Part 5

Albert V. died of the dysentery, caught in an expedition against the Turks, which he made in 1439; and a long period of distraction followed in Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, while his posthumous son Ladislaus was growing up. These troubles were in 1452, somewhat composed, by the queen mother’s giving the administration of Hungary to John Hunniades; that of Bohemia to George Podiebrad; and that of Austria to Count Cilli; until the young king should reach his majority. It is not within the scope of our purpose to enter into the details of the events of this period, rendered a brilliant page of history, by the splendid administration of John Hunniades, and his victories over the Turks, by which he saved not only his native Hungary, but all the rest of the dominions of Ladislaus. Yet we can hardly resist giving the whole chapter of Coxe (XIV.), since it shows one of those great services which Hungary did for the house of Austria, and even for all Europe.

Ladislaus Posthumus died before his marriage, and thus one branch of the Hapsburgh family became extinct. Within the same century the line of Tyrol also ended with Sigismond, son of Frederic IV., fourth son of Leopold II.

“From the circumstances of his sudden decease, and the doubtful nature of his disorder, his death was attributed to poison, and Podiebrad was charged with the atrocious crime. This imputation, which arose from the reports of the Germans, and obtained credit only from the accession of Podiebrad to the throne, has, however, been ably refuted by the Bohemian historians, who incontestably prove that the death of Ladislaus was occasioned by the plague.

“The reign of Sigismond is memorable in the history of the House of Austria, for the loss of all the dominions which yet remained to his family in Switzerland, and which were reduced to Lower Sargans, Kyburgh, Winterthur, and Rapperschwyl. As he inherited the claims of his family to their former territories, he naturally fostered an antipathy to the Helvetic confederates; he was still further irritated by the loss of Rapperschwyl, the inhabitants of which town throwing off their allegiance, were received under the protection of Schwyz, Uri, Underwalden, and Glarus. He therefore augmented the garrison of Winterthur, and seemed inclined to seize the first opportunity of attacking the confederates, when he was involved in disputes with Nicholas de Cusa, cardinal archbishop of Brixen, for the possession of some silver mines recently discovered at Schwartz; hostilities commenced, but were suspended by the intervention of Pius II., who in 1460 summoned both parties before his tribunal. Before the decision of the cause, however, the war was renewed, and Sigismond investing the castle of Brunic, took the bishop prisoner. The pope irritated by this contempt of his authority, fulminated a sentence of excommunication against Sigismond, and instigated the Swiss to invade his territories. They eagerly obeyed the summons, overran the Thurgau without opposition, received the voluntary allegiance of the natives at Frauenfield, besieged Winterthur, and made incursions into the Austrian territories in the vicinity of the lake of Constance. Sigismond, unable to resist the forces of the confederates, obtained a peace by the cession of the conquered territories; and being stripped of the greater part of his possessions, sold Kyburgh and Winterthur to Zurich, and thus alienated the remnant of the Austrian inheritance in Switzerland.

“In imitation of his father, he was no sooner emancipated from his guardians than he made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, where he received the order of Cyprus, and of the Holy Sepulchre. So eager was he to gratify his curiosity, that he accompanied some Jew merchants, in disguise, into the Turkish territories, examined with attention the manners and customs of a people so different from the Christian world, and collected jewels and other valuable curiosities. Of this pilgrimage the celebrated Æneas Sylvius thus speaks in his oration to Pope Nicholas V., when he was recommending a crusade against the infidels:—‘The princes of the sublime house of Austria, which ranks among its members many kings and emperors, deemed themselves secure of success only when they served the Supreme Being with fidelity and constancy. Frederic, following their example, was no sooner delivered from the care of his guardians than, despising the dangers and tempests of the deep, he repaired to Jerusalem, anxious to kiss the earth sanctified by the footsteps of our blessed Redeemer. He visited the sepulchre of our Lord, beheld Mount Calvary, and the palace of Pilate, and ascended the Mount of Olives. He entered the desert; crossed the river Jordan; reached Bethlehem; penetrated into the valley of Jehoshaphat; and, by the sight of these sacred places, was inspired with an incredible and ardent devotion.’

