CHAPTER XV
.
THE PATANJALI-DARSÁNA.
We now set forth the doctrine of that school which professes the opinions of such Munis as Patañjali and others, who originated the system of the Theistic Sánkhya philosophy. This school follows the so-called Yoga Sástra promulgated by Patañjali, and consisting of four chapters, which also bears the name of the "Sánkhya Pravachana," or detailed explanation of the Sánkhya.[363] In the first chapter thereof the venerable Patañjali, having in the opening aphorism, "Now is the exposition of Concentration" (_yoga_), avowed his commencement of the Yoga Sástra, proceeds in the second aphorism to give a definition of his subject, "Concentration is the hindering of the modifications of the thinking principle," and then he expounds at length the nature of Meditation (_samádhi_). In the second chapter, in the series of aphorisms commencing, "The practical part of Concentration is mortification, muttering, and resignation to the Supreme," he expounds the practical part of _yoga_ proper to him whose mind is not yet thoroughly abstracted (iii. 9), viz., the five external subservients or means, "forbearance," and the rest. In the third chapter, in the series commencing "Attention is the fastening [of the mind] on some spot," he expounds the three internal subservients--attention, contemplation, and meditation, collectively called by the name "subjugation" (_samyama_), and also the various superhuman powers which are their subordinate fruit. In the fourth chapter, in the series commencing, "Perfections spring from birth, plants, spells, mortification, and meditation," he expounds the highest end, Emancipation, together with a detailed account of the five so-called "perfections" (_siddhis_). This school accepts the old twenty-five principles [of the Sánkhya], "Nature," &c.; only adding the Supreme Being as the twenty-sixth--a Soul untouched by affliction, action, fruit, or stock of desert, who of His own will assumed a body in order to create, and originated all secular or Vaidic traditions,[364] and is gracious towards those living beings who are burned in the charcoal of mundane existence.
"But how can such an essence as soul, undefiled as the [glossy] leaf of a lotus, be said to be burned, that we should need to accept any Supreme Being as gracious to it?" To this we reply, that the quality Goodness develops itself as the understanding, and it is this which is, as it were, burned by the quality Activity; and the soul, by the influence of Darkness, blindly identifying itself with this suffering quality, is also said itself to suffer. Thus the teachers have declared--
"It is Goodness which suffers under the form of the understanding and the substances belonging to Activity which torment,[365]
And it is through the modification of Darkness, as wrongly identifying, that the Soul is spoken of as suffering."
It has been also said by Patañjali,[366] "The power of the enjoyer, which is itself incapable of development or of transference, in an object which is developed and transferred experiences the modifications thereof."
Now the "power of the enjoyer" is the power of intelligence, and this is the soul; and in an object which is "developed" and "transferred," or reflected,--_i.e._, in the thinking principle or the understanding,--it experiences the modifications thereof, _i.e._, the power of intelligence, being reflected in the understanding, receives itself the shadow of the understanding, and imitates the modifications of it. Thus the soul, though in itself pure, sees according to the idea produced by the understanding; and, while thus seeing at second-hand, though really it is different from the understanding, it appears identical therewith. It is while the soul is thus suffering, that, by the practice of the eight subservient means, forbearance, religious observance, &c., earnestly, uninterruptedly, and for a long period, and by continued resignation to the Supreme Being, at length there is produced an unclouded recognition of the distinction between the quality Goodness and the Soul; and the five "afflictions," ignorance, &c., are radically destroyed, and the various "stocks of desert," fortunate or unfortunate, are utterly abolished, and, the undefiled soul abiding emancipated, perfect Emancipation is accomplished.
The words of the first aphorism, "Now is the exposition of concentration," establish the four preliminaries which lead to the intelligent reader's carrying the doctrine into practice, viz., the object-matter, the end proposed, the connection [between the treatise and the object], and the person properly qualified to study it. The word "now" (_atha_) is accepted as having here an inceptive meaning, [as intimating that a distinct topic is now commenced]. "But," it may be objected, "there are several possible significations of this word _atha_; why, then, should you show an unwarranted partiality for this
## particular 'inceptive' meaning? The great Canon for nouns and their
gender [the Amara Kosha Dictionary] gives many such meanings. '_Atha_ is used in the sense of an auspicious particle,--after,--now (inceptive),--what? (interrogatively),--and all (comprehensively).' Now we willingly surrender such senses as interrogation or comprehensiveness; but since there are four senses certainly suitable, _i.e._, 'after,' 'an auspicious particle,' 'reference to a previous topic,' and 'the inceptive now,' there is no reason for singling out the _last_." This objection, however, will not stand, for it cannot bear the following alternative. If you maintain the sense of "after," then do you hold that it implies following after anything whatever, or only after some definite cause as comprehended under the general definition of causation,[367] _i.e._, "previous existence [relatively to the effect]"? It cannot be the former, for, in accordance with the proverb that "No one stands for a single moment inactive," everybody must always do everything after previously doing something else; and since this is at once understood without any direct mention at all, there could be no use in employing the particle _atha_ to convey this meaning. Nor can it be the latter alternative; because, although we fully grant that the practice of concentration does in point of fact follow after previous tranquillity, &c., yet these are rather the necessary preliminaries to the work of exposition, and consequently cannot have that avowed predominance [which the presumed _cause_ should have]. "But why should we not hold that the word _atha_ implies that this very exposition is avowedly the predominant object, and does follow after previous tranquillity of mind, &c.?" We reply, that the aphorism uses the term "exposition" (_anusásana_), and this word, etymologically analysed, implies that by which the _yoga_ is explained, accompanied with definitions, divisions, and detailed means and results; and there is no rule that such an exposition must follow previous tranquillity of mind, &c., the rule rather being that, as far as the teacher is concerned, it must follow a profound knowledge of the truth and a desire to impart it to others; for it is rather the student's desire to know and his derived knowledge, which should have quiet of mind, &c., as their precursors, in accordance with the words of Sruti: "Therefore having become tranquil, self-subdued, loftily indifferent, patient, full of faith and intent, let him see the soul in the soul."[368] Nor can the word _atha_ imply the necessary precedence, in the teacher, of a profound knowledge of the truth and a desire to impart it to others; because, even granting that both these are present, they need not to be mentioned thus prominently, as they are powerless in themselves to produce the necessary intelligence and effort in the student. Still [however we may settle these points] the question arises, Is the exposition of the _yoga_ ascertained to be a cause of final beatitude or not? If it is, then it is still a desirable object, even if certain presupposed conditions should be absent; and if it is not, then it must be undesirable, whatever conditions may be present.[369] But it is clear that the exposition in question _is_ such a cause, since we have such a passage of the Sruti as that [in the Katha Upanishad, ii. 12]: "By the acquirement of _yoga_ or intense concentration on the Supreme Soul, the wise man having meditated leaves behind joy and sorrow;" and again, such a passage of the Smriti as that [in the Bhagavad Gítá, ii. 53]: "The intellect unwavering in contemplation will then attain _yoga_." Hence we conclude that it is untenable to interpret _atha_ as implying that the exposition must follow "after" a previous inquiry on the part of the student, or "after" a previous course of ascetic training and use of elixirs, &c. [to render the body strong].
But in the case of the Vedánta Sútras, which open with the aphorism, "Now, therefore, there is the wish to know Brahman," Sankara Áchárya has declared that the inceptive meaning of _atha_ must be left out of the question, as the wish to know Brahman is not to be undertaken [at will]; and therefore it must be there interpreted to mean "after," _i.e._, that this desire must follow a previous course of tranquillity, &c., as laid down by the well-known rule which enjoins the practice of tranquillity, self-control, indifference, endurance, contemplation, and faith, the object being to communicate the teaching to a proper student as distinguished by the possession of the four so-called "means."[370]
"Well, then, let us grant that _atha_ cannot mean 'after;' but why should it not be simply an auspicious particle?" But this it cannot be, from the absence of any connection between the context and such auspicious meaning. Auspiciousness implies the obtaining of an unimpeached and desired good, and what is desired is so desired as being the attainment of pleasure or the avoidance of pain; but this auspiciousness cannot belong to the exposition of _yoga_, since it is in itself neither pleasure nor the cessation of pain.[371] Therefore it cannot be at all established that the meaning of the aphorism is that "the exposition of the _yoga_ is auspicious;" for auspiciousness cannot be either the primary meaning of _atha_ or its secondary meaning by metonymy, since it is its very sound which is in itself auspicious [without any reference to the meaning], like that of a drum. "But why not say that just as an implied meaning may enter into the direct meaning of a sentence, so an effect [like this of auspiciousness] may also be included, since both are equally unexpressed so far as the actual words are concerned?"[372] We reply, that in the meaning of a sentence the connection must be between the meaning of one word and that of another; otherwise we should be guilty of breaking the seal which the rule of the grammarians has set, that "verbal expectancy[373] can be fulfilled by _words_ alone."
"But ought not a prayer for an auspicious commencement to be put at the beginning of a Sástra, in order to lay the hosts of obstacles that would hinder the completion of the work which the author desires to begin, and also to observe the immemorial practice of the good, since it has been said by the wise, 'Those sástras become widely famous which have auspicious commencements, auspicious middles, and auspicious endings, and their students have long lives and are invincible in disputation'?[374] Now the word _atha_ implies 'auspiciousness,' since there is a Smriti which says,
"'The word _Om_ and the word _atha_,--these two in the ancient time,
"'Cleaving the throat of Brahman, came forth; therefore they are both auspicious.'
"Therefore let the word _atha_ stand here as signifying 'auspiciousness,' like the word '_vriddhi_' used by Pánini in his opening sútra '_vriddhir ád aich_.'"[375] This view, however, is untenable; since the very word _atha_, when heard, has an auspicious influence, even though it be employed to convey some other special signification, just as the hearing the sound of lutes, flutes, &c. [is auspicious for one starting on a journey]. If you still object, "How can the particle _atha_ have any other effect, if it is specially used here to produce the idea that the meaning of the sentence is that a new topic is commenced?" we reply that it certainly _can_ have such other additional effect, just as we see that jars of water brought for some other purpose are auspicious omens at the commencement of a journey.[376] Nor does this contradict the smriti, since the smriti will still hold good, as the words "they are both auspicious" mean only that they produce an auspicious effect.
Nor can the particle _atha_ have here the meaning of "reference to a previous topic," since the previously mentioned faults will all equally apply here, as this meaning really involves that of "after" [which we have already discussed and rejected]. And again, in such discussions as this, as to whether this particular _atha_ means "the inceptive now" or "after," if another topic had been previously suggested, then "reference thereto" would be a possible meaning; but in the present case [where no other topic has been previously suggested] it is not a possible meaning. Therefore, by exhaustion, the commentator finally adopts, for the _atha_ of the sútra, the remaining meaning of "the inceptive now." So, when it is said [in the Tándya Bráhmana, xvi. 8, 1; xvi. 10, 1], "Now this is the Jyotis," "Now this is the Visvajyotis,"[377] the particle _atha_ is accepted as signifying the commencement of the description of a particular sacrifice, just as the _atha_ in the commencement of the Mahábháshya, "now comes the exposition of words," signifies the commencement of the Institutes of Grammar. This has been declared by Vyása in his Commentary on the Yoga Aphorisms, "the _atha_ in this opening aphorism indicates a commencement;" and Váchaspati has similarly explained it in his gloss; therefore it may be considered as settled that the _atha_ here indicates a commencement and also signifies auspiciousness. Therefore, accepting the view that this _atha_ implies a commencement, let the student be left in peace to strive after a successful understanding of the sástra through the attainment of the _yoga_, which is its proposed subject, by means of the teacher's explanation of its entire purport. But here some one may say, "Does not the smriti of Yájñavalkya say, 'Hiranyagarbha is the promulgator of the Yoga, and no other ancient sage?' how then is Patañjali the teacher thereof?" We reply that it was for this reason that the venerable Patañjali,[378] that ocean of compassion, considering how difficult it was to grasp all the different forms of Yoga scattered up and down in the Puránas, &c., and wishing to collect together their essence, commenced his _anusásana_,--the preposition _anu_ implying that it was a teaching which followed a primary revelation and was not itself the immediate origin of the system.
Since this _atha_ in the aphorism signifies "commencement," the full meaning of the sentence comes out as follows: "be it known that the institute for the exposition of the _yoga_ is now commenced." In this institute the "object-matter," as being that which is produced by it, is _yoga_ [or the "concentration of the mind"], with its means and its fruit; the producing this is its inferior "end;" supreme absorption (_kaivalya_) is the highest "end" of the _yoga_ when it is produced. The "connection" between the institute and _yoga_ is that of the producer and the thing to be produced; the "connection" between _yoga_ and supreme absorption is that of the means and the end; and this is well known from Sruti and Smriti, as I have before shown. And it is established by the general context that those who aim at liberation are the duly qualified persons to hear this institute. Nor need any one be alarmed lest a similar course should be adopted with the opening aphorism of the Vedánta sútras, "Now, therefore, there is a wish to know Brahman;" and lest here, too, we should seek to establish by the general context that all persons who aim at liberation are duly qualified students of the Vedánta. For the word _atha_, as there used, signifies "succession" [or "after"]; and it is a settled point that the doctrine can only be transmitted through a regular channel to duly qualified students, and consequently the question cannot arise as to whether any other meaning is suggested by the context. Hence it has been said, "When Sruti comes [as the determining authority] 'the subject-matter' and the rest have no place."[379] The full meaning of this is as follows: Where a thing is not apprehended from the Veda itself, there the "subject-matter" and the rest can establish the true meaning, not otherwise; but wherever we can attain the meaning by a direct text, there the other modes of interpretation are irrelevant. For when a thing is declared by a text of the Veda which makes its meaning obvious at once, the "subject-matter" and the rest either establish a contrary conclusion or one not contrary. Now, in the former case, the authority which would establish this contrary conclusion is [by the very nature of "_sruti_"] already precluded from having any force; and in the latter it is useless. This is all declared in Jaimini's aphorism [iii. 3, 14]; "A definite text, a 'sign,' the 'sentence,' the 'subject-matter,' the 'relative position,' or 'the title,'--when any of these come into collision, the later in order is the weaker because its meaning is more remote"[380] [and therefore less obvious]. It has been thus summed up--
"A text always precludes the rest; the 'title' is always precluded by any of the preceding modes;
"But whether any intervening one is precluded, or itself precludes, depends on circumstances."
Therefore [after all this long discussion] it may be now considered as settled that, since it has an "object," as well as the other preliminaries, the study of the Sástra, which teaches the Yoga, is to be commenced like that of the Vedánta, which discusses the nature of Brahman. "But," it may be objected, "it is the Yoga which was said to be the object-matter, since it is this which is to be produced, not the Sástra." We grant that the Yoga is the principal object, as that which is to be produced; but since it is produced by the Sástra, especially directed thereto, this Sástra is the means for its production, and, as a general rule, the agent's activity is directly concerned with the means rather than with the end. Just as the operations of Devadatta the woodcutter, _i.e._, his lifting his arm up and down, &c., relate rather to the instrument, _i.e._, the axe, than to the object, _i.e._, the tree, so here the speaker, Patañjali, in his immediate action of speaking, means the Yoga-Sástra as his primary object, while he intends the Yoga itself in his ultimate action of "denotation." In consequence of this distinction, the real meaning is that the commencing the Yogasástra is that which primarily claims our attention; while the "yoga," or the restraint of the modifications of the mind, is what is to be expounded in this Sástra. "But as we read in the lists of roots that the root _yuj_ is used in the sense of 'joining,' should not the word _yoga_, its derivative, mean 'conjunction,' and not 'restraint'? And indeed this has been said by Yájñavalkya:[381]--
'The conjunction of the individual and the supreme souls is called _yoga_.'"
