CHAPTER II

ARCHAEORNITHES–NEORNITHES RATITAE–NEORNITHES ODONTOLCAE.

The Class AVES is divided by Dr. Gadow (Bronn's _Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs, Aves, Systemat. Theil_, p. 299) into two Sub-classes of like value, _ARCHAEORNITHES_ and _NEORNITHES_, though some writers prefer to consider the former as of equal rank only to the several subdivisions of the latter here adopted, namely, RATITAE, ODONTOLCAE, and CARINATAE (p. 25). The question is clearly one of degree, and depends entirely on the amount of weight assigned to the various points of distinction to be mentioned below.

The Sub-class _ARCHAEORNITHES_ is at present represented by but one member, the first undoubted fossil Bird, made known in 1861 by Andreas Wagner from the Jurassic slate formation of Solenhofen in Bavaria, and now preserved in the British Museum. This he described under the name of _Griphosaurus_; but as Hermann von Meyer had already bestowed the title of _Archaeopteryx lithographica_ upon a bird, presumably identical, a feather of which had been obtained from the above system, the latter appellation has a prior claim. In 1877 a second example, now at Berlin, was procured from the same beds,[12] since which date Meyer's specific name has become firmly established, in place of that of _macrura_ given by Owen to Wagner's specimen.

This very remarkable animal, about the size of a Rook, is without doubt a connecting link between Reptiles and Birds; but zoologists are practically unanimous in regarding it as an Avine form, with Reptilian affinities and probably arboreal habits.

{24}[Illustration: FIG. 7.–_Archaeopteryx lithographica._ The Berlin specimen. (After Dames.)]

The sternum was possibly furnished with a weak keel, the strong wide furcula was U-shaped, the ribs had no uncinate processes, while in all probability the coracoid and scapula made a right, or even an acute, angle at their junction, and the centra of the vertebrae of the neck and back were biconcave. The bill was short and blunt, each side of the upper jaw possessing about thirteen teeth, of which six seem to have belonged to the praemaxilla; whereas in each side of the lower jaw only three can be recognised, and those towards the anterior extremity. These teeth, conical in shape and of fairly equal size, were fixed in a regular row, in distinct sockets. The fibula and tibia did not coalesce, the latter exceeding the metatarsus in length; the toes were four {25}in number, with two, three, four, and five phalanges respectively, ending in claws, the hallux being directed backwards. The manus had three free digits, and apparently three free metacarpals; the pollex consisted of two joints, the index of three and the third finger of four, while each had a strong hooked claw at the tip. The hand was furnished with six or seven well-developed primaries, attached to the third metacarpal and the second and third digits, the number of secondaries being ten. The long Lizard-like tail had no terminal pygostyle, but was composed of about twenty-one free post-sacral vertebrae, of which the first twelve each bore a pair of large feathers, similar to those of the wing, with the inner webs broader than the outer, and with decided shafts.[13]

The Sub-class _NEORNITHES_ may be arranged, as above stated, in three divisions, (A) NEORNITHES RATITAE, (B) NEORNITHES ODONTOLCAE, and (C) NEORNITHES CARINATAE. The first of these contains the Ratite Birds proper and possibly part of the so-called _STEREORNITHES_ of Patagonia (p. 43), with several fossil forms of doubtful position from England, France, and New Mexico, as will be seen below; the second the _HESPERORNITHES_ of the Cretaceous Shales of Kansas, the _ENALIORNITHES_ of the Cambridge Upper Greensand, and _Baptornis_ of the American Chalk; the third the _ICHTHYORNITHES_ of the aforesaid Kansas deposits, and all other existing Birds, with various extinct species closely allied to them.

Of the points of distinction between the Neornithes and the Archaeornithes the most important are that the metacarpals are fused together, the second digit being the longest, and the third more or less reduced; and that the number of caudal vertebrae does not, as far as is known, exceed thirteen, of which the last five or six combine together to form a pygostyle, except in the Hesperornithes, Ratitae, and Tinamidae, where such is seldom the case.[14] The _centra_ of the vertebrae also are concave on one side only, except in _Ichthyornis_, and perhaps in _Enaliornis_. The possession of teeth is, of course, exceptional, as is the remarkable loss of the keel of the sternum in the Ratitae.

It is now generally, if not universally, agreed that Flightless Birds were developed from those that could fly. It does not, however, necessarily follow that the Neornithes are direct {26}descendants of the Archaeornithes, as each may be a separate offshoot from the same parent stem. All we can safely assert is, that the former were in existence about the end of the Jurassic times, that teeth were still retained in some cases during the Cretaceous Epoch, and that not only normal forms, but also flightless forms without keel or pygostyle,[15] had arisen by that date.