“At the age of twenty, Frederic assumed the reins of government as duke of Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, in conjunction with his brother Albert. On the death of his uncle Frederic of Tyrol, in 1435, he became guardian of Sigismond, and, on the decease of the emperor Albert, was appointed regent by the states of Austria, and guardian of Ladislaus Posthumus.

“The imperial throne being vacant by the death of Albert II., the electors nominated Louis landgrave of Hesse; and that prince declining the crown, their choice unanimously fell on Frederic, as the eldest member of his illustrious house; but he hesitated to accept a dignity, however exalted, which was surrounded by difficulties and dangers.”

After the death of Sigismond, the house of Austria was reduced to the Styrian line, founded by Ernest, third son of Leopold I., who was killed at the battle of Sempach. This Ernest had married a niece of Ladislas Jagellon, king of Poland. She was remarkable for her beauty and accomplishments; yet, says Coxe, “historians record that Cymburga was endowed with such masculine strength, that she could crack nuts with her fingers, and with her hand drive a nail as far as others with a hammer! She was the mother of several children, some of whom died in their infancy, and from her are said to have been derived the thick lips—the characteristic feature of the Austrian family.”

“During his continuance at Frankfort, Frederic endeavored to avail himself of the divisions subsisting among the Swiss Cantons, to attempt the recovery of the dominions which had been wrested from the house of Austria. The contest which had arisen for the succession to the Tockenburgh, had terminated unfavorably for Zurich; for Schwyz and Glarus had gained the widow and the collateral heirs of the count, and, by intrigue or persuasion, had finally succeeded in obtaining the support of the other confederates; Zurich, invested and pressed on all sides, was reduced to accept their mediation, and submit to the award of the five remaining cantons.

“The burghers of Zurich, irritated by the loss of their territories, and the disgrace to which they had been reduced, were eager to avenge themselves; they sent ambassadors to Frederic to apologise for their incursions into the county of Sargans during the war, and offered to purchase his alliance, by restoring the county of Kyburgh. Frederic eagerly accepted the offer; as head of the house of Austria, he concluded an alliance with them on the very day of his coronation, and secretly promised to assist them in recovering a part of the Tockenburgh inheritance.

“The confederates, jealous of his intentions, and suspicious of his new connection, required Zurich to renounce her alliance with the house of Austria, as contrary to an article of the union, stipulating that no connection was to be formed by any canton with other powers, except by common consent. The refusal was the signal for war, which raged for four years with a degree of fury and animosity which is only displayed in civil broils; till both parties, fatigued with their exertions, and recoiling from the enormities which they had committed, equally panted for the termination of the contest. The dispute being submitted to arbitration, a peace was arranged in May, 1447, between the house of Austria, Zurich, and the other Swiss confederates. Affairs on both sides were to be restored to the same situation as before the renewal of hostilities; but Zurich renounced her alliance with the house of Austria; and thus the grand principle of the Helvetic confederacy, that no league was valid unless concluded with the consent of the other cantons, was acknowledged and established. At the same time, arbitrators were chosen to the dispute between the house of Austria and Basle; but the war was prolonged by the refusal of the burghers to dismiss the council. They at length yielded to the threats of Frederic, who menaced them with the ban of the empire; and after various skirmishes, and the recovery of Rheinfelden by the Austrians, an accommodation was effected in 1449, which placed both parties in the same situation as before the commencement of hostilities.”