This, however, is untenable, since there is no possibility of any such
## action,[382] &c., in either as would produce this conjunction of the two
souls. [Nor, again, is such an explanation needed in order to remove the opposition of other philosophical schools]; for the notion of the conjunction of two eternal things is opposed to the doctrines of the Vaiseshika and Nyáya schools [and therefore they would still oppose our theory]. And even if we accepted the explanation in accordance with the Mímámsá [or Vedánta], our Yogasástra would be rendered nugatory by this concession [and the very ground cut from under our feet]; because the identity of the individual and supreme souls being in that school something already accomplished, it could not be regarded as something to be produced by our Sástra. And lastly, as it is notorious that roots are used in many different senses, the root _yuj_ may very well be used here in the sense of "contemplation."[383] Thus it has been said--
"Particles, prepositions, and roots--these three are all held to be of manifold meaning; instances found in reading are their evidence."
Therefore some authors expressly give _yuj_ in this sense, and insert in their lists "_yuj_ in the sense of _samádhi_." Nor does this contradict Yájñavalkya's declaration, as the word _yoga_, used by him, may bear this meaning; and he has himself said--
"_Samádhi_ is the state of identity of the individual and supreme souls; this abiding absolutely in Brahman is the _samádhi_ of the individual soul."
It has been also said by the venerable Vyása [in his Commentary on the Yoga-sútras, i. 1], "_Yoga is samádhi_."
An objection however, may be here raised that "the term _samádhi_ is used by Patañjali [in ii. 29] in the sense of one of the eight ancillary parts[384] of the eightfold concentration (or _yoga_); and the whole cannot be thus itself a part as well as a whole, since the principal and the ancillary must be completely different from each other, as all their attendant circumstances must be different, just as we see in the _darsapúrnamása_ sacrifices and their ancillary rites the _prayájas_, and therefore _samádhi_ cannot be the meaning of _yoga_." We however reply that this objection is incorrect; for although the term _samádhi_ is used for etymological reasons[385] to express the ancillary part which is really defined [in iii. 3] as "the contemplation which assumes the form of the object, and is apparently devoid of any nature of its own;" still the further use of this term to describe the principal state is justified by the author's wish to declare the ultimate oneness of the two states [as the inferior ultimately merges into the superior]. Nor can you hold that etymology alone can decide where a word can be used; because if so, as the word _go_, "a bull," is derived by all grammarians from the root _gam_, "to go," we ought never to use the phrase "a standing bull" [as the two words would be contradictory], and the man Devadatta, when going, would properly be called _go_, "a bull;" and, moreover, the Sútra, i. 2, distinctly gives us a definite justification for employing the word in this sense when it declares that "concentration (_yoga_) is the suppression of the modifications of the thinking principle." [The second or principal sense of _samádhi_ will therefore be quite distinct from the first or inferior.]
"But surely if _yoga_ is held to be the suppression of the modifications of the thinking principle, then as these modifications abide in the soul as themselves partaking of the nature of knowledge, their suppression, or in other words their 'destruction,' would also abide in the soul, since it is a principle in logic that the antecedent non-existence and destruction abide in the same subject as the counter-entity to these negations;[386] and consequently in accordance with the maxim, 'This newly produced character will affect the subject in which it resides,' the absolute independence of the soul itself would be destroyed." This, however, we do not allow; because we maintain that these various modifications which are to be hindered,[387] such as "right notion," "misconception," "fancy," "sleep," and "memory" (i. 6), are attributes of the internal organ (_chitta_), since the power of pure intelligence, which is unchangeable, cannot become the site of this discriminative perception. Nor can you object that this unchangeable nature of the intelligent soul[388] has not been proved, since there is an argument to establish it; for the intelligent soul must be unchangeable from the fact that it always knows, while that which is not always knowing is not unchangeable, as the internal organ, &c. And so again, if this soul were susceptible of change, then, as this change would be occasional, we could not predicate its always knowing these modifications. But the true view is, that while the intelligent soul always remains as the presiding witness, there is another essentially pure substance[389] which abides always the same; and as it is this which is affected by any given object, so it is this perceptible substance which is reflected as a shadow on the soul, and so produces an impression;[390] and thus Soul itself is preserved in its own proper independence, and it is maintained to be the always knowing, and no suspicion of change alights upon it. That object by which the understanding becomes affected is known; that object by which it is not affected is not known; for the understanding is called "susceptible of change," because it resembles the iron, as it is susceptible of being affected or not by the influence or want of influence of the object which resembles the magnet,--this influence or want of influence producing respectively knowledge or the want of knowledge. "But inasmuch as the understanding and the senses which spring from egoism are all-pervading, are they not always connected with all objects, and thus would it not follow that there should be a knowledge everywhere and always of all things?" We reply that even although we grant that they are all-pervading, it is only where a given understanding has certain modifications in a given body, and certain objects are in a connection with that body, that the knowledge of these objects only, and none other, is produced to that understanding; and therefore, as this limitation is absolute, we hold that objects are just like magnets, and affect the understanding just as these do iron,--coming in contact with it through the channels of the senses. Therefore, the "modifications" belong to the understanding, not to the soul; and so says the Sruti, "Desire, volition, doubt, faith, want of faith, firmness, want of firmness,--all this is only the mind." Moreover, the sage Pañchasikha declared the unchangeable nature of the intelligent soul, "The power that enjoys is unchangeable;" and so Patañjali also (iv. 18), "The modifications of the understanding are always known,--this arises from the unchangeableness of the Ruling Soul." The following is the argument drawn out formally to establish the changeableness of the understanding. The understanding is susceptible of change because its various objects are now known and now not known, just like the organ of hearing and the other organs of sense. Now, this change is notoriously threefold, _i.e._, a change of "property," of "aspect,"[391] and of "condition." When the subject, the understanding, perceives the colour "blue," &c., there is a change of "property" just as when the substance "gold" becomes a bracelet, a diadem, or an armlet; there is a change of "aspect" when the property becomes present, past, or future; and there is a change of "condition" when there is a manifestation or non-manifestation[392] of the perception, as of blue, &c.; or, in the case of gold, the [relative] newness or oldness [at two different moments] would be its change of condition. These three kinds of change must be traced out by the reader for himself in different other cases. And thus we conclude that there is nothing inconsistent in our thesis that, since "right notion" and the other modifications are attributes of the understanding, their "suppression" will also have its site in the same organ.
[Our opponent now urges a fresh and long objection to what we have said above.] "But if we accept your definition that '_yoga_ is the suppression of the modifications of the _chitta_,' this will apply also to 'sound sleep,' since there too we may find the suppression [or suspension] of the modifications found in _kshipta_, _vikshipta_, _múdha_,[393] &c.; but this would be wrong, because it is impossible for the 'afflictions' to be abolished so long as those states called _kshipta_, &c., remain at all, and because they only hinder the attainment of the _summum bonum_. Let us examine this more closely. For the understanding is called _kshipta_, 'restless,' when it is restless [with an excess of the quality _rajas_], as being tossed about amidst various objects which engage it. It is called _múdha_, 'blinded,' when it is possessed by the modification 'sleep' and is sunk in a sea of darkness [owing to an excess of the quality _tamas_]. It is called _vikshipta_, 'unrestless,' when it is different from the first state[394] [as filled with the quality _sattva_]." We must here, however, note a distinction; for, in accordance with the line of the Bhagavad Gítá (vi. 34), 'The mind, O Krishna, is fickle, turbulent, violent, and obstinate,' the mind, though naturally restless, may occasionally become fixed by the transient fixedness of its objects; but restlessness is innate to it, or it is produced in it by sickness, &c., or other consequences of former actions; as it is said [in the Yoga Sútras, i. 30], 'Sickness, languor, doubt, carelessness, laziness, addiction to objects, erroneous perception, failure to attain some stage, and instability,--these distractions of the mind are called "obstacles".' Here 'sickness' means fever, &c., caused by the want of equilibrium between the three humours; 'languor' is the mind's want of activity; 'doubt' is a sort of notion which embraces two opposite alternatives; 'carelessness' is a negligence of using the means for producing meditation; 'laziness' is a want of exertion from heaviness of body, speech, or mind; 'addiction to objects' is an attachment to objects of sense; 'erroneous perception' is a mistaken notion of one thing for another; 'failure to attain some stage' is the failing for some reason or other to arrive at the state of abstract meditation; 'instability' is the mind's failure to continue there, even when the state of abstract meditation has been reached. Therefore we maintain that the suppression of the mind's modifications cannot be laid down as the definition of _yoga_.
We reply, that even although we allow that, so far as regards the three conditions of the mind called _kshipta_, _múdha_, and _vikshipta_, which [as being connected with the three qualities] are all to be avoided as faulty states, the suppression of the modifications in these conditions is itself something to be avoided [and so cannot be called _yoga_], this does not apply to the other two conditions called _ekágra_ and _niruddha_, which are to be pursued and attained; and therefore the suppression of the modifications in these two praiseworthy conditions is rightly to be considered as _yoga_. Now by _ekágra_ we mean that state when the mind, entirely filled with the _sattva_ quality, is devoted to the one object of meditation; and by _niruddha_ we mean that state when all its developments are stopped, and only their latent impressions [or potentialities] remain.
Now this _samádhi_, "meditation" [in the highest sense], is twofold: "that in which there is distinct recognition" (_samprajñáta_), and "that in which distinct recognition is lost" (_asamprajñáta_) [Yoga S., i. 17, 18].[395] The former is defined as that meditation where the thought is intent on its own object, and all the "modifications," such as "right notion," &c., so far as they depend on external things, are suppressed, or, according to the etymology of the term, it is where the intellect[396] is thoroughly recognised (_samyak prajñáyate_) as distinct from Nature. It has a fourfold division, as _savitarka_, _savichára_, _sánanda_, and _sásmita_. Now this "meditation" is a kind of "pondering" (_bhávaná_), which is the taking into the mind again and again, to the exclusion of all other objects, that which is to be pondered. And that which is thus to be pondered is of two kinds, being either Íswara or the twenty-five principles. And these principles also are of two kinds--senseless and not senseless. Twenty-four, including nature, intellect, egoism, &c., are senseless; that which is not senseless is Soul. Now among these objects which are to be pondered, when, having taken as the object the gross elements, as earth, &c., pondering is pursued in the form of an investigation as to which is antecedent and which consequent,[397] or in the form of a union of the word, its meaning, and the idea which is to be produced [cf. i. 42]; then the meditation is called "argumentative" (_savitarka_). When, having taken as its object something subtile, as the five subtile elements and the internal organ, pondering is pursued in relation to space, time, &c., then the meditation is called "deliberative" (_savichára_). When the mind, commingled with some "passion" and "darkness," is pondered, then the meditation is called "beatific" (_sánanda_), because "goodness" is then predominant, which consists in the manifestation of joy.[398] When pondering is pursued, having as its object the pure element of "goodness," unaffected by even a little of "passion" or "darkness," then that meditation is called "egoistical" (_sásmita_), because here personal existence[399] only remains, since the intellectual faculty becomes now predominant, and the quality of "goodness" has become quite subordinate [as a mere stepping-stone to higher things].
But the "meditation, where distinct recognition is lost," consists in the suppression of all "modifications" whatever.
"But" [it may be asked] "was not 'concentration' defined as the suppression of all the modifications? How, then, can the 'meditation where there is distinct recognition' be included in it at all, since we still find active in it that modification of the mind, with the quality of goodness predominant, which views the soul and the quality of goodness as distinct from each other?" This, however, is untenable, because we maintain that concentration is the suppression of the "modifications" of the thinking power, as especially stopping the operation of the "afflictions," the "actions," the "fructifications," and the "stock of deserts."[400]
The "afflictions" (_klesa_) are well known as five, viz., ignorance, egoism, desire, aversion, and tenacity of mundane existence. But here a question is at once raised, In what sense is the word _avidyá_, "ignorance," used here? Is it to be considered as an _avyayíbháva_ compound, where the former portion is predominant, as in the word "above-board"?[401] or is it a _tatpurusha_ [or _karmadháraya_] compound, where the latter portion is predominant, as in the word "town-clerk"? or is it a _bahuvríhi_ compound, where both portions are dependent on something external to the compound, as "blue-eyed"? It cannot be the first; for if the former portion of the compound were predominant, then we should have the negation the emphatic part in _avidyá_ (_i.e._, it would be an instance of what is called the express negation, or _prasajya-pratishedha_);[402] and consequently, as _avidyá_ would be thus emphatically a negation, it would be unable to produce positive results, as the "afflictions," &c., and the very form of the word should not be feminine, but neuter. It cannot be the second; for any knowledge, whatever thing's absence it may be characterised by (_a_ + _vidyá_), opposes the "afflictions," &c., and cannot therefore be their source. Nor can it be the third; for then,--in accordance with the words of the author of the Vritti,[403] "there is a _bahuvríhi_ compound which is formed with some word meaning 'existence' used after 'not,' with the optional elision of this subsequent word"[404]--we must explain this supposed _bahuvríhi_ compound _avidyá_ as follows: "That _buddhi_ is to be characterised as _avidyá_ (_sc._ an adjective), of which there is not a _vidyá_ existing." But this explanation is untenable; for such an _avidyá_ could not become the source of the "afflictions;"[405] and yet, on the other hand, it ought to be their source,[406] even though it were associated with the suppression of all the "modifications,"[407] and were also accompanied by that discriminative knowledge of the soul and the quality of goodness [which is found in the _sásmita_ meditation].
Now it is said [in the Yoga Sútras, ii. 4], "Ignorance is the field [or place of origin, _i.e._, source] of the others, whether they be dormant, extenuated, intercepted, or simple." They are said to be "dormant" when they are not manifested for want of something to wake them up; they are called "extenuated" when, through one's meditating on something that is opposed to them, they are rendered inert; they are called "intercepted" when they are overpowered by some other strong "affliction;" they are called "simple" when they produce their several effects in the direct vicinity of what co-operates with them. This has been expressed by Váchaspati Misra, in his Gloss on Vyása's Commentary, in the following memorial stanza:--
"The dormant 'afflictions' are found in those souls which are absorbed in the _tattvas_ [_i.e._, not embodied, but existing in an interval of mundane destruction]; the 'extenuated'[408] are found in _yogins_; but the 'intercepted' and the 'simple' in those who are in contact with worldly objects."
"No one proposes the fourth solution of the compound _avidyá_ as a _dvandva_ compound,[409] where both portions are equally predominant, because we cannot recognise here two equally independent subjects. Therefore under any one of these three admissible alternatives[410] the common notion of ignorance as being the cause of the 'afflictions' would be overthrown."
[We do not, however, concede this objector's view], because we may have recourse to the other kind of negation called _paryudása_ [where the affirmative part is emphatic], and maintain that _avidyá_ means a contradictory [or _wrong_] kind of knowledge, the reverse of _vidyá_; and so it has been accepted by ancient writers. Thus it has been said--
"The particle implying 'negation' does not signify 'absence' [or 'non-existence'] when connected with a noun or a root; thus the words _abráhmana_ and _adharma_ respectively signify, 'what is other than a Bráhman' and 'what is contrary to justice.'"
And again--
"We are to learn all the uses of words from the custom of the ancient writers; therefore a word must not be wrested from the use in which it has been already employed."
Váchaspati also says,[411] "The connection of words and their meanings depends on general consent for its certainty; and since we occasionally see that a _tatpurusha_ negation, where the latter portion is properly predominant, may overpower the direct meaning of this latter portion by its contradiction of it, we conclude that even here too [in _avidyá_] the real meaning is something contrary to _vidyá_" [_i.e._, the negative "non-knowledge" becomes ultimately the positive "ignorance"[412]]. It is with a view to this that it is said in the Yoga Aphorisms [ii. 5], "Ignorance is the notion that the non-eternal, the impure, pain, and the non-soul are (severally) eternal, pure, pleasure, and soul." _Viparyaya_, "misconception," is defined as "the imagining of a thing in what is not that thing,"[413] [_i.e._, in its opposite]; as, for instance, the imagining the "eternal" in a "non-eternal" thing, _i.e._, a jar, or the imagining the "pure" in the "impure" body,[414] when it has been declared by a proverbial couplet[415]--
"The wise recognise the body as impure, from its original place [the womb],--from its primal seed,--from its composition [of humours, &c.],--from perspiration,--from death [as even a Bráhman's body defiles],--and from the fact that it has to be made pure by rites."
