Romans, called Sexta, from being the station of the sixth legion, termed the Victorious, and afterwards distinguished by the presence of many emperors, and raised to the privileges of a municipal city.

33. This province is divided into two equal parts by a chain of mountains called the Pennine Alps, which rising on the confines of the Iceni and Carnabii, near the river Trivona,[544] extend towards the north in a continued series of fifty miles.

34. The people to the west of this chain[545] are the Voluntii and Sistuntii, who are united in a close confederacy.[546] Their cities are Rerigonium,[547] Coccium,[548] and Lugubalium.[549] The two last were occupied by Roman garrisons.

35. The northern frontier of this province was protected by a wall[550] of stupendous magnitude built by the Romans across the Isthmus, eighty miles in length, twelve feet high and (_nine_) thick, strengthened with towers.

36. We collect from history, that these people were first attacked by the emperor Claudius, then overrun by the legate Ostorius, and finally defeated by Cerealis. By their voluntary submission to Agricola they obtained peace. The actions and unheard-of perfidy of their queen have disgraced their name in history. These people were descended from those powerful nations, who in search of new habitations quitted their country, which was situated between the Danube, the Alps, and the Rhone.[551] Some of them afterwards emigrated into Ireland, as appears from authentic documents.

37. Further north were situated those powerful nations, who in former times were known under the name of Maeatae, and from whom that fratricide Bassianus,[552] after the death of his father, basely purchased peace. They possessed Ottadinia towards the east, Gadenia, Selgovia, Novantia, and further north Damnia.

38. Nearest the wall dwelt the Gadeni,[553] whose metropolis was Curia.[554] The Ottadini[555] were situated nearer the sea. Their chief city was Bremenium,[556] and their rivers Tueda,[557] Alauna,[558] and the two Tinas,[559] which ran within the wall.

39. The Selgovae[560] inhabited the country to the west. Their cities were Corbantorigum,[561] Uxellum,[562] and Trimontium,[563] which, according to ancient documents, was a long time occupied by a Roman garrison. The principal rivers of this region were Novius,[564] Deva,[565] and partly the Ituna.[566]

40. The Novantes[567] dwell beyond the Deva, in the extreme part of the island, near the sea, and opposite Ireland. In their country was the famous Novantum Chersonesus,[568] distant twenty-eight miles from Ireland, and esteemed by the ancients the most northern promontory of Britain,[569] though without sufficient reason. Their metropolis was Lucophibia, or Casae Candidae;[570] their rivers Abrasuanus,[571] Jena,[572] and Deva,[573] which was the boundary towards the east.

41. The Damnii[574] dwelt to the north of the Novantes, the Selgovae, and the Gadeni, and were separated from them by the chain of the Uxellan mountains.[575] They were a very powerful people, but lost a considerable portion of their territory when the wall was built, being subdued and spoiled by the Caledonians. Besides which, a Roman garrison occupied Vanduarium[576] to defend the wall.

42. In this part, Britain, as if again delighted with the embraces of the sea, becomes narrower than elsewhere, in consequence of the rapid influx of the two estuaries, Bodotria and Clotta.[577] Agricola first secured this isthmus with fortifications, and the emperor Antoninus[578] erected another wall celebrated in history, which extended nearly five and thirty miles, in order to check the incursions of the barbarians. It was repaired, and strengthened with eleven towers, by the general AEtius. These regions probably constituted that province, which, being recovered by the victorious arms of the Romans under Theodosius, was supposed to have been named Valentia, in honour of the family from whom the reigning emperor was descended.

43. Beyond the wall lay the province Vespasiana. This is the Caledonian region so much coveted by the Romans, and so bravely defended by the natives, facts which the Roman historians, generally too silent in regard to such things, have amply detailed. In these districts may be seen the river Tavus,[579] which appears to separate the country into two parts. There are also found the steep and horrid Grampian hills, which divide the province. In this region was fought that famous battle between Agricola and Galgacus, which was so decisive in favour of the Romans.[580] The magnitude of the works at this day displays the power of the Romans, and the ancient mode of castrametation; for, in the place where the battle was fought, certain persons of our order, who passed that way, affirmed that they saw immense camps, and other proofs which corroborated the relation of Tacitus.

44. The nations which were subject to the Romans shall now follow in their order. Beyond the Isthmus, as far as the Tavus, lived the Horestii.[581] Their cities, which before the building of the wall belonged to the Damnii, were Alauna,[582] Lindum,[583] and Victoria,[584] the last not less glorious in reality than in name. It was built by Agricola on the Tavus, twenty miles above its mouth.

45. Above these, beyond the Tavus, which formed the boundary, lived the Vecturones or Venricones,[585] whose chief city was Orrea,[586] and their rivers AEsica[587] and Tina.[588]

46. The Taixali[589] inhabited the coast beyond the boundaries of the Vecturones. Their principal city was Devana,[590] and their rivers the Deva[591] and Ituna.[592] A part of the Grampian hills, which extends like a promontory into the sea, as it were to meet Germany, borrows its name from them.[593]

47. To the west of these, beyond the Grampian hills, lived the Vacomagi,[594] who possessed an extensive tract of country. Their cities were Tuessis,[595] Tamea,[596] and Banatia.[597] Ptoroton,[598] situated at the mouth of the Varar,[599] on the coast, was at the same time a Roman station, and the chief city of the province. The most remarkable rivers of this region, after the Varar, which formed the boundary, were the Tuessis[600] and Celnius.[601]

48. Within the Vacomagi, and the Tavus, lived the Damnii Albani,[602] a people little known, being wholly secluded among lakes and mountains.

49. Lower down, to the banks of the Clotta, inhabited the Attacotti,[603] a people once formidable to all Britain. In this part is situated the great lake formerly called Lyncalidor,[604] at the mouth of which the city of Alcluith[605] was built by the Romans, and not long afterwards received its name from Theodosius, who recovered that province from the barbarians. These people deserved high praise for having sustained the attacks of the enemy after the subjugation of the neighbouring provinces.

50. This province was named Vespasiana, in honour of the Flavian family, to which the emperor Domitian owed his origin, and under whom it was conquered. If I am not mistaken, it was called under the later emperors Thule, which Claudian mentions in these lines:

"Incaluit Pictorum sanguine Thule, Scotorum cumulos flevit glacialis Hierne."

But this country was so short a time under the power of the Romans, that posterity cannot ascertain its appellations or subjugation. We have now examined in a cursory manner the state of Britain under the Romans; we shall next as briefly treat of the country of the Caledonians.

CONCERNING CALEDONIA.

51. Although all the parts of Britain lying beyond the Isthmus may be termed Caledonia, yet the proper Caledonians dwelt beyond the Varar, from which a line drawn accurately points out the boundary of the Roman empire in Britain. The hithermost part of the island was at different times in their possession, and the remainder, as we have related, was occupied by barbarous Britons. The ancient documents of history afford some information thus far; but beyond the Varar the light is extinct, and we are enveloped in darkness.[606] Although we know that the Romans erected altars there to mark the limits of their empire, and that Ulysses, tossed by a violent tempest, here fulfilled his vows; yet the thick woods and a continued chain of rugged mountains forbid all further research. We must therefore be satisfied with the following information, gleaned from the wandering merchants of the Britons, which we leave for the use of posterity.

52. The Caledonians,[607] properly so called, inhabited the country to the westward of the Varar, and part of their territory was covered by the extensive forest called the Caledonian wood.

53. Less considerable people dwelt near the coast. Of these the Cantae[608] were situated beyond the Varar, and the above-mentioned altars, to the river Loxa,[609] and in their territory was the promontory Penoxullum.[610]

54. Next in order is the river Abona,[611] and the inhabitants near it, the Logi.[612] Then the river Ila,[613] near which lived the Carnabii,[614] the most remote of the Britons. These people being subdued by the propraetor Ostorius, and impatiently bearing the Roman yoke, joined the Cantae, as tradition relates, and, crossing the sea, here fixed their residence. Britain in these parts branches out into many promontories, the chief of which, the extremity of Caledonia, was called by the ancients Vinvedrum, and afterwards Verubium.[615]

55. After these people were placed the Catini,[616] and the Mertae[617] further inland near the Logi. In these regions was the promontory of the Orcades,[618] contiguous to which are the islands of that name. Beyond this part flowed the Nabaeus,[619] which bounded the territory of the Carnabii.

56. In the lower part of this region were situated the Carnonacae,[620] in whose territories was the promontory Ebudum,[621] beyond which the ocean forms a large bay, formerly called Volsas.[622] The lower coast of this bay was inhabited by the Cerones;[623] and beyond the Itys,[624] the territory of the Creones extended as far as the Longus.[625] The promontory stretching from thence, and washed by the ocean and the bay Lelanus,[626] is named after the inhabitants the Epidii.[627]

57. I cannot repass the Varar without expressing my wonder that the Romans, in other respects so much distinguished for judgment and investigation, should have entertained the absurd notion, that the remainder of Britain exceeded in length and breadth the regions which they had subdued and occupied. There is, however, sufficient evidence that such was their opinion; for whoever attentively considers their insatiable desire of rule, and reflects on the labour employed in the erection of those stupendous works which excite the wonder of the world, in order to exclude an enemy scarcely worthy of their notice or resentment, must in this respect, as in all others, adore the providence of the Divine Being, to whom all kingdoms are subject, and perpetual glory is due, now and for ever. Amen!

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 401: Rather by the estuary of the Severn.]

[Footnote 402: Thames.]

[Footnote 403: Severn.]

[Footnote 404: Here some word is evidently omitted in the original. We would supply it by comparing this description with that of Britannia Secunda in the second section, and read "_Sabrina et Deva_," &c., by the Severn and the Dee from the Silures and Ordovices.]

[Footnote 405: The wall or vallum erected by Severus between the Solway Frith and the mouth of the Tyne.]

[Footnote 406: Bodora and Bodotria, Frith of Forth.]

[Footnote 407: Clotta. Clyde.]

[Footnote 408: Dumbarton.]

[Footnote 409: Murray Frith.]

[Footnote 410: These remarks seem to have been drawn from the _Notitia Imperii_, and consequently refer to a late period of the empire.]

[Footnote 411: Cantium contained the present county of Kent, as far as the Rother, except a small district in which Holwood Hill is situated, and which belonged to the Rhemi.]