The most important act of Frederic III., so far as our purpose is concerned, was his confirmation to the family, by means of the imperial powers of the archducal title, which had first been assumed by Rodolph IV; and which “raised the house of Austria to a dignity only inferior to that of the electors, and invested it with privileges greater than those possessed by any other prince of the empire. The grant was capriciously founded on letters patent of Julius Cæsar and Nero, and the diplomas of Frederic I., Henry VI., and Frederic II., in favor of the Bamberg line, confirmed by Rodolph of Hapsburgh, when he invested his two sons with the Austrian territories. In virtue of these privileges, the archdukes of Austria were to be considered as having obtained the investiture of their dominions, if they did not receive it after thrice demanding it from the emperor. They were not to be required to pass the limits of their territories, but were to be invested within the borders of Austria on horseback, clad in a regal mantle, wearing a ducal coronet surmounted with the imperial diadem and cross, and holding a staff of command. The archdukes were declared by birth privy-counsellors of the emperor, and their territories could not be put under the ban of the empire. All attempts against their persons were to be punished as crimes of high treason; and they could not be challenged to single combat: they were exempted from the necessity of attending at the diet, and from all contributions and public charges, except the maintenance of twelve men-at-arms for one month against the Turks in Hungary; they were empowered to levy taxes, to grant letters of legitimation, and to create counts, barons, and other inferior titles; in failure of issue male, the females were to enjoy the right of succession, and in failure of heirs, the archdukes were allowed to dispose of their territories by will. Any lands of the empire might be alienated in their favor, and their subjects could not be summoned out of their territories on account of lawsuits, to give testimony, or to receive the investiture of fiefs.”

The death of Ladislaus Posthumus, of whom Frederic had been guardian, had involved him in many disputes and contests, one of which was for the crown of Bohemia; but this he lost in favor of the Bohemian nobleman, George Podiebrad; another was for the crown of Hungary, to which he urged his right as possessor of the crown of St. Stephen, that he had had in safe keeping for eighteen years. But this also he lost to Matthias Corvinus, although he gained a victory over him at Kormund in Styria, for he could not follow up that advantage on account of a civil war with his brother Albert in Austria.

“The terms which had been concluded between Frederic and Albert, for the partition of Austria, and their joint residence at Vienna, gave rise to disputes. Frederic soon became unpopular to the citizens, and the haughty nobles of Austria displayed that turbulence and discontent natural to feudal governments under an indolent sovereign. These discontents being fomented by Albert, soon broke out into open war; and although a temporary reconciliation was effected by the king of Bohemia, neither party was sincerely desirous of peace; the emperor was indignant at the restraints imposed on his authority; and the rapacity of Albert was not gratified by his share of the Austrian possessions. Another and more dreadful contest ensued; the whole country became a scene of intestine discord, and the capital itself was divided into hostile factions; the senate and the most moderate of the burghers, adhered to the emperor; while the populace, headed by the burgomaster Hulzer, a restless demagogue, espoused the cause of Albert.

“Frederic, alarmed for the safety of the empress, and his infant son Maximilian, who were in the citadel, appeared before the gates at the head of a body of Styrian horse. By his eloquence and address, he succeeded in conciliating the most violent of his opponents, and after an altercation which lasted three days, was admitted into the city. Refusing, however, to accede to all the demands of the disaffected, the populace again rose, pillaged the houses of his adherents, compelled him to take refuge in the citadel, and after a formal declaration of war, invested that fortress. At the same time Albert repairing to Vienna, concluded a treaty with the insurgents, and was intrusted with the conduct of the siege. But Frederic, though at the head of only two hundred men, held out with great firmness, and evinced a resolution rather to be buried under the ruins of the fortress, than surrender to his rebellious subjects. He appealed to the states of the empire, and when they were assembled at Nuremberg, a messenger arrived announcing that he was reduced to only three weeks provisions. The states displayed, indeed, a readiness to rescue him from his danger; but the proverbial tardiness of their succours would have rendered their resolutions ineffectual, had not Frederic been relieved by the king of Bohemia, who promptly despatched his son with 5000 men, and followed, in person, with an additional force of 8000. The advance of this timely succour relieved the emperor; both parties submitted their dispute to the arbitration of the Bohemian monarch, and the terms of an accommodation were adjusted. Both were to liberate their prisoners; Albert was to restore the towns, fortresses, and countries which he had occupied, and to enjoy the government of Lower Austria for eight years, on condition of paying the annual sum of 4000 ducats to the emperor.