So,--in accordance with the principle enounced in the aphorism (ii. 15), "To the discriminating everything is simply pain, through the pain which arises in the ultimate issue of everything,[416] or through the anxiety to secure it [while it is enjoyed], or through the latent impressions which it leaves behind, and also from the mutual opposition of the influences of the three qualities" [in the form of pleasure, pain, and stupid indifference],--ignorance transfers the idea of "pleasure" to what is really "pain," as, _e.g._, garlands, sandal-wood, women, &c.; and similarly it conceives the "non-soul," _e.g._, the body, &c., as the "soul." As it has been said--
"But ignorance is when living beings transfer the notion of 'soul' to the 'non-soul,' as the body, &c.;
"This causes bondage; but in the abolition thereof is liberation."
Thus this ignorance consists of four kinds.[417]
But [it may be objected] in these four special kinds of ignorance should there not be given some general definition applying to them all, as otherwise their special characteristics cannot be established? For thus it has been said by Bhatta Kumárila--
"'Without some general definition, a more special definition cannot be given by itself; therefore it must not be even mentioned here.'"
This, however, must not be urged here, as it is sufficiently met by the general definition of misconception, already adduced above, as "the imagining of a thing in its opposite."
"Egoism" (_asmitá_) is the notion that the two separate things, the soul and the quality of purity,[418] are one and the same, as is said (ii. 6), "Egoism is the identifying of the seer with the power of sight." "Desire" (_rága_) is a longing, in the shape of a thirst, for the means of enjoyment, preceded by the remembrance of enjoyment, on the part of one who has known joy. "Aversion" (_dvesha_) is the feeling of blame felt towards the means of pain, similarly preceded by the remembrance of pain, on the part of one who has known it. This is expressed in the two aphorisms, "Desire is what dwells on pleasure;" "Aversion is what dwells on pain" (ii. 7, 8).
Here a grammatical question may be raised, "Are we to consider this word _anusayin_ ('dwelling') as formed by the _krit_ affix _nini_ in the sense of 'what is habitual,' or the _taddhita_ affix _ini_ in the sense of _matup_? It cannot be the former, since the affix _nini_ cannot be used after a root compounded with a preposition as _anusí_; for, as the word _supi_ has already occurred in the Sútra, iii. 2, 4, and has been exerting its influence in the following sútras, this word must have been introduced a second time in the Sútra, iii. 2, 78, _supy ajátau ninis táchchhílye_,[419] on purpose to exclude prepositions, as these have no case terminations; and even if we did strain a point to allow them, still it would follow by the Sútra, vii. 2, 115, _acho ñniti_,[420] that the radical vowel must be subject to _vriddhi_, and so the word must be _anusáyin_, in accordance with the analogy of such words as _atisáyin_, &c. Nor is the latter view tenable (_i.e._, that it is the _taddhita_ affix _ini_[421]), since _ini_ is forbidden by the technical verse--
'These two affixes[422] are not used after a monosyllable nor a _krit_ formation, nor a word meaning 'genus,' nor with a word in the locative case;'
and the word _anusaya_ is clearly a _krit_ formation as it ends with the affix _ach_[423] [which brings it under this prohibition, and so renders it insusceptible of the affix _ini_]. Consequently, the word _anusayin_ in the Yoga aphorism is one the formation of which it is very hard to justify."[424] This cavil, however, is not to be admitted; since the rule is only to be understood as applying generally, not absolutely, as it does not refer to something of essential importance. Hence the author of the Vritti has said--
"The word _iti_, as implying the idea of popular acceptation, is everywhere connected with the examples of this rule[425] [_i.e._, it is not an absolute law]."
Therefore, sometimes the prohibited cases are found, as _káryin_, _káryika_ [where the affixes are added after a _krit_ formation], _tandulin_, _tandulika_ [where they are added after a word meaning "genus"]. Hence the prohibition is only general, not absolute, after _krit_ formations and words meaning "genus," and therefore the use of the affix _ini_ is justified, although the word _anusaya_ is formed by a _krit_ affix. This doubt therefore is settled.
The fifth "affliction," called "tenacity of mundane existence" (_abhinivesa_), is what prevails in the case of all living beings, from the worm up to the philosopher, springing up daily, without any immediate cause, in the form of a dread, "May I not be separated from the body, things sensible, &c.," through the force of the impression left by the experience of the pain of the deaths which were suffered in previous lives, this is proved by universal experience, since every individual has the wish, "May I not cease to be," "May I be." This is declared in the aphorism, "Tenacity of mundane existence, flowing on through its own nature, is notorious even in the case of the philosopher" [ii. 9]. These five, "ignorance," &c., are well known as the "afflictions" (_klesa_), since they afflict the soul, as bringing upon it various mundane troubles.
[We next describe the _karmásaya_ of ii. 12, the "stock of works" or "merits" in the mind.] "Works" (_karman_) consist of enjoined or forbidden actions, as the _jyotishtoma_ sacrifice, bráhmanicide, &c. "Stock" (_ásaya_) is the balance of the fruits of previous works, which lie stored up in the mind in the form of "mental deposits" of merit or demerit, until they ripen in the individual soul's own experience as "rank," "years," and "enjoyment" [ii. 13].
Now "concentration" [_yoga_] consists [by i. 2] in "the suppression of the modifications of the thinking principle," which stops the operation of the "afflictions," &c.; and this "suppression" is not considered to be merely the non-existence of the modifications [_i.e._, a mere negation], because, if it were a mere negation, it could not produce positive impressions on the mind; but it is rather the site of this non-existence,[426]--a particular state of the thinking principle, called by the four names [which will be fully described hereafter], _madhumatí_, _madhupratíká_, _visoká_, and _samskáraseshatá_. The word _nirodha_ thus corresponds to its etymological explanation as "that in which the modifications of the thinking principle, right notion, misconception, &c., are suppressed (_nirudhyante_). This suppression of the modifications is produced by "exercise" and "dispassion" [i. 12]. "Exercise is the repeated effort that the internal organ shall remain in its proper state" [i. 13]. This "remaining in its proper state" is a particular kind of development, whereby the thinking principle remains in its natural state, unaffected by those modifications which at different times assume the form of revealing, energising, and controlling.[427] "Exercise" is an effort directed to this, an endeavour again and again to reduce the internal organ to such a condition. The locative case, _sthitau_, in the aphorism is intended to express the object or aim, as in the well-known phrase, "He kills the elephant for its skin."[428] "Dispassion is the consciousness of having overcome desire in him who thirsts after neither the objects that are seen nor those that are heard of in revelation" [i. 15]. "Dispassion" is thus the reflection, "These objects are subject to me, not I to them," in one who feels no interest in the things of this world or the next, from perceiving the imperfections attached to them.
Now, in order to reduce the "afflictions" which hinder meditation and to attain meditation, the _yogin_ must first direct his attention to practical concentration, and "exercise" and "dispassion" are of especial use in its attainment. This has been said by Krishna in the Bhagavad Gítá [vi. 3]--
"Action is the means to the sage who wishes to rise to _yoga_;
But to him who has risen to it, tranquillity is said to be the means."
Patañjali has thus defined the practical _yoga_: "Practical concentration is mortification, recitation of texts, and resignation to the Lord" [ii. 1]. Yájñavalkya has described "mortification"--
"By the way prescribed in sacred rule, by the difficult chándráyana fast, &c.,
"Thus to dry up the body they call the highest of all mortifications."[429]
"Recitation of texts" is the repetition of the syllable Om, the _gáyatrí_, &c. Now these _mantras_ are of two kinds, Vaidik and Tántrik. The Vaidik are also of two kinds, those chanted and those not chanted. Those chanted are the _sámans_; those not chanted are either in metre, _i.e._, the _richas_, or in prose, _i.e._, the _yajúmshi_, as has been said by Jaimini,[430] "Of these, that is a _rich_ in which by the force of the sense there is a definite division into _pádas_ [or portions of a verse]; the name _sáman_ is applied to chanted portions; the word _yajus_ is applied to the rest." Those _mantras_ are called Tántrik which are set forth in sacred books that are directed to topics of voluntary devotion;[431] and these are again threefold, as female, male, and neuter; as it has been said--
"The _mantras_ are of three kinds, as female, male, and neuter:
"The female are those which end in the wife of fire (_i.e._, the exclamation _sváhá_); the neuter those which end in _namas_;
"The rest are male, and considered the best. They are all-powerful in mesmerising another's will, &c."
They are called "all-powerful" (_siddha_) because they counteract all defects in their performance, and produce their effect even when the ordinary consecrating ceremonies, as bathing, &c., have been omitted.
Now the peculiar "consecrating ceremonies" (_samskára_) are ten, and they have been thus described in the _Sáradá-tilaka_--
"There are said to be ten preliminary ceremonies which give to _mantras_ efficacy:
"These mantras are thus made complete; they are thoroughly consecrated.
"The 'begetting,' the 'vivifying,' the 'smiting,' the 'awakening,'
"The 'sprinkling,' the 'purifying,' the 'fattening,'
"The 'satisfying,' the 'illumining,' the 'concealing,'--these are the ten consecrations of _mantras_.
"The 'begetting' (_janana_) is the extracting of the _mantra_ from its vowels and consonants.
"The wise man should mutter the several letters of the _mantra_, each united to Om,
"According to the number of the letters. This they call the 'vivifying' (_jívana_).
"Having written the letters of the _mantra_, let him smite each with sandal-water,
"Uttering at each the mystic 'seed' of air.[432] This is called the 'smiting' (_tádana_).
"Having written the letters of the _mantra_, let him strike them with oleander flowers,
"Each enumerated with a letter. This is called the 'awakening' (_bodhana_).
"Let the adept, according to the ritual prescribed in his own special _tantra_,
"Sprinkle the letters, according to their number, with leaves of the Ficus religiosa. This is the 'sprinkling' (_abhisheka_).
"Having meditated on the _mantra_ in his mind, let him consume by the _jyotir-mantra_
"The threefold impurity of the _mantra_. This is the 'purification' (_vimalí-karana_).
"The utterance of the _jyotir-mantra_, together with Om, and the _mantras_ of Vyoman and Agni,
"And the sprinkling of every letter with water from a bunch of kusa grass,
"With the mystical seed of water[433] duly muttered,--this is held to be the 'fattening' (_ápyáyana_).
"The satiating libation over the _mantra_ with _mantra_-hallowed water is the 'satisfying' (_tarpana_).
"The joining of the _mantra_ with Om and the 'seeds' of Máyá[434] and Ramá[435] is called its 'illumining' (_dípana_).
"The non-publication of the _mantra_ which is being muttered--this is its 'concealing' (_gopana_).
"These ten consecrating ceremonies are kept close in all _tantras_;
"And the adept who practises them according to the tradition obtains his desire;
"And _ruddha_, _kílita_, _vichhinna_, _supta_, _sapta_, and the rest,
"All these faults in the _mantra_ rites are abolished by these excellent consecrations."
But enough of this venturing to make public the _tantra_ mysteries connected with _mantras_, which has suddenly led us astray like an unexpected Bacchanalian dance.[436]
The third form of practical _yoga_, "resignation to the Lord" (_ísvara-pranidhána_), is the consigning all one's works, whether mentioned or not, without regard to fruit, to the Supreme Lord, the Supremely Venerable. As it has been said--
"Whatever I do, good or bad, voluntary or involuntary,
"That is all made over to thee; I act as impelled by thee."
This self-resignation is also sometimes defined as "the surrender of the fruits of one's actions," and is thus a peculiar kind of faith, since most men act only with a selfish regard to the fruit. Thus it is sung in the Bhagavad Gítá [ii. 47]--
"Let thy sole concern be with action and never with the fruits;
"Be not attracted by the fruit of the action, nor be thou attached to inaction."
The harmfulness of aiming at the fruit of an action has been declared by the venerable Nílakantha-bháratí--
"Even a penance accomplished by great effort, but vitiated by desire,
"Produces only disgust in the Great Lord, like milk which has been licked by a dog."
Now this prescribed practice of mortification, recitation, and resignation is itself called _yoga_, because it is a means for producing _yoga_, this being an instance of the function of words called "superimponent pure Indication," as in the well-known example, "Butter is longevity." "Indication" is the establishing of another meaning of a word from the incompatibility of its principal meaning with the rest of the sentence, and from the connection of this new meaning with the former; it is twofold, as founded on notoriety or on a motive. This has been declared in the _Kávya-prakása_ [ii. 9]--
"When, in consequence of the incompatibility of the principal meaning of a word, and yet in connection with it, another meaning is indicated through notoriety or a motive, this is 'Indication,' the superadded function of the word."
Now the word "this" [_i.e._, _tat_ in the neuter, which the neuter _yat_ in the extract would have naturally led us to expect instead of the feminine _sá_] would have signified some neuter word, like "implying," which is involved as a subordinate part of the verb "is indicated." But _sá_ is used in the feminine [by attraction to agree with _lakshaná_], "this is indication," _i.e._, the neuter "this" is put in the feminine through its dependence on the predicate. This has been explained by Kaiyata, "Of those pronouns which imply the identity of the subject and the predicate, the former takes the gender of the former, the latter of the latter."[437] Now "expert (_kusala_) in business" is an example of Indication from notoriety; for the word _kusala_, which is significant in its parts by being analysed etymologically as _kusam_ + _láti_, "one who gathers kusa grass for the sacrifice," is here employed to mean "expert" through the relation of a similarity in character, as both are persons of discernment; and this does not need a motive any more than Denotation does, since each is the using a word in its recognised conventional sense in accordance with the immemorial tradition of the elders. Hence it has been said--
"Some instances of 'indication' are known by notoriety from their immediate significance, just as is the case in 'denotation' [the primary power of a word]."
Therefore indication based on notoriety has no regard to any motive. Although a word, when it is employed, first establishes its principal meaning, and then by that meaning a second meaning is subsequently indicated, and so indication belongs properly to the principal meaning and not to the word; still, since it is superadded to the word which originally established the primary meaning, it is called [improperly by metonymy] a function of the word. It was with a view to this that the author of the Kávya-prakása used the expression, "This is 'Indication,' the superadded function of the word." But the indication based on a motive is of six kinds: 1. inclusive indication,[438] as "the lances enter" [where we really mean "men _with_ the lances"]; 2. indicative indication, as "the benches shout" [where the spectators are meant _without_ the benches]; 3. qualified[439] superimponent indication, as "the man of the Panjáb is an ox" [here the object is not swallowed up in the simile]; 4. qualified introsusceptive indication, as "that ox" [here the man is swallowed up in the simile]; 5. pure superimponent indication, as "_ghí_ is life;" 6. pure introsusceptive indication, as "verily this is life." This has been all explained in the Kávya-prakása [ii. 10-12]. But enough of this churning of the depths of rhetorical discussions.
This _yoga_ has been declared to have eight things ancillary to it (_anga_); these are the forbearances, religious observances, postures, suppression of the breath, restraint, attention, contemplation, and meditation [ii. 29]. Patañjali says, "Forbearance consists in not wishing to kill, veracity, not stealing, continence, not coveting" [ii. 30]. "Religious observances are purifications, contentment, mortification, recitation of texts, and resignation to the Lord" [ii. 32]; and these are described in the Vishnu Purána [vi. 7, 36-38]--
"The sage who brings his mind into a fit state for attaining Brahman, practises, void of all desire,
"Continence, abstinence from injury, truth, non-stealing, and non-coveting;
"Self-controlled, he should practise recitation of texts, purification, contentment, and austerity,
"And then he should make his mind intent on the Supreme Brahman.
"These are respectively called the five 'forbearances' and the five 'religious observances;'
"They bestow excellent rewards when done through desire of reward, and eternal liberation to those void of desire."