[Footnote 412: Rochester.]

[Footnote 413: Canterbury.]

[Footnote 414: Dover.]

[Footnote 415: Situated on the Lymne.]

[Footnote 416: Reculver.]

[Footnote 417: Richborough.]

[Footnote 418: The Medway.]

[Footnote 419: The Stour.]

[Footnote 420: A rivulet at Dover.]

[Footnote 421: The Rother.]

[Footnote 422: The North Foreland.]

[Footnote 423: The Bibroci, Rhemi, or Regni, inhabited part of Hants, and of Berks, Sussex, Surrey, and a small portion of Kent.]

[Footnote 424: Uncertain. Stukeley calls it Bibrox, Bibrax, or the Bibracte of the Itinerary.]

[Footnote 425: Chichester.]

[Footnote 426: Holwood Hill.]

[Footnote 427: Pevensey.]

[Footnote 428: Part of Hants, and Berks.]

[Footnote 429: Silchester. For the proofs that this place was the site of Calleva see the Commentary on the Itinerary.]

[Footnote 430: Kennet.]

[Footnote 431: Part of Hants, and Berks.]

[Footnote 432: Probably Egbury Camp.]

[Footnote 433: The Belgae occupied those parts of Hants and Wilts not held by the Segontiaci.]

[Footnote 434: This is an error: the ancient Clausentum was at Bittern, on the Itchin, opposite Northam.]

[Footnote 435: Portchester.]

[Footnote 436: Winchester.]

[Footnote 437: Old Sarum.]

[Footnote 438: This passage as printed in the original is very obscure; but the meaning is supplied by Caesar, from whom it is taken, and a subsequent page where Richard mentions the same fact.--_Vide the Chronology in_ b. ii. c. i. sect. 9.]

[Footnote 439: Thames.]

[Footnote 440: There was a tribe of Celts called Senones seated on the banks of the Seine as late as the time of Caesar, and this was one of the tribes who marched with Brennus against Rome. But we cannot discover from whence Richard drew his information that these Senones originally emigrated from Britain, leaving their country to be occupied by the Belgae.]

[Footnote 441: Nearly all Somersetshire.]

[Footnote 442: Ilchester.]

[Footnote 443: Glastonbury.]

[Footnote 444: Bath.]

[Footnote 445: This is drawn from Solinus, who speaks of Britain in general. We know not on what authority it was applied by Richard to Bath.]

[Footnote 446: Maiden Castle, near Dorchester.]

[Footnote 447: Isle of Portland.]

[Footnote 448: Part of Somerset and Devon.]

[Footnote 449: The Parret.]

[Footnote 450: Uncertain,--probably in Devonshire.]

[Footnote 451: Ibid.]

[Footnote 452: Lundy Island.]

[Footnote 453: Part of Cornwall.]

[Footnote 454: Near Stratton.]

[Footnote 455: Carnbre.]

[Footnote 456: Land's End, and Lizard Point.]

[Footnote 457: Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, and part of Somerset.]

[Footnote 458: Probably near Bridgewater.]

[Footnote 459: On the Tamar.]

[Footnote 460: On the Fowey.]

[Footnote 461: On the Fal.]

[Footnote 462: Exeter.]

[Footnote 463: Ex.]

[Footnote 464: The Dart.]

[Footnote 465: Tamar.]

[Footnote 466: The Fal.]

[Footnote 467: Probably Berry Head.]

[Footnote 468: Lizard Point.]

[Footnote 469: Ram Head.]

[Footnote 470: Scilly Isles.]

[Footnote 471: Severn.]

[Footnote 472: Dee.]

[Footnote 473: The Silures, with their two dependent tribes, the Dimetiae and the Ordovices, possessed all the country to the west of the Severn and the Dee, together with the island of Anglesey.

"Of these territories the Dimetiae had the counties of Pembroke, Cardigan, and Caermarthen; while the Silures possessed all the rest of South Wales, as well as such parts of England as lay to the west of the Severn and to the South of the Teme: while the Ordovices occupied all North Wales, as well as all the country to the North of the Teme, and to the West of the Severn and the Dee, except a small tract to the West of Bangor and Penmorvay, which together with the isle of Anglesey belonged to their subordinate clan the Cangani."]

[Footnote 474: Rose or Berry Hill, in Weston.]

[Footnote 475: Kentchester.]

[Footnote 476: Abergavenny.]

[Footnote 477: Caerwent.]

[Footnote 478: Caerleon on Usk.]

[Footnote 479: Richborough in Kent.]

[Footnote 480: Anglesey.]

[Footnote 481: St. David's Head.]

[Footnote 482: XXX milliarium.]

[Footnote 483: St. David's.]

[Footnote 484: Caermarthen.]

[Footnote 485: Llanio Issau on the Teivi.]

[Footnote 486: On the bank of the Tanat.]

[Footnote 487: Near Lentwardine.]

[Footnote 488: Caer Segont.]

[Footnote 489: Brach y Pwyl Point.]

[Footnote 490: Anglesey.]

[Footnote 491: The Conway.]

[Footnote 492: Dee.]

[Footnote 493: Snowdon.]

[Footnote 494: The territory of the Carnabii was bounded on the north by the Mersey, west by the Severn, east by part of the Watling Street, and to the south by Staffordshire.]

[Footnote 495: Benonis; High Cross.]

[Footnote 496: Wall.]

[Footnote 497: Banchor.]

[Footnote 498: Wroxeter.]

[Footnote 499: Chester.]

[Footnote 500: The _Dobuni_ were bounded on the west by the Severn, on the south by the Thames, on the east by the Charwell, and on the north by the Carnabii.

The _Cassii_, bounded on the south by the Thames, on the west by the Dobuni, on the east by the Trent, and on the north by the Iceni.]

[Footnote 501: Droitwich.]

[Footnote 502: Near Lentwardine.]

[Footnote 503: Alcester.]

[Footnote 504: Cirencester in Gloucestershire.]

[Footnote 505: Gloucester.]

[Footnote 506: Dunstable.]

[Footnote 507: Old St. Albans.]

[Footnote 508: Colchester.]

[Footnote 509: London.]

[Footnote 510: It stretched from the Thames to the Stour on the north, and on the west to the Brent and the Ouse.]

[Footnote 511: This temple with its ornaments is mentioned in Tacitus.]

[Footnote 512: Sturius, the Stour.]

[Footnote 513: Castor near Chesterton.]

[Footnote 514: Castor near Norwich.]

[Footnote 515: Cambridge.]

[Footnote 516: Part of the Suffolk Coast.]

[Footnote 517: The Yar.]

[Footnote 518: The Stour.]

[Footnote 519: The Nen.]

[Footnote 520: Boston Deep.]

[Footnote 521: In the map given by Bertram these people are called the Coritani. They seem to have inhabited Lincoln, Leicester, and Nottingham.]

[Footnote 522: Calyddon means coverts or thickets.]

[Footnote 523: B. iii. ch. 10, where, speaking of Caesar, he says, "Caledonias sequutus in sylvas."]

[Footnote 524: Leicester.]

[Footnote 525: Lincoln.]

[Footnote 526: Trent.]

[Footnote 527: The Humber.]

[Footnote 528: The Mersey.]

[Footnote 529: Part of the East Riding of York.]

[Footnote 530: Spurn Head.]

[Footnote 531: Flamborough Head.]

[Footnote 532: Broughton on Humber.]

[Footnote 533: Near Bridlington Bay.]

[Footnote 534: Their territory stretched from the bounds of the Parisii northward to the Tine, and from the Humber and Don to the mountains of Lancashire, Westmoreland and Cumberland.]

[Footnote 535: Lanchester.]

[Footnote 536: Binchester.]

[Footnote 537: Slack.]

[Footnote 538: Catteric.]

[Footnote 539: Galgacum, uncertain.]

[Footnote 540: Ilkley.]

[Footnote 541: Aldborough.]

[Footnote 542: York.]

[Footnote 543: Probably from the Ure, which receives the name of Ouse above York, on its junction with the Nid.]

[Footnote 544: Trent.]

[Footnote 545: To the Voluntii belonged the western part of Lancashire; and to the Sistuntii, the west of Westmoreland and Cumberland as far as the wall.]

[Footnote 546: Hence, in Sec. 31, they are called one people.]

[Footnote 547: Ribchester.]

[Footnote 548: Blackrode.]

[Footnote 549: Carlisle.]

[Footnote 550: The wall of Severus. The exact site of the barrier erected by Severus against the northern tribes, has furnished matter of dispute to many of our antiquaries. The researches of others,

## particularly Horsley, have, however, set this question at rest. From

their information, joined to the scanty evidence of history, it has been proved that three walls or ramparts were erected by the Romans at different times, to secure the northern frontier of their dominions in Britain.

The first was a rampart of earth, from the Solway Frith to the Tine, raised by Hadrian about the year 120; but its form and construction have not been satisfactorily ascertained. It was, however, evidently nothing more than a line intended to obstruct the passage of an enemy between the stations which constituted the real defences of the frontier.

The second was raised by Lollius Urbicus under the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140, between the Friths of Forth and Clyde. This was likewise of earth, though perhaps faced with stone, and, like that of Hadrian, seems to have been intended as a line connecting the chain of stations, which formed a new barrier on the advance of the Roman arms. In the course of both these was a military road communicating from station to station.

The last and most important is that begun by Severus, after his expedition against the Caledonians, about 208. It runs nearly over the same ground as that of Hadrian; but is a complete and well combined system of fortification. From an examination of its remains it appears to have been built of stone, fifteen feet high and nine thick. It had parapet and ditch, a military road, and was defended by eighteen greater stations placed at intervals of three to six miles; eighty-three castles at intervals of six to eight furlongs, and, as it is imagined, a considerable number of turrets placed at shorter distances.

Either from superior sagacity or superior information, Richard clearly distinguishes these three walls, which so much puzzled later writers, though it must be confessed that in other places he has suffered himself to be led into some errors in regard to their situation, and the persons by whom they were erected.--See b. ii. ch. 1, sect. 22, 27, 36, 37; ch. 2, sect. 17, 23. For a detailed account of these works the reader is referred to _Horsley's Britannia Romana_; _Warburton's Account of the Roman Wall_; _Hutchinson's Northumberland_; _Roy's Military Antiquities_; _Hutton's Account of the Roman Wall_.]