“On the conclusion of this agreement, Frederic, escorted by a thousand Bohemian horse, met his deliverer at Corn-Neuburgh; he gratefully conferred several privileges on the kingdom of Bohemia, raised the two sons of Podiebrad to the dignity of princes of the empire, and in recompence to the inhabitants of Prague, who had furnished troops on this occasion, he granted them an exemption from the tolls at Vienna, and every part of the imperial territories.

“This accommodation was no less unavailing than former agreements; the hatred and suspicion of the two brothers were too inveterate to be eradicated, and the ambition of Albert too grasping to be satisfied. New disputes arose relative to the fulfilment of the terms: Albert endeavoured to appropriate Lower Austria, received the oath of allegiance from the citizens of Vienna, and made preparations for the renewal of hostilities; while Frederic procured the publication of the ban of the empire, and the sentence of excommunication from the pope against his brother. The pope, the princes of the empire, and the common friends of the two brothers, interposed to terminate this unnatural contest; but Albert rejected all offers of accommodation, and was with difficulty persuaded to conclude even a temporary armistice. In this interval, however, his arbitrary government and continual exactions had alienated the citizens of Vienna, and a strong party, among whom was even Hulzer himself, reconciled themselves with Frederic, and endeavoured to effect his restoration. Their designs being discovered, Albert sated his vengeance by condemning Hulzer to the scaffold, and by confiscating the property of the disaffected. At length Frederic was delivered from an active and turbulent rival, by the sudden death of Albert, who expired on the 4th of December, 1463, at the moment when he was preparing to renew hostilities.”

Frederic was engaged in other wars for personal objects with other antagonists, as selfish in their aims as himself; although they illustrate the family character, they do not especially illustrate our particular subject. The most important act of his life, and most fruitful of consequences, was his bringing about the marriage of his son Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy.

“Before 1477, France and the house of Austria had no subject of rivalry or jealousy, and their political interests were as distinct as their respective dominions. But the marriage of Maximilian with the heiress of Burgundy, entailed on the two powers an hereditary enmity, which deluged Europe with blood for more than three centuries. This enmity arising from jarring interests and contiguity of dominion, was rendered personal by the rupture of the marriage of Maximilian with Anne of Brittany, and the dismission of the archduchess Margaret; and though suspended by treaties and temporary expedients, was continually breaking out on every trifling occasion.

“From the time in which the house of Austria had been deprived of all its territories in Helvetia, the Swiss confederacy had increased in power and influence. Their union had been strengthened in 1481 by the accession of Soleure and Friburgh. Except the Pays de Vaud, which belonged to the house of Savoy, Neufchatel, subject to its own counts and the Italian baillages, which were dependent on Milan, they or their allies possessed almost the whole country which is now called Switzerland. The Helvetic body thus becoming an important link in the chain of European powers, their alliance was courted with much solicitude and intrigue by the greatest potentates, and they were induced to take an active part in the wars of the continent.

“The disputes between the house of Austria and France, for the succession of Burgundy and the possession of Brittany, and the almost constant hostilities to which these disputes gave rise, occasioned earnest and repeated solicitations from the house of Austria and France for an intimate union with the Swiss confederates. Louis XI. gained considerable influence among the Cantons by his private largesses to the leading men, his public subsidies, and the great privileges which he granted to those who served in his armies and settled in France. During the latter part of his reign, indeed, he forfeited the confidence of the Cantons, by withholding his bounties and subsidies; but his son Charles regained their friendship by discharging the arrears and renewing the former connections. Maximilian, from the moment of his accession, was likewise desirous to form an alliance with the Swiss, and to obtain a renewal of the hereditary union; but the superior influence of France, as well as their natural jealousy of the house of Austria, induced them to reject all his offers.