(A) The RATITAE are commonly characterised as Birds with no keel to the sternum; but this will not hold as a definition, since _Hesperornis_ has also that peculiarity, while such genera as _Didus_, _Stringops_, _Cnemiornis_, and _Notornis_ are nearly in the same condition. It is no one point, therefore, but the sum of many, which enables us to draw so clear a line of demarcation between this primitive group and the remainder of existing forms; nevertheless it is convenient to preserve the name unaltered, as it is well understood to what members of the class it is more especially meant to apply. The rhamphotheca, or horny sheath of the bill, instead of being simple, is composed of several more or less separate pieces, as in the Procellariidae, Tinamidae, and Steganopodes; the quadrate bone, by means of which the lower jaw is articulated to the skull, in place of two proximal knobs has only one, as in _Hesperornis_, _Ichthyornis_, and the Tinamidae; the coracoid and scapula are fused together, and meet at an obtuse, as opposed to an acute or right, angle; and the last six or seven caudal vertebrae do not coalesce into a pygostyle, or upright triangular expansion to carry the rectrices, a state of things found elsewhere in _Hesperornis_ and the Tinamidae.[16] The reduced wings preclude flight; the tail is functionless, as in the Podicipedidae and Tinamidae; the tongue is very small; the oil gland is absent; the penis is large and erectile, being comparable to that of the Anseriformes; while in the adult the feathers are evenly distributed over the whole surface, as in the Spheniscidae and Palamedeidae, no down being present. Claws are found on the pollex and index in _Struthio_ and _Rhea_, or occasionally on the third digit; in _Casuarius_, _Dromaeus_, and _Apteryx_ they occur only on the index.

Ratite Birds proper are comprised in six groups, STRUTHIONES or Ostriches, RHEAE or Nandus, MEGISTANES or Cassowaries and Emeus, APTERYGES or Kiwis, DINORNITHES or Moas, and AEPYORNITHES or Rocs.

{27}I. STRUTHIONES.

Fam. STRUTHIONIDAE.–These birds are distinguished from all others by having only two toes–the third and fourth–the terminal phalanges of which are shortened and bear thick stunted claws, that of the outer toe being commonly absent. The whole foot, including the long scutellated metatarsus, is exceptionally stout, and the toes are padded beneath. The beak is short, broad, and depressed, with deeply split gape; the head is small, with large eyes; the neck very long; the wing- and drooping tail-feathers–the plumes of commerce–are large and soft, with broad equal vanes. The furcula and syringeal muscles are wanting, nor is there any aftershaft.

_Struthio camelus_, the Ostrich or "Camel-bird" of North Africa, now extends from Barbary to Arabia, and even to Mesopotamia, though no longer found, as of old, in Egypt or Central Asia, its former occurrence in Baluchistan being somewhat open to question. It is black with white wings and tail, having a flesh-coloured neck covered with brownish down, and

## partially bare tibiae of the same hue. The female and young male are almost

entirely cinereous, while the chicks are clothed with bristly yellowish-white down with blackish stripes. The eggs of the typical northern bird have a surface like ivory, while those from Southern Africa are marked with close-set pits, whence some authorities recognise a different species (_S. australis_) in the latter region, distinguishable, moreover, by the bluish colour of the naked parts. Examples from Somaliland and the adjoining districts of East Africa to Lake Tanganyika are separated as _S. molybdophanes_, on account of the leaden colour of the unfeathered portions, coupled with a red patch on the front of the metatarsus. The eggs are smoother than in the southern species, but similarly pitted. The fossil forms _S. asiaticus_ from the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills of India, and _S. karatheodori_ from the Upper Miocene of Samos complete the family, while _S._ (_Struthiolithus_) _chersonensis_ has been founded on a petrified egg from the government of Cherson in South Russia.

{28}[Illustration: FIG. 8.–Ostrich. _Struthio camelus._ × 1/19.]