[Footnote 551: These were the Helvetii, whose emigration is mentioned in _Caes. Comm. de Bell. Gal. lib._ i. We have not discovered from what authority Richard draws his account of their emigration to Ireland.]

[Footnote 552: Caracalla.]

[Footnote 553: The Gadeni appear to have occupied the midland parts from the wall probably as far as the Forth.]

[Footnote 554: Uncertain.]

[Footnote 555: The Ottadini stretched along the eastern coast, from the wall as far as the Frith of Forth, and were bounded on the west by the Gadeni.]

[Footnote 556: Ribchester.]

[Footnote 557: Tweed.]

[Footnote 558: The Coquet.]

[Footnote 559: The North and South Tine.]

[Footnote 560: The Selgovae appear to have occupied all the shire of Dumfries, and part of Kirkudbright.]

[Footnote 561: Drumlanrig, or Kirkudbright.]

[Footnote 562: Uncertain.]

[Footnote 563: Birrenswork Hill.]

[Footnote 564: Nith.]

[Footnote 565: The Dee.]

[Footnote 566: The Eden.]

[Footnote 567: The Novantes held the south-western district of Scotland, from the Dee to the Mull of Galloway; that is, the west of Kirkudbright and Wigtown, and part of the Carrick division of Ayr.]

[Footnote 568: Rens of Galloway. It is not, however, more than eighteen miles from the nearest part of Ireland.]

[Footnote 569: By an error in the geographical or astronomical observations preserved by Ptolemy, the latitudes north of this point appear to have been mistaken for the longitudes, and consequently this part of Britain is thrown to the east.]

[Footnote 570: Wigtown, _Horsley_. Whithern, _Stukeley_, _Roy_.]

[Footnote 571: The Luce.]

[Footnote 572: Cree, _Roy_.]

[Footnote 573: Dee.]

[Footnote 574: The Lothers.]

[Footnote 575: Paisley, or Renfrew, _Roy_.]

[Footnote 576: Friths of Forth and Clyde.]

[Footnote 577: These people inhabited the principal part of what are called the Lowlands. Their territories beyond the Isthmus evidently stretched as far as the Grampians, consisting of great part of Ayr, all Renfrew and Lanark, a considerable part of Stirling, and perhaps Linlithgow.]

[Footnote 578: See page 448.]

[Footnote 579: Tay.]

[Footnote 580: It may perhaps appear superfluous to refer the antiquary to Roy's masterly Commentary on the campaigns of Agricola in this part of Britain; but it will scarcely be deemed so to observe, that we see few instances in which military and local knowledge are so well applied to the elucidation of antiquities.]

[Footnote 581: The Horestii occupied Clackmannan and Kinross, and part of Perth as far as the Tay. To them belonged likewise all the country stretching from the Grampians to Loch Lomond.]

[Footnote 582: Uncertain.]

[Footnote 583: Ardoch.]

[Footnote 584: Dealgin Ross.]

[Footnote 585: The Vecturones occupied the eastern part of Perth, Forfar, Kincardin, and part of Aberdeen.]

[Footnote 586: Bertha, or Old Perth.]

[Footnote 587: South Esk.]

[Footnote 588: Tine.]

[Footnote 589: The Taixali held the eastern coast of Aberdeen, apparently as far as Kinnaird Head.]

[Footnote 590: Probably Old Aberdeen.]

[Footnote 591: Dee.]

[Footnote 592: Ithan.]

[Footnote 593: Kinnaird Head.]

[Footnote 594: The Vacomagi were spread over an extensive region west of the Taixali and north of the Grampians, comprising a considerable part of Aberdeen, all Banff, Murray, Elgin, and Nairn, with the north-east of Inverness.]

[Footnote 595: On the Spey.]

[Footnote 596: Brae Mar Castle.]

[Footnote 597: Uncertain, but near the Ness; perhaps Inverness or Bonness.]

[Footnote 598: Burgh Head.]

[Footnote 599: Murray Frith.]

[Footnote 600: Spey.]

[Footnote 601: Dovern.]

[Footnote 602: The Damnii Albani may have been a remnant of the Damnii, who, after the erection of the wall, being cut off from the rest of their tribe, were gradually circumscribed by the neighbouring people, to Braidalbane, and a small part of the west of Perth and east of Argyle.]

[Footnote 603: The Attacotti occupied a considerable part of Argyle, as far as Lochfyn.]

[Footnote 604: Loch Lomond.]

[Footnote 605: Dumbarton. It was afterwards called Theodosia.]

[Footnote 606: It must be confessed that the information preserved by Richard, in regard to this remote part of our island, is extremely obscure, and that his descriptions will only assist us in guessing at the situation of the different tribes. Perhaps this can scarcely be deemed extraordinary, when we consider how imperfectly the interior of this country is known even at present.]

[Footnote 607: The country of the proper Caledonians was the central part of Inverness and Ross.]

[Footnote 608: The Cantae seem to have held Cromarty and East Ross.]

[Footnote 609: Frith of Cromartie, _Stukeley_. Loth R. _Roy._]

[Footnote 610: Tarbet Ness, _Stukeley_. Ord Head, Caithness, _Roy_.]

[Footnote 611: Frith of Dornoch, _Stukeley_.]

[Footnote 612: The Logi seem to have held the south-east of Strathnavern, and north-east of Sutherland.]

[Footnote 613: All, _Stukeley_. Shiel, _Roy_.]

[Footnote 614: The Carnabii inhabited part of Caithness, the north of Ross, and central part of Sutherland.]

[Footnote 615: Ness or Noss Head, _Stukeley_.]

[Footnote 616: The Catini held part of Caithness and the east of Sutherland.]

[Footnote 617: The Mertae held the country comprised between the Catini and Carnabii.]

[Footnote 618: Dunnet Head, _Stukeley_. Duncansby Head, _Roy_.]

[Footnote 619: Navern.]

[Footnote 620: The Carnonacae seem to have held the detached portion of Cromarty, situated near Loch Broom, and a small part on the border of Sutherland.]

[Footnote 621: Cape Wrath.]

[Footnote 622: Loch Broom.]

[Footnote 623: The Cerones held the north-west part of Ross;--the Creones south-west of Ross and Inverness, and a part of Argyle.]

[Footnote 624: Shiel, _Roy_.]

[Footnote 625: Loch Loch, _Stukeley_. Linnhe Loch, _Roy_.]

[Footnote 626: Lochfyn.]

[Footnote 627: The Epidii probably occupied the Western part of Argyle, as far as the Mull of Cantyr, and were bounded on one side by the sea and on the other by Lochfyn.]

CHAP. VII.

The different parts of Britain having been cursorily examined according to my original design, it seems necessary, before I proceed to a description of the islands, to attend to a doubt suggested by a certain person.[628] "Where," asks he, "are the vestiges of those cities and names which you commemorate? There are none." This question may be answered by another: Where are now the Assyrians, Parthians, Sarmatians, Celtiberians? None will be bold enough to deny the existence of those nations. Are there not also at this time many countries and cities bearing the same names as they did two or three thousand years ago? Judea, Italy, Gaul, Britain, are as clearly known now as in former times; Londinium is still styled in the common language, with a slight change of sound, London. The negligence and inattention of our ancestors in omitting to collect and preserve such documents as might have been serviceable in this particular, are not deserving of heavy censure, for scarcely any but those in holy orders employed themselves in writing books, and such even esteemed it inconsistent with their sacred office to engage in such profane labours. I rather think I may without danger, and without offence, transmit to posterity that information which I have drawn from a careful examination and accurate scrutiny of ancient records concerning the state of this kingdom in former periods. The good abbat, indeed, had nearly inspired me with other sentiments, by thus seeming to address me: Are you ignorant how short a time is allotted us in this world; that the greatest exertions cannot exempt us from the appellation of unprofitable servants; and that all our studies should be directed to the purpose of being useful to others? Of what service are these things, but to delude the world with unmeaning trifles? To these remarks I answer with propriety. Is then every honest gratification forbidden? Do not such narratives exhibit proofs of Divine Providence? Does it not hence appear, that an evangelical sermon concerning the death and merits of Christ enlightened and subdued a world overrun with Gentile superstitions? To the reply, that such things are properly treated of in systems of chronology, I rejoin: Nor is it too much to know that our ancestors were not, as some assert, Autochthones, sprung from the earth; but that God opened the book of nature to display his omnipotence, such as it is described in the writings of Moses. When the abbat answered, that works which were intended merely to acquire reputation for their authors from posterity, should be committed to the flames, I confess with gratitude that I repented of this undertaking. The remainder of the work is therefore only a chronological abridgment, which I present to the reader, whom I commend to the goodness and protection of God; and at the same time request, that he will pray for me to our holy Father, who is merciful and inclined to forgiveness.

The following Itinerary is collected from certain fragments left by a Roman general. The order is changed in some instances, according to Ptolemy and others, and it is hoped, with improvement.

* * * * *

Among the Britons were formerly ninety-two cities, of which thirty-three were more celebrated and conspicuous. Two municipal,[629] Verolamium;[630] and Eboracum.[631] Nine colonial;[632] namely, Londinium[633] _Augusta_, Camalodunum[634] _Geminae Martiae_, Rhutupis,[635] ***** Thermae[636] _Aquae Solis_, Isca[637] _Secunda_, Deva[638] Getica, Glevum[639] _Claudia_, Lindum,[640] **** Camboricum[641]. **** Ten cities under the Latian law:[642] namely, Durnomagus,[643] Cataracton,[644] Cambodunum,[645] Coccium,[646] Lugubalia,[647] Ptoroton,[648] Victoria,[649] Theodosia,[650] Corinum,[651] Sorbiodunum.[652] Twelve stipendiary[653] and of lesser consequence; Venta Silurum,[654] Venta Belgarum,[655] Venta Icenorum,[656] Segontium,[657] Maridunum,[658] Ragae,[659] Cantiopolis,[660] Durinum,[661] Isca,[662] Bremenium,[663] Vindonum,[664] and Durobrivae.[665] But let no one lightly imagine that the Romans had not many others besides those above-mentioned. I have only commemorated the more celebrated. For who can doubt that they who, as conquerors of the world, were at liberty to choose, did not select places fitted for their purposes? They for the most part took up their abode in fortresses which they constructed for themselves.

