chapter viii

. being devoted to the subject. Every racing owner should possess this book: it is, therefore, unnecessary to repeat the treatment of the rules therein contained. Nor is a criticism of the rules necessary, as this has been done by the present writer in a series of articles published in that excellent paper 'The Yachtsman,' on April 28, and May 5, 12, 19, and 26, 1892; which back numbers can be obtained for a few pence by applying to the publisher, 143 Strand, London. Moreover, a summary of the rules was given in the Almanac for the Solent Racing, published by King & Co., Southampton, in 1893, and will probably be repeated in succeeding years.

An attempt will therefore be made in these pages to treat the Racing Rules in a different manner, by an examination and description of the duties of each important actor in connection with a yacht race.

_Duties of a Designer_

The principal object and duty of a designer is to build yachts capable of winning prizes fairly. He must, therefore, study every peculiarity and custom of the sport, the average climate during the racing season, and, above all, he must study the rule of rating and measurement (Rule 3), to be examined at the end of this chapter. Other rules must not escape his attention; for instance, the designer of Mr. Carrol's yacht, when building in America for races in British waters, would note that by Rule 9 shifting keels may only be moved by manual power, and, consequently, that if any hydraulic appliance be used, anything in the nature of an accumulator would be contrary to the spirit of the rule, and would be matter for protest. The same remark applies to working and hoisting the sails (Rule 13).

A designer must note that, by Rule 15, yachts over 10-rating must be fitted below deck as yachts, including two wooden transverse bulkheads. Also that, by Rule 16, yachts of 30 to 90-rating must carry on deck a boat not less than 10 feet by 3-1/2 feet, and yachts of 90-rating, or more, a boat not less than 12 feet by 3-1/2 feet.

Designers must also consider Rule 33, which defines 'cruising trim'--especially Clause 2, which prohibits the placing of 'sails or other gear' 'in the main cabin' of yachts which race in this trim; and Clauses 3 and 4, concerning the anchors and chains, and boats.

_Private Match_

A yacht race can only be said to occur when the competitors have carefully prepared for it, and when it is under the direction of some competent nautical authority. In arranging a private match, it is therefore important to appoint both a race officer and a referee, the latter having the power to decide any dispute or to refer the same to the Y.R.A., should he think fit to do so.

_Club and Open Matches_

Private matches are less frequent than of yore, and modern racing is generally for prizes given by yacht clubs or by town regattas.

_Duties of a Yacht Club_

The object of a yacht club is usually defined somewhat as follows:--

R.S.Y.C.--The encouragement of yacht sailing in the Southampton Water and Solent.

R.P.C.Y.C.--To encourage amateur yacht racing in the Solent.

C.Y.C.--To encourage the racing of yachts in the small classes Y.R.A.

B.S.C.--To promote the interests of amateur boat-sailing.

The executives of such clubs should keep these objects in view by choosing flag officers who are keen sportsmen and patrons of yachting; by appointing sailing committees well versed in details; by raising funds for the prizes; and, generally, by constantly endeavouring to further the yachting interests of the club members.

Unfortunately the development of a yacht club only too frequently produces a dual government, the house being governed by a committee mainly consisting of habitués who are not yachtsmen, and the yachting by a sailing committee.

_Duties of a Sailing Committee_

The first duty of a sailing committee is to perfect itself. Each member should study, and be well acquainted with, the racing rules. The chairman should be a good business man, and well versed in the intricacies and dodges of yacht racing. If one of the flag officers fulfil these conditions, so much the better. The chairman should be elected by the committee, not by the club.

The committee should discover the amount of cash available for racing, the average cost of a regatta, and consequently the balance which can be devoted to prizes.

Other clubs whose regattas are held at the same period of the season should be addressed, and dates arranged to suit both clubs and owners.

The committee is then in a position to settle its programme, which should be done as early in the year as possible, in order that owners may prepare their yachts' programmes for the season. A summary of the club programme should then be published or advertised; and this should be strictly adhered to, if possible.

A clause is frequently inserted stating that the committee reserves the right to alter the programme; but it should be remembered that no change in the conditions of a race can be made after an entry has been received, because, by Rule 8, Y.R.A., the yacht is then 'entitled to a prize of not less than half the value of the first prize offered for competition,' if she 'sail over the course' under the conditions.

The advertisement may conveniently take the following form:

The ... Yacht Club will hold a Regatta on the ... day of ... 189. at ....

_Race I._--Fee .... Prizes £.., £.., £.., for yachts exceeding ..., and not exceeding ...R.

_Race II._--Fee .... Prizes £.., £.., for yachts exceeding ..., and not exceeding ... R.

And so on.

Open to yachts owned by members of recognised yacht clubs.

Entries close at noon on the ... of ... 189..

For full programme apply to the Club Secretary.

This summary is sufficient. It is better to insert a short notice twice than a long notice once.

The full programme should be drawn up with much care, and everything mentioned, thus avoiding numerous inquiries and much correspondence.

_The programme_ should state the matters already mentioned in the summary, and, in addition, the time of start for each race; the method of starting; the course of each race; the starting line; the finishing line (Rule 17); time limit (if any) for finishing race or shortening course; the exact length of each course in sea miles and decimals, for time allowance (if any); and the regulations special to the club or town regatta (Rule 4. Also Rec. 6 of Appendix).

Some good sportsmen on the Solent hope soon to see a code of regulations universally adopted for the Solent classes, in which event it will only be necessary to state on the programme or the race card that the Y.R.A. rules and the Solent class regulations will be observed.

The regulations might deal with the following matters:--

The sailing-over rule; the conditions on which second or third prizes (if any) will be awarded; the payment of entrance fees; the certificate of rating (Rule 3); the declaration at entry (Rule 5); the declaration at end of race (Rule 10); the deposit (if any) on a protest (Rule 30); the owner; the helmsman; rig allowances (if any). (Rec. 1 of Appendix.)

_The race card_ can only be drawn up at the last moment, after the entries have closed. It is similar to the programme, but contains the names of the yachts which have entered, their colours, their recall numerals, and sometimes the names of their owners (Rule 12). It also generally contains the names of the flag officers, and the names of the race officers for the day.

_Duties of the Secretary_

As the date of a regatta approaches, entries will be received, and the secretary should acquaint the sailing committee of any irregularity (Rule 5). He should also discover if the sailing committee wishes to 'refuse any entry.' An entry by telegram should finish thus: _Written entry follows_; and this should be made in strict accordance with Rule 5, Y.R.A. The entry (when filled in) and the declaration amount to nearly 150 words, which cost an owner 12_s._ 6_d._ if sent entirely by telegram. It was never intended that an entry by telegram should relieve an owner from making the declaration.

The secretary must see that the race cards are printed promptly as soon as the entries are closed, and one should be sent to each yacht in accordance with Rule 12, Y.R.A., which states that 'written or printed instructions as to the conditions of the race, the course to be sailed, marks, &c., shall be supplied at the time of entry, or as soon after as possible, to every yacht entered for a race.'