The Ostrich stands about eight feet high, being the largest of existing birds; it frequents sandy wastes and dry arid localities, such as are found in the Sahara and the plains and valleys of Southern Africa, while districts studded with low bushes are not unfrequently tenanted. Though the fable of the head being hidden to avoid detection is of course devoid of foundation, this species is timid and wild in its native haunts, and being keen-sighted as well as wary, gives an impression of great restlessness. From the fact that a single stride is said to cover twenty-five feet or more, it will readily be understood that the speed is very great, exceeding that of a galloping horse; but, owing to its habit of running in a curve, it is generally possible to intercept the bird's path at a distance from the point where it started. In motion the head is held forward, and the wings are outspread, while both beak and feet are used as weapons of defence when capture is imminent, the latter delivering strong sideways kicks, which make close quarters very dangerous. Forty or fifty individuals may at times be seen in company; the usual parties, however, consist of five or six at most, especially during the breeding season, when the polygamous cock escorts a flock of several hens, obtained by battle or allured by courting performances earlier in the season. A liking for the companionship of zebras, hartebeests and other antelopes, has been noticed by various observers. The cry is said to be hoarse and mournful, resembling the roar of a lion or {29}the lowing of an ox; but Ostriches are, as a rule, decidedly silent. In a state of nature the food consists chiefly of herbage, including seeds and fruits; in captivity the diet is of every description, and even in a wild condition small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects are eaten, with a quantity of grit to aid digestion. In confinement the birds become very tame, and will then swallow bones, nails, and the like–in fact almost anything they can pick up. They can exist for a long time without water, but drink regularly when opportunity offers; they show a liking for salt, and will bathe in the sea or in rivers, immersed up to the neck. The hens belonging to one cock lay in the same nest, which is a fairly shallow excavation dug in sand or dry soil, and surrounded by the material thrown out during the process, or more rarely by an edging of grass. The spot is hard to discover in the desert, the stride being too long for tracks to be of much assistance. More than thirty yellowish-white eggs are sometimes deposited within the pit in circular arrangement, and many more are dropped around, to serve, it is asserted, for food for the newly-hatched young; in the wild state, however, the average number is probably less. The contents, equal to those of some two dozen hens' eggs, are used for food by the natives, the shells forming convenient pots for water and so forth. The cock undertakes almost the whole duty of incubation, being occasionally relieved by the hens during the daytime;[17] but when the sun is hot no brooding is necessary, though a covering of sand is superposed to guard the spot from the depredations of marauders. The chicks, which run from the shell, are hatched in six or seven weeks, and are accompanied by both parents, the male often counterfeiting wounds to draw away the intruder, circling around with drooping wings or throwing himself down as if in extremities.

Ostriches were well known to the ancients, who used the plumes for ornament, as we do; these were considered emblems of justice from the equality of the two webs, or were worn in token of victory, as is still done in some parts of Africa. The words of Aristotle–who was followed by Pliny in the statement that the Ostrich was part quadruped, part bird–combine with those of Xenophon to bear witness to this knowledge, while monuments, inscriptions, and even the Bible tell the same tale. In the Sahara and elsewhere these birds are hunted with horses and camels, {30}being stalked or ridden down by means of fresh relays of beasts; the Namaquas draw a cordon round them; the Bushman, concealed in sand or disguised in skins, shoots them with poisoned arrows; while the lasso, pitfall, or other device are used in particular districts. Space will not permit a detailed account of the Ostrich farms of modern Africa, so well described in Messrs. de Mosenthal and Harting's _Ostriches and Ostrich-Farming_, and other books; but it may be mentioned that the tribes of the north of that continent have long been in the habit of domesticating the bird, that the value of the sales in South Africa is not far from a million pounds yearly, and that the plumes are plucked or, preferably, cut about twice a year, the adults yielding the finest feathers. The flesh is coarse, and of little use for food.

II. RHEAE.

Fam. RHEIDAE.–The Rheas, or Nandus, have the head, neck, and bill much like those of Ostriches, the maxilla being somewhat more rounded and terminating in a nail-like process; the metatarsus is also similar and equally stout in proportion, but the toes are three in number in place of two, the mid-phalanges being shortened and the terminal furnished with decided claws. In _Rhea darwini_ alone the metatarsi are mainly reticulated instead of scutellated anteriorly, and have the upper portion feathered. The bones of the wing are comparatively well developed, the feathers being slender but not ornamental, while there is no apparent tail. The furcula is wanting, as is the aftershaft to the feathers, but the syrinx is tracheo-bronchial with one pair of syringeal muscles, a condition absolutely unique among the Ratitae. The head and neck are feathered, only the lores, orbits, and ear-openings being naked, and of these the latter are surrounded by bristles.

_Rhea americana_, the so-called American Ostrich, the Ema of the Brazilians, the Avestruz, Nandú, or Chueké of Argentina, is found from Bolivia, Paraguay, and South Brazil to the Rio Negro, if not further; it is brownish-grey with blackish crown, nape, and breast, white thighs and abdomen, and yellowish neck. The sub-species _R. macrorhyncha_ of North-East Brazil is darker, with longer bill and more slender metatarsi. _R. darwini_, which occurs south of the Rio Negro, and up the Andes to Tarapaca, is buffish-brown, with whiter underparts and white margins to the {31}feathers of the wings and back. Hens are not so dark, and Mr. Hudson says[18] that in _R. darwini_ the young are dusky grey and are hatched with the legs feathered to the toes. Rheas are shorter than Ostriches by about a couple of feet, _R. americana_ being the largest form; the feathers are much rounded, broad, and very soft. Fossil remains occur in the Upper Tertiary or quite recent deposits of South America.

[Illustration: FIG. 9.–Nandu. _Rhea americana._ × 1/20.]