(The Itinerary, which follows here in the original Latin, being a dry list of names, is omitted. See the Appendix, No. I.)

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 628: These remarks prove how much Richard rose superior to the prejudices of his age and his profession. From the tone which he assumes, it is however, evident that he found it advisable to yield to the remonstrances of his superior.]

[Footnote 629: Municipia were towns whose inhabitants possessed in general all the rights of Roman citizens, except those which could not be enjoyed without an actual residence at Rome. They followed their own laws and customs, and had the option of adopting or rejecting those of Rome.--_Rosini Antiq. Rom._ b. x. c. 23.]

[Footnote 630: St. Alban's.]

[Footnote 631: York.]

[Footnote 632: There were different kinds of colonies, each entitled to different rights and privileges; but we have no criterion to ascertain the rank occupied by those in Britain.]

[Footnote 633: London.]

[Footnote 634: Colchester.]

[Footnote 635: Richborough in Kent.]

[Footnote 636: Bath.]

[Footnote 637: Caerleon.]

[Footnote 638: Chester.]

[Footnote 639: Gloucester.]

[Footnote 640: Lincoln.]

[Footnote 641: Cambridge.]

[Footnote 642: The Latian law consisted of the privileges granted to the ancient inhabitants of Latium. These are not distinctly known; but appear principally to have been the right of following their own laws, an exemption from the edicts of the Roman praetor, and the option of adopting the laws and customs of Rome.--_Rosini._]

[Footnote 643: Castor on Nen.]

[Footnote 644: Catteric.]

[Footnote 645: Slack.]

[Footnote 646: Blackrode.]

[Footnote 647: Carlisle.]

[Footnote 648: Burgh Head, Elgin, Scotland.]

[Footnote 649: Dealgin Ross.]

[Footnote 650: Dumbarton.]

[Footnote 651: Cirencester, Gloc.]

[Footnote 652: Old Sarum.]

[Footnote 653: The stipendiary were those who paid their taxes in money, in contradistinction from those who gave a certain portion of the produce of the soil, and were called Vectigales.--_Rosini._]

[Footnote 654: Caerwent, Monmouth.]

[Footnote 655: Winchester.]

[Footnote 656: Castor, near Norwich.]

[Footnote 657: Caer Segont.]

[Footnote 658: Caermarthen.]

[Footnote 659: Leicester.]

[Footnote 660: Canterbury.]

[Footnote 661: Dorchester.]

[Footnote 662: Exeter.]

[Footnote 663: Riechester, Northumberland.]

[Footnote 664: Possibly Egbury camp, Hants.]

[Footnote 665: Rochester.]

CHAP. VIII.

1. Having now finished our survey of Albion, we shall describe the neighbouring country, Hibernia or Ireland, with the same brevity.

2. Hibernia is situated more westerly than any other country except England; but as it does not extend so far north, so it stretches further than England towards the south, and the Spanish province of Tarraconensis, from which it is separated by the ocean.[666]

3. The sea which flows between Britain and Hibernia is subject to storms, and according to Solinus, is navigable only during a few days in summer. Midway between the two countries is the island called Monoeda,[667] but now Manavia.

4. According to Bede, Hibernia is preferable to Britain, on account of its situation, salubrity, and serene air, insomuch that snow seldom remains more than three days, nor is it usual to make hay for the winter, or build stalls for cattle.

5. No reptile is found there, nor does it maintain a viper or serpent; for serpents frequently carried from England have died on approaching the shore. Indeed almost all things in the island are antidotes to poison. We have seen an infusion of scraped pieces of bark brought from Hibernia, given to persons bitten by serpents, which immediately deprived the poison of its force, and abated the swelling.

6. This island, according to the venerable Bede, is rich in milk and honey; nor is it without vines. It abounds with fish and birds, and affords deer and goats for the chase.

7. The inhabitants, says Mela, are more than other nations uncivilized and without virtue, and those who have a little knowledge are wholly destitute of piety. Solinus calls them an inhospitable and warlike people. The conquerors, after drinking the blood of the slain, daub their faces with the remainder. They know no distinction between right and wrong. When a woman brings forth a son, she places its first food on the point of her husband's sword, and, introducing it into the mouth of the infant, wishes according to the custom of the country, that he may die amidst arms and in battle. Those who are fond of ornaments adorn the hilts of their swords with the teeth of marine animals, which they polish to a degree of whiteness equal to ivory; for the principal glory of a man consists in the splendour of his arms.

8. Agrippa states the length of Hibernia to be six hundred miles, and the breadth three hundred. It was formerly inhabited by twenty tribes, of whom (_fourteen_[668]) lived on the coast.

9. This is the true country of the Scots, who emigrating from hence added a third nation to the Britons and Picts in Albion. But I cannot agree with Bede, who affirms that the Scots were foreigners. For, according to the testimony of other authors, I conceive they derived their origin from Britain, situated at no considerable distance, passed over from thence, and obtained a settlement in this island. It is certain that the Damnii, Voluntii, Brigantes, Cangi, and other nations, were descended from the Britons, and passed over thither after Divitiacus, or Claudius, or Ostorius, or other victorious generals had invaded their original countries. Lastly, the ancient language which resembles the old British and Gallic tongues, affords another argument, as is well known to persons skilled in both languages.[669]

10. The Deucaledonian Ocean washes the northern side of Hibernia; the Vergivian and Internal the eastern, the Cantabric the south, as the great British or Atlantic Ocean does the western. According to this order, we shall give a description of the island and the most remarkable places.

11. The Rhobogdii occupied the coast of the island next to the Deucaledonian Sea. Their metropolis was Rhobogdium. In the eastern part of their territories was situated the promontory of the same name; in the Western the Promontorium Boreum, or Northern Promontory. Their rivers were the Banna, Darabouna, Argitta, and Vidua; and towards the south, mountains separated them from the Scotti.

12. On the coast between the northern and Venicnian Promontory, and as far as the mouth of the Rhebeus, dwelt the Venicnii. To them the contiguous islands owe their name. Their capital was Rheba. The Nagnatae dwelt below the Rhebeus as far as the Libnius, and their celebrated metropolis was called after them. The Auterii lived in a recess of the bay of Ausoba, towards the south, and their chief city was named after them. The Concangii occupied the lower part of the same region, near the southern confines of which flowed the river Senus, a noble river, on which was situated their chief city Macobicum. Hibernia in this part being contracted, terminates in a narrow point. The Velatorii inhabited the country near the southern promontory by the river Senus; their metropolis was Regia, and their river Durius. The Lucani were situated where the river Ibernus flows into the ocean.

13. The southern side of the island stretched from the Promontorium Austriacum, or Southern Promontory, to the Sacred Promontory. Here lived the Ibernii, whose metropolis was Rhufina. Next was the river Dobona, and the people called Vodiae, whose promontory of the same name lies opposite to the Promontorium Antivestaeum in England, at about the distance of one hundred and forty-five miles. Not far from thence is the river Dabrona, the boundary of the Brigantes, who have also the river Briga for their limit, and whose chief city is called Brigantia.

14. The part of this island which reaches from the Sacred Promontory as far as Rhobogdium is called the Eastern. The Menapii, inhabiting the Sacred Promontory, had their chief city upon the river Modona called by the same name. From this part to Menapia[670] in Dimetia, the distance, according to Pliny, is thirty miles. One of these countries, but which is uncertain, gave birth to Carausius. Beyond these people the Cauci had their metropolis Dunum [Down]; and the river Oboca washed their boundaries. Both these nations were undoubtedly of Teutonic origin; but it is not known at what precise time their ancestors first passed over, though most probably a little while before Caesar's arrival in Britain.

15. Beyond these were the Eblanae, whose chief city was Mediolanum, upon the river Loebius. More to the north was Lebarum, the city of the Voluntii, whose rivers were Vinderus and Buvinda. The Damnii occupied the part of the island lying above these people, and contiguous to the Rhobogdii. Their chief city was Dunum [Down], where St. Patrick, St. Columba, and St. Bridget are supposed to be buried in one tomb.

16. It remains now to give some account of those people who lived in the interior parts. The Coriondii bordered upon the Cauci and Menapii, above the Brigantes; the Scotti possessed the remaining part of the island, which from them took the name of Scotia. Among many of their cities, the remembrance of two only has reached our times: the one Rheba, on the lake and river Rhebeus; the other Ibernia, situated at the east side of the river Senus.

17. I cannot omit mentioning in this place that the Damnii, Voluntii, Brigantes, and Cangiani were all nations of British origin, who being either molested by neighbouring enemies, or unable to pay the heavy tribute exacted of them, gradually passed over into this country in search of new settlements. With respect to the Menapii, Cauci, and some other people, it has been before remarked that many things occur which cannot safely be relied upon. Tacitus relates that Hibernia was more frequented by foreigners than Albion. But in that case, the ancients would undoubtedly have left us a more ample and credible account of this island. While I am writing a description of Hibernia, it seems right to add, that it was reduced under the Roman power, not by arms, but by fear: and moreover, that Ptolemy, in his second map of Europe, and other celebrated geographers, have erred in placing it at too great a distance from Britain, and from the northern part of the province Secunda, as appears from their books and maps.

18. North of Hibernia are the Hebudes, five[671] in number, the inhabitants of which know not the use of corn, but live on fish and milk. They are all, according to Solinus, subject to one chief, for they are only divided from each other by narrow straits. The chief possessed no peculiar property but was maintained by general contribution: he was bound by certain laws; and lest avarice should seduce him from equity, he learned justice from poverty, having no house nor property, and being maintained at the public expense. He had no wife; but took by turns any woman for whom he felt an inclination, and hence had neither a wish nor hope for children. Some persons have written concerning these Hebudes, that during winter darkness continues for the space of thirty days? but Caesar upon diligent inquiry found this assertion untrue, and only discovered by certain water-measures of time that the nights were shorter here than in Gaul.

19. The Orcades, according to some accounts, are distant from the Hebudes seven days and nights' sail; but this is erroneous. They are thirty in number, and contiguous to each other. They were uninhabited, without wood, and abounded with reeds: several were formed only of sand and rocks, as may be collected from Solinus and others.