The secretary must see that recall numerals, 'white on a black ground, and the figures not less than 2 ft. 6 in. in height,' are placed conveniently for use by the race officers (Rule 12); also that the white peter, the blue peter (Rule 4), the commercial code flags B, C, D, F, and so on (Rule 17), and the means and trained labour for hoisting them promptly are similarly provided.

He must also have a care that the gun, or guns, and the ammunition are in good order and position, and properly manned, in order that Rules 4 and 17 may be complied with.

He must see that the two inner marks for the alignment of the starting line are correctly fixed, and that the outer mark is moored as nearly as practicable in the same alignment.

He must take measures for having the mark-boats (if any) correctly moored, in good time.

He should see that the race officers are provided with a chronograph, a book of the Y.R.A. rules, a race card, a chart showing the courses, a coloured diagram showing the racing colours of each competing yacht, and a description of each yacht giving any peculiarity by which she may be identified, such as the colour of the hull, the rig, the shape of the bow or stern, &c.

He should provide lanterns for use at the winning line in the event of a finish after sunset.

After the racing he should endeavour to obtain the declarations from the owners (or their representatives) on board the winning yachts (Rule 10).

During these stirring times a secretary must not rely on receiving any assistance; on the contrary, everyone expects help from him; and should anything go wrong his broad shoulders must carry the blame.

Yet there are some men who do all this and much more a dozen times in a season, and toil year by year 'for the good of the club,' and 'the fun of the thing,' as honorary secretaries.

_The Duties of Race Officers_

It is customary, and a good plan, for the sailing committee to appoint two race officers for each day of a regatta (Rule 1). If the services of a flag officer, or of an active member of the sailing committee, can be obtained, well and good; but anyone, whether a member of the club or not, may be appointed.

A race officer should be at his post _at least_ half an hour before the first race begins (Rule 1). This gives him only fifteen minutes to see that things are 'shipshape' before flag B is hoisted (Rule 17). During this time he must decide whether the regatta or any race must be postponed on account of bad weather, in which case letter N is hoisted over the flag denoting the race or races so postponed (Rule 2). He should discover from the secretary that the marks are all correctly moored, the flags and guns ready, and everything in order. It is a great convenience to sailing masters to have a _time gun_ fired half an hour before the start for the first race; but this should not be done unless it be mentioned on the race card. The race officer should time this gun to the fraction of a second, and start all the races in strict accordance therewith. The officer should also make himself acquainted with the racing colours (Rule 11), and, if possible, with any peculiarities in the appearance of the yachts which are about to compete, in order that they may be easily identified at the start. As the time for hoisting flag B (race 1) approaches, the officer should warn the man at the signal halliards, who will hoist the flag, _furled_, at the peak, and the instant the officer gives the time signal the flag should be 'broken out' by a sharp jerk on the halliard.

As the time for _first gun_ approaches, the blue peter is hoisted similarly by another halliard, and is 'broken out' the instant the officer gives the time signal; the gun is fired simultaneously, and should it miss fire the blue peter is the signal. The 'preparative flag' is also lowered.

The yachts in the race are under the rules at first gun (Rule 17). The only apparent exception being that a _paid_ hand may join or leave a yacht before the 'signal to start' (Rule 14), but not afterwards. N.B.--Corinthians may join or leave a yacht at any time during a race. The race officer should recall any yacht at the start which breaks any racing rule, such as being towed or propelled by any means other than her sails, after first gun (Rule 25).

The 'member of a recognised yacht club' (Rule 10) must be on board at _first_ gun, and so with all the other racing rules.

One of the race officers must very carefully watch the alignment as the starting time (_precisely_ five minutes after first gun) approaches, and the other officer should watch the chronograph and shout the word 'fire' at the fraction of a second. 'Should the gun miss fire the simultaneous lowering of the blue peter is the signal to start' (Rule 17). The officer attending to the starting line should carefully note whether 'any part of the hull, spars, or other equipment' (Rule 17) of any of the yachts 'be on or across the line _before_ the signal to start is made.' If so, the recall numerals of such boats should be at once displayed, and kept displayed until they return and recross the line or give up the race (Rule 12). The second race is started in the same way, the preparative flag C being hoisted when the starting gun for the first race is fired.

Sometimes there is an interval of time between these actions; but there is no difficulty in starting races every fifteen minutes in strict accordance with the rules, if the officers know their duties and the signalmen are well trained.

The work of starting shows the necessity of appointing _two_ race officers; and, subsequently, during the racing it enables at least one officer to be always on duty. The officers should watch the racing as much as possible, and should they see or learn that any yacht has broken any rule, they should disqualify her whether she be protested against or not (Rule 30).

'Should it be necessary during a race to shorten the course' (Rule 4), the officers will order 'the signal flag denoting the race' (or races) to be 'hoisted under the white peter; or, in case of fog or darkness, two guns' to be 'fired,' to show that the race is to finish with the round about to be completed, 'or at such mark as the sailing committee or officer of the day may appoint.' In practice, the sailing committee never interferes with the race officers.

Of course the time allowance, if any, is adjusted to the altered distance (Rule 4).

If there be more than one round in a course, each yacht should be timed at the end of each round; but there is no rule to this effect. The time at the end of a round or race is taken when any part of a yacht's hull or equipment _first_ cuts the line. When the competing yachts pass the race officer, he should also notice whether any of them 'show an ensign conspicuously in the main rigging' (Rule 30), this being the preparative signal of a protest; and consequently, the race officers must be prepared to receive such protest 'within two hours of the arrival of the protesting yacht,' but they cannot decide it. This rests with the sailing committee.

Race officers must also be prepared to receive from a yacht, or yachts, a claim for a resailed race under the 'man overboard' rule (Rule 29), which states that competing yachts 'shall use their utmost endeavours to render assistance in case of a man falling overboard from a competing yacht; and if it should appear that any yacht was thereby prevented from winning the race, the committee shall have power to order it to be resailed between any yacht or yachts so prevented, and the actual winner.'

By the wording of the rule the race officers can only report the matter to the committee, and cannot settle it themselves. Nevertheless, they have the power to 'award the prizes' (Rule 1) in the absence of any such claim, or protest; but this is seldom done in practice, because owners rarely send their declaration (in accordance with Rule 10) to the secretary of the club until it is demanded. _See_ Duties of Owners.

Practically, therefore, race officers can only declare the probable winners; and in some clubs, where the same yachts race frequently, this is done at the termination of the racing, by hoisting the colours of the apparent winners under the signal flags denoting their races.

_Duties of Owners_

The principal duty of a racing owner is to see that everything in connection with the racing of his yacht is done in a perfectly fair and honourable manner. An owner who breaks or infringes any racing rule flagrantly 'may be disqualified by the Council, for such time as the Council may think fit, from sailing his yacht in any race held under the rules of the Y.R.A.' (Rule 33).

When a yacht is officially measured, the owner should be on board, or have an experienced racing friend on board to represent him. He should note the position of the inside ballast, ship's stores, unbent sails, and other gear, entering same in his note-book. He should see that the crew is properly placed, viz. 'amidships' (Council's instructions to official measurer, March 1, 1883), as, by a resolution passed December 6, 1892, a yacht (Rule 3, December 1892) must now be marked by the owner, such marks being clear above the water surface in smooth water in 'racing trim,' which evidently means with crew and all weights (live or dead) carried in a race on board.