“That part of Rhætia called the country of the Grisons, was originally a dependency of the German empire, and subject to feudal lords, the bishop of Coire, the abbot of Disentis, the counts of Werdenberg, Sax and Masox, the barons of Retzuns, and the count of Tockenburgh. Towards the middle of the fifteenth century the people emancipated themselves from feudal jurisdiction; but their chiefs consenting to this emancipation were suffered to retain considerable prerogatives; and thus the government became a singular mixture of aristocracy and democracy. The country was divided into a number of little communities under different forms of government: a few aristocratical, others popular, and some more democratical than even the rural cantons of Switzerland. These communities composed three leagues, called the Grey League, the League of God’s House, and the League of Ten Jurisdictions; and these by means of a general diet formed one republic. The people, hardened amidst the rugged rocks and perpetual snows of the Rhætian Alps, were a rude, hardy, and warlike race, froward and licentious, impatient of control, and no less distinguished from the rest of mankind by their singular customs and manners, than by their situation and forms of government.

“The bishop of Coire, the principal member of the League of God’s House, had been engaged in perpetual contests with the sovereigns of the Tyrol, relative to the demarcation of the frontiers, the profits of mines and territorial possessions; and those disputes were aggravated by rival pretensions to the advocacy of the abbey of Munster, which had been claimed by the sovereigns of the Tyrol. Another object of dispute was the valley of Prettigau, which forming the intermediate link between the Tyrol and the League of Ten Jurisdictions, was coveted by both parties. Amidst these contrary pretensions and jarring interests, various feudal privileges in the barony of Retzuns, a community of the League of God’s House, and in the whole League of Ten Jurisdictions, purchased by Sigismond, and transmitted to Maximilian, contributed to render him obnoxious to the Grison republics. These contests with Maximilian had overcome the jealousy which the Grisons had hitherto fostered against the Swiss, and soon after his accession, the Rhætian leagues united with the Swiss states in a formal confederacy, a union from which the house of Austria experienced the most fatal effects.”

We close our mention of Frederic with an amusing anecdote, sufficiently characteristic.

“Like his great uncle Rodolph, he was attached to the study of antiquities and heraldry, and like him formed alphabets of mysterious characters, and whimsical devices. A species of anagram, consisting of the five vowels, he adopted as indicative of the future greatness of the house of Austria, imprinted it on all his books, carved it on all his buildings, and engraved it on all his plate. This riddle occupied the grave heads of his learned contemporaries, and gave rise to many ridiculous conjectures; till the _important_ secret was disclosed after his death by an interpretation written in his own hand, in which the vowels form the initials of a sentence in Latin and German, signifying ‘the house of Austria is to govern the whole world.’

(Austria Est Imperare Orbi Universo. ) (Alles Erdreich Ist Oesterreich Unterthan.) Fugger, p. 1080.”

The age of Maximilian was remarkable as the period in which the boundaries of the nations of Europe were strongly defined. It witnessed the union of Brittany with France; of Castille with Aragon; of Burgundy with Austria. It was also the epoch of the union of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, under Margaret at Calmar; of the rise of Russia, under Ivan Vassilevitch; of the greatest glory of Portugal, under John; of the prosperity of Poland, under Albert; of the union of Bohemia and Hungary, under Ladislas; of a confederacy of the Grisons and Swiss, more especially directed against Austria; of the revival of literature and the arts in Italy, under the fostering care of the Medici and other merchant princes, who brought the Italian republics to their highest point of splendour; finally, it was the acme of the Turkish power in Europe, signalised by their taking Constantinople on the one hand, and the beginning of decline through the sudden death of Mahomet in 1431 on the other. But more important than all political attitudes of nations, were the consequences of the invention of powder, and of printing. For these peaceful events were big with a revolution, which is not even yet, in five hundred years, fully developed, but which will unquestionably bear the ultimate fruits in America, which was also at that epoch just discovered.