20. Thule, the last of the British isles, is placed by Mela opposite to[672] the coast of the Belgae. It has been celebrated in Greek and Roman verse. Thus the Mantuan Homer says,--

"Et tibi serviat ultima Thule."

Here are no nights during the solstice when the sun passes the sign of Cancer; and on the other hand, in the winter there are no days, as Pliny asserts. These circumstances are supposed to happen for six whole months. The inhabitants, as Solinus affirms, in the beginning of the spring live among their cattle upon herbs, then upon milk, and lay up fruits against the winter. They have their women in common without marriages. Thule, according to the same author, abounds in fruits. At the distance of a day's sail from Thule the sea is difficult to pass through, and frozen; it is by some called Cronium. From Thule to Caledonia is two days' sail.

21. The isle of Thanatos[673] is bounded by a narrow channel, and separated from the continent of Britain by a small estuary called the Wantsum.[674] It is rich in pasture and corn. According to Isiodorus, its soil is not only salubrious to itself, but to others, for no snakes live in it, and the earth being carried to a distance destroys them. It is not far distant from Rhutupis.[675]

22. The isle of Vecta,[676] conquered by Vespasian, is thirty miles in length, on the side next to the Belgae, from east to west, and twelve from north to south. In the eastern part it is six miles, in the western three, from the above-mentioned southern shore of Britain.

23. Besides the isles just specified, there were VII Acmodae,[677] Ricnea,[677A] Silimnus,[677B] Andros,[677C] Sigdiles,[677D] XL Vindilios,[677E] Sarna,[678] Caesarea,[679] and Cassiterides.[680]

24. The island Sena, opposite the Ossismican[681] coast, is according to Mela famous for the oracle of the Gallic deity, of whom the priestesses, sanctified by perpetual virginity, are said to have been nine in number. The Gauls call them Senae, and suppose them gifted with singular powers; that they raise the winds and the seas with incantations, change themselves into what animals they please, and cure disorders which in other places yield to no remedy; that they have the knowledge of future events, and prophesy. They are not favourable except to mariners, and only to such as go thither for the purpose of consulting them.

25. The rest of the isles of smaller size and consequence which lie round Albion will be better perceived and known by the inspection of the annexed map[682] than from any description. Here, therefore, we stop, and anxiously commend our labours to the favour and judgment of the benevolent reader.

The first book of the geographical Commentary on the situation of Britain, and those stations which the Romans erected in that island, is happily finished, through the assistance of God, by the hand of Richard, servant of Christ and monk of Westminster. Thanks be to God!

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 666: As we have neither the assistance of an Itinerary to guide us in our researches, nor a local knowledge of Ireland, we have not attempted to specify the situation of the ancient states and cities in that island.]

[Footnote 667: Man.]

[Footnote 668: In the original is an error in the numerals, the number afterwards specified is fourteen.]

[Footnote 669: Nearly one-third of the words in the Irish tongue are the same as the modern Welsh, and many idioms and modes of speech are common to both languages.]

[Footnote 670: St. David's.]

[Footnote 671: The Hebudes amount to more than five. From hence it may perhaps be inferred that the Roman fleet in their voyage of discovery did not reach these seas, though they coasted the northern part of Scotland, for the Orcades are rightly numbered.]

[Footnote 672: Littori apposita, Richard. From the sense in which this phrase is generally used in geography, it might be rendered _under the same meridian_.]

[Footnote 673: Thanet.]

[Footnote 674: See Bede's Eccles. Hist. p. 37, note.]

[Footnote 675: Richborough.]

[Footnote 676: Wight.]

[Footnotes 677-677E: No geographer has hitherto attempted to ascertain the modern names of these islands.]

[Footnote 678: Guernsey.]

[Footnote 679: Jersey.]

[Footnote 680: Scilly Isles.]

[Footnote 681: From a tribe of the Veneti called Ossismii, who inhabited part of Bretagne.]

[Footnote 682: The map being no longer of any use, has been omitted in this edition.]

## BOOK II.

PREFACE.

We have thought proper to add as a supplement to the description of ancient Britain in the same summary manner--I. An epitome of chronology from the creation to the sack of Rome by the Goths: II. A short account of the Roman emperors, and governors, who presided over this country: III. Some persons will perhaps say that this kind of work is not absolutely necessary either for divine worship or greater things. But let them know that leisure hours may be dedicated to the study of the antiquities of our country without any derogation from the sacred character. Yet if censorious people envy us such pleasures at leisure hours, hastening to the end and almost arrived at the goal, we here check our steps.

CHAP. I.

IV. In the beginning, the Almighty Creator made this world, inhabited by us and other creatures, out of nothing, in the space of six days.

V. In the year of the world 1656, the Creator, to punish the increasing wickedness of mankind, sent a flood upon the earth, which, overwhelming the whole world, destroyed every living creature except those which had entered the ark, and whose progeny replenished the new world with colonies of living beings.

VI. 3000. About this time some persons affirm that Britain was cultivated and first inhabited, when it was visited by the Greek and Phoenician merchants. Nor are those wanting who believe that London was shortly after built by a king called Bryto.

VII. 3228. The brothers Romulus and Remus laid the foundation of Rome, which in time became the common terror of all nations.

VIII. 3600. The Senones, having emigrated from Britain, passed through Gaul, with the intent to invade Italy and attack Rome.

IX. 3650. The Belgae entered this country, and the Celta occupied the region deserted by the Senones. Divitiacus king of the AEdui soon afterwards passed over with an army and subdued great part of this kingdom. About this time the Britons who were expelled by the Belgae emigrated to Ireland, formed a settlement, and were thenceforward called Scoti.

X. 3943. Cassibelinus waged war with the maritime states.[683]

XI. 3946. Caesar overcame the Germans, Gauls, and also the Britons, to whom, before this time, even the name of the Romans was unknown. The conqueror, having received hostages, rendered the people tributary.

XII. 3947. At length coming a second time into this country, upon the invitation, as he pretended, of the Trinobantes, he waged war with Cassibelinus king of the Cassii. Suetonius, however, asserts, with greater probability, that he was allured by the costly pearls of Britain.

XIII. 4044. The emperor Claudius passed over to Britain, and in the space of six months, almost without effusion of blood, reduced a great part of the island, which he ordered to be called Caesariensis.

XIV. 4045. Vespasian, at that time in a private station, being sent by the emperor Claudius with the second legion into this country, attacked the Belgae and Damnonii, and having fought thirty-two battles and taken twenty cities, reduced them under the Roman power, together with the Isle of Wight.

XV. 4047. The Romans occupied Thermae and Glebon.

XVI. 4050. Ostorius the Roman general, after a war of nine years, overcame Caractacus king of the Silures, great part of Britain was reduced into a province, and the colony of Camalodunum founded.

XVII. 4052. Certain cities of the Belgae were yielded by the Romans to Cogibundus, that he might form a kingdom. About this time the Cangi and Brigantes went over and settled in Ireland.

XVIII. 4061. The emperor Nero, having no courage for military enterprises, nearly lost Britain; for under him its two greatest cities were taken and destroyed. Bonduica, in order to revenge the injury offered to her by the Romans, rose in arms, burned the Roman colonies of London, Camalodunum, and the municipal town Verulamium, and slew more than eighty thousand Roman citizens. She was at length overcome by Suetonius, who amply avenged the loss, by slaughtering an equal number of her subjects.

XIX. 4073. Cerealis conquered the Brigantes.

XX. 4076. Frontinus punished the Ordovices.

XXI. 4080. Agricola after a severe engagement subdued Galgacus king of the Caledonians. He ordered all the island to be examined by a fleet, and having sailed round its coasts, added the Orcades to the Roman empire.

XXII. 4120. The emperor Hadrian himself came into the island, and separated one part of it from the other by an immense wall.

XXIII. 4140. Urbicus being sent hither by Antoninus Pius, distinguished himself by his victories.

XXIV. 4150. Aurelius Antoninus also obtained victories over some of the Britons.

XXV. 4160. Britain was enlightened by the introduction of Christianity, during the reign of Lucius, who first submitted himself to the cross of Christ.

XXVI. 4170. The Romans were driven from the Vespasian province. About this time it is supposed that king Reuda came with his people, the Picts, from the islands into Britain.

XXVII. 4207. The emperor Severus, passing over into Britain, repaired the wall built by the Romans, which had been ruined, and died not long after, by the visitation of God, at York.

XXVIII. 4211. Bassianus (Caracalla) obtained a venal peace from the Maeatae.

XXIX. 4220. During these times the Roman armies confined themselves within the wall, and all the island enjoyed a profound peace.

XXX. 4290. Carausius, having assumed the purple, seized upon Britain; but ten years afterwards it was recovered by Asclepiodotus.

XXXI. 4304. A cruel and inveterate persecution, in which within the space of a month seventeen thousand martyrs suffered in the cause of Christ. This persecution spread over the sea, and the Britons, Alban, Aaron, and Julius, with great numbers of men and women, were condemned to a happy death.

XXXII. 4306. Constantius, a man of the greatest humanity, having conquered Allectus, died at Eboracum in the sixteenth year of his reign.

XXXIII. 4307. Constantine, afterwards called the Great, son of Constantius by Helena, a British woman, was created emperor in Britain; and Ireland voluntarily became tributary to him.

XXXIV. 4320. The Scoti entered Britain under the conduct of the king Fergusius, and here fixed their residence.

XXXV. Theodosius slew Maximus the tyrant three miles from Aquileia. Maximus having nearly drained Britain of all its warlike youth, who followed the footsteps of his tyranny over Gaul, the fierce transmarine nations of the Scots from the south, and the Picts from the north, perceiving the island without soldiers and defenceless, oppressed it and laid it waste during a long series of years.

XXXVI. 4396. The Britons indignantly submitting to the attacks of the Scots and Picts, sent to Rome, made an offer of submission, and requested assistance against their enemies. A legion being accordingly despatched to their assistance, slew a great multitude of the barbarians, and drove the remainder beyond the confines of Britain. The legion, upon its departure homewards, advised its allies to construct a wall between the two estuaries, to restrain the enemy. A wall was accordingly made in an unskilful manner, with a greater proportion of turf than stone, which was of no advantage; for on the departure of the Romans the former enemies returned in ships, slew, trampled on, and devoured all things before them like a ripened harvest.