The taxable length will in future be officially measured to the 'outer edges' of said marks, a length somewhat greater than the yacht's L.W.L.

An owner should take the greatest care to see for himself that his yacht's taxable length is never increased, and that any alteration to her ballast trim, sanctioned by a recent addition to Rule 15, is never made after 9 P.M. of the day previous to a race.

As regards the sail-area, an owner should hand the sailmaker's certificate to the official measurer and give him every assistance in measuring the yacht's spars, &c.; and, subsequently, should any alteration be made to the sails or spars affecting the yacht's rating, the owner should at once inform the secretary Y.R.A. in writing, and return the certificate if required (Rule 3). In short, an owner is held responsible for the rating of his yacht being absolutely correct.

His next duty is to enter her properly for any race he may wish to compete in. 'Entries shall be made ... _at least_ forty-eight hours previous to noon of the race day'--twenty-four hours being added for a Sunday. Clubs have asserted the right to close entries at a longer interval. Owners must therefore note these times for closing the entries, and act accordingly (Rule 5).

Post entries are not provided for in the Y.R.A. rules, and must therefore be considered irregular, whether sanctioned by the other competitors or not.

The long declaration given in the rule is a nuisance, and should be cut out, as there is no reason for mentioning one rule more than another on this declaration. So long, however, as the Y.R.A thinks it necessary, it must be enforced, and owners should help the clubs to do so by carrying it out. As before stated, an entry by telegram (_sent off_ before the hour of closing entries) should be followed at once by this written declaration.

An owner should know that if a race be postponed or resailed all the yachts _entered_ may start; but the entry is closed to other yachts (Rule 5).

[Illustration: ROYAL SOUTHAMPTON YACHT CLUB.

"BRAMBLES AND LEPE COURSE."]

An owner must belong to some 'recognised yacht club' or his entry is void. A hired yacht cannot be entered for any race under Y.R.A. rules (Rule 6).

An owner cannot enter two yachts to compete for one prize, but he can enter one yacht for two simultaneous races (Rule 7).

An owner who has entered his yacht for a prize may sail over the course for half the value of the prize should no other competitor start (Rule 8), and should the race officer not postpone the race for bad weather (Rule 2).

The owner (or a member of a recognised yacht club, to represent him) must be on board during a race, and after the race he should sign a declaration that the yacht has been sailed in strict conformity with the Y.R.A. rules and with the conditions on the programme (Rule 10), and forward same to the race officer at once, or to the secretary if later.

An owner (or his representative) should see that his yacht is supplied in good time with the written or printed instructions for a race (Rule 12).

Should an owner (or his representative) decide to protest against a competitor, or otherwise (removal of a mark, for instance), the protest-flag should be displayed at the proper time, and the protest in writing lodged without delay. Certain time-limits are given in Rule 30.

An owner having flown a protest flag should continue the protest, as it is often unfair to other competitors to withdraw it. Moreover, it may be fairly argued that an owner who observes an infringement of the rules by a competitor, and does not protest as ordered in Rule 30, himself breaks the rules by such omission, and subjects himself to disqualification by the sailing committee. If there were more protests there would soon be far less necessity for them.

_Duties of a Sailing Master_

A skipper is responsible to the owner, his employer, for the correctness of the yacht's rating, as shown on her certificate; he must also see that she is properly prepared for each race, and properly raced; thus:--

He should not start unless the owner or a qualified representative is on board (Rule 10).

He should have the yacht's colours carried properly (Rule 11).

He should carefully study the written or printed instructions and follow them in every detail (Rule 12).

At the start he should look out for his recall numeral (Rule 12).

He should prevent any paid hand joining or leaving the yacht after the signal to start (Rule 14).

He should be careful to comply with the ballast rule, and see that the dead-weight is not altered after 9 P.M. of the day previous to a race (Rule 15).

He should see that boats and life-buoys are carried in accordance with Rule 16.

He should be specially careful not to infringe any sailing rule between the guns at the start (Rule 17).

If late at the start, he should know that the yacht is not disqualified (Council Y.R.A., 1881).

A good skipper will know Rules 18 to 29 by heart. By Rule 18:--

(_a_) _A yacht going free keeps clear of a yacht close hauled._

(_b_) _A yacht close hauled port keeps clear of a yacht close hauled starboard._

(_c_) _When going free on opposite tacks the yacht with wind on port keeps clear._

(_d_) _When going free on same tack the windward yacht keeps clear._

(_e_) _A yacht with wind aft keeps clear of all others._

By (_b_) a yacht on port tack can be disqualified: first, if she strike or be struck by a yacht on starboard tack; secondly, if the latter luff, tack, or bear away to avoid being struck.

When yachts which overlap are rounding a mark or passing an obstruction, the outside yacht must give room to and keep clear of the inside yachts (Rules 19 and 20).

When yachts approach an obstruction close-hauled, and the leeward yacht cannot tack and clear the windward yacht, the helmsman of the former should 'hail for water' when required, and the two yachts must then tack together (Rule 22).

An overtaking yacht must keep clear of an overtaken yacht, which may luff, but must not bear away out of her course to obstruct the passage on her leeward side (Rule 21).

'A yacht running ashore or foul of a vessel or other obstruction may use her own anchors, boats, warps, &c., to get off,' but must take them on board again, and must receive no assistance except from the crew of a vessel fouled (Rule 23).

A yacht which touches a mark or competitor, or which wrongfully causes another yacht to do so, forfeits all claim to the prize (Rule 24).

A yacht must be propelled by her sails alone after first gun (except as stated in Rule 23). She may anchor, but not slip. She must not make fast to buoys, &c. She must not send an anchor out in a boat (except as stated in Rule 23). Any sounding must be done with lead and line alone (Rules 25, 26, and 27).

Yachts racing at night must carry lights by Board of Trade rules (Rule 28).

When accidents occur, competing yachts must help to save life (Rule 29).

A skipper should also remember that, 'should a flagrant breach of the racing rules be proved' against him, 'he may be disqualified by the Council,' for any stated period, 'from sailing in any race held under the Y.R.A. rules' (Rule 32).

_Duties of the Official Measurer_

An official measurer should be prepared to measure a yacht promptly at short notice. Consequently no person should accept the post whose time is much engaged in other business or pursuits.

The measurement of a racing-yacht's _sails_ is left very much in the hands of the sailmakers. The only check usually applied is the measurement of the spars on which the sails are set. The secretary of the Y.R.A. is then able to check the accuracy of the sailmaker's measurements as recorded on a 'sailmaker's certificate,' which is guarded afterwards by the secretary, Y.R.A.

For instance, to check a cutter's mainsail, the boom and gaff are measured.