"A 'posture' is what is steady and pleasant" [ii. 46]; it is of ten kinds, as the _padma_, _bhadra_, _víra_, _svastika_, _dandaka_, _sopásraya_, _paryanka_, _krauñchanishadana_, _ushtranishadana_, _samasamsthána_. Yájñavalkya has described each of them in the passage which commences--
"Let him hold fast his two great toes with his two hands, but in reverse order,
"Having placed the soles of his feet, O chief of Bráhmans, on his thighs;
"This will be the _padma_ posture, held in honour by all."
The descriptions of the others must be sought in that work.--When this steadiness of posture has been attained, "regulation of the breath" is practised, and this consists in "a cutting short of the motion of inspiration and expiration" [ii. 49]. Inspiration is the drawing in of the external air; expiration is the expelling of the air within the body; and "regulation of the breath" is the cessation of activity in both movements. "But [it may be objected] this cannot be accepted as a general definition of 'regulation of breath,' since it fails to apply to the special kinds, as _rechaka_, _púraka_, and _kumbhaka_." We reply that there is here no fault in the definition, since the "cutting short of the motion of inspiration and expiration" is found in all these special kinds. Thus _rechaka_, which is the expulsion of the air within the body, is only that regulation of the breath, which has been mentioned before as "expiration;" and _púraka_, which is the [regulated] retention of the external air within the body, is the "inspiration;" and _kumbhaka_ is the internal suspension of breathing, when the vital air, called _prána_, remains motionless like water in a jar (_kumbha_). Thus the "cutting short of the motion of inspiration and expiration" applies to all, and consequently the objector's doubt is needless.
Now this air, beginning from sunrise, remains two _ghatikás_ and a half[440] in each artery[441] (_nádi_), like the revolving buckets on a waterwheel.[442] Thus in the course of a day and night there are produced 21,600 inspirations and expirations. Hence it has been said by those who know the secret of transmitting the _mantras_, concerning the transmission of the _ajapámantra_[443]--
"Six hundred to Ganesa, six thousand to the self-existent Brahman,
"Six thousand to Vishnu, six thousand to Siva,
"One thousand to the Guru (Brihaspati), one thousand to the Supreme Soul,
"And one thousand to the soul: thus I make over the performed muttering."
So at the time of the passing of the air through the arteries, the elements, earth, &c., must be understood, according to their different colours, by those who wish to obtain the highest good. This has been thus explained by the wise--
"Let each artery convey the air two _ghatís_ and a half from sunrise.
"There is a continual resemblance of the two arteries[444] to the buckets on a revolving waterwheel.
"Nine hundred inspirations and expirations of the air take place [in the hour],
"And all combined produce the total of twenty-one thousand six hundred in a day and night.
"The time that is spent in uttering thirty-six _guna_ letters,[445]
"That time elapses while the air passes along in the interval between two arteries.
"There are five elements in each of the two conducting arteries,--
"They bear it along day and night; these are to be known by the self-restrained.
"Fire bears above, water below; air moves across;
"Earth in the half-hollow; ether moves everywhere.
"They bear along in order,--air, fire, water, earth, ether;
"This is to be known in its due order in the two conducting arteries.
"The _palas_[446] of earth are fifty, of water forty,
"Of fire thirty, of air twenty, of ether ten.
"This is the amount of time taken for the bearing; but the reason that the two arteries are so disturbed
"Is that earth has five properties,[447] water four,
"Fire has three, air two, and ether one.
"There are ten _palas_ for each property; hence earth has fifty _palas_,
"And each, from water downwards, loses successively. Now the five properties of earth
"Are odour, savour, colour, tangibility, and audibleness; and these decrease one by one.
"The two elements, earth and water, produce their fruit by the influence of 'quiet,'
"But fire, air, and ether by the influence of 'brightness,' 'restlessness,' and 'immensity.'[448]
"The characteristic signs of earth, water, fire, air, and ether are now declared;--
"Of the first steadfastness of mind; through the coldness of the second arises desire;
"From the third anger and grief; from the fourth fickleness of mind;
"From the fifth the absence of any object, or mental impressions of latent merit.
"Let the devotee place his thumbs in his ears, and a middle finger in each nostril,
"And the little finger and the one next to it in the corners of his mouth, and the two remaining fingers in the corners of his eyes,
"Then there will arise in due order the knowledge of the earth and the other elements within him,
"The first four by yellow, white, dark red, and dark blue spots,[449]--the ether has no symbol."
When the element air is thus comprehended and its restraint is accomplished, the evil influence of works which concealed discriminating knowledge is destroyed [ii. 52]; hence it has been said--
"There is no austerity superior to regulation of the breath."[450]
And again--
"As the dross of metals, when they are melted, is consumed,
"So the serpents of the senses are consumed by regulation of the breath."[451]
Now in this way, having his mind purified by the "forbearances" and the other things subservient to concentration, the devotee is to attain "self-mastery" (_samyama_)[452] and "restraint" (_pratyáhára_). "Restraint" is the accommodation of the senses, as the eye, &c., to the nature of the mind,[453] which is intent on the soul's unaltered nature, while they abandon all concernment with their own several objects, which might excite desire or anger or stupid indifference. This is expressed by the etymology of the word; the senses are drawn to it (_á_ + _hri_), away from them (_pratípa_).
"But is it not the mind which is then intent upon the soul and not the senses, since these are only adapted for external objects, and therefore have no power for this supposed action? How, therefore, could they be accommodated to the nature of the mind?" What you say is quite true; and therefore the author of the aphorisms, having an eye to their want of power for this, introduced the words "as it were," to express "resemblance." "Restraint is, as it were, the accommodation of the senses to the nature of the mind in the absence of concernment with each one's own object" [ii. 54]. Their absence of concernment with their several objects for the sake of being accommodated to the nature of the mind is this "resemblance" which we mean. Since, when the mind is restrained, the eye, &c., are restrained, no fresh effort is to be expected from them, and they follow the mind as bees follow their king. This has been declared in the Vishnu-purána [vi. 7, 43, 44]--
"Let the devotee, restraining his organs of sense, which ever tend to pursue external objects,
"Himself intent on restraint, make them conformable to the mind;
"By this is effected the entire subjugation of the unsteady senses;
"If they are not controlled, the _yogin_ will not accomplish his _yoga_."[454]
"Attention" (_dháraná_) is the fixing the mind, by withdrawing it from all other objects, on some place, whether connected with the internal self, as the circle of the navel, the lotus of the heart, the top of the _sushumná_ artery, &c., or something external, as Prajápati, Vásava, Hiranyagarbha, &c. This is declared by the aphorism, "'Attention' is the fixing the mind on a place" [iii. 1]; and so, too, say the followers of the Puránas--
"By regulation of breath having controlled the air, and by restraint the senses,
"Let him next make the perfect asylum the dwelling-place of his mind."[455]
The continual flow of thought in this place, resting on the object to be contemplated, and avoiding all incongruous thoughts, is "contemplation" (_dhyána_); thus it is said, "A course of uniform thought there, is 'contemplation'" [iii. 2]. Others also have said--
"A continued succession of thoughts, intent on objects of that kind and desiring no other,
"This is 'contemplation,'--it is thus effected by the first six of the ancillary things."
We incidentally, in elucidating something else, discussed the remaining eighth ancillary thing, "meditation" (_samádhi_, see p. 243). By this practice of the ancillary means of _yoga_, pursued for a long time with uninterrupted earnestness, the "afflictions" which hinder meditation are abolished, and through "exercise" and "dispassion" the devotee attains to the perfections designated by the names Madhumatí and the rest.
"But why do you needlessly frighten us with unknown and monstrous words from the dialects of Karnáta, Gauda,[456] and Láta?"[457] We do not want to frighten you, but rather to gratify you by explaining the meaning of these strange words; therefore let the reader who is so needlessly alarmed listen to us with attention.
i. The _Madhumatí_ perfection,--this is the perfection of meditation, called "the knowledge which holds to the truth," consisting in the illumination of unsullied purity by means of the contemplation of "goodness," composed of the manifestation of joy, with every trace of "passion" or "darkness" abolished by "exercise," "dispassion," &c. Thus it is said in the aphorisms, "In that case there is the knowledge which holds to the truth" [i. 48]. It holds "to the truth," _i.e._, to the real; it is never overshadowed by error. "In that case," _i.e._, when firmly established, there arises this knowledge to the second yogin. For the _yogins_ or devotees to the practice of _yoga_ are well known to be of four kinds, viz.,--
i. The _práthamakalpika_, in whom the light has just entered,[458] but, as it has been said, "he has not won the light which consists in the power of knowing another's thoughts, &c.;" 2. The _madhubhúmika_, who possesses the knowledge which holds to the truth; 3. The _prajñájyotis_, who has subdued the elements and the senses; 4. The _atikránta-bhávaníya_, who has attained the highest dispassion.
ii. The _Madhupratíká_ perfections are swiftness like thought, &c. These are declared to be "swiftness like thought, the being without organs, and the conquest of nature" [iii. 49]. "Swiftness like thought" is the attainment by the body of exceeding swiftness of motion, like thought; "the being without bodily organs"[459] is the attainment by the senses, irrespective of the body, of powers directed to objects in any desired place or time; "the conquest of nature" is the power of controlling all the manifestations of nature. These perfections appear to the full in the third kind of yogin, from the subjugation by him of the five senses and their essential conditions.[460] These perfections are severally sweet, each one by itself, as even a particle of honey is sweet, and therefore the second state is called _Madhupratíká_ [_i.e._, that whose parts are sweet].
iii. The _Visoká_ perfection consists in the supremacy over all existences, &c. This is said in the aphorisms, "To him who possesses, to the exclusion of all other ideas, the discriminative knowledge of the quality of goodness and the soul, arises omniscience and the supremacy over all existences" [iii. 50]. The "supremacy over all existences" is the overcoming like a master all entities, as these are but the developments of the quality of "goodness" in the mind [the other qualities of "passion" and "darkness" being already abolished], and exist only in the form of energy and the objects to be energised upon.[461] The discriminative knowledge of them, as existing in the modes "subsided," "emerged," or "not to be named,"[462] is "omniscience." This is said in the aphorisms [i. 36], "Or a luminous immediate cognition, free from sorrow[463] [may produce steadiness of mind]."
iv. The _Samskáraseshatá_ state is also called _asamprajñáta_, _i.e._, "that meditation in which distinct recognition of an object is lost;" it is that meditation "without a seed" [_i.e._, without any object] which is able to stop the "afflictions" that produce fruits to be afterwards experienced in the shape of rank, length of life, and enjoyment; and this meditation belongs to him who, in the cessation of all modifications of the internal organ, has reached the highest "dispassion." "The other kind of meditation [_i.e._, that in which distinct recognition of an object is lost] is preceded by that exercise of thought which produces the entire cessation of modifications; it has nothing left but the latent impressions" [of thought after the departure of all objects] [_i.e._, _samskárasesha_, i. 18]. Thus this foremost of men, being utterly passionless towards everything, finds that the seeds of the "afflictions," like burned rice-grains, are bereft of the power to germinate, and they are abolished together with the internal organ. When these are destroyed, there ensues, through the full maturity of his unclouded "discriminative knowledge," an absorption of all causes and effects into the primal _prakriti_; and the soul, which is the power of pure intelligence, abiding in its own real nature, and escaped from all connection with the phenomenal understanding (_buddhi_), or with existence, reaches "absolute isolation" (_kaivalya_). Final liberation is described by Patañjali as two perfections: "Absolute isolation is the repressive absorption[464] of the 'qualities' which have consummated the ends of the soul, _i.e._, enjoyment and liberation, or the abiding of the power of intelligence in its own nature" [iv. 33]. Nor should any one object, "Why, however, should not the individual be born again even though this should have been attained?" for that is settled by the well-known principle that "with the cessation of the cause the effect ceases," and therefore this objection is utterly irrelevant, as admitting neither inquiry nor decision; for otherwise, if the effect could arise even in the absence of the cause, we should have blind men finding jewels, and such like absurdities; and the popular proverb for the impossible would become a possibility. And so, too, says the Sruti, "A blind man found a jewel; one without fingers seized it; one without a neck put it on; and a dumb man praised it."[465]
Thus we see that, like the authoritative treatises on medicine, the Yoga-sástra consists of four divisions; as those on medicine treat of disease, its cause, health, and medicine, so the Yoga-sástra also treats of phenomenal existence, its cause, liberation, and its cause. This existence of ours, full of pain, is what is to be escaped from; the connection of nature and the soul is the cause of our having to experience this existence; the absolute abolition of this connection is the escape; and right insight is the cause thereof.[466] The same fourfold division is to be similarly traced as the case may be in other Sástras also. Thus all has been made clear.
The system of Sankara, which comes next in succession, and which is the crest-gem of all systems, has been explained by us elsewhere; it is therefore left untouched here.[467]
E. B. C.
* * * * *
NOTE ON THE YOGA.
There is an interesting description of the Yogins on the Mountain Raivataka in Mágha (iv. 55):--
"There the votaries of meditation, well skilled in benevolence (_maitrí_) and those other purifiers of the mind,--having successfully abolished the 'afflictions' and obtained the 'meditation possessed of a seed,' and having reached that knowledge which recognises the essential difference between the quality Goodness and the Soul,--desire yet further to repress even this ultimate meditation."
It is curious to notice that _maitrí_, which plays such a prominent
## part in Buddhism, is counted in the Yoga as only a preliminary
condition from which the votary is to take, as it were, his first start towards his final goal. It is called a _parikarman_ (= _prasádhaka_) in Vyása's Comm. i. 33 (cf. iii. 22), whence the term is borrowed by Mágha. Bhoja expressly says that this purifying process is an external one, and not an intimate portion of yoga itself; just as in arithmetic the operations of addition, &c., are valuable, not in themselves, but as aids in effecting the more important calculations which arise subsequently. The Yoga seems directly to allude to Buddhism in this marked depreciation of its cardinal virtue.
* * * * *
NOTE ON P. 237, LAST LINE.
For the word _vyákopa_ in the original here (see also p. 242, l. 3 _infra_), cf. Kusumáñjali, p. 6, l. 7.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 363: On this see Dr. Hall's Pref. to Sánkhya Pr. Bhásh., p. 20; S. Sára, p. 11.]
[Footnote 364: _I.e._, he revealed the Veda, and also originated the meanings of words, as well as instructed the first fathers of mankind in the arts of life.]
[Footnote 365: I read _ye_ for _te_ with Dr. Hall's MS. _Tapya_ means rather "susceptible of suffering."]
[Footnote 366: This is really Vyása's comm. on Sút., iv. 21.]
[Footnote 367: Cf. _Bháshá-parichchheda_, 15, _a_.]
[Footnote 368: Satapatha Br., xiv. 7, 2, 28.]
[Footnote 369: I read in the second clause _tadbháve'pi_, understanding by _tad_ the different conditions which _atha_ is supposed to assume as being necessarily present.]
[Footnote 370: These are, i., the discrimination of the eternal from the phenomenal; ii., the rejection of the fruit of actions here or hereafter; iii., the possession of the six qualities, tranquillity, &c.; and, iv., the desire for liberation.]
[Footnote 371: It may be _sukha-janaka_, but it is not itself _sukha_.]
[Footnote 372: Granting that _atha_ does not here mean "auspicious," why should not this be the implied meaning, as all allow that the
## particle _atha_ does produce an auspicious influence?]
[Footnote 373: _i.e._, a word's incapacity to convey a meaning without some other word to complete the construction.]
[Footnote 374: This is found with some variations in the Mahábháshya (p. 7, Kielhorn's ed.)]
[Footnote 375: The commentators hold that the word _vriddhih_ is placed at the beginning of the first sútra, while _gunah_ in the second is placed at the end (_ad en gunah_), in order to ensure an auspicious opening, _vriddhi_ meaning "increase," "prosperity," as well as "the second strengthening of a vowel."]