The members of this family find their favourite haunts on the treeless flats of the Argentine pampas, the scrub-covered plains of Patagonia, or the dry open Sertões of Brazil, where their acute vision enables them to detect the approach of enemies from afar. Small flocks of from three to seven individuals are met with at certain seasons, and parties of twenty or thirty at other times–often with deer or guanacos–so it would appear that, as in the case of the Ostrich, larger companies are formed after the young are able to provide for themselves. The birds become exceedingly tame when not molested, but when danger threatens they run at great speed, doubling upon their pursuers constantly, or crouching down among bushes or other cover, if they think they can escape observation. In the latter case they will lie closely until almost trodden upon, and may be shot before they rise by the hunter who cautiously approaches their hiding-place, as the head is usually visible above the surrounding vegetation. When moving at full pace the wings have normally a somewhat drooping position, but they are raised alternately above the back–apparently {32}to aid progress–when fresh exertions are necessary. Mr. Hudson tells us[19] that Darwin's Rhea "carries its neck stretched forward, which makes it seem lower in stature than the allied species." The diet consists chiefly of grass, roots, and seeds, but berries of _Empetrum_ are a favourite food, and lizards, insects, worms, and molluscs are said to be eaten, together with hard substances to promote digestion. Nandus take readily to the water, and can swim across a river several hundred yards wide, the body being hardly visible. In spring the cock utters a deep, resonant, booming noise, a loud hiss being not uncommonly heard also; while at that season the rival males attack each other viciously with their beaks, trampling down the ground in their passion, but not generally using their feet, as they do when wounded. The hens secured by each of the cocks lay together in a mere depression in the soil with very little, if any, lining; the eggs numbering from twenty to thirty, or exceptionally more, besides those scattered about outside the nest. Here again Mr. Hudson is our authority for stating[20] that the eggs of _R. americana_ are golden yellow when fresh, those of _R. darwini_ deep rich green; both however fade quickly to a whitish colour. The male incubates very closely for about six weeks, often taking up his position, as the Ostrich does, before the final egg is laid; he afterwards attends upon the young, and charges intruders who seem dangerous, with outstretched wings and beak. Rheas may be captured by riding after them in a semicircle, which closes upon them as they go, or by means of long-winded hounds; but the most usual method is that of hurling the "bolas" or leaden balls connected by leather thongs, which wind around the bird's neck or legs, and thereby hamper its movements or throw it down. The feathers, though inferior to Ostrich plumes, are much used for brooms and the like, and are said to be called "Vautour" in the trade. The flesh is very poor. These birds have bred both on the Continent and in Britain.

III. MEGISTANES.

The MEGISTANES comprise the _Casuariidae_ or Cassowaries, and the _Dromaeidae_ or Emeus, the following being the chief peculiarities of the group. The wings are quite rudimentary; {33}the aftershaft of the contour feathers is extremely large, so that they appear to be double; three front toes are present, with shortened mid-phalanges and large claws; and the two clavicles do not meet. The lack of ornamental wing- or tail-plumes, and the hair-like nature of the coat is also characteristic, while, as opposed to _Rhea_, there is no indication of syringeal muscles. Within the group itself the Cassowaries are distinguished from the Emeus by the points next to be mentioned. The former have a compressed keeled beak and a large casque of bony tissue upon the bare head, the greater part of the neck being also naked and in most cases wattled; the remiges are reduced to thick black barbless quills from four to six in number, and the inner toe has a particularly long sharp claw. Emeus, on the contrary, have a broad depressed beak, short feathers on the head and neck, no helmet, wattles, or spines on the wing, and an ordinary claw on the inner toe. Both Families have long necks, stout metatarsi covered with coarse roundish scales, and toes padded below; the tibia being nearly, if not quite, covered by the plumage.

Fam. I. CASUARIIDAE.–Following Professor Salvadori,[21] Cassowaries may be divided into two groups: the first with the helmet laterally compressed, and the second where it is triangular and pyramidal, or even depressed. They are all large birds, though smaller than Emeus, which are only surpassed in size among existing forms by the Ostrich; the colour of the coarse but glossy hair-like plumage is black, and similar in both sexes; the hen is bigger than the cock, as is also the case in the Dromaeidae and Apterygidae.

Of the first of the above groups, _Casuarius tricarunculatus_, from Warbusi in New Guinea, which is possibly a "sport," has two lateral wattles on the fore-neck and a third small median caruncle at a lower level. _C. bicarunculatus_, of the Aru Islands, has two long distant reddish-violet wattles, a black casque, bluish-green head, and blue neck with some red behind. _C. galeatus_ of Ceram, the species first known to ornithologists, is similarly coloured, though less brightly, and has the flesh-coloured throat-wattles close together, and a naked reddish-purple space on each side of the neck. The larger _C. australis_ of North-East Australia has a higher helmet, a brighter blue throat, and a few scattered hairs on the wattles, which Wall, who discovered the species, said were coloured with blue and scarlet. _C. beccarii_ of the Aru Islands, {34}Middle and South New Guinea, has the front and top of the casque black, its sides greenish, and its back yellowish; the head is grey-blue, the throat and sides of the neck are blue, the hind-neck is red and orange, a yellow streak running across to the mandible; a bare space on each side of the base of the neck is flesh-coloured, and the long single neck-wattle of the same colour is somewhat deeply divided at the tip.