It would occupy too much space to describe the whole of the sail measurements, which are detailed on six or seven pages of the Y.R.A. book of rules--under Rule 3. Let it suffice to say that the actual area of each sail abaft a mast is found, and that the head-sail tax is obtained by the measurement of the fore-triangle; which will be done in 1894 as follows:--

'The perpendicular will be taken from the deck at the foreside of the mast to where the line of the luff of the foremost head-sail when extended cuts such perpendicular, and the base will be taken from foreside of mast to where the line of luff of foremost head-sail cuts the bowsprit, other spar, or hull' (General Meeting, Y.R.A., December 6, 1892).

The instructions to the measurer issued by direction of the Council on May 8, 1889, are, briefly, as follows:--

He must not measure a yacht in which he is interested as owner, designer, builder, or otherwise.

The taxable length must be obtained at slack water by measuring the L.O.A. on deck, and deducting the O.H. at stem and stern, found by hanging a lead-line from the bow and taffrail and measuring its distances from the outer edges of the owner's marks on the stem and stern. He must ascertain that the yacht is in correct racing trim, and the crew amidships (mid over-all length) when measuring these overhangs.

Sails, spinnaker gear, tackles, &c., may be put amidships at this time.

He should note and record the position of any movable ballast.

Each measurement should be taken twice, and recorded twice in the book, and a third time if there be material disagreement. The mean should be adopted. [This is wrong mathematically. The 'mean adopted' should be that of the observations which agree, the one with a 'material disagreement' being cancelled.]

* * * * *

By a new rule passed on December 6, 1892, 'owners are required to mark the rating length of their yachts at the bow and stern, which marks shall at all times be clear above the surface of the water when the yacht is lying in smooth water in her usual racing trim,' i.e. with crew amidships. See previous instructions.

The following matters connected with measurements are contained in Rule 3, and should be remembered:--

Notches cut away from the fair-line of the stem or stern post are not allowed for when the rating length is measured.

The segmental area bounded by the bent yard of a lug or other sail, and its chord, is included in the sail-area.

If the length of the spinnaker boom when shipped in its place square to the keel, and measured from its outer end to the fore-and-aft line of the mast, be greater than the base of the yacht's fore-triangle, it is substituted therefor in calculating the taxed area of head-sails.

The perpendicular for same triangle has already been referred to.

* * * * *

A measurer should send his measurements to the secretary, Y.R.A., by the first post in order that the owner may receive his yacht's certificate of rating as soon as possible.

* * * * *

At present the regulations on measurements are divided, some being placed in Rule 3, and some in the printed instructions to measurers. It would be far better to combine them into one appendix, which measurers, builders, designers, and owners alike could then refer to, and note precisely how matters should be arranged. Rule 3 should simply describe the rule for rating racing yachts and the Y.R.A. certificate of rating.

The remarks on the Y.R.A. rules end here, but the writer has been requested to include in this chapter a short examination of the various Rating Rules of different nationalities.

## PART II. THE RATING RULES

_Extract from Letter to the FIELD in 1892._--'With shame I confess that the problems and calculations, the combinations of straight and crooked lines, with large and small numerals and Latin and Greek letters, the mathematical contortions and algebraic hieroglyphics ... are meaningless to my uncultured eyes. They are fascinating; I admire their beauty, and can well understand that inventing rules for rating must be a most charming pursuit for intellectual yachtsmen....

'DUNRAVEN.'

An attempt will be made to treat the subject as simply as possible, so that anyone who knows a little arithmetic may follow it.

The following 'hieroglyphics' will be used:--

B. Beam D. Draught F. Freeboard G. Girth L. Length L.O.A. Length over all L.O.M. Length between official marks L.W.L. Length on W.L. M. Area of immersed mid-section M.S. Mid section R. Rating, whether Y.R.A., or corrected length, or other S. Sail area T. Tonnage U.Y.F. Union des Yachts Français W. Weight of yacht complete in English tons dead weight same as her displacement W.L. Water level Y.R.A. Yacht Racing Association

If the subject of rating were treated historically, it would be necessary to begin with the old tonnage rules; but we live in the present, and the more important of the existing rules will therefore be examined first. The old tonnage rules will more conveniently be described at the end of the chapter, with existing tonnage rules.

England and America have used rating rules for some years, and France determined to do the same in October 1892.

The efficiency of a sailing yacht can be calculated very similarly to that of a steam yacht, the sails being the motor in one, the engines in the other. But we know that the efficiency of a steamer should vary directly as her indicated horse-power, and inversely as her displacement. The same idea should apply to sailing yachts. It is, in fact, almost impossible to rate a sailing yacht satisfactorily without taking into account both her sail-area and her displacement--or something very closely allied with the latter.

A length and sail-area rule proposed by Mr. Dixon Kemp in 1880 was adopted in 1883 for second-class racing, and in 1886 this alternative rule was adopted as the sole rule. It is--

English R = L × S ÷ 6,000 (I.)

This important step was taken after a careful and exhaustive inquiry conducted by a special committee appointed by the Council, Y.R.A., and presided over by Sir William Forwood. The committee took the evidence of our most noted yacht architects, and finally reported in favour of Rule (I), and of the present classification (except 2-1/2 rating, which was afterwards added by the Council). The report met with general approval; the Y.R.A. put its seal upon it, and gave it a tenure of seven years; subject, however, to General Rule 12, by which any change at any time can be made by the requisite majorities.

The tonnage time scale in use before 1886 was altered to agree with the new rating, which cannot be said to represent anything but what it really is--viz. the product of a yacht's taxable length and her sail-area.

The classification and the divisor do not alter the rule one iota. They are purely arbitrary, as was very clearly stated in an excellent letter by Mr. G. B. Thompson, published in the 'Field' of December 17, 1892. He said very truly that the 5-rating class is in reality the 30,000 class, and the 10-rating class is the 60,000 class. If the divisor 6,000 be altered alone, the result is precisely the same as altering the rating itself in like ratio, and in the same direction. Thus (R. × divisor) and (L. × S.) must each equal 120,000 in the 20-R. class, and must each equal 240,000 in the 40-R. class, and so on. In short, the Y.R.A. rule may be regarded thuswise:--In each class L. × S. = a constant, for boats at the top of the class.

By a recent decision in general meeting, Y.R.A., December 6, 1892, L. will in future be measured between the outer edges of the official marks, which must be affixed by the owner and always show clear above W.L. when a yacht lies in smooth water in racing trim.

L., therefore, is no longer L.W.L., but L.O.M. (length by owner's marks), rather longer than L.W.L.

By Rule 3, Y.R.A., in calculating a yacht's R., a fraction of or exceeding 0.01 counts as 1.0 in classes exceeding 10 R.; but in classes exceeding 1.0 R. and not exceeding 10 R., a fraction less than 0.1 counts as 0.1; and in classes not exceeding 1.0 R. fractions from 0.01 to 0.99 inclusive count for their value.

Example: 'Dacia's' certificate, June 1892, recorded S. = 887.6 and L. = 33.83 and R. = 5.00. But her S. × L. ÷ 6,000 = 5.005 and 0.005 is 'a fraction smaller than 0.1'; consequently, by the wording of Rule 3, her R. = 5.01, and she was over-rating; but the secretary, Y.R.A., when questioned, stated that the 'Y.R.A. only recognises two places of decimals,' and words to this effect were added to Rule 3 at the general meeting February 22, 1893.