[Footnote 376: In the old Bengali poem Chandí, we have an interesting list of these omens. The hero Chandraketu, starting on a journey, has the following good omens: On his right hand a cow, a deer, a Bráhman, a full-blown lotus; on his left, a jackal and a jar full of water. He hears on his right hand the sound of fire and a cowherdess calling "milk" to buyers. He sees a cow with her calf, a woman calling "jaya," _dúrvá_ grass, rice, garlands of flowers, diamonds, sapphires, pearls, corals; and on the left twelve women. He hears drums and cymbals, and men dancing and singing "Hari." It is, however, all spoiled by seeing a guana (_godhiká_). The author adds, "This is a bad omen according to all sástras, and so is a tortoise, a rhinoceros, the tuberous root of the water-lily, and a hare." Elsewhere, a vulture, a kite, a lizard, and a woodman carrying wood are called bad omens.]
[Footnote 377: These are the names of two out of the four sacrifices lasting for one day, in which a thousand cows are given to the officiating Bráhmans.]
[Footnote 378: He is here called _phanipati_, "lord of snakes,"--Patañjali, the author of the Mahábháshya, being represented as a snake in mythology.]
[Footnote 379: Cf. Sankara, Vedánta-Sút., iii. 3, 49.]
[Footnote 380: This is the Mímámsá rule for settling the relative value of the proofs that one thing is ancillary to another. 1. _Sruti_, "a definite text," as "let him offer with curds," where curds are clearly an ancillary part of the sacrifice. 2. _Linga_, "a sign," or "the sense of the words," as leading to an inference, as in the text "he divides by the ladle;" here we infer that the thing to be divided must be a liquid like ghee, since a ladle could not divide solid things like the baked flour cakes. 3. _Vákya_, "the being mentioned in one sentence," _i.e._, the context, as in the text "'(I cut) thee for food,' thus saying, he cuts the branch;" here the words "(I cut) thee for food" are ancillary to the action of cutting; or in the text, "I offer the welcome (oblation) to Agni," the words "the welcome (oblation) to Agni," as they form one sentence with the words "I offer," are ancillary to the act of offering. 4. _Prakarana_, "the subject-matter viewed as a whole, with an interdependence of its parts," as in the _darsa-púrnamása_ sacrifice, where the _prayája_ ceremonies, which have no special fruit mentioned, produce, as parts, a mystic influence (_apúrva_) which helps forward that influence of the whole by which the worshippers obtain heaven. Here the _prakarana_ proves them to be ancillary. 5. _Sthána_ (or _krama_), "relative position" or "order," as the recital of the hymn _Sundhadhvam_, &c., "Be ye purified for the divine work," in connection with the mention of the _sánnáyya_ vessels, where this position proves that the hymn is ancillary to the action of sprinkling those vessels. 6. _Samákhyá_, "title;" thus the Yajur-veda is called the special book for the _adhvaryu_ priests; hence in any rite mentioned in it they are _prima facie_ to be considered as the priests employed. The order in the aphorism represents the relative weight to be attached to each; the first, _sruti_, being the most important; the last, _samákhyá_, the least. Cf. Jaimini's Sútras, iii. 3, 14; _Mímámsáparibháshá_, pp. 8, 9.]
[Footnote 381: _I.e._, Yogi-Yájñavalkya, the author of the _Yájñavalkya-gítá_. See Hall, _Bibl. Index_, p. 14; Aufrecht, _Bodl. Catal._, p. 87 _b_.]
[Footnote 382: _Karman_ seems here used for _kriyâ_, which properly belongs only to the body, as the soul is _drashtri_.]
[Footnote 383: _Scil. samádhi_, or the restraining the mind and senses to profound contemplation.]
[Footnote 384: _Scil._ "forbearance, religious observance, postures, suppression of the breath, restraint, attention, contemplation, and meditation (_samádhi_)."]
[Footnote 385: See Bhoja, Comm. iii. 3, _samyag ádhíyate mano yatra sa samádhih_.]
[Footnote 386: Thus, _e.g._, the antecedent non-existence and the destruction of the pot are found in the two halves in which the pot itself (the counter-entity to its own non-existence) resides by intimate relation (_samaváya-sambandha_).]
[Footnote 387: I read _niroddhavyánám_ for _nirodhánám_.]
[Footnote 388: _Chit-sakti_ and _chiti-sakti_ = soul.]
[Footnote 389: The _sattva_ of the _buddhi_ or the internal organ.]
[Footnote 390: This second substance, "mind" or "understanding" (_buddhi_, _chitta_), is like a looking-glass, which reflects the image of the object on a second looking-glass (_sc._ soul).]
[Footnote 391: Váchaspati explains _lakshana_ as _kálabheda_.]
[Footnote 392: I take _ádi_ as meaning _asphutatva_. The change of state takes place between the several moments of the _lakshana-parináma_. Cf. the Commentaries on iii. 13.]
[Footnote 393: These are generally called the five states of the thinking principle, _chittabhúmayas_ or _avasthás_. Cf. Commentary, i. 2, 18.]
[Footnote 394: These three conditions respectively characterise men, demons, and gods.]
[Footnote 395: Much of this is taken from Bhoja's Commentary, and I have borrowed Ballantyne's translation.]
[Footnote 396: Can _chitta_ mean "soul" here?]
[Footnote 397: _I.e._, as, _e.g._, whether the senses produce the elements or the elements the senses, &c.]
[Footnote 398: In p. 164, line 4 _infra_, read _sukhaprakásamayasya_.]
[Footnote 399: In p. 164, line 2 _infra_, read _sattámátra_ for _sattva-_. Bhoja well distinguishes _asmitá_ from _ahamkára_.]
[Footnote 400: For these see _infra_, and cf. Yoga S., ii. 3, 12, 13.]
[Footnote 401: I have ventured to alter the examples, to suit the English translation.]
[Footnote 402: Where the negation is prominent it is called _prasajya-pratishedha_; but where it is not prominent, we have the _paryudása_ negation. In the former the negative is connected with the verb; in the latter it is generally compounded with some other word, as, _e.g._--
(a.) "Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note."
(b.) "Unwatched the garden bough shall sway."
The former corresponds to the logician's _atyantábháva_, the latter to _anyonyábháva_ or _bheda_.]
[Footnote 403: Cf. the _várttika_ in Siddhánta Kaum., i. 401.]
[Footnote 404: Thus _adhana_ stands for _avidya-mánadhana_, with _vidyamána_ omitted in the compound.]
[Footnote 405: As its subject would confessedly be _buddhi_.]
[Footnote 406: As it is _avidyá_ after all.]
[Footnote 407: In p. 165, lines 16, 17, read (with my MS. of Váchaspati's Gloss), _sarvavrittinirodhasampannáyá api tathátvaprasangát_.]
[Footnote 408: I read _tanvavastháscha_ with the printed edition of Váchaspati's Gloss. If _tanudagdháscha_ is correct, it must mean _tanutvena dagdháh_.]
[Footnote 409: As in _rámalakshmanau_, Ráma and Lakshmana.]
[Footnote 410: I read _pakshatraye_ for _pakshadvaye_.]
[Footnote 411: In his Comm. on Sút., ii. 5.]
[Footnote 412: Thus _inimicus_ is not a "friend," nor, on the other hand, a "non-friend," but something positive, an "enemy." So _agoshpada_ is said to mean "a forest."]
[Footnote 413: Cf. Yoga Sút., i. 8.]
[Footnote 414: In p. 166, line 4 _infra_, read _káyádau_ for _káryádau_.]
[Footnote 415: This couplet is quoted by Vyása in his Comm. on Yoga Sútras, ii. 5, and I have followed Váchaspati in his explanation of it; he calls it _vaiyásakí gáthá_.]
[Footnote 416: Since the continued enjoyment of an object only increases the desire for more, and its loss gives correspondent regret (cf. Bhag. G. xviii. 38).]
[Footnote 417: Literally, "it has four feet."]
[Footnote 418: Thus "sight," or the power of seeing, is a modification of the quality of _sattva_ unobstructed by _rajas_ and _tamas_.]
[Footnote 419: "Let the affix _nini_ be used after a root in the sense of what is habitual, when the _upapada_, or subordinate word, is not a word meaning 'genus' and ends in a case."]
[Footnote 420: "Let _vriddhi_ be the substitute of a base ending in a vowel, when that which has an indicatory _ñ_ or _n_ follows;" _nini_ has an indicatory _n_.]
[Footnote 421: Sc. _anusaya_ + _ini_ = _anusayin_.]
[Footnote 422: _Ini_ and _than_, which respectively leave _in_ and _ika_; thus _danda_ gives _dandin_ and _dandika_. The line is quoted by Boehtlingk, vol. ii. p. 217, on Pán. v. 2, 115, and is explained in the _Kásiká_, _ad loc_. The different prohibitions are illustrated by the examples:--(1.) _svaván_, _khaván_; (2.) _kárakaván_; (3.) _vyághraván_, _simhaván_; (4.) _dandavatí sálá_ (_i.e._, _dandá asyám santi_).]
[Footnote 423: By iii. 3, 56.]
[Footnote 424: It is curious to see the great grammarian's favourite study obtruding itself here on such a slender pretext.]
[Footnote 425: See the _Kásiká_ on Pán. v. 2, 115. For _vivakshártha_ (meaning "general currency"), compare Commentary on Pán. ii. 2, 27. The edition in the Benares _Pandit_ reads _vishayaniyamártha_.]
[Footnote 426: _i.e._, Thus _nirodha_ is not _vritter abhávah_, but _abhávasyásryah_.]
[Footnote 427: I read in p. 168, last line, _prakásapravrittiniyamarúpa_, from Bhoja's comment on i. 12.]
[Footnote 428: See Kásiká, ii. 3, 36.]
[Footnote 429: This passage probably occurs in the _Yájñavalkya-gítá_ of Yogi-yájñavalkya. See Colebrooke's Essays (ed. 2), vol. i. p. 145, note.]
[Footnote 430: Mímámsá Sútras, ii. 1, 35-37.]
[Footnote 431: The tantras are not properly concerned with what is _nitya_ or _naimittika_; they are _kámya_.]
[Footnote 432: The _víja_ of air is the syllable _jam_.]
[Footnote 433: The _víja_ of water is the syllable _bam_.]
[Footnote 434: _Hrím._]
[Footnote 435: _Srím._]
[Footnote 436: _Tándava_ is the frantic dance of the god. Siva and his votaries.]
[Footnote 437: Literally "they take severally in order the gender of one of the two." Cf. "Thebæ ipsæ quod Boeotiæ caput est," _Livy_, xlii. 44; "Animal hoc providum, acutum, plenum rationis et consilii, quem vocamus hominem," _Cic._, _Legg_, i. 7.]
[Footnote 438: I have borrowed these terms from Ballantyne's translation of the Sáhitya-darpana.]
[Footnote 439: Qualified indication arises from likeness, as the man is like an ox from his stupidity; pure indication from any other relation, as cause and effect, &c., thus butter is the cause of longevity.]
[Footnote 440: _I.e._, an hour, a _ghatiká_ being twenty-four minutes.]
[Footnote 441: The _nádís_ or tubular vessels are generally reckoned to be 101, with ten principal ones; others make sixteen principal _nádís_. They seem taken afterwards in pairs.]
[Footnote 442: Mádhava uses the same illustration in his commentary on the passage in the Aitareya Bráhmana (iii. 29), where the relation of the vital airs, the seasons, and the mantras repeated with the offerings to the seasons, is discussed. "The seasons never stand still; following each other in order one by one, as spring, summer, the rains, autumn, the cold and the foggy seasons, each consisting of two months, and so constituting the year of twelve months, they continue revolving again and again like a waterwheel (_ghatíyantravat_); hence the seasons never pause in their course."]
[Footnote 443: This refers to a peculiar tenet of Hindu mysticism, that each involuntary inspiration and expiration constitutes a mantra, as their sound expresses the word _so'ham_ (i.e., _hamsah_), "I am he." This mantra is repeated 21,600 times in every twenty-four hours; it is called the _ajapámantra_, _i.e._, the mantra uttered without voluntary muttering.]
[Footnote 444: _I.e._, that which conveys the inhaled and the exhaled breath.]
[Footnote 445: I cannot explain this. We might read _guruvarnánám_ for _gunavarnánám_, as the time spent in uttering a _guruvarna_ is a _vipala_, sixty of which make a _pala_, and two and a half _palas_ make a minute; but this seems inconsistent with the other numerical details. The whole passage may be compared with the opening of the fifth act of the _Málatímádhava_.]
[Footnote 446: Sixty _palas_ make a _ghatiká_ (50 + 40 + 30 + 20 + 10 = 150, _i.e._, the _palas_ in two and a half _ghatikás_ or one hour).]
[Footnote 447: Cf. Colebrooke's Essays, vol. i. p. 256.]
[Footnote 448: Literally "the being ever more."]
[Footnote 449: For these colours cf. _Chhándogya Up._, viii. 6; _Maitri Up._, vi. 30.]
[Footnote 450: This is an anonymous quotation in Vyása's Comm.]
[Footnote 451: This seems a variation of Sloka 7 of the _Amrita-náda Up._ See Weber, _Indische Stud._, ix. 26.]
[Footnote 452: This is defined in the Yoga Sút., iii. 4, as consisting of the united operation towards one object of contemplation, attention, and meditation.]
[Footnote 453: _I.e._, the internal organ (_chitta_).]
[Footnote 454: This couplet is corrupt in the text. I follow the reading of the Bombay edition of the Purána (only reading in line 3 _chalátmanám_).]
[Footnote 455: Vishnu-pur., vi. 7, 45, with one or two variations. The "perfect asylum" is Brahman, formless or possessing form.]
[Footnote 456: The old name for the central part of Bengal.]
[Footnote 457: A country comprising Khandesh and part of Guzerat; it is the [Greek: Larikê] of Ptolemy.]
[Footnote 458: In p. 178, l. 2, _infra_, read _pravritta_ for _pravritti_. Cf. Yoga S., iii. 52 in Bhoja's Comm. (50 in Vyása's Comm.)]
[Footnote 459: Read _vikaranabhávah_; Váchaspati explains it as "_videhánám indriyánám karanabhávah_."]
[Footnote 460: Vyása has _karanapañchakarúpajaya_; Váchaspati explains _rúpa_ by _grahanádi_ (cf. iii. 47).]
[Footnote 461: I read in p. 179, l. 11, _vyava-sáyavyavaseyátmakánám_, from Vyása's Comm.]
[Footnote 462: _I.e._, as past, present, or future.]
[Footnote 463: _Visoká._]
[Footnote 464: This is explained by Váchaspati, "The latent impressions produced by the states of the internal organ called _vyutthána_ (when it is chiefly characterised by 'activity,' or 'darkness,' iii. 9) and _nirodha_ (when it is chiefly characterised by the quality of 'goodness'), are absorbed in the internal organ itself; this in 'egoism' (_asmitá_); 'egoism' in the 'merely once resolvable' (_i.e._, _buddhi_); and _buddhi_ into the 'irresolvable' (_i.e._, _prakriti_)." _Prakriti_ consists of the three 'qualities' in equilibrium; and the entire creation, consisting of causes and effects, is the development of these 'qualities' when one or another becomes predominant.]
[Footnote 465: This curious passage occurs in the Taittiríya-Áranyaka i. 11, 5. Mádhava in his Comment, there explains it of the soul, and quotes the Svetásv. Up., iii. 19. Mádhava here takes _avindat_ as "he pierced the jewel," but I have followed his correct explanation in the Comm.]
[Footnote 466: This is taken from Váchaspati's Comm. on Yoga S. ii. 15. Cf. the "four truths" of Buddhism.]
[Footnote 467: This probably refers to the Pañchadasí. A Calcutta Pandit told me that it referred to the Prameya-vivarana-sangraha (cf. Dr. Burnell's preface to his edition of the Devatádhyáya-bráhmana, p. x), but, if this is the same as the vivarana-prameya-sangraha, it is by Bháratítírthavidyáranya (see Dr. Burnell's Cat of Tanjore MSS. p. 88).]