Of the second group, _C. uniappendiculatus_ (Fig. 10), of Salawatti and the adjoining parts of New Guinea, has the head, throat, and nape blue, the lower portion of the neck and the median pear-shaped caruncle yellow, the casque dusky olive, and a longitudinal naked space towards the sides of the neck flesh-coloured with a yellow margin. _C. occipitalis_ of Jobi Island is distinguished from the last-named by a large occipital spot of yellow and a paler helmet; while the remaining three forms have no wattle at all. Of these, _C. papuanus_, of North-East New Guinea, has a dusky black casque, blue head, throat, and fore-neck, grey-green occiput and auricular region, and orange hind-neck changing into rosy flesh-colour towards the sides. _C. picticollis_ of South-East New Guinea has a black helmet, grey-blue occiput, violet-blue nape, pale blue hind-neck, red throat and longitudinal space on the sides of the lower neck; _C. bennetti_ of New Britain differing in having the head and neck of an almost uniform blue. Nestling Cassowaries are clothed in rusty brown, relieved by darker stripes; at a later period they become more tawny, and the black plumage begins to appear; but a few hair-like feathers remain on the head for some time, while the helmet is very gradually developed from a flat Coot-like shield, though the gaudy colours of the neck and wattles are assumed much earlier.[22]

All the species of this family inhabit wooded country, commonly of the densest description, though often found in more open scrub and in the neighbourhood of creeks and watercourses. Naturally shy but inquisitive, they have been rendered doubly wary by man's persecution since their haunts have been invaded by colonists. They dislike the sun, and emerge from cover only in the morning and evening, seeking their favourite spots, where they feed chiefly on fallen fruit, varying this diet with insects and crustaceans. Berries, leaf-buds, and bulbs are, however, also eaten, with grit and pebbles for digestive purposes, and in captivity they are almost omnivorous.

{35}[Illustration: FIG. 10.–One-wattled Cassowary. _Casuarius uniappendiculatus._ × 1/14. (From _Nature_.)]

In this state they become extremely tame, and are kept like fowls by the natives of some districts, who consider the flesh very palatable; while in Queensland the adults are said to be hunted with dogs. The plumage is used for the manufacture of mats, rugs, head-ornaments, and the like. Cassowaries run with wonderful swiftness, though rather heavily, diving into the bushes at a moment's notice, or aiding themselves by their wings, and leaping over obstacles as much as six feet high, if shelter is not readily available. They usually rest on the whole of the metatarsus, but sleep on the breast, or perhaps occasionally on the side; at other times they will dance about with contortions of the neck, or roll on the ground like playful monkeys. Old males become very fierce when driven to bay, kicking out in front or sideways, ruffling up their feathers and using their beaks at the same time. In the wet season swimming is a common practice, wide rivers being {36}crossed with ease, and in the absence of other bathing-places the sea is often utilised. The note in a state of excitement is a sort of grunt or snort, the call to the young being of a lowing nature; but the ordinary voice is loud, guttural, and unearthly, consisting of quickly-repeated croaking sounds, lasting for as long as three minutes, and audible at a distance of a mile, or considerably more. The female is much quieter, while the "Mooruk" (_C. bennetti_) is stated to utter a low scolding or plaintive whistle. A rough nest of leaves and grass is formed in a depression of the soil, generally below bushes or tangled undergrowth, in which from three to six very large eggs are deposited, placed in the shape of the letter V. These are normally light green in ground colour, with close-set granulations of dark bright green; but one, if not more, is ordinarily of a perfectly smooth texture, and is therefore entirely light green. The cock incubates, it appears, solely, though some say that the hen takes her turn; and the former tends the young when hatched, the period of sitting being about seven weeks. The nest is said to be covered by the parent if left for a time, but this is uncertain, as is the use of the two or three eggs scattered round the nest, which are asserted by natives of widely-distant districts to furnish food for the chicks. After breeding, small flocks are formed in some cases, possibly by the combination of two families. The Ceram species, which seems to have been called "Emeu" or "Ema" by the early Portuguese navigators, often lays in captivity, while _C. bennetti_ has bred in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London.

Fossil remains occur in Australia. _Hypselornis sivalensis_ is an allied form from the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills in India.

Fam. II. DROMAEIDAE.–From about the beginning of this century the name "Emeu," used, as mentioned above, in varying form for both the Rhea and the Cassowary, has been restricted to the genus _Dromaeus_, the members of which stand more than five feet high, though lower on their legs than an Ostrich. _D. novae-hollandiae_ of the interior of Eastern Australia, which extended in times past to Tasmania and the islands in Bass's Straits, is blackish grey, with black tips to the plumage. _D. irroratus_, a more slender species from West, and probably the adjoining parts of South, Australia, has each feather transversely barred with dark grey and white, and a rufous margin to the black patch at the end. Young birds in down are greyish-white, with longitudinal blackish streaks above, {37}and spots on the head and lower parts. The sexes are similarly coloured, both possessing a remarkable tracheal pouch, connected by a slit with the windpipe, and only fully developed in adults.[23]

[Illustration: FIG. 11.–Emeu. _Dromaeus novae-hollandiae._ × 1/20.]