_The Time Allowance_

The time scale for differences of R. under Rule 1. was based on the conception that a racing yacht's 'capability for speed varies as the fifth root of the rating,' the argument leading to this being that--

speed varies as [V¯]L (1)

and that sail varies as L[V¯]B (2)

and by the rating rule, R varies as S × L

it therefore follows from (2) that R varies as L{2}[V¯]B

and, assuming that B varies as L (3)

it follows that R varies as L{2}[V¯]L or L{5/2}

therefore ... L varies as R{2/5}

Hence, by (1), speed varies as [V¯]R{2/5} or [5V¯]R.--Q.E.D.

The Y.R.A. time scale therefore rests not only on the two assumptions (1) and (2) mentioned in the book, but on the further assumption (3), which we know to be incorrect.

However, the 5th root of R. gives a time scale which is found to act fairly well in practice, and this being so, the theory of the time curve is a matter of minor importance.

At first (1886 and 1887) the adoption of the unrestricted rule met with some opposition, especially in the small classes, where a few of the most experienced yachtsmen advocated restrictions in L.W.L. or L.O.A., and in mainsail area. But the majority determined, and rightly, to give the rule free scope; and the results on the whole have been highly satisfactory, fine seaworthy vessels, driven by a small sail-area at great speed, having been produced in the large classes. The evolution in the small classes has been more rapid, and in 1892 some rather undesirable types were prize-winners, and yachtsmen who wished to protect themselves against similar vessels in the large classes induced the Y.R.A. to appoint a special committee to consider whether the unrestricted and unaltered rule should be continued beyond the seven-years period, terminating in 1893. This committee, under the presidency of Sir George Lampson, obtained the opinions of our leading designers, as was done in 1886, and the designers themselves met in conference twice, and jointly addressed two letters to the Rule Committee in which they finally recommended the adoption of the Seawanhaka rule for rating racing yachts and a classification of corrected lengths suitable for our existing racing fleet; also other details, the most important being a proposal to tax overhang above the W.L. and cut away keels below it.

The Rule Committee adopted the recommendation as to change of rating rule, but proposed a modification whereby the British rating and time scale could be retained.

When this report was brought before the Council it was upset, some of the committee themselves voting against their own report. But the

## action of the Council has since been justified by the production of

several splendid specimens of yacht architecture to race under the Y.R.A. rule of rating.

The elements of the fastest types which have developed in small yachts under the rule can be studied in the tables given in the chapter on Racing in the Solent Classes.

One of our ablest designers has consistently advocated the introduction of a tax on beam into the formula. He did so in 1886, and again in 1892, when he proposed to tax draught also.

Unfortunately the mathematics of the rule make it difficult, if not impossible, to do so, because the blow on L. is lessened when it is shared by other quantities.

Thus by Mr. Watson's modification of the rating rule, proposed in October 1892, viz.

English R = (2L + 2B + D) × S ÷ {constant, say 17,000} (II.)

'Doreen' is of smaller rating, although both longer and more beamy than 'Decima.' They are of the same rating for racing by the Y.R.A. rule. Mr. Watson's formula would therefore encourage even greater length of hull than the Y.R.A. rule. No such difficulty is encountered by the introduction of such taxes into the Seawanhaka rule, where the plus sign replaces the multiplying sign used by us. This rule was adopted by the American Yacht Club of its name in 1882, the form being

American R = (L + [V¯]S) ÷ 2 (III.)

The New York Yacht Club has raced for a number of years under a similar rule for time allowance,[6] viz.

American R = (2L + [V¯]S) ÷ 3 (IV.)

and just as the Y.R.A. rule can take the form

L × S = constant in any class,

so these rules can take the forms

L + [V¯]S = constant, in any class III.

2L + [V¯]S = constant, in any class IV.

It then becomes evident that any sacrifice of S. to obtain greater L. under Rule IV. is only half as effective as the same process under Rule III. Conversely, any sacrifice of L. to obtain more S. is twice as effective under Rule IV. as under Rule III.

[Footnote 6: But not for classification, which latter has been simply the length of hull on water-line. Hence, yachts built for the same class have varied much in their sail-area; 'Vigilant' and 'Valkyrie' for instance.]

Again, as comparisons between L. and S. must be brought to some common measure, the Y.R.A. form ... L. × S. = constant in any class, may be read L. × [V¯]S. × [V¯]S. = constant, and it then becomes clear that any sacrifice of S. to get L. is twice as effective as in Rule III., and four times as effective as in Rule IV.; and conversely, that any sacrifice of L. to get more S. is half as effective as in Rule III., and one-fourth as effective as in Rule IV.

The author of the Y.R.A. rule has pointed out that it can be converted into the American form of 'corrected length,' thus:--

American R = [3V¯]L × S (V.)

See his second edition of 'Yacht Architecture.' The sail curve is precisely the same as that from the Y.R.A. rule.

An examination of this form of the Y.R.A. rule is interesting. By cubing V. and comparing it with I., it will be seen that six thousand times the English rating equals the cube of the American rating derived from formula V.

[Illustration: Diagram of sail curves, showing the relation of sail to L.W.L. in the Y.R.A., New York, and Seawanhaka Rules. 40-rating class.]

When English and American rules are examined diagraphically, the sail-curves take three positions that differ considerably in their steepness--the Y.R.A. rule giving a curve nearest to the horizontal which indicates R. = S. ÷ constant, proposed by Mr. Richardson in 1886 (or R. = [V¯]S ÷ constant if expressed in American measure; or R. = S. [V¯]S divided by a constant if expressed in English measure); and the New York rule taking a position nearest to the vertical denoting R. = L., under which the Solent Length Classes used to sail.

The Seawanhaka rule gives an intermediate curve--perhaps the 'happy medium.'

The curves have been plotted for yachts of 40-rating by our rule, and the following table gives the actual numbers:--

+---------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | Sail-area allowed to | | +------------------------+------------------+-----------------+ |L.W.L. | 40-raters, Y.R.A. Rule | 61.5 Corrected L.| 61 Corrected L. | | | | Seawanhaka Rule | New York Rule | +-------+------------------------+------------------+-----------------+ | ft. | ft. | ft. | ft. | | | | | | | 54 | 4,444 | 4,761 | -- | | 56 | 4,286 | 4,489 | 5,041 | | 58 | 4,139 | 4,225 | -- | | 59 | 4,068 | 4,096 | 4,096 | | 60 | 4,000 | 3,969 | -- | | 62 | 3,871 | 3,721 | 3,481 | | 64 | 3,750 | 3,481 | -- | +-------+------------------------+------------------+-----------------+

_The Turning-point of Maximum Efficiency, or best Length_

Each L. and S. rule for rating racing yachts must have a turning-point, or best length, in each class for winning prizes in a given climate. It depends far more upon the average wind-pressure during the racing season than on any assumed connection between L. and [V¯]S. It will vary on different days, and for different seasons, and for different localities. The average wind-force is stronger on the Solent than on the Clyde, and stronger at Rothesay than at Sandy Hook. But type is another matter. Type is governed by the racing rule, and differences of climate have very little effect upon it. The best proportional length also varies in different classes, the water being rougher and the wind harder, comparatively speaking, on small than on large yachts, thus causing the former to develope L. and sacrifice S. to the utmost. Under the tonnage rules it is true that the small yachts carried the larger comparative sail-plan, but this was due to other causes, such as their greater comparative draught and ballast.