APPENDIX.
ON THE UPÁDHI (cf. _supra_, pp. 7, 8, 174, 194).
[As the _upádhi_ or "condition" is a peculiarity of Hindu logic which is little known in Europe, I have added the following translation of the sections in the Bháshá-parichchheda and the Siddhánta-muktávalí, which treat of it.]
cxxxvii. _That which always accompanies the major term (sádhya), but does not always accompany the middle (hetu), is called the Condition (upádhi); its examination is now set forth._
Our author now proceeds to define the _upádhi_ or condition,[468] which is used to stop our acquiescence in a universal proposition as laid down by another person;--"that which always accompanies," &c. The meaning of this is that the so-called condition, while it invariably accompanies that which is accepted as the major term, does not thus invariably accompany that which our opponent puts forward as his middle term. [Thus in the false argument, "The mountain has smoke because it has fire," we may advance "wet fuel," or rather "the being produced from wet fuel," as an _upádhi_, since "wet fuel" is necessarily found wherever smoke is, but not always where fire is, as _e.g._, in a red-hot iron ball.]
"But," the opponent may suggest, "if this were true, would it not follow that (_a_) in the case of the too wide middle term in the argument, 'This [second] son of Mitrá's, whom I have not seen, must be dark because he is Mitrá's son,' we could not allege 'the being produced from feeding on vegetables'[469] as a 'condition,'--inasmuch as it does not invariably accompany a dark colour, since a dark colour does also reside in things like [unbaked] jars, &c., which have nothing to do with feeding on vegetables? (_b_) Again, in the argument, 'The air must be perceptible to sense[470] because it is the site of touch,' we could not allege the 'possessing proportionate form' as a 'condition;' because perceptibility [to the internal sense] is found in the soul, &c., and yet soul, &c., have no form [and therefore the 'possessing proportionate form' does not invariably accompany perceptibility]. (_c_) Again, in the argument,'Destruction is itself perishable, because it is produced,' we could not allege as a 'condition' the 'being included in some positive category of existence'[471] [destruction being a form of non-existence, called "emergent," _dvamsábháva_], inasmuch as perishability is found in antecedent non-existence, and this certainly cannot be said to be included in any positive category of existence."
We, however, deny this, and maintain that the true meaning of the definition is simply this,--that whatever fact or mark we take to determine definitely, in reference to the topic, the major term which our condition is invariably to accompany, that same fact or mark must be equally taken to determine the middle term which our said condition is not invariably to accompany. Thus (_a_) the "being produced from feeding on vegetables" invariably accompanies "a dark colour," as determined by the fact that it is Mitrá's son, whose dark colour is discussed [and this very fact is the alleged middle term of the argument; but the pretended contradictory instance of the dark jar is not in point, as this was not the topic discussed]. (_b_) Again, "possessing proportionate form" invariably accompanies perceptibility as determined by the fact that the thing perceived is an external object; while it does not invariably accompany the alleged middle term "the being the site of touch," which is equally to be determined by the fact that the thing perceived is to be an external object.[472] (_c_) Again, in the argument "destruction is perishable from its being produced," the "being included in some positive category of existence" invariably accompanies the major term "perishable," when determined by the attribute of being produced. [And this is the middle term advanced; and therefore the alleged contradictory instance, "antecedent non-existence," is not in point, since nobody pretends that this is produced at all.]
But it is to be observed that there is nothing of this kind in valid middle terms, _i.e._, there is nothing _there_ which invariably accompanies the major term when determined by a certain fact or mark, and does not so accompany the middle term when similarly determined. This is peculiar to the so-called condition. [Should the reader object that "in each of our previous examples there has been given a separate determining mark or attribute which was to be found in each of the cases included under each; how then, in the absence of some general rule, are we to find out what this determining mark is to be in any
## particular given case?" We reply that] in the case of any middle term
which is too general, the required general rule consists in the constant presence of one or other of the following alternatives, viz., that the subjects thus to be included are either (i.) the acknowledged site of the major term, and also the site of the condition,[473] or else (ii.) the acknowledged site of the too general middle term, but excluding the said condition;[474] and it will be when the case is determined by the presence of one or other of these alternatives that the condition will be considered as "always accompanying the major term, and not always accompanying the middle term."[475]
cxxxviii. _All true Conditions reside in the same subjects with their major terms;[476] and, their subjects being thus common, the (erring) middle term will be equally too general in regard to the Condition and the major term._[477]
cxxxix. _It is in order to prove faulty generality in a middle term that the Condition has to be employed._
The meaning of this is that it is in consequence of the middle term being found too general in regard to the condition, that we infer that it is too general in regard to the major term; and hence the use of having a condition at all. (_a._) Thus, where the condition invariably accompanies an unlimited[478] major term, we infer that the middle term is too general in regard to the major term, from the very fact that it is too general in regard to the condition; as, for example, in the instance "the mountain has smoke because it has fire," where we infer that the "fire" is too general in regard to "smoke," since it is too general in regard to "wet fuel;" for there is a rule that what is too general for that which invariably accompanies must also be too general for that which is invariably accompanied. (_b._) But where we take some fact or mark to determine definitely the major term which the condition is invariably to accompany,--there it is from the middle term's being found too general in regard to the condition in cases possessing this fact, or mark that we infer that the middle term is equally too general in regard to the major term. Thus in the argument, "B is dark because he is Mitrá's son," the middle term "the fact of being Mitrá's son" is too general in regard to the _sádhya_, "dark colour," because it is too general in regard to the _upádhi_, "feeding on vegetables," as seen in the case of Mitrá's second son [Mitrá's parentage being the assumed fact or mark, and Mitrá herself not having fed on vegetables previous to his birth].
[But an objector might here interpose, "If your definition of a condition be correct, surely a pretended condition which fulfils your definition can always be found even in the case of a valid middle term. For instance, in the stock argument 'the mountain must have fire because it has smoke,' we may assume as our pretended condition 'the being always found elsewhere than in the mountain;' since this certainly does not always 'accompany the middle term,' inasmuch as it is not found in the mountain itself where the smoke is acknowledged to be; and yet it apparently does 'always accompany the major term,' since in every other known case of fire we certainly find it, and as for the present case you must remember that the presence of fire in this mountain is the very point in dispute." To this we reply] You never may take such a condition as "the being always found elsewhere than in the subject or minor term" (unless this can be proved by some direct sense-evidence which precludes all dispute); because, in the first place, you cannot produce any argument to convince your antagonist that this condition does invariably accompany the major term [since he naturally maintains that the present case is exactly one in point against you]; and, secondly, because it is self-contradictory [as the same nugatory condition may be equally employed to overthrow the contrary argument].
But if you can establish it by direct sense-evidence, then the "being always found elsewhere than in the subject" becomes a true condition, [and serves to render nugatory the false argument which a disputant tries to establish]. Thus in the illusory argument "the fire must be non-hot because it is artificial," we can have a valid condition in "the being always found elsewhere than in fire," since we can prove by sense-evidence that fire is hot,[479] [thus the _upádhi_ here is a means of overthrowing the false argument].
Where the fact of its always accompanying the major term, &c., is disputed, there we have what is called a disputed condition.[480] But "the being found elsewhere than in the subject" can never be employed even as a disputed condition, in accordance with the traditional rules of logical controversy.[481]
E. B. C.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 468: The _upádhi_ is the "condition" which must be supplied to restrict a too general middle term. If the middle term, as thus restricted, is still found in the minor term, the argument is valid; if not, it fails. Thus, in "The mountain has smoke because it has fire" (which rests on the false premise that "all fire is accompanied by smoke"), we must add "wet fuel" as the condition of "fire;" and if the mountain _has_ wet fuel as well as fire, of course it will have smoke. Similarly, the alleged argument that "B is dark because he is Mitrá's son" fails, if we can establish that the dark colour of her former offspring A depended not on his being her son, but on her happening to have fed on vegetables instead of ghee. If we can prove that she still keeps to her old diet, of course our amended middle term will still prove B to be dark, but not otherwise.]
[Footnote 469: The Hindus think that a child's dark colour comes from the mother's living on vegetables, while its fair colour comes from her living on ghee.]
[Footnote 470: By Bháshá-parich. sl. 25, the four elements, earth, water, air, and fire, are _sparsavat_, but by sl. 27 of these air is neither _pratyaksha_ nor _rúpavat_.]
[Footnote 471: This condition would imply that we could only argue from this middle term "the being produced" in cases of positive existence, not non-existence.]
[Footnote 472: "Soul," of course, is not external; but our topic was not _soul_, but _air_.]
[Footnote 473: As, _e.g._, the mountain and Mitrá's first son in the two false arguments, "The mountain has smoke because it has fire" (when the fire-possessing red-hot iron ball has no smoke), and "Mitrá's first son A is dark because he is Mitrá's offspring" (when her second son B is fair). These two subjects possess the respective _sádhyas_ or major terms "smoke" and "dark colour," and therefore are respectively the subjects where the conditions "wet fuel" and "the mother's feeding on vegetables" are to be respectively applied.]
[Footnote 474: As, _e.g._, the red-hot ball of iron and Mitrá's second son; as these, though possessing the respective middle terms "fire" and "the being Mitrá's offspring" do not possess the respective conditions "wet fuel" or "the mother's feeding on vegetables," nor, consequently, the respective major terms (_sádhya_) "smoke" and "dark colour."]
[Footnote 475: This will exclude the objected case of "dark jars" in (_a_), as it falls under neither of these two alternatives; for, though they are the sites of the _sádhya_ "dark colour," they do not admit the condition "the feeding on vegetables," nor the middle term "the being Mitrá's son."]
[Footnote 476: _I.e._, wherever there is fire produced by wet fuel there is smoke. The condition and the major term are "equipollent" in their extension.]
[Footnote 477: Where the _hetu_ is found and not the _sádhya_ (as in the red-hot ball of iron), there the _upádhi_ also is not applicable.]
[Footnote 478: _I.e._, one which requires no determining fact or mark, such as the three objected arguments required in § 137.]
[Footnote 479: The disputant says, "Fire must be non-hot because it is artificial." "Well," you rejoin, "then it must only be an artificiality which is always found elsewhere than in fire,--_i.e._, one which will not answer your purpose in trying to prove your point." Here the proposed _upádhi_ "the being always found elsewhere than in fire" answers to the definition, as it does not always accompany the _hetu_ "possessing artificiality," but it does always accompany the _sádhya_ "non-hot," as fire is proved by sense-evidence to be hot.]
[Footnote 480: As in the argument, "The earth, &c., must have had a maker because they have the nature of effects," where the Theist disputes the Atheistic condition "the being produced by one possessing a body." See Kusumáñjali, v. 2.]
[Footnote 481: In fact, it would abolish all disputation at the outset, as each party would produce a condition which from his own point of view would reduce his opponent to silence. In other words, a true condition must be consistent with _either_ party's opinions.]
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Late Member of Her Majesty's Indian Civil Service; Hon. Secretary to the Royal Asiatic Society; and Author of "The Modern Languages of the East Indies."
"We know none who has described Indian life, especially the life of the natives, with so much learning, sympathy, and literary talent."--_Academy._
"They seem to us to be full of suggestive and original remarks."--_St. James's Gazette._
"His book contains a vast amount of information. The result of thirty-five years of inquiry, reflection, and speculation, and that on subjects as full of fascination as of food for thought."--_Tablet._
"Exhibit such a thorough acquaintance with the history and antiquities of India as to entitle him to speak as one having authority."--_Edinburgh Daily Review._
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BUDDHIST BIRTH STORIES; or, Jataka Tales.
The Oldest Collection of Folk-lore Extant:
BEING THE JATAKATTHAVANNANA,
For the first time Edited in the original Pali.
BY V. FAUSBOLL;
And Translated by T. W. RHYS DAVIDS.
Translation. Volume I.
"These are tales supposed to have been told by the Buddha of what he had seen and heard in his previous births. They are probably the nearest representatives of the original Aryan stories from which sprang the folk-lore of Europe as well as India. The introduction contains a most interesting disquisition on the migrations of these fables, tracing their reappearance in the various groups of folk-lore legends. Among other old friends, we meet with a version of the Judgment of Solomon."--_Times._
"It is now some years since Mr. Rhys Davids asserted his right to be heard on this subject by his able article on Buddhism in the new edition of the 'Encyclopædia Britannica.'"--_Leeds Mercury._
"All who are interested in Buddhist literature ought to feel deeply indebted to Mr. Rhys Davids. His well-established reputation as a Pali scholar is a sufficient guarantee for the fidelity of his version, and the style of his translations is deserving of high praise."--_Academy._
"No more competent expositor of Buddhism could be found than Mr. Rhys Davids. In the Jataka book we have, then, a priceless record of the earliest imaginative literature of our race; and ... it presents to us a nearly complete picture of the social life and customs and popular beliefs of the common people of Aryan tribes, closely related to ourselves, just as they were passing through the first stages of civilisation."--_St. James's Gazette._
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A TALMUDIC MISCELLANY;
OR, A THOUSAND AND ONE EXTRACTS FROM THE TALMUD, THE MIDRASHIM, AND THE KABBALAH.
Compiled and Translated by PAUL ISAAC HERSHON, Author of "Genesis According to the Talmud," &c.
With Notes and Copious Indexes.
"To obtain in so concise and handy a form as this volume a general idea of the Talmud is a boon to Christians at least."--_Times._
"Its peculiar and popular character will make it attractive to general readers. Mr. Hershon is a very competent scholar.... Contains samples of the good, bad, and indifferent, and especially extracts that throw light upon the Scriptures."--_British Quarterly Review._
"Will convey to English readers a more complete and truthful notion of the Talmud than any other work that has yet appeared."--_Daily News._
"Without overlooking in the slightest the several attractions of the previous volumes of the 'Oriental Series.' we have no hesitation in saying that this surpasses them all in interest."--_Edinburgh Daily Review._
"Mr. Hershon has ... thus given English readers what is, we believe, a fair set of specimens which they can test for themselves."--_The Record._
"This book is by far the best fitted in the present state of knowledge to enable the general reader to gain a fair and unbiased conception of the multifarious contents of the wonderful miscellany which can only be truly understood--so Jewish pride asserts--by the life-long devotion of scholars of the Chosen People."--_Inquirer._
"The value and importance of this volume consist in the fact that scarcely a single extract is given in its pages but throws some light, direct or refracted, upon those Scriptures which are the common heritage of Jew and Christian alike."--_John Bull._
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THE CLASSICAL POETRY OF THE JAPANESE.
BY BASIL HALL CHAMBERLAIN, Author of "Yeigo Heñkaku Shirañ."
"A very curious volume. The author has manifestly devoted much labour to the task of studying the poetical literature of the Japanese, and rendering characteristic specimens into English verse."--_Daily News._
"Mr. Chamberlain's volume is, so far as we are aware, the first attempt which has been made to interpret the literature of the Japanese to the Western world. It is to the classical poetry of Old Japan that we must turn for indigenous Japanese thought, and in the volume before us we have a selection from that poetry rendered into graceful English verse."--_Tablet._
"It is undoubtedly one of the best translations of lyric literature which has appeared during the close of the last year."--_Celestial Empire._
"Mr. Chamberlain set himself a difficult task when he undertook to reproduce Japanese poetry in an English form. But he has evidently laboured _con amore_, and his efforts are successful to a degree."--_London and China Express._
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Post 8vo, pp. xii.-164, cloth, price 10s. 6d.
THE HISTORY OF ESARHADDON (Son of Sennacherib), KING OF ASSYRIA, B.C. 681-668.
Translated from the Cuneiform Inscriptions upon Cylinders and Tablets in the British Museum Collection; together with a Grammatical Analysis of each Word, Explanations of the Ideographs by Extracts from the Bi-Lingual Syllabaries, and List of Eponyms, &c.
BY ERNEST A. BUDGE, B.A., M.R.A.S., Assyrian Exhibitioner, Christ's College, Cambridge.