In their general habits Emeus are not unlike Cassowaries, but they inhabit sandy plains or open forest districts, being invariably monogamous, though seen in small parties after breeding. Their sight is keen, they run strongly and rapidly, rest on the whole metatarsus, and kick out backwards towards the side. The food is of fruit, roots, and herbage, generally obtained in the morning or evening; water is freely drunk, and the birds love bathing, being capable of crossing even a broad river. They utter at times a hissing or grunting sound, but in the nesting season a peculiar loud booming or drumming note is produced, probably in connexion with the tracheal pouch. The nest may be a mere hollow scraped in the ground, with or without a surrounding ring of grass or plant-stems, or a mound of bark-scales some three inches high[24]; the eggs are from seven to thirteen in number, or even more, and are of a dark, or occasionally light, {38}green colour, while the surface is covered with granulations which give it the appearance of shagreen. They are small for the size of the bird, being less than those of the Cassowary. The cock performs the duties of incubation, and it is very doubtful whether the hen ever assists him; the chicks break the shell in about eight weeks. The flesh is moderately good for eating, and the fat below the skin yields a large quantity of oil. The birds are constantly hunted with dogs or shot on account of the damage they do to wire fencing and the grass they devour. Emeus are easily domesticated, and propagate readily in semi-confinement, being perfectly hardy in Britain and elsewhere.

_D. patricius_ is a fossil species from the Pleistocene of Queensland and New South Wales. _D. gracilipes_ is another extinct Australian form, but _Dromornis australis_ of Queensland may indicate a distinct group of Ratitae.[25] _Dromaeus ater_, of Kangaroo Island, off the south coast of Australia, is now extinct, though a stuffed skin and a skeleton are in the Paris Museum.[26]

IV. APTERYGES.

The APTERYGES, or Kiwis, have been recently shown to be much more nearly related to the Dinornithes than to the remaining Ratite forms, and are accordingly placed in close proximity to them in the classification here adopted. Professor T. J. Parker has, moreover, lately formulated a new system–excluding the _Aepyornithes_, which may commend itself to many persons as a further improvement.[27] In this, the Order _Struthiones_ contains the family Struthionidae, and the _Rheae_ the Rheidae; but the third Order, upon which the name _Megistanes_, Vieillot, is bestowed, includes two Sub-Orders–_Casuariformes_, comprising the Casuariidae and Dromaeidae, and _Apterygiformes_, with the Dinornithidae and Apterygidae. In other words, the original stock is considered to have produced three Ratite branches only, the third of which gives rise to two twigs, each of these separating again into two smaller twigs representing the Families.

Fam. APTERYGIDAE.–These birds are at once distinguished {39}from all their allies by their small size, and by the long, weak, decurved bill, which tapers regularly and has the nostrils placed almost at the extremity. The head and eyes are comparatively small, as will be seen to be the case in the Dinornithidae. The legs are very stout and situated backwardly, a small elevated hallux is present, and the toes are provided with long, sharp claws. The moderate metatarsus is reticulated in the young, but is clothed with fairly large scutes in the adult, when it becomes much smoother. The wings are small-boned and invisible, with functionless quills, the tail is rudimentary, the aftershaft and furcula are absent, while many elongated hairs occur on the front of the head.

[Illustration: FIG. 12.–Kiwi. _Apteryx australis._ × ⅐.]

These curious flightless birds are confined to New Zealand, whence a specimen was brought to England as early as 1813. _Apteryx mantelli_, of the North Island, is deep red-brown with longitudinal streaks of yellowish-brown, the head being darker and the lower parts greyer; _A. australis_, of the South Island, is lighter, and feels soft instead of harsh when grasped. _A. oweni_, of both islands, is much smaller, and is light grey-brown, transversely marked with blackish bars. _A. haasti_, also said to occur in both islands,[28] is a larger and darker form of the last named; _A. lawryi_, of Stewart Island, hardly differs from _A. australis_; while _A. maximus_, of Verreaux, is a very doubtful species. Mr. Rothschild[29] has founded a sub-species (_occidentalis_) {40}on examples of _A. oweni_ from the North Island and the west of the South Island. In all these birds the lanceolate feathers have a hair-like texture, due to the disunited filaments of the upper portion, the lower part being covered with grey down, and the rhachis more or less exserted. The tibia is feathered, the bill being yellowish, and the feet brown or black. The female is similar, but larger, the young blacker. Mr. Lydekker has described a fossil species, _Pseudapteryx gracilis_, from New Zealand,[30] and Mr. De Vis _Metapteryx bifrons_ from Queensland.[31]