The _best length_ under L. and S. rules also varies with the rating rule, those rules having sail-curves nearest to the line R. = S. developing the greatest length, and those having sail-curves nearest to the line R. = L. developing the greatest sail.

Still another factor governs the _best length_ in any class, viz. lightness of construction; and this depends on four other factors: cost, design, workmanship, and strength of materials.

We are therefore met by quite a crowd of considerations when endeavouring to determine _best length_; but in comparing the rating rules we can eliminate many of them by making a few assumptions and reasoning therefrom.

_First_, assume that a new boat is built with the lightest possible hull consistent with strength, and of the best possible design for the 40-R. class 1894, and that her L.=62 ft., therefore S=3,871. (See preceding table.)

_Second_, assume that a longer boat and a shorter boat equally well built and designed are tried and are beaten, and that 62 ft. is then acknowledged to be _best length_ for 40-ratings in our climate.

_Third_, assume that the class is converted in 1895 into one rated at 61.5 American R., 'Queen Mab' being thereby placed at the top of the class by the Seawanhaka rule without alteration. The 62-ft. yacht, however, must clip to 3,721, or 150 off her S. as a 40-rater.

But the shorter boat, say a 'Queen Mab' 59 ft. L.W.L., which we assumed to fail when racing under our rule, could now _add_ 30 ft. and sail against the crack 62-footer with an advantage of no less than 180 sq. ft. of canvas.

Evidently, the best length under our rule being 62, the best length under the American rule is something less; how much less being only determined by trial, and depending on the numerous factors before mentioned. Moreover, an arbitrary limit of L.W.L. is thus shown to be less necessary under the American rule than under ours; and with L. so greatly developed in our racers at the present time, it may be that we have already gone beyond the best length for the American rule, especially in the small classes. This was carefully pointed out by the present writer in two letters to 'Land and Water,' October 5 and 9, 1892. Mr. R. E. Froude also stated the case very clearly in the 'Field,' December 31, 1892; but it is very difficult to convince the defenders of the Y.R.A. rule that any other rule is superior.

Mr. Dixon Kemp, in his excellent work on 'Yacht Architecture,' says (p. 15, 2nd edition) in comparing rules I., III., IV.: 'Of these rules, that of the Y.R.A. admits of the employment of the greatest length for any given rating'; and the length referred to was evidently _best length_ in a given climate.

The Seawanhaka rule is therefore superior to ours if excessive length be feared; and being a plus formula, it lends itself readily to the adoption of any desired tax on other linear dimensions.

For instance, Mr. Watson's proposal (II.) might be put into the plus form, thus:--

American R = (2L + 2B + D + [V¯]S) ÷ 3.8 (VI.)

This shows the value of a plus rule over a multiplying rule and the value is not lost when a plus rule is converted into an English rating rule by cubing the former and dividing by a constant. Thus, the recent Rule Committee proposed to convert the Seawanhaka rule into an English rating rule by cubing it and dividing by 6,000, the result being:

English R = (L + [V¯]S){3} ÷ constant, say 48,000 (VII.)

The variable within brackets in VI. can be cubed and divided by a constant in a similar manner. But the cubic forms of the 'plus' rules are clumsy, and seem difficult to those who cannot compute by logarithms. No real advantage is gained by adhering to the English rating and time scale and classification. In fact, the American time scale is simpler. If, therefore, a 'plus form' of rating be ever adopted, it would be much better to adopt 'corrected length' as the rating, together with the American time scale. The classification could, of course, be chosen in such a manner that our own racing yachts would be at the top of the classes without any important alterations.

Another rule was proposed in a leading article of the 'Field' on October 15, 1892. It is:--

English R = L{2}[V¯]S ÷ constant, say 6,000 (VIII.)

It gives a sail-curve nearly parallel to the one produced by the New York rule, and may almost be regarded as that rule dressed in Y.R.A. uniform; but the advantages of a plus rule are lost, whereas in the conversion of the Seawanhaka rule proposed by the Y.R.A. Committee 1892 they are retained.

Similarly, the Y.R.A. rule--varying as [3V¯]L.S. (see V.), or as [3V¯]L. × [V¯]S. × [V¯]S.--may be considered as equivalent to the plus formula L. + 2 [V¯]S. ÷ constant, and the English and American rules may therefore be regarded to vary as follows:

In linear measure New York as 2 L + [V¯]S Seawanhaka as L + [V¯]S Y.R.A. as L + 2[V¯]S

Mr. Herreshoff has recently proposed a rule of rating based on L. [V¯] S., which is an area, but the cube root of tonnage is placed in the divisor; and this being linear, it converts the rating into linear measure, an area divided by a line being a line. The result being linear, it is translatable into American rating and time allowance.

Mr. Herreshoff's proposed rule is:--

American R = ( L [V¯]S / [3V¯]T ) ÷ constant, say 15 (IX.)

A critique on this rule by the editor of the 'Field,' December 17, 1892, suggests that the cube root of 100 T. should be taken, as there are 100 cubic feet in a registered ton. This is unnecessary. So long as S. is superficial, and T. cubic, the [V¯]S. and the [3V¯]T. will be linear; and a constant can be selected which will convert the quotient resulting from the rule into corrected feet or inches, or metres, as required for the linear rating adopted.

Mr. Herreshoff's rule when tested is not encouraging; 'Doreen's' length so corrected being 2-1/2 per cent. smaller than 'Decima's.' The rule evidently does not encourage that compactness of hull-dimension which Mr. Watson considers desirable. It also appears to put a premium on abnormal freeboard, so as to increase T. by means of a large body over the water-level.

This was pointed out by the editor of the 'Field,' December 24, 1892, and an improved rule suggested in which displacement was used as a divisor in place of tonnage. W. the total weight of yacht in English tons dead weight is of course her displacement, and the rule proposed may be written:--

English R = ( L{2}S / [3V¯]W ) ÷ 10,000 (X.)

So far as L. and S. are concerned this rule would produce a similar sail-curve to the Y.R.A. rule (see diagram); but the divisor would encourage a large powerful hull, and the rule would therefore produce a shorter type with more sail than now exists in English racers. The practical difficulty of discovering W., either by measurement or by some system of weighing the yacht complete, has to be considered in connection with this rule.