"Students of scriptural archæology will also appreciate the 'History of Esarhaddon.'"--_Times._
"There is much to attract the scholar in this volume. It does not pretend to popularise studies which are yet in their infancy. Its primary object is to translate, but it does not assume to be more than tentative, and it offers both to the professed Assyriologist and to the ordinary non-Assyriological Semitic scholar the means of controlling its results."--_Academy._
"Mr. Budge's book is, of course, mainly addressed to Assyrian scholars and students. They are not, it is to be feared, a very numerous class. But the more thanks are due to him on that account for the way in which he has acquitted himself in his laborious task."--_Tablet._
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THE MESNEVI
(Usually known as THE MESNEVIYI SHERIF, or HOLY MESNEVI) OF MEVLANA (OUR LORD) JELALU 'D-DIN MUHAMMED ER-RUMI.
Book the First.
_Together with some Account of the Life and Acts of the Author, of his Ancestors, and of his Descendants._
Illustrated by a Selection of Characteristic Anecdotes, as Collected by their Historian,
MEVLANA SHEMSU-'D-DIN AHMED, EL EFLAKI, EL 'ARIFI.
Translated, and the Poetry Versified, in English,
BY JAMES W. REDHOUSE, M.R.A.S., &c.
"A complete treasury of occult Oriental lore."--_Saturday Review._
"This book will be a very valuable help to the reader ignorant of Persia, who is desirous of obtaining an insight into a very important department of the literature extant in that language."--_Tablet._
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EASTERN PROVERBS AND EMBLEMS
ILLUSTRATING OLD TRUTHS.
BY REV. J. LONG,
Member of the Bengal Asiatic Society, F.R.G.S.
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INDIAN POETRY;
Containing a New Edition of the "Indian Song of Songs," from the Sanscrit of the "Gita Govinda" of Jayadeva; Two Books from "The Iliad of India" (Mahabharata), "Proverbial Wisdom" from the Shlokas of the Hitopadesa, and other Oriental Poems.
BY EDWIN ARNOLD, C.S.I., Author of "The Light of Asia."
"In this new volume of Messrs. Trübner's Oriental Series, Mr. Edwin Arnold does good service by illustrating, through the medium of his musical English melodies, the power of Indian poetry to stir European emotions. The 'Indian Song of Songs' is not unknown to scholars. Mr. Arnold will have introduced it among popular English poems. Nothing could be more graceful and delicate than the shades by which Krishna is portrayed in the gradual process of being weaned by the love of
'Beautiful Radha, jasmine-bosomed Radha,'
from the allurements of the forest nymphs, in whom the five senses are typified."--_Times._
"No other English poet has ever thrown his genius and his art so thoroughly into the work of translating Eastern ideas as Mr. Arnold has done in his splendid paraphrases of language contained in these mighty epics."--_Daily Telegraph._
"The poem abounds with imagery of Eastern luxuriousness and sensuousness; the air seems laden with the spicy odours of the tropics, and the verse has a richness and a melody sufficient to captivate the senses of the dullest."--_Standard._
"The translator, while producing a very enjoyable poem, has adhered with tolerable fidelity to the original text."--_Overland Mail._
"We certainly wish Mr. Arnold success in his attempt 'to popularise Indian classics,' that being, as his preface tells us, the goal towards which he bends his efforts."--_Allen's Indian Mail._
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THE MIND OF MENCIUS;
OR, POLITICAL ECONOMY FOUNDED UPON MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
A SYSTEMATIC DIGEST OF THE DOCTRINES OF THE CHINESE PHILOSOPHER MENCIUS.
Translated from the Original Text and Classified, with Comments and Explanations,
By the REV. ERNST FABER, Rhenish Mission Society.
Translated from the German, with Additional Notes,
By the REV. A. B. HUTCHINSON, C.M.S., Church Mission, Hong Kong.
"Mr. Faber is already well known in the field of Chinese studies by his digest of the doctrines of Confucius. The value of this work will be perceived when it is remembered that at no time since relations commenced between China and the West has the former been so powerful--we had almost said aggressive--as now. For those who will give it careful study, Mr. Faber's work is one of the most valuable of the excellent series to which it belongs."--_Nature._
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Post 8vo, pp. 336, cloth, price 16s.
THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA.
BY A. BARTH.
Translated from the French with the authority and assistance of the Author.
The author has, at the request of the publishers, considerably enlarged the work for the translator, and has added the literature of the subject to date; the translation may, therefore, be looked upon as an equivalent of a new and improved edition of the original.
"Is not only a valuable manual of the religions of India, which marks a distinct step in the treatment of the subject, but also a useful work of reference."--_Academy._
"This volume is a reproduction, with corrections and additions, of an article contributed by the learned author two years ago to the 'Encyclopédie des Sciences Religieuses.' It attracted much notice when it first appeared, and is generally admitted to present the best summary extant of the vast subject with which it deals."--_Tablet._
"This is not only on the whole the best but the only manual of the religions of India, apart from Buddhism, which we have in English. The present work ... shows not only great knowledge of the facts and power of clear exposition, but also great insight into the inner history and the deeper meaning of the great religion, for it is in reality only one, which it proposes to describe."--_Modern Review._
"The merit of the work has been emphatically recognised by the most authoritative Orientalists, both in this country and on the continent of Europe. But probably there are few Indianists (if we may use the word) who would not derive a good deal of information from it, and especially from the extensive bibliography provided in the notes."--_Dublin Review._
"Such a sketch M. Barth has drawn with a master-hand."--_Critic (New York)._
* * * * *
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HINDU PHILOSOPHY.
THE SANKHYA KARIKA OF IS'WARA KRISHNA.
An Exposition of the System of Kapila, with an Appendix on the Nyaya and Vais'eshika Systems.
BY JOHN DAVIES, M.A. (Cantab.), M.R.A.S.
The system of Kapila contains nearly all that India has produced in the department of pure philosophy.
"The non-Orientalist ... finds in Mr. Davies a patient and learned guide who leads him into the intricacies of the philosophy of India, and supplies him with a clue, that he may not be lost in them. In the preface he states that the system of Kapila is the 'earliest attempt on record to give an answer, from reason alone, to the mysterious questions which arise in every thoughtful mind about the origin of the world, the nature and relations of man and his future destiny,' and in his learned and able notes he exhibits 'the connection of the Sankhya system with the philosophy of Spinoza,' and 'the connection of the system of Kapila with that of Schopenhauer and Von Hartmann.'"--_Foreign Church Chronicle._
"Mr. Davies's volume on Hindu Philosophy is an undoubted gain to all students of the development of thought. The system of Kapila, which is here given in a translation from the Sankhya Karika, is the only contribution of India to pure philosophy.... Presents many points of deep interest to the student of comparative philosophy, and without Mr. Davies's lucid interpretation it would be difficult to appreciate these points in any adequate manner."--_Saturday Review._
"We welcome Mr. Davies's book as a valuable addition to our philosophical library."--_Notes and Queries._
* * * * *
Second Edition. Post 8vo, pp. x.-130, cloth, price 6s.
A MANUAL OF HINDU PANTHEISM. VEDÂNTASÂRA.
Translated, with copious Annotations,
BY MAJOR G. A. JACOB,
Bombay Staff Corps; Inspector of Army Schools.
The design of this little work is to provide for missionaries, and for others who, like them, have little leisure for original research, an accurate summary of the doctrines of the Vedânta.
"The modest title of Major Jacob's work conveys but an inadequate idea of the vast amount of research embodied in his notes to the text of the Vedantasara. So copious, indeed, are these, and so much collateral matter do they bring to bear on the subject, that the diligent student will rise from their perusal with a fairly adequate view of Hindû philosophy generally. His work ... is one of the best of its kind that we have seen."--_Calcutta Review._
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Post 8vo, pp. xii.-154, cloth, price 7s. 6d.
TSUNI--||GOAM:
THE SUPREME BEING OF THE KHOI-KHOI.
BY THEOPHILUS HAHN, Ph.D.,
Custodian of the Grey Collection, Cape Town; Corresponding Member of the Geogr. Society, Dresden; Corresponding Member of the Anthropological Society, Vienna, &c., &c.
"The first instalment of Dr. Hahn's labours will be of interest, not at the Cape only, but in every University of Europe. It is, in fact, a most valuable contribution to the comparative study of religion and mythology. Accounts of their religion and mythology were scattered about in various books; these have been carefully collected by Dr. Hahn and printed in his second chapter, enriched and improved by what he has been able to collect himself."--_Prof. Max Müller in the Nineteenth Century._
"It is full of good things."--_St. James's Gazette._
* * * * *
In Four Volumes. Post 8vo, Vol. I., pp. xii.-392, cloth, price 12s. 6d., Vol. II., pp. vi.-408, cloth, price 12s. 6d., Vol. III., pp. viii.-414, cloth, price 12s. 6d., Vol. IV., pp. viii.-340, cloth, price 10s. 6d.
A COMPREHENSIVE COMMENTARY TO THE QURAN.
TO WHICH IS PREFIXED SALE'S PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE, WITH ADDITIONAL NOTES AND EMENDATIONS.
Together with a Complete Index to the Text, Preliminary Discourse, and Notes.
By Rev. E. M. WHERRY, M.A., Lodiana.
"As Mr. Wherry's book is intended for missionaries in India, it is no doubt well that they should be prepared to meet, if they can, the ordinary arguments and interpretations, and for this purpose Mr. Wherry's additions will prove useful."--_Saturday Review._
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Second Edition. Post 8vo, pp. vi.-208, cloth, price 8s. 6d.
THE BHAGAVAD-GÎTÂ.
Translated, with Introduction and Notes.
BY JOHN DAVIES, M.A. (Cantab.)
"Let us add that his translation of the Bhagavad Gîtâ is, as we judge, the best that has as yet appeared in English, and that his Philological Notes are of quite peculiar value."--_Dublin Review._
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THE QUATRAINS OF OMAR KHAYYAM.
Translated by E. H. WHINFIELD, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, late H.M. Bengal Civil Service.
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Post 8vo, pp. xxxii.-336, cloth, price 10s. 6d.
THE QUATRAINS OF OMAR KHAYYAM.
The Persian Text, with an English Verse Translation.
By E. H. WHINFIELD, late of the Bengal Civil Service.
"Mr. Whinfield has executed a difficult task with considerable success, and his version contains much that will be new to those who only know Mr. Fitzgerald's delightful selection."--_Academy._
"The most prominent features in the Quatrains are their profound agnosticism, combined with a fatalism based more on philosophic than religious grounds, their Epicureanism and the spirit of universal tolerance and charity which animates them."--_Calcutta Review._
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Post 8vo, pp. xxiv.-268, cloth, price 9s.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE UPANISHADS AND ANCIENT INDIAN METAPHYSICS.
As exhibited in a series of Articles contributed to the _Calcutta Review_.
By ARCHIBALD EDWARD GOUGH, M.A., Lincoln College, Oxford; Principal of the Calcutta Madrasa.
"For practical purposes this is perhaps the most important of the works that have thus far appeared in 'Trübner's Oriental Series.'... We cannot doubt that for all who may take it up the work must be one of profound interest."--_Saturday Review._
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In Two Volumes. Vol. I., post 8vo, pp. xxiv.-230, cloth, price 7s. 6d.
A COMPARATIVE HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIAN AND MESOPOTAMIAN RELIGIONS.
By DR. C. P. TIELE.
Vol. I.--HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIAN RELIGION.
Translated from the Dutch with the Assistance of the Author.
By JAMES BALLINGAL.
"It places in the hands of the English readers a history of Egyptian Religion which is very complete, which is based on the best materials, and which has been illustrated by the latest results of research. In this volume there is a great deal of information, as well as independent investigation, for the trustworthiness of which Dr. Tiele's name is in itself a guarantee; and the description of the successive religions under the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom, is given in a manner which is scholarly and minute."--_Scotsman._
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Post 8vo, pp. xii.-302, cloth, price 8s. 6d.
YUSUF AND ZULAIKHA.
A POEM BY JAMI.
Translated from the Persian into English Verse.
BY RALPH T. H. GRIFFITH.
"Mr. Griffith, who has done already good service as translator into verse from the Sanskrit, has done further good work in this translation from the Persian, and he has evidently shown not a little skill in his rendering the quaint and very oriental style of his author into our more prosaic, less figurative, language.... The work, besides its intrinsic merits, is of importance as being one of the most popular and famous poems of Persia, and that which is read in all the independent native schools of India where Persian is taught."--_Scotsman._
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LINGUISTIC ESSAYS.
BY CARL ABEL.
"An entirely novel method of dealing with philosophical questions and impart a real human interest to the otherwise dry technicalities of the science."--_Standard._
"Dr. Abel is an opponent from whom it is pleasant to differ, for he writes with enthusiasm and temper, and his mastery over the English language fits him to be a champion of unpopular doctrines."--_Athenæum._
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Post 8vo, pp. ix.-281, cloth, price 10s. 6d.
THE SARVA-DARSANA-SAMGRAHA;
OR, REVIEW OF THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF HINDU PHILOSOPHY.
BY MADHAVA ACHARYA.
Translated by E. B. COWELL, M. A., Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Cambridge, and A. E. GOUGH, M.A., Professor of Philosophy in the Presidency College, Calcutta.
This work is an interesting specimen of Hindu critical ability. The author successively passes in review the sixteen philosophical systems current in the fourteenth century in the South of India; and he gives what appears to him to be their most important tenets.
"The translation is trustworthy throughout. A protracted sojourn in India, where there is a living tradition, has familiarised the translators with Indian thought."--_Athenæum._
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Post 8vo, pp. lxv.-368, cloth, price 14s.
TIBETAN TALES DERIVED FROM INDIAN SOURCES.
Translated from the Tibetan of the KAH-GYUR.
BY F. ANTON VON SCHIEFNER.
Done into English from the German, with an Introduction,
BY W. R. S. RALSTON, M.A.
"Mr. Ralston, whose name is so familiar to all lovers of Russian folk-lore, has supplied some interesting Western analogies and parallels, drawn, for the most part, from Slavonic sources, to the Eastern folk-tales, culled from the Kahgyur, one of the divisions of the Tibetan sacred books."--_Academy._
"The translation ... could scarcely have fallen into better hands. An Introduction ... gives the leading facts in the lives of those scholars who have given their attention to gaining a knowledge of the Tibetan literature and language."--_Calcutta Review._
"Ought to interest all who care for the East, for amusing stories, or for comparative folk-lore."--_Pall Mall Gazette._
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Post 8vo, pp. xvi.-224, cloth, price 9s.
UDÂNAVARGA.
A COLLECTION OF VERSES FROM THE BUDDHIST CANON.
Compiled by DHARMATRÂTA.
BEING THE NORTHERN BUDDHIST VERSION OF DHAMMAPADA.
Translated from the Tibetan of Bkah-hgyur, with Notes, and Extracts from the Commentary of Pradjnavarman,
BY W. WOODVILLE ROCKHILL.
"Mr. Rockhill's present work is the first from which assistance will be gained for a more accurate understanding of the Pali text; it is, in fact, as yet the only term of comparison available to us. The 'Udanavarga,' the Thibetan version, was originally discovered by the late M. Schiefner, who published the Tibetan text, and had intended adding a translation, an intention frustrated by his death, but which has been carried out by Mr. Rockhill.... Mr. Rockhill may be congratulated for having well accomplished a difficult task."--_Saturday Review._
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In Two Volumes, post 8vo, pp. xxiv.-566, cloth, accompanied by a Language Map, price 18s.
A SKETCH OF THE MODERN LANGUAGES OF AFRICA.
BY ROBERT NEEDHAM CUST,
Barrister-at-Law, and late of Her Majesty's Indian Civil Service.
"Any one at all interested in African languages cannot do better than get Mr. Cust's book. It is encyclopædic in its scope, and the reader gets a start clear away in any
## particular language, and is left free to add to the initial
sum of knowledge there collected."--_Natal Mercury._
"Mr. Cust has contrived to produce a work of value to linguistic students."--_Nature._
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Third Edition. Post 8vo, pp. xv.-250, cloth, price 7s. 6d.
OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY OF RELIGION TO THE SPREAD OF THE UNIVERSAL RELIGIONS.
BY C. P. TIELE,
Doctor of Theology, Professor of the History of Religions in the University of Leyden.
Translated from the Dutch by J. ESTLIN CARPENTER, M.A.
"Few books of its size contain the result of so much wide thinking, able and laborious study, or enable the reader to gain a better bird's-eye view of the latest results of investigations into the religious history of nations. As Professor Tiele modestly says, 'In this little book are outlines--pencil sketches, I might say--nothing more.' But there are some men whose sketches from a thumb-nail are of far more worth than an enormous canvas covered with the crude painting of others, and it is easy to see that these pages, full of information, these sentences, cut and perhaps also dry, short and clear, condense the fruits of long and thorough research."--_Scotsman._
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Post 8vo, pp. xii.-312, with Maps and Plan, cloth, price 14s.
A HISTORY OF BURMA.
Including Burma Proper, Pegu, Taungu, Tenasserim, and Arakan. From the Earliest Time to the End of the First War with British India.
BY LIEUT.-GEN. SIR ARTHUR P. PHAYRE, G.C.M.G., K.C.S.I., and C.B., Membre Correspondant de la Société Académique Indo-Chinoise de France.
"Sir Arthur Phayre's contribution to Trübner's Oriental Series supplies a recognised want, and its appearance has been looked forward to for many years.... General Phayre deserves great credit for the patience and industry which has resulted in this History of Burma."--_Saturday Review._
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Third Edition. Post 8vo, pp. 276, cloth, price 7s. 6d.
RELIGION IN CHINA.
By JOSEPH EDKINS, D.D., PEKING.
Containing a Brief Account of the Three Religions of the Chinese, with Observations on the Prospects of Christian Conversion amongst that People.
"Dr. Edkins has been most careful in noting the varied and often complex phases of opinion, so as to give an account of considerable value of the subject."--_Scotsman._
"As a missionary, it has been part of Dr. Edkins' duty to study the existing religions in China, and his long residence in the country has enabled him to acquire an intimate knowledge of them as they at present exist."--_Saturday Review._
"Dr. Edkins' valuable work, of which this is a second and revised edition, has, from the time that it was published, been the standard authority upon the subject of which it treats."--_Nonconformist._
"Dr. Edkins ... may now be fairly regarded as among the first authorities on Chinese religion and language."--_British Quarterly Review._
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Post 8vo, pp. x.-274, cloth, price 9s.
THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA AND THE EARLY HISTORY OF HIS ORDER.
Derived from Tibetan Works in the Bkah-hgyur and Bstan-hgyur. Followed by notices on the Early History of Tibet and Khoten.
Translated by W. W. ROCKHILL, Second Secretary U.S. Legation in China.
"The volume bears testimony to the diligence and fulness with which the author has consulted and tested the ancient documents bearing upon his remarkable subject."--_Times._
"Will be appreciated by those who devote themselves to those Buddhist studies which have of late years taken in these Western regions so remarkable a development. Its matter possesses a special interest as being derived from ancient Tibetan works, some portions of which, here analysed and translated, have not yet attracted the attention of scholars. The volume is rich in ancient stories bearing upon the world's renovation and the origin of castes, as recorded in these venerable authorities."--_Daily News._
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Third Edition. Post 8vo, pp. viii.-464, cloth, price 16s.
THE SANKHYA APHORISMS OF KAPILA.
With Illustrative Extracts from the Commentaries.
Translated by J. R. BALLANTYNE, LL.D., late Principal of the Benares College.
Edited by FITZEDWARD HALL.
"The work displays a vast expenditure of labour and scholarship, for which students of Hindoo philosophy have every reason to be grateful to Dr. Hall and the publishers."--_Calcutta Review._
* * * * *
In Two Volumes, post 8vo, pp. cviii.-242, and viii.-370, cloth, price 24s. Dedicated by permission to H.R.H. the Prince of Wales.
BUDDHIST RECORDS OF THE WESTERN WORLD,
Translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang (A.D. 629).
BY SAMUEL BEAL, B.A.,
(Trin. Coll., Camb.); R.N. (Retired Chaplain and N.I.); Professor of Chinese, University College, London; Rector of Wark, Northumberland, &c.
An eminent Indian authority writes respecting this work:--"Nothing more can be done in elucidating the History of India until Mr. Beal's translation of the 'Si-yu-ki' appears."
"It is a strange freak of historical preservation that the best account of the condition of India at that ancient period has come down to us in the books of travel written by the Chinese pilgrims, of whom Hwen Thsang is the best known."--_Times._
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Post 8vo, pp. xlviii.-398, cloth, price 12s.
THE ORDINANCES OF MANU.
Translated from the Sanskrit, with an Introduction.
By the late A.C. BURNELL, Ph.D., C.I.E.
Completed and Edited by E.W. HOPKINS, Ph.D., of Columbia College, N.Y.
"This work is full of interest; while for the student of sociology and the science of religion it is full of importance. It is a great boon to get so notable a work in so accessible a form, admirably edited, and competently translated."--_Scotsman._
"Few men were more competent than Burnell to give us a really good translation of this well-known law book, first rendered into English by Sir William Jones. Burnell was not only an independent Sanskrit scholar, but an experienced lawyer, and he joined to these two important qualifications the rare faculty of being able to express his thoughts in clear and trenchant English.... We ought to feel very grateful to Dr. Hopkins for having given us all that could be published of the translation left by Burnell."--F. MAX MÜLLER in the _Academy._
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THE LIFE AND WORKS OF ALEXANDER CSOMA DE KOROS,
Between 1819 and 1842. With a Short Notice of all his Published and Unpublished Works and Essays. From Original and for most part Unpublished Documents.
By THEODORE DUKA, M.D., F.R.C.S. (Eng.), Surgeon-Major H.M.'s Bengal Medical Service, Retired, &c.
"Not too soon have Messrs. Trübner added to their valuable Oriental Series a history of the life and works of one of the most gifted and devoted of Oriental students, Alexander Csoma de Koros. It is forty-three years since his death, and though an account of his career was demanded soon after his decease, it has only now appeared in the important memoir of his compatriot, Dr. Duka."--_Bookseller._
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In Two Volumes, post 8vo, pp. xii.-318 and vi.-312, cloth, price 21s.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO INDO-CHINA.
Reprinted from "Dalrymple's Oriental Repertory," "Asiatic Researches," and the "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal."
_CONTENTS OF VOL. I._
I.--Some Accounts of Quedah. By Michael Topping.
II.--Report made to the Chief and Council of Balambangan, by Lieut. James Barton, of his several Surveys.
III.--Substance of a Letter to the Court of Directors from Mr. John Jesse, dated July 20, 1775, at Borneo Proper.
IV.--Formation of the Establishment of Poolo Peenang.
V.--The Gold of Limong. By John Macdonald.
VI.--On Three Natural Productions of Sumatra. By John Macdonald.
VII.--On the Traces of the Hindu Language and Literature extant amongst the Malays. By William Marsden.
VIII.--Some Account of the Elastic Gum Vine of Prince-Wales Island. By James Howison.
IX.--A Botanical Description of Urceola Elastica, or Caoutchouc Vine of Sumatra and Pulo-Pinang. By William Roxburgh, M.D.
X.--An Account of the Inhabitants of the Poggy, or Nassau Islands, lying off Sumatra. By John Crisp.
XI.--Remarks on the Species of Pepper which are found on Prince-Wales Island. By William Hunter, M.D.
XII.--On the Languages and Literature of the Indo-Chinese Nations. By J. Leyden, M.D.
XIII.--Some Account of an Orang-Outang of remarkable height found on the Island of Sumatra. By Clarke Abel, M.D.
XIV.--Observations on the Geological Appearances and General Features of Portions of the Malayan Peninsula. By Captain James Low.
XV.--Short Sketch of the Geology of Pulo-Pinang and the Neighbouring Islands. By T. Ware.
XVI.--Climate of Singapore.
XVII.--Inscription on the Jetty at Singapore.
XVIII.--Extract of a Letter from Colonel J. Low.
XIX.--Inscription at Singapore.
XX--An Account of Several Inscriptions found in Province Wellesley. By Lieut.-Col. James Low.
XXI.--Note on the Inscriptions from Singapore and Province Wellesley. By J. W. Laidlay.
XXII.--On an Inscription from Keddah. By Lieut.-Col. Low.
XXIII.--A Notice of the Alphabets of the Philippine Islands.
XXIV.--Succinct Review of the Observations of the Tides in the Indian Archipelago.
XXV.--Report on the Tin of the Province of Mergui. By Capt. G. B Tremenheere.
XXVI.--Report on the Manganese of Mergui Province. By Capt. G. B. Tremenheere.
XXVII.--Paragraphs to be added to Capt. G. B. Tremenheere's Report.
XXVIII.--Second Report on the Tin of Mergui. By Capt. G. B. Tremenheere.
XXIX.--Analysis of Iron Ores from Tavoy and Mergui, and of Limestone from Mergui. By Dr. A. Ure.
XXX.--Report of a Visit to the Pakchan River, and of some Tin Localities in the Southern Portion of the Tenasserim Provinces. By Capt. G. B. Tremenheere.
XXXI.--Report on a Route from the Mouth of the Pakchan to Krau, and thence across the Isthmus of Krau to the Gulf of Siam. By Capt. Al. Fraser and Capt. J. G. Forlong.
XXXII.--Report, &c., from Capt. G. B. Tremenheere on the Price of Mergui Tin Ore.
XXXIII.--Remarks on the Different Species of Orang-utan. By E. Blyth.
XXXIV.--Further Remarks. By E. Blyth.
_CONTENTS OF VOL. II._
XXXV.--Catalogue of Mammalia inhabiting the Malayan Peninsula and Islands. By Theodore Cantor, M.D.
XXXVI.--On the Local and Relative Geology of Singapore. By J. R. Logan.
XXXVII.--Catalogue of Reptiles inhabiting the Malayan Peninsula and Islands. By Theodore Cantor, M.D.
XXXVIII.--Some Account of the Botanical Collection brought from the Eastward, in 1841, by Dr. Cantor. By the late W. Griffith.
XXXIX.--On the Flat-Horned Taurine Cattle of S.E. Asia. By E. Blyth.
XL.--Note, by Major-General G. B. Tremenheere.
General Index.
Index of Vernacular Terms.
Index of Zoological Genera and Sub-Genera occurring in Vol. II.
"The papers treat of almost every aspect of Indo-China--its philology, economy, geography, geology--and constitute a very material and important contribution to our accessible information regarding that country and its people."--_Contemporary Review._
* * * * *
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THE SATAKAS OF BHARTRIHARI.
Translated from the Sanskrit
By the REV. B. HALE WORTHAM, M.R.A.S.,
Rector of Eggesford, North Devon.
"A very interesting addition to Trübner's Oriental Series."--_Saturday Review._
"Many of the Maxims in the book have a Biblical ring and beauty of expression."--_St. James' Gazette._
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ANCIENT PROVERBS AND MAXIMS FROM BURMESE SOURCES;
Or, THE NITI LITERATURE OF BURMA.
BY JAMES GRAY,
Author of "Elements of Pali Grammar," "Translation of the Dhammapada," &c.
The Sanscrit-Pâli word Nîti is equivalent to "conduct" in its abstract, and "guide" in its concrete signification. As applied to books, it is a general term for a treatise which includes maxims, pithy sayings, and didactic stories, intended as a guide to such matters of everyday life as form the character of an individual and influence him in his relations to his fellow-men. Treatises of this kind have been popular in all ages, and have served as a most effective medium of instruction.
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MASNAVI I MA' NAVI:
THE SPIRITUAL COUPLETS OF MAULANA JALALU-'D-DIN MUHAMMAD I RUMI.
Translated and Abridged by E. H. WHINFIELD, M.A., Late of H.M. Bengal Civil Service.
* * * * *
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MANAVA-DHARMA-CASTRA: THE CODE OF MANU.
ORIGINAL SANSKRIT TEXT, WITH CRITICAL NOTES. BY J. JOLLY, Ph.D.,
Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Wurzburg; late Tagore Professor of Law in the University of Calcutta.
The date assigned by Sir William Jones to this Code--the well-known Great Law Book of the Hindus--is 1250-500 B.C., although the rules and precepts contained in it had probably existed as tradition for countless ages before. There has been no reliable edition of the Text for Students for many years past, and it is believed, therefore, that Prof. Jolly's work will supply a want long felt.
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LEAVES FROM MY CHINESE SCRAP-BOOK.
BY FREDERIC HENRY BALFOUR.
Author of "Waifs and Strays from the Far East," "Taoist Texts," "Idiomatic Phrases in the Peking Colloquial," &c. &c.
* * * * *
Post 8vo, pp. xvi.-548, with Six Maps, cloth, price 21s.
LINGUISTIC AND ORIENTAL ESSAYS.
WRITTEN FROM THE YEAR 1847 TO 1887. _Second Series._
BY ROBERT NEEDHAM CUST, LL.D.,
Barrister-at-Law; Honorary Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society; Late Member of Her Majesty's Indian Civil Service.
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In Two Volumes, post 8vo, pp. x.-308 and vi.-314, cloth, price 25s.
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS RELATING TO INDO-CHINA.
Edited by R. ROST, Ph.D., &c. &c., Librarian to the India Office.
SECOND SERIES.
Reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society from the Malayan "Miscellanies," the "Transactions and Journal" of the Batavian Society, and the "Journals" of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and the Royal Geographical and Royal Asiatic Societies.
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FOLK-TALES OF KASHMIR.
By the REV. J. HINTON KNOWLES, F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S., &c.
(C.M.S.) Missionary to the Kashmiris.
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MEDIÆVAL RESEARCHES FROM EASTERN ASIATIC SOURCES.
FRAGMENTS TOWARDS THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
BY E. BRETSCHNEIDER, M.D.,
Formerly Physician of the Russian Legation at Pekin.
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ALBERUNI'S INDIA:
AN ACCOUNT OF ITS RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY, LITERATURE, GEOGRAPHY, CHRONOLOGY, ASTRONOMY, CUSTOMS, LAW, AND ASTROLOGY (ABOUT A.D. 1031).
TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH.
With Notes and Indices by Prof. EDWARD SACHAU, University of Berlin.
[3 asterisks in triangle] The Arabic Original, with an Index of the Sanskrit Words, Edited by Professor SACHAU, is in the press.
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THE LIFE OF HIUEN TSIANG.
BY THE SHAMANS HWUI LI AND YEN-TSUNG.
With a Preface containing an account of the Works of I-TSING.
BY SAMUEL BEAL, B.A.
(Trin. Coll., Camb.); Professor of Chinese, University College, London; Rector of Wark, Northumberland, &c.
Author of "Buddhist Records of the Western World," "The Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha," &c.
When the Pilgrim Hiuen Tsiang returned from his travels in India, he took up his abode in the Temple of "Great Benevolence;" this convent had been constructed by the Emperor in honour of the Empress, Wen-te-hau. After Hiuen Tsiang's death, his disciple, Hwui Li, composed a work which gave an account of his illustrious Master's travels; this work when he completed he buried, and refused to discover its place of concealment. But previous to his death he revealed its whereabouts to Yen-tsung, by whom it was finally revised and published. This is "The Life of Hiuen Tsiang." It is a valuable sequel to the Si-yu-ki, correcting and illustrating it in many
## particulars.
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A SKETCH OF THE MODERN LANGUAGES OF OCEANIA.
BY R. N. CUST, LL. D.
Author of "Modern Languages of the East," "Modern Languages of Africa," &c.
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LONDON: TRÜBNER & CO., 57 AND 59 LUDGATE HILL.
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End of Project Gutenberg's The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha, by Madhava Acharya