XXXVII. 4400. Assistance being again entreated, the Romans came, and with the aid of the Britons drove the enemy beyond sea, and built a wall from sea to sea, not as before with earth, but with solid stone, between the fortresses erected in that part to curb the enemy. On the southern coast, where an invasion of the Saxons was apprehended, he erected watch towers. This was the work of Stilicho, as appears from Claudian.

XXXVIII. 4411. Rome, the seat of the fourth and greatest of the monarchies, was seized by the Goths, as Daniel prophesied, in the year one thousand one hundred and sixty-four after its foundation.

From this time ceased the Roman empire in Britain, four hundred and sixty-five years after the arrival of Julius Caesar.

XXXIX. 4446. The Roman legion retiring from Britain, and refusing to return, the Scots and Picts ravaged all the island from the north as far as the wall, the guards of which being slain, taken prisoners, or driven away, and the wall itself broken through, the predatory enemy then poured into the country. An epistle was sent filled with tears and sorrows to Fl. AEtius, thrice consul, in the twenty-third year of Theodosius, begging the assistance of the Roman power, but without effect.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 683: Probably from Caesar, though the precise date seems to be fixed without authority.--_Caes. de Bell. Gall. lib._ v., Sec. 9.]

CHAP. II.

1. Having followed truth as far as possible, if any thing should occur not strictly consistent with it, I request it may not be imputed to me as a fault. Confining myself closely to the rules and laws of history, I have collected all the accounts of other persons which I found most accurate and deserving of credit. The reader must not expect any thing beyond an enumeration of those emperors and Roman governors who had authority over this island. With an account of these I shall close my book.

2. Julius Caesar the dictator was the first of the Romans who invaded Britain with an army, during the reign of Cassibelinus; but, although he defeated the inhabitants in one battle, and occupied the coast, as Tacitus observes, he rather seems to have shown the way to his successors than to have given them possession.

3. In a short time the civil wars succeeding, the arms of the chiefs were turned against the republic. Britain was also long neglected by the advice of Augustus and the command of Tiberius. It is certain that Caligula intended to enter Britain; but his quick temper and proneness to change, or the unsuccessful attempts against the Germans, prevented him.

4. Claudius, however, carried war into Britain which no Roman emperor since Julius Caesar had reached, and, having transported his legions and allies without danger or bloodshed, in a few days reduced a part of the island. He afterwards sent over Vespasian, at that time in a private station, who fought two and thirty battles with the enemy, and added to the Roman empire two very powerful nations, with their kings, twenty cities, and the isle of Vecta, contiguous to Britain. He overcame the remainder by means of Cneas Sentius and Aulus Plautius. For these exploits he obtained a great triumph.

5. To him succeeded Ostorius Scapula, a man famous in war, who reduced the nearest part of Britain into a province, and added the colony of the veterans, Camalodunum. Certain cities were delivered up to the chief Cogibundus, who, according to Tacitus, remained faithful till the accession of Trajan to the empire.

6. Avitus Didius Gallus kept possession of what his predecessors had acquired, a few posts only being removed further into the interior, in order to obtain the credit of extending his dominion.

7. Didius Verannius, who succeeded, died within a year.

8. Suetonius Paulinus continued prosperous for two years. The tribes being reduced and garrisons established, he attacked the isle of Mona, because it gave succour to the rebellious and afforded opportunities for invasion. For the absence of the governor removing all fear, the Britons began to recover courage, and rose in arms under the conduct of Bonduica, a woman of royal descent. Having reduced the troops scattered in the garrisons, they attacked the colony[684] itself, as the seat of slavery, and in the height of rage and victory, exercised every species of savage barbarity. Had not Paulinus, on receiving the intelligence, luckily hastened to crush the revolt, Britain must have been lost. But the fortune of one battle restored it to its former submission. Many of the natives, from the consciousness of their defection, and fear of the governor, continued under arms.

9. Suetonius, in other respects an illustrious man, but arrogant to the vanquished and prompt to avenge his own injuries, being likely to exercise severity, he was replaced by Petronius Turpilianus, who was more merciful, a stranger to the offences of the enemy, and therefore more likely to be softened by their repentance. Having settled the disturbances, he gave up the province to Trebellius Maximus.

10. Trebellius, being of a slothful disposition and unused to war, retained the province by gentleness. The barbarous Britons ceasing to be ignorant of luxury, and the termination of civil wars, gave him an excuse for inactivity. But discord called forth his exertions; for the soldiery, when released from military labours, grew wanton from too much rest. Trebellius, having evaded the rage of the army by flight, was shortly allowed to resume the command, the licentiousness of the soldiery becoming as it were a composition for the safety of the general. This sedition ended without bloodshed.

11. Nor did Vectius Bolanus, although the civil wars still continued, harass Britain by restoring discipline. There was the same inactivity towards the enemy, and the same insubordination in the garrisons; but Bolanus, being a good man and not disliked, acquired affection instead of authority.

12. But when, with the rest of the world, Vespasian had recovered Britain, we see distinguished generals, famous armies, and the enemy dispirited: Petilius Cerealis immediately excited terror by attacking the state of the Brigantes, which was esteemed the most populous of the province. Many battles were fought, some of which were bloody, and a great part of the Brigantian territory was either conquered or invaded.

13. But although Cerealis had diminished the care and fame of his successor, the burden was sustained by Julius Frontinus, a man of high courage. Overcoming at once the spirit of the enemy and the difficulties of the country, he subjugated the warlike and powerful nation of the Silures.

14. To him succeeded Agricola, who not only maintained the peace of the province; but for seven years carried on war against the Caledonians and their warlike king Galgacus. He thus added to the Roman empire nations hitherto unknown.

15. But Domitian, envying the superior glory of Agricola, recalled him, and sent his lieutenant Lucullus into Britain, because he had suffered lances of a new form to be named _Luculleas_ after him.

16. His successor was Trebellius, under whom the two provinces, namely, Vespasiana and Maeata, were wrested from the Roman government; for the Romans gave themselves up to luxury.

17. About this time the emperor Hadrian visiting this island, erected a wall justly wonderful, and left Julius Severus his deputy in Britain.

18. From this time nothing worthy of attention is related, until Antoninus Pius carried on so many wars by his generals. He conquered the Britons by means of Lollius Urbicus, the propraetor, and Saturninus, prefect of the fleet, and, the barbarians being driven back, another wall was built. He recovered the province afterwards called Valentia.

19. Pius dying, Aurelius Antoninus gained many victories over the Britons and Germans.

20. On the death of Antoninus, when the Romans deemed their acquisitions insufficient, they suffered a great defeat under Marcellus.

21. To him succeeded Pertinax, who conducted himself as an able general.

22. The next was Clodius Albinus, who contended with Severus for the sceptre and purple.

23. After these, the first who enjoyed the title of lieutenant was Virius Lupus: he did not perform many splendid actions; for his glory was intercepted by the unconquerable Severus, who, having rapidly put the enemy to flight, repaired the wall of Hadrian, now become ruinous, and restored it to its former perfection. Had he lived, he intended to extirpate the very name of the barbarians; but he died by the visitation of God, among the Brigantes, in the city of Eboracum.

24. Alexander succeeded, who gained some victories in the East, and died at Edessa.

25. His successors were the lieutenants Lucilianus, M. Furius, N. Philippus *********, who, if we except the preservation of the boundaries, performed hardly any thing worthy of notice.

26. Afterwards *****

_The rest is wanting._

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 684: Camalodunum.]

APPENDIX.--No. I.

COMMENTARY ON THE ITINERARY.

No people are so barbarous as to be totally destitute of the means of internal communication; and in proportion as they become more civilized and have more intercourse with other nations, these means are augmented and facilitated. By the early accounts of the Britons it appears that they maintained a considerable foreign commerce, that they had formed towns or large communities, and used chariots for warlike, and undoubtedly for civil purposes. Hence it is evident that their internal communications must have been free and numerous. We need not therefore be surprised, if, after the lapse of so many centuries, marks of such British roads appear even at present to a careful observer, differing in many respects from the roads subsequently made by the Romans, and traversing the island in every direction.

These ancient ways may be distinguished from those made by the Romans by unequivocal marks.

I. They are not raised nor paved, nor always straight; but often wind along the tops or sides of the chains of hills which lie in their course.

II. They do not lead to Roman towns, or notice such towns, except when placed on the sites of British fortresses.

III. They are attended by tumuli like those of the Romans; but usually throw out branches, which, after running parallel for some miles, are reunited to the original stem.

When the Romans obtained a footing in this island, they directed all their operations, according to their practice, by military principles. They civilized indeed as they conquered, but conquest was their principal object. Hence, as each tribe was successively subdued, they fortified such primary posts as were best adapted to support their future operations, established secondary posts to secure their communications, and connected the whole by military ways. From local circumstances, and the principles of war, their primary posts were either at or near the sites of the British towns, or on the principal rivers. If therefore the British towns and trackways were suited to their purposes, they adopted them; if not, they constructed others. But both their towns and roads differed materially from those of the original inhabitants. The Romans in their towns or fortresses followed the system of their own castrametation, in like manner as in modern warfare the construction of permanent and temporary works is guided by the same general principles. These towns are of a regular figure, bounded by lines as straight as the shape of the ground will permit, generally square or oblong, and consisting commonly in a single wall and ditch, unless in positions peculiarly dangerous, or where local circumstances rendered additional defences necessary. On the contrary the British towns, which were occupied by the Romans, although irregularly shaped, still partake of their original figure.

Specimens of the first kind, or perfect Roman towns, may be seen in Colchester, Winchester, Caerleon, Caerwent, Castor near Norwich, and all the military stations bordering on the wall of Severus. Of the latter, in Bath, Silchester, Kentchester, Canterbury, and other places.

Similar marks of difference between the original British trackways and the Roman roads appear in the Foss, and the Iknield Street;--the latter, during the greater part of its course, keeping along the chain of hills which lay in its way, not leading decidedly to Roman towns, throwing out parallel branches, attended always with tumuli, still bearing its British name, and appearing from its direction to have been made for commercial purposes.