The most important point to be noted about these rules (IX. and X.) is the fact that Mr. Herreshoff and Mr. Dixon Kemp proposed them--showing that two of the leading experts consider it necessary to encourage greater displacement by means of the rating rules. The question, therefore, arises whether the desired result cannot be effected in a less objectionable manner; and it appears to the writer that dividing the present Y.R.A. rule by some area proportional to that of the immersed mid-section would have the desired effect, and would avoid the difficulties already mentioned. The actual area of M.S. cannot be found without encroaching on the secrets of a yacht's design; but M. the area of immersed mid-section can be easily found if measured internally, and the Y.R.A. rule may take the form:--

American R = LS ÷ constant (say 72) (XI.) -- M

L.S. being cubic, and the variable divisor M. being superficial, the quotient is linear, and a constant divisor can be chosen which will convert the result into American rating, which is expressed in 'corrected' feet.

The general tendencies of the Y.R.A. rule would be modified by the introduction of M. as proposed in XI., a large immersed M.S. being encouraged, without the necessity of employing a deep narrow body, as may be seen on the following table, where 'Bedouin' figures out very well owing to her large but not deep immersed M.S. The author claims with some confidence that this modified rule presents the best solution of the problem yet suggested. But there is really no problem requiring solution at present. So long as yachts like 'Britannia' and 'Satanita' are built for racing under the Y.R.A. existing rule of rating, grumblers will not command an audience. In the event, however, of yachts like 'Pilgrim' or 'Jubilee' winning in our waters a change of some sort will be required.

The measurement of M. can be easily done in a few minutes, with yacht afloat, as described on p. 87 of the 'Field,' January 21, 1893.

The Seawanhaka rule (III.) can be treated similarly, the divisor 2 being thereby avoided. It becomes

American R = L + [V¯]S - [V¯]72M (XII.)

The action of these rules may be seen from the table on p. 180; column headed XI. giving the rating under the modified Y.R.A. rule, and column headed XII. giving the rating under the modified Seawanhaka rule. Each result is in 'corrected length.'

The dimensions in above were obtained from the drawings in Dixon Kemp's 'Yacht Architecture,' 2nd ed., except 'Decima's' and 'Doreen's,' which were kindly given by their designers.

It will be found on trial that 72 M. is approximately equal to the mean value of S and L{2} in successful yachts.

_The New French Rule_

On November 5, 1892, it was announced in the 'Field' that the Union des Yachts Français had decided to adopt a hull-and sail-area rating, it being considered by the 'active element in French yacht racing' that 'the type ... produced by the French length and girth rule is inferior to the type produced by the British and American rules ... British yachts having defeated those of France, although handicapped by the French rule of rating.' The conclusion was scarcely a logical sequence from the premisses. It should have been that French racing yachts were not the correct evolution of the French rule of rating. But we are now concerned with the new French rule (proposed by M. Godinet) in which sail is an important factor.

+---------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+-------+ | Name of yacht | L | S | [V¯]S | M | XI. | XII. | +---------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+-------+ | Genesta | 81.0 | 7,643| 101.40 | 91.27 | 94.21 | 87.39 | | Volunteer | 85.9 | 10,270| 87.43 | 105.42 | 100.24 | 93.30 | +---------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+-------+ | Chiquita | 45.5 | 2,636| 51.36 | 31.32 | 53.20 | 49.35 | | Ghost | 46.5 | 2,577| 50.77 | 34.60 | 48.10 | 47.38 | | Minerva | 40.0 | 2,700| 52.00 | 29.73 | 50.39 | 46.00 | +---------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+-------+ | Dis | 36.0 | 1,658| 40.71 | 22.37 | 36.23 | 36.00 | | Decima | 35.67| 1,679| 40.94 | 22.17 | 37.23 | 36.71 | | Doreen | 38.05| 1,572| 39.62 | 21.67 | 38.34 | 38.23 | +---------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+-------+ | Oread | 28.2 | 1,063| 32.60 | 13.33 | 31.25 | 29.82 | | Quinque | 33.0 | 900| 30.00 | 13.33 | 30.93 | 32.02 | | Valentine | 29.8 | 996| 31.56 | 14.47 | 28.50 | 29.08 | | Bedouin | 30.0 | 1,000| 31.62 | 14.96 | 28.00 | 28.92 | +---------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+-------+ | Madcap | 21.0 | 714| 26.72 | 9.97 | 20.89 | 20.97 | | Lady Nan | 23.0 | 653| 25.55 | 8.63 | 24.16 | 23.63 | | Dolphin | 25.7 | 581| 24.10 | 8.27 | 25.07 | 25.41 | +---------------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------+-------+

In its simplest form, it is:--

English R = (4L - G) G[V¯]S ÷ 520 (XIII.)

G. being the greatest girth from top of deck planking port, round keel to ditto starboard, plus extreme beam. Each of the three factors L. G. [V¯]S. being linear (metric measure) the result is given in cubic form, and is converted into English rating by the divisor selected, and the Y.R.A. time scale has been adopted by the Union des Yachts Français.

The editor of the 'Field' considers that 'the rule is calculated to produce a poor kind of vessel for match sailing or anything else'; but it is hazardous to prophesy the evolution of any rule, more especially one which taxes L., B., D., bilge, and S. No doubt the tax on D. is doubtful policy, and it seems very unnecessary when we consider the small depth of water in many French harbours, which is the most efficient check on D. it is possible to conceive for large yachts, and in the small classes D. gives grip and power to windward, and seaworthiness.

A careful analysis of the rule by the writer leads him to believe that the conclusion arrived at by the editor of the 'Field' is correct. It certainly appears that the rule has a sail-curve nearly as steep as the New York rule, which has been abandoned because it encouraged such large sail-plans. For this reason, therefore, if for no other, the new French rule seems to be inferior to the Y.R.A. and the Seawanhaka rules. A good letter on the subject of girth, by one of our leading designers, was published in the 'Yachtsman,' September 8, 1892.

On the whole, English yachtsmen would probably feel very disinclined to adopt the new French rule for British yacht-racing.

* * * * *

This concludes the examination of the more important national rules in which sail-area and some hull dimension or dimensions are combined in the formula for the rating, whether the result be cubic, linear, or otherwise.

We therefore now pass to the simple sail-area rule proposed by Mr. Richardson in 1886, viz.

R = S ÷ 100 (XIV.)A

The rating so obtained being neither cubic nor linear, but superficial, difficulties as regards time scale arose, and neither Mr. Richardson nor the Council appeared to notice that the rule could easily be made linear by putting it in the form

American R = [V¯]S (XIV.)B

when American rating and time scale could have been adopted. Also that it might have been rendered

English R = S [V¯]S ÷ constant (XIV.)C

which is the cubic form, suitable for the Y.R.A. rating and time allowance.

The graphic result in the sail-diagram is the same in each case, viz. a horizontal line for any given class, the limit for each class being one of sail-area alone.

It was not adopted because the Council considered that the type evolved from it would be one of excessive length and small displacement; and our experience with the Y.R.A. rule, which approaches it more nearly than any other hull- and sail-area rule, has shown that this estimate was correct.

* * * * *

We will now examine a few of the rules which rate yachts entirely by hull-measurement. The simplest of the kind is the pure length rule, used for some years on the Solent for racing small yachts up to 30 ft. of L. _See_ chapter on Solent Racing.