Kiwis inhabit wooded country and hills up to the snow line; they are still met with at low elevations on a few islands, but their retreats are now chiefly on the slopes and in the gullies of the mountains, where a dense undergrowth of shrubs and tree-ferns shades a carpet of creeping vegetation and moss. Here parties of from six to twelve used to be seen, though in the breeding season they separated into pairs, but at the present day flocks can hardly be hoped for. In the daytime these shy birds hide in burrows in the ground, or natural cavities under tree-roots or rocks, while towards dusk they emerge in an animated condition. The direct rays of the sun seem to dazzle them, and they roll themselves up into a ball, if not disturbed; when stirred up they are somewhat sleepy and quickly retreat to cover. Lengthy strides carry them along at a great pace, the body being held obliquely with outstretched neck; and, if molested, they ruffle up the plumage and snap the bill, while striking viciously with their feet at the intruder, the leg being drawn up to the breast and the blow delivered downwards. Sometimes they rest upright with the point of the bill touching the ground, sometimes upon the whole metatarsus, but usually they are seen at feeding time cautiously moving from spot to spot, and tapping the soil or the walls of their cage with their long sensitive beaks. A sniffing sound accompanies this operation, and probably the smell of food assists in its discovery, yet the sense of touch is no doubt the primary agent. The diet consists chiefly of worms, in search of which the ground is deeply probed, and shows funnel-like holes scattered over its surface; when a capture is made the worm is extricated with a gentle wriggling motion, and is either beaten upon the ground to kill it, or swallowed at once with a jerk of {41}the head. Grubs, beetles, molluscs, and berries are also eaten, with grit or pebbles as digestives. The loud whistling note, which gives the name to the Kiwi, is chiefly heard on light nights, that of the female being shorter, and the young uttering a chuckling or kitten-like cry. Growls are emitted by the birds when disturbed, and they have a curious way of yawning in the daytime. The nest is usually in an enlarged space at the end of a round tunnel in the soft earth, said to be made by the female alone, the opening being under a tree-root, a stone, or a tussock of grass; it consists merely of a little dry fern, herbage, or a few leaves. The eggs–generally two in number, though one is often found, and three are recorded–are enormous for the size of the bird, and are equal to a quarter of its weight; they are pure white, or slightly green in hue, with a smooth surface, recalling by their appearance those of the Whooper. The Maories are very fond of the flesh, either roasted or boiled, and hunt Kiwis systematically with muzzled dogs, while of old the chiefs utilised the plumage for ornamentation. The cock performs most, if not all, of the duties of incubation, and attends upon the young. Females lay in captivity, but no chicks appear to have been hatched as yet under these conditions.

V. DINORNITHES.

The Family DINORNITHIDAE contains those well-known extinct New Zealand forms the Moas, as they are supposed to have been denominated by the Maories, some of which were of gigantic size. The larger species must have been comparatively rare, judging by the fossils obtained, while some seem to have survived until about four or five hundred years ago, or even a century later in the South Island. Being flightless, these birds were easily slaughtered by the natives, who were very fond of the flesh, and captured them when exhausted by repeated spear-wounds, after they had been driven from their retreats by burning the grass and vegetation. It was not until the year 1839 that a femur-shaft was exhibited by Owen to the Zoological Society of London, that being the first portion of a Moa known to have reached this country; but since the above date an immense quantity of bones of all descriptions have been procured in many parts of both the North and the South Islands, some hidden under the sand or exposed upon {42}its surface, some in marshes and superficial deposits generally, and others in caves, hollows of rocks, or cooking places of the former inhabitants. Footprints have been observed in the sandstone; portions of muscles, ligaments, and even of skin have been discovered; and, most remarkable of all, feathers have been met with of fresh appearance and unfaded colours. Pebbles used to aid digestion, and eggs, both whole and fragmentary, complete the list.

Moas had comparatively small heads, and also small orbits and eyes; the bill varied, as will be seen below; the legs were stout, though not always equally so, a hallux being usually present; the wings were extremely reduced, or even wanting; the furcula was absent, and the aftershaft of the larger feathers was of great size. The neck is supposed to have been

## partially bare, while the webs of the rounded feathers were disunited and

more or less downy below. Some of the latter were black, with red-brown bases and white tips, others were blackish-brown or yellowish.