On the other hand the adopted roads, but more especially those made by the Romans themselves, are distinguished by peculiar marks. Posts or towns are placed on them at nearly regular distances, seldom exceeding twenty miles, the length of a single march, and also at the point where two roads intersect each other, or where several roads diverge. These roads are elevated with surprising labour to the height of ten feet, and sometimes even more, instances of which may be seen on the heath near Woodyates Inn in Dorsetshire, near Old Sarum on the side of Ford, in Chute Park, Wilts, between Ancaster and Lincoln, and still more remarkably on Bramham Moor, near Tadcaster in Yorkshire. They were formed of materials often brought from a considerable distance, such as chalk, pebbles, or gravel; and the most considerable are paved with stones, which are visible to this day. Tumuli also, which seem to have been the direction-posts of antiquity, attended their course, and occur in almost every instance where a road descends a hill, approaches a station, or throws off a branch. Another peculiarity of the Roman ways is their straight direction, from which they seldom deviate, except to avoid a rapid ascent or descent, to throw off another road, or to approach a station, which, from the circumstances before mentioned, had been fixed out of the general line. Of this there is a curious instance where the Foss, in approaching Cirencester from the north, meets the Akeman Street, bearing to the same point from the north-east, and evidently bends out of its course to join and enter the station with it.

Of many of the Roman roads, not only in England, but in the greater part of the Roman empire, an account has been preserved under the name of the Itinerary of Antoninus, which specifies the towns or stations on each road, and shows the distances between them. This record was long supposed to be a public directory or guide for the march of soldiers; but if this were the case, it is extremely confused and imperfect. It often omits in one _Iter_ or journey towns which are directly in its course, and yet specifies them in another, as may be seen in the first, second, sixth, and eighth Iters. It traces the same road more than once, and passes unnoticed some of the most remarkable roads in the island, namely a great part of the Foss, and the whole of the _Via Devana_ (a road from Colchester to Chester.) Hence this Itinerary has been more justly considered as the heads of a journal formed by some traveller or officer, who visited the different parts of the empire from business or duty; and, as Mr. Reynolds conjectures with great appearance of probability, in the suite of the emperor Adrian. In this light it may be considered as copious, and the advantages which it has afforded to the antiquary will be gratefully and universally acknowledged. Still, however, from the incoherence which appears in that part relating to our island, and from the mutilated copies which have been found, there is reason to imagine that the whole of this interesting record has not escaped the ravages of time.

Such an itinerary, but varying in many respects from that of Antonine, is one of the most important parts of the work now presented to the reader.

In fixing the sites of the towns specified in these Itineraries, our antiquaries have assumed the most unjustifiable latitude. The mere resemblance of a name was considered as a reason sufficient to outweigh all others; even the great Camden suffered himself to be misled by this resemblance, in fixing Ariconium at Kentchester, Camalodunum at Maldon, Bennavenna at Bensford, Pons AElii at Pont Eland, and Ad-Pontem at Paunton. The explanation of the names to suit the supposed situation has been another fruitful source of error; not only British and Latin, but Saxon, Greek, and even Hebrew, have been exhausted to discover significant appellations; and where one language was not sufficient, half a word has been borrowed from one language and half from another to support a favourite hypothesis.[685] The commentary now presented to the reader is founded on the following principles.

I. The vestiges of roads actually existing are taken as much as possible for guides; and the extremes or direction of each Iter, ascertained from two or more undoubted stations, or other unequivocal proofs.

II. In general, no place is regarded as the site of a Roman station, unless fixed Roman remains, such as buildings, baths, &c. are found at or near it; and unless it is situated on or near the line of a Roman road.

III. An exception has, however, been sometimes unavoidably made to this rule. After the Romans had established their power, and completed their system of internal communication, they undoubtedly lessened the number of their garrisons, to avoid either too great a division of their force, or to reduce that part of it which was necessarily stationary. Hence we have sometimes considered the direction of the road, and the general distance, as sufficient data for determining a station or stations, either when they were situated between two considerable fortified points, or when covered by others on every side; because it is probable such posts were merely temporary, and were dilapidated or demolished, even before the decline of the Roman power.

IV. In assigning a specific Roman name to a place, it has not been deemed sufficient that fixed antiquities or other equivalent evidence prove a town to have existed on the spot, unless the order of the names, and the distances marked in the Itinerary, justify the appellation.

V. Where the line of the Roman road is tolerably perfect, no station is sought far from it, except where the excess of the Itinerary over the real distance, or accurate measurement, affords sufficient authority for the deviation.

VI. The numbers which determine the distances being written in Roman numerals, which gave great latitude for error[686] and substitutions, recourse has been had to this rule.

Where the road still exists, the whole intermediate space between two stations already determined, has been examined to discover what places, from their relative distance, from their site, or the antiquities found in them, have the fairest claim to be considered as Roman posts; and to such places the names have been affixed according to the evidence afforded in the Itinerary.

After this development of the principles on which we have proceeded in our examination, it is necessary to add a few observations on the Roman mile, the standard of measurement used in compiling the Itineraries; because many difficulties in determining the stations arise from our uncertainty respecting its real length. It may indeed appear easy to ascertain this point, by a careful measurement of the space between two military columns, still existing on any known Roman road. But in Britain such an experiment has been hitherto impracticable; for the columns in our island have been so universally defaced or removed, that, far from two existing on the same road, only one has been found[687] whose original station is known with any degree of certainty. In France and Italy many of these columns still exist, and Danville has adduced three instances in Languedoc, in which the distances between them accurately measured amounted in one to 756, in another to 753, and in a third to 752 toises and two feet. The average 754 toises and two feet, seems to determine the length of the Roman mile with sufficient precision; and the result is confirmed by a comparison with the Roman foot, still preserved in the capitol; for the exact length of the miles between the military columns on the Appian way, in the neighbourhood of Rome, as measured by Bianchini, was 5010 of these Roman feet, which reduced to toises is 756 toises four feet and a half. From these results Danville estimates the Roman mile at 755 toises, or 1593 yards[688] English measure.

Unfortunately this mensuration does not lessen the difficulties of the English antiquary; for the distance between any two of our known stations, if measured by this standard, disagrees in almost every instance with the numbers of the Itineraries. Different conjectures have been advanced to solve this difficulty. One, supported by the respectable authority of Horsley, is, that the Romans measured only the horizontal distance, without regarding the inequalities of the surface; or that the space between station and station was ascertained from maps accurately constructed. This idea receives some support from a fact acknowledged by every British antiquary, namely, that the Itinerary miles bear a regular proportion to the English miles on plains, but fall short of them in hilly grounds. Another opinion is, that the Itinerary miles were not measured by an invariable standard, but in the distant provinces were derived from the common measures of the country. In support of this conjecture a supposed coincidence between the computed and measured miles, noticed by Horsley and others, has been adduced; but if this were the case, there would not be so exact a conformity between the miles of France and Italy as appears in the instance before mentioned.

To remove, however, as many causes of error as possible, considerable pains have been taken to correct the numbers, by a comparison of all the earliest and most authentic copies of the Itinerary. These are: The Itinerary of Talbot, published in Leland's works. That of Camden. Two copies by Harrison, published first in Hollingshed, and republished by Burton. That of Gale. That of Surita, who collated five copies, four of which he thus designates:--1. Bibliothecae Regiae ad D. Laurent. vetustisa. Codex Ovetensis AEra I[OO]CCCCXX descriptus. 2. Bibliothecae Blandiniae pervetustus codex a CCCC. circiter annis transcriptus. 3. Bibliothecae Neapolitanorum Regum qui post cardinalis de Ursinis fuit anno M.CCCCXXVII. exscriptus. 4. Christophori Longolii exemplar ab H. Stephano. Parisiis editum, anno M.I[O]XII.

As the Roman posts and roads were in a great degree connected with, or derived from, the British towns and trackways, we proceed to trace first the course of the British roads which still exist, and to specify the towns whose sites are known, premising that of the ninety-two capital towns of the Britons commemorated by historians, the names of only eighty-eight have been preserved.

The British ways were,--

1. The WATLING STREET, or Irish road, in two branches, northern and southern.

2. The IKNIELD STREET, or road of the Iceni, the inhabitants of the eastern coast.

3. The RYKNIELD STREET, leading through the country of the Upper Iceni or Coritani.

4. The ERMYN STREET, leading from the coast of Sussex to the south-east part of Scotland.

5. The AKEMAN STREET, or intermediate road between the Iknield and Ryknield Street.

6. The UPPER SALT-WAY, leading from the salt-mines at Droitwich to the coast of Lincolnshire.

7. The LOWER SALT-WAY, leading from the same mines to the south eastern coast.

8. A road which appears to have skirted the western coast, as the Ermyn Street did the eastern.

Besides these, there is reason to conjecture from several detached pieces, that another road followed the shores round the island.

WATLING STREET.

The south-eastern branch of the Watling Street proceeded from Richborough on the coast of Kent, to Canterbury; and from thence, nearly in the line of the present turnpike, towards Rochester. It left that city to the right, passed the Medway by a ford, and ran almost straight, through lord Darnley's park, to Southfleet. It bent to the left to avoid the marshes near London, continued along a road now lost to Holwood Hill, the capital of the Rhemi, and then followed the course of the present road to London.--Having crossed the Thames, it ran by Edgeware to Verulam; and from thence, with the present great Irish road, through Dunstable and Towcester to Weedon. Hence, instead of bending to the left, with the present turnpike, it proceeded straight by Dovebridge, High Cross, Fazeley, Wall, and Wellington, to Wroxeter. It then passed the Severn, and continued by Rowton, Pen y Pont, and Bala, to Tommen y Mawr, where it divided into two branches. One ran by Beth Gellert to Caernarvon and Anglesea, the other by Dolwyddelan, through the mountains to the banks of the Menai, where it joined the north-eastern branch (which will be presently described), and ended at Holy Head, the great port of the Irish.

In its course are the British towns _Rhutupis_, Richborough, _Durovernum_, Canterbury, _Durobrivae_, Rochester, _Noviomagus_, Holwood Hill, _Trinobantum_, London, _Verolamium_, St. Alban's, _Durocobrivae_, Dunstable, _Uriconium_, Wroxeter, _Mediolanum_ on the banks of the Tanad, _Segontium_, Caer Segont, and possibly a town, of which the name is lost, at Holy Head.