American R = L (XV.) A

Some trouble was taken in 1884 to produce a special time scale for this formula. It was quite unnecessary, because the time scale for tonnage (see XVIII.) then in use could have been employed, (XV.) A being modified to

R = L{3} ÷ constant (XV.) B

and by adjusting the constant this form of the length rule can be adapted to the time scale of _any_ cubic rule. Thus, the divisor 5,000 adapts it to the Y.R.A. time scale for _rating_.

The type resulting from the length rule was, of course, a very fast and powerful boat for its L., carrying an enormous sail-spread--somewhat costly to build and race.

Our grandfathers raced their yachts under the old tonnage rule,

Tonnage R = L × B × H ÷ 96 (XVI.)

H. being depth of hull to deck beam, and L. being measured in various ways at different times. After 1854 it was taken on deck from stem-head to sternpost, and certain deductions made for rake. Eventually the Thames Rule,

(L - B) × B × 1/2B ÷ 94 or B{2}(L - B) ÷ 188 (XVII.)

_The Rating Rules and Proposals_

+-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+-------------+ | | No. | Name of rule or proposal | Rule or proposal | Examples | | Date| in +------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ | | text | Cubic rules | Variable÷constant |Decima|Doreen| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ |1886?| I. |Y.R.A. rule (Dixon Kemp) | LS ÷ 6,000 | 9.98| 9.96| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ |1892 | II. |Ditto modified (Watson) |(2L+2B÷D)S ÷ 17,000 | 10.06| 9.89| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ |1892 | VIII. |New York modified (Dixon Kemp)|L{2} [V¯]S ÷ 6,000 | 8.69| 9.56| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ |1892 | X. |Y.R.A. modified (Dixon Kemp) |(L{2}S)/[3V¯]W÷10,000| 8.80| ? | +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ |1892 | VII. {Seawanhaka modified }(L+ [V¯]S){3}÷48,000 | 9.39| 9.75| | | {Y.R.A. Committee's rule } | | | +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ |1892 | XIII. |U.Y.F. rule (Godinet) |G(4L-G) [V¯]S ÷ 520 | 8.57| 9.02| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ |1892?| XIX. |Old French rule |G{2}(2L-B) ÷ 176 | 12.58| 13.53| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ |1876?| XVI. |Old English tonnage rule |L B H ÷ 96 | ? | 10.60| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ |1876-| XVII. |Thames tonnage rule |B{2}(L-B) ÷ 188 | 15.9 | ? | | 80 | | | | | | +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ |1880-| XVIII.|Y.R.A. tonnage rule |B(L+B){2} ÷ 1,730 | 13.8 | 17.9 | | 86 +-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ | | XIV. C|Richardson's rule, cubic form |S [V¯]S ÷ 6,000 | 9.97| 15.7 | | +-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ | | XV. B |Length rule, cubic form |L{3} ÷ 5,000 | 9.08| 11.01| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+

+-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+-------------+ | | No. | Name of rule or proposal | Rule or proposal | Examples | | Date| in +------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ | | text | Linear rules | Variable ÷ constant |Decima|Doreen| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ |1882?| III. |Seawanhaka rule | L+ [V¯]S ÷ 2 | 38.33| 38.82| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ | ?| IV. |New York rule | 2L+ [V¯]S ÷ 3 | 37.45| 38.57| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ | ?| V. |Y.R.A. Rule (Dixon Kemp) | [3V¯]LS ÷ 1 | 39.12| 39.11| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ | 1893| XI. |Y.R.A. modified (Thalassa) | LS/M ÷ 72 | 37.23| 38.34| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ | 1893| XII. |Seawanhaka ditto (Thalassa) | L+ [V¯]S-[V¯]72M÷ 1 | 36.71| 38.23| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ | 1893| IX. |Herreshoff's new rule | L [V¯]S / [3V¯]T÷15 | 38.69| 37.01| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ | 1892| VI. |Watson's rule, linear form | 2L+2B+D+[V¯]S ÷ 3.8 | 37.60| 38.58| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ | ?-86| XV. A |Length rule | L ÷ 1 | 35.65| 38.05| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+ | 1886| XIV. B|Richardson's rule, linear form| [V¯]S ÷ 1 | 41.00| 39.60| +-----+-------+------------------------------+---------------------+------+------+

_The following Dimensions were used in the Examples_

+--------+-------+------+------+------+------+-----+----+------+------+ | ---- | L | L{2} | S |[V¯]S | B | D | G | M |W tons| +--------+-------+------+------+------+------+-----+----+------+------+ | Decima | 35.67 | 1272 | 1679 | 41.0 | 11.0 | 8.5 | 36 | 22.2 | 14.3 | | Doreen | 38.05 | 1448 | 1572 | 39.6 | 11.2 | 8.5 | 36 | 21.7 | ? | +--------+-------+------+------+------+------+-----+----+------+------+

N.B.--G is only approximately correct. It is measured in the French way was evolved and adopted by the Y.R.A. in 1876. And in 1878 it was decided to measure L. on the water-line. In 1880 the Y.R.A. altered the rule to

English T = B(L + B){2} ÷ 1730 (XVIII.)

The type evolved, as might have been anticipated, had a long, narrow, heavily ballasted, deep-bodied, wall-sided hull, possessing little beauty, small _initial_ stability, and no great speed, considering the sail-area employed to drive it. There was little scope for improvement, and the energies of our best designers were directed to producing yachts which carried large sail-plans on narrow hulls, their L.W.L. often approaching and sometimes exceeding six beams. Nevertheless, this '1730 Rule,' as it is often called, governed first-class racing in British waters from 1880 to 1886.

Another hull-measurement rule is the one used for some time in France, and often called the 'Girth Rule.' In its simplest form, it was:--

French T = G{2}(2L - B) ÷ 176 (XIX.)

G., the girth, is taken as in Rule XIII. The rule taxes draught heavily, and does not appear to have given satisfaction, or it would not have been changed last October to No. XIII.

Many other hull-measurement rules might be mentioned; in fact, a short time ago the yachting press was full of such proposals; but those who make them must be aware of the general feeling among sportsmen in England, France, and America, viz. that sail-area should be taxed in the formula for rating. Any lengthy discussion on rules which do not conform with this opinion is, therefore, a waste of time and energy, and the hull rules just described have been noticed principally on account of their historical interest.

* * * * *

The rules are numbered consecutively in the order in which they have been examined; the tonnage rules last, although some of them are the most ancient. But it may be convenient for the student to have them grouped somewhat differently and this has been done in the tables on pp. 183, 184, which also afford an opportunity to compare two yachts of similar hull-dimensions, but differing in regard to their length and sail-area, except that the product is equal. 'Doreen' and 'Decima' make an excellent pair for such a comparison, being each 10-rating by the Y.R.A. rule, and of nearly the same beam, draught, girth, and depth of hull, but differing in length and sail-area.

The tendencies of those rules which aim at encouraging larger body, like Mr. Herreshoff's, or larger immersed body, like X., XI., and XII., are shown in the tables on pp. 183 and 184, and the student is invited to work out some examples for himself to test their action, as the New York committee has reported in favour of some such modification of existing rules.

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