Professor Parker, in his recent memoir,[32] proposes three Sub-families, _Dinornithinae_, _Anomalopteryginae_, and _Emeinae_; _Megalapteryx_, which he omits, possibly representing a fourth. The first of these contains only one genus, _Dinornis_, with wide convex sternum, comparatively slender limbs, broad skull, and long, wide, deflected beak; the height of _D. maximus_, the largest of the whole group, being estimated at about twelve feet. The second Sub-family comprises three genera, _Pachyornis_, _Mesopteryx_, and _Anomalopteryx_, forms of small or moderate height and varying bulk, with less broad skulls and pointed beaks, the sternum ranging from long and narrow to wide and flat. The third possesses a single genus, _Emeus_, in which the limbs are heavy, the strongly-built skull is narrow, and the beak short and broad. _Pachyornis elephantopus_ has extraordinarily stout, short legs, while _Anomalopteryx parva_, perhaps the smallest Moa known, is said to have been about the size of a turkey. The validity of some genera and species is, however, questionable. Most writers think that the female was larger than the male. Mr. De Vis has described a fossil femur from Queensland as _D. queenslandiae_,[33] but it may belong to the Dromaeidae. According to native testimony the habits were sluggish, but the birds were dangerous to approach; they lived in pairs and fed upon green shoots and roots of ferns, making a nest of a pile {43}of grass and leaves. We are told that the eggs found with the remains were dark green, light green, or yellowish, but the last colour at least probably refers to faded specimens.

VI. AEPYORNITHES.

Quite as remarkable as the Moas are the immense, massive-limbed forms of the Family AEPYORNITHIDAE, supposed by many to be identical with the "Ruc" or "Roc" of the Venetian traveller Marco Polo, and of the _Arabian Nights_. If this is the case, the size of the birds and their eggs must have been absurdly exaggerated, since the largest species known probably stood about seven feet high, and the egg is certainly not as big as a butt; nevertheless, the fact of the Roc being accredited to Madagascar makes it probable enough that the fables were engrafted upon _Aepyornis_, which was an inhabitant of that island. The eggs were first brought to the notice of ornithologists by Strickland in 1849, while soon afterwards Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire obtained two of them, with some fragments of bones.[34] These eggs, which exceed all others in magnitude, measuring some thirteen inches by nine and a half, have now been obtained in considerable numbers, with a large quantity of fossil remains of the birds themselves; and in consequence about twelve species have been indicated, and a second genus, _Mullerornis_.[35] It is supposed that some of them were in existence not more than two hundred years ago. The most salient points of their structure are the long, stout legs, with four toes and broad flat metatarsi, the apparently rudimentary humeri, the absurdly short keel-less sternum, and the frontal pits, indicating a large crest, comparable to that supposed to have existed in certain of the Dinornithidae.[36] The shell of the eggs, some of which contain two gallons, is used by the natives to hold liquor, and is slightly pitted.

* * * * *

It will be remembered that, in the arrangement here followed, Dr. Gadow placed the _STEREORNITHES_ under the head of Neornithes Ratitae, though not under that of Ratitae in the restricted {44}sense; but it should be noted that their systematic position was not by any means assured, though justified by what was then known of these extraordinary fossils, of which the sternum has not even yet been brought to light. Remains of various forms, chiefly of gigantic size, have been disinterred from the Miocene strata of Santa Cruz in Patagonia, one of which (_Phororhachos_) was described in 1887 by Dr. Ameghino,[37] from its mandible as an Edentate Mammal, though four years later[38] he arrived at the more correct conclusion that the jaw was to be referred to a bird. In 1891, moreover, Señores Moreno and Mercerat[39] proposed a new Order with the name of _Stereornithes_, when publishing a series of fine plates; while Dr. Ameghino, who criticised their work, reduced the nine genera created therein to the smaller number of three.[40] Another paper by the author last named,[41] and two by Mr. Lydekker[42] should be consulted by those interested in the details of the subject, while an admirable summary will be found in Professor Newton's _Dictionary of Birds_. In a review of Dr. Ameghino's paper on these birds,[43] Mr. C. W. Andrews stated that _Phororhachos_ and others of the "Stereornithes" were not truly Ratite, but were Carinate forms in which the wings had undergone reduction, and suggested that possibly they were related to the parent stock of the Gruiformes, approximating particularly to _Cariama_ (_Dicholophus_). Shortly afterwards Dr. Ameghino's collection was acquired by the British Museum, and a study of the specimens themselves has not caused the reviewer to change his opinion.[44] Some members of the group (e.g. _Mesembriornis_) are perhaps truly Ratite, and one at least (_Dryornis_) belongs to the _Cathartidae_. _Phororhachos_ is remarkable for the immense size and heavy build of the skull, to which the legs, huge though they sometimes are, bear no proportion; the maxilla is exceedingly compressed, yet very deep, and ends in a strong hook, while the long massive mandible curves upwards to meet it. There is a quite or nearly complete interorbital septum in this case, as opposed to _Apteryx_, and, to a considerable extent, to the Dinornithidae; {45}while the nostrils are pervious, and the quadrate articulates with the skull by two heads, contrary to what occurs in the Ratitae proper. The furcula is existent, but extremely slender; the metatarsus is more or less elongated, the hallux is present, the wings are small but well developed, and the tail is said to be long, with a considerable number of separate vertebrae.