The north-western branch of the Watling Street, coming from the interior of Scotland by Cramond and Jedburgh, enters England at Chew Green, and continues by Riechester to Corbridge. There, crossing the Tyne, it ran through Ebchester, Lanchester, and Binchester, and passed the Tees by a ford near Pierce Bridge. Hence it went by Catteric, Newton, Masham, and Kirby Malside to Ilkley, and near Halifax to Manchester. Over the moors between these two last places it is called the Devil's Causeway. From Manchester, where it passed the Mersey, it proceeded by Street, Northwich, Chester, Caerhun, and over the mountains to Aber, where it fell into the south-western branch, in its course to Holy Head.

On it were the British towns, _Bremenium_, Riechester, _Epiacum_, Lanchester, _Vinovium_, Binchester, _Cutaractonis_, Catterick, _Olicana_, Ilkley, and _Deva_, Chester.

THE IKNIELD STREET,

Or road of the Iceni, proceeds from the coast near Great Yarmouth. Passing through Taesborough, it runs by Icklingham and Newmarket, and, skirting the chain of hills which stretches through Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, and Oxfordshire, continues by Bournbridge to Icoldon and Royston (where it intersects the Ermyn Street). Thence it proceeds by Baldock, over Wilbury Hill, to Dunstable (where it crosses the Watling Street), Tring, Wendover, Elsborough, near Risborough Chinor, Watlington, Woodcote, and Goring, and, passing the Thames at Streetly, throws off a collateral branch, which will be noticed under the name of the RIDGEWAY. From hence it proceeded, as Stukeley imagined, by Aldworth, Newbury Street, Ashmansworth, Tangley, and Tidworth, to Old Sarum. Thence by the two Stratfords, across Vernditch Chase, Woodyates Inn, the Gussages, Badbury, Shapwick, Shitterton, Maiden Castle, Eggardon, Bridport, Axminster, Honiton, Exeter, Totness, &c., to the Land's End.

The collateral branch called the RIDGEWAY, ran from Streetly along the hills, by Cuckhamsley Hill, Whitehorse Hill, and Ashbury, towards Abury, from whence its course is unknown. Possibly it ran towards Glastonbury. From Elworthy barrows, above Taunton, it passes south-westerley into Devonshire, and from Stretton in Cornwall, it kept along the ridge of hills to Redruth and the Land's End.

The British towns on this way were _Ad Taum_, Taesborough, the ancient capital of the Iceni Magni, _Durocobrivae_, Dunstable, _Sorbiodunum_, Old Sarum, _Durinum_, probably Maiden Castle, _Isca_, Exeter, _Tamara_, a post on the Tamar, _Voluba_ on the Fowey, and _Cenia_ on the Fal.

On the Ridgeway, possibly _Avalonia_, Glastonbury, _Termolus_, by some supposed to be Molland in Devon, _Artavia_, ... _Musidum_, near Stratton, and _Halangium_, Carnbre.

RYKNIELD STREET,

Or street of the upper Iceni, said to begin at the mouth of the Tyne, ran by Chester le Street to Binchester, where it joined the Watling Street, and continued with it to Catterick. Then, bearing more easterly, it ran with the present great northern road to within two miles of Borough Bridge, where it left the turnpike to the right, and crossed the Eure to Aldborough. From thence it went by Coptgrave, Ribston, Spofforth, through Stokeld Park, to Thorner, Medley, Foleby, Bolton, Graesborough, Holme, Great Brook near Tretown, Chesterfield, Alfreton, Little Chester, Egginton, to Burton, and Wall (where it crossed the Watling Street). Thence through Sutton Colefield, to Birmingham, King's Norton, Alchester, Bitford, Sedgebarrow, Tewkesbury, Glocester, Lidney, Chepstow, and probably by Abergavenny, Brecon, Landilo, and Caermarthen to St. David's.

It passed the British towns of _Vinovium_, Binchester, _Cataracton_, Catterick, _Isurium_, Aldborough, _Etocetum_, Wall, _Alauna_, Alcester, _Glevum_, Glocester, _Maridunum_, Caermarthen, and _Menapia_, St. David's.

THE ERMYN STREET

Came from the eastern side of Scotland, and, crossing the Tweed west of Berwick, ran near Wooler, Hedgely, Brumpton, Brinkburn, Netherwittern, Hartburn, and Rial, to Corbridge, where it joined the North Watling Street. Passing with that Way the two great rivers the Tyne and the Tees, it continued to Catterick, where it divided into two branches.

The western branch went with the Ryknield Street as far as Aldborough, and then, leaving that way to the right, proceeded by Little Ousebourn, to Helensford, over Bramham Heath, to Aberford, Castleford, Houghton, Stapleton, Adwick, Doncaster, Bawtry, and probably by Tuxford, Southwell, and over the Trent to Thorp (where it passed the Foss), Staunton, and Stainby, where it joined the

Eastern branch. This branch ran from Catterick by North Allerton, Thirsk, Easingwold, Stamford Bridge, Market Weighton, and South Cave, and, crossing the Humber, continued by Wintringham, Lincoln, and Ancaster, to near Witham, when it was reunited with the western branch above-mentioned. Both continued to Brig Casterton, near Stamford, Chesterton, Stilton, Godmanchester, Royston (where it crossed the Icknield Street), Buntingford, Puckeridge, Ware Park, west of Roxbourn, Cheshunt, Enfield, Wood Green, and London. Here it again divided into two branches. The more westerly went by Dorking, Coldharbour, Stone Street, and Pulborough to Chichester; while the easterly was continued by Bromley, Holwood Hill, Tunbridge Wells, Wadhurst, Mayfield, and Eastbourn, to Pevensey.

On it were the British towns _Vinovium_, Binchester, _Cataractonis_, Catterick, _Isurium_, Aldborough, _Lindum_, Lincoln, _Durnomagus_, Castor near Peterborough, _Trinovantum_, London, _Regentium_ or _Regnum_, Chichester, _Noviomagus_, Holwood Hill, and _Anderida Portus_, Pevensey.

AKEMAN STREET

Appears to have passed from the eastern side of the island, probably by Bedford, Newport Pagnel, Stony Stratford, and Buckingham (or as others think by Fenny Stratford and Winsborough), to Alcester. It then ran by Kirklington, Woodstock, Stonefield Astall and Coln St. Alwin's, to Cirencester, Rodmarton, Cherrington, Bagspath, and Symonds' Hall. From thence it is said to be continued by Cromehall to Aust, where, passing the Severn, it probably ran through Caerwent, Caerleon, and along the coast by Caerdiff, Neath, Lwghor, to Caermarthen, and the Irish port at St. David's.

The British towns were _Corinum_, Cirencester, _Venta Silurum_, Caerwent, _Isca_, Caerleon, _Maridunum_, Caermarthen, and _Menapia_, St. David's.

THE UPPER SALT-WAY,

Which appears to have been the communication between the sea coast of Lincolnshire and the Salt-mines at Droitwich. It is first known as leading from the neighbourhood of Stainsfield, towards Paunton and Denton, and then running not far from Saltby and Croxton, is continued straight by Warmby and Grimston, to Sedgehill on the Foss. Here it appears to bear towards Barrow on the Soar, and crossing Charnwood Forest, is again seen at Stretton on the borders of Warwickshire, from whence it is easily traced to Birmingham and over the Lickey to Droitwich.

British town _Salinae_, Droitwich.

The SECOND SALT-WAY is little known, although the parts here described have been actually traced. It came from Droitwich, crossed Worcestershire under the name of the SALT-WAY, appears to have passed the Avon, somewhere below Evesham, tended towards the chain of hills above Sudeley Castle, where it is still visible, attended by _tumuli_ as it runs by Hawling. Thence it proceeds to Northleach, where it crossed the Foss, in its way to Coln St. Aldwin's, on the Akeman Street, and led to the sea coast of Hampshire.

_Venta Belgarum_, Winchester, and _Portus Magnus_, Porchester, or _Clausentum_, Bittern near Southampton--were probably situated in its course.

In many places are vestiges of a continued road skirting the western side of the island, in the same manner as the Ermyn Street did the eastern, of which parts were never adopted by the Romans. There is great reason to suppose it British, because it connects many of the British towns. It appears to have commenced on the coast of Devon, perhaps not far from the mouth of the Ex, and to have gone by Exeter, Taunton, Bridgewater, Bristol, Glocester, Kidderminster, Claverley, Weston, High Offley, Betley, Middlewich, Northwich, Warrington, Preston, Lancaster. Here probably dividing into two branches, one ran by Kendal, Penrith, and Carlisle, to the extreme parts of the island, while the other passed, by Kirby Lonsdale and Orton, to Kirby Thure, from whence it continued under the name of the MAIDEN-WAY, by the Wall and Bewcastle into the interior parts of Scotland. On this Street were _Isca_, Exeter, _Uxella_, possibly near Bridgewater, _Glevum_, Gloucester, _Brannogenium_, Worcester, _Salinae_, Droitwich, _Coccium_, Blackrode, and _Luguballium_, Carlisle.

Besides these, and the separate communications between the different towns, there is reason to imagine that a general road ran round the whole coast of the island, parts of which have been observed near the southern coast of Dorsetshire, particularly from Abbotsbury to the isle of Purbeck; likewise in Hampshire, along Portsdown Hill; and from Old Winchester through Sussex, on the tops of the hills between Midhurst and Chichester, to Arundel and Brighthelmstone. Also in Essex from Maldon to Colchester, and in Suffolk by Stretford, Ipswich, Stretford, and Blythburgh, to the banks of the Yar. In Lincolnshire are two branches, one running clearly from Tattersal, by Horncastle, Ludford, Strinton, Caistor, and Somerby, and a second nearer to the coast from Lowth towards Brocklesby, and both tending to the passage of the Humber, not far from Barton. Also along the principal part of the coast through Yorkshire, Durham, and Northumberland. On the western side of the island it appears to have passed on the hills which skirt the northern coast of Devonshire and Somersetshire, and possibly might be traced through Wales and towards Scotland.

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As the original text of so important a document as Richard's Itinerary is essential to the thorough comprehension of its meaning, it is here subjoined: it follows after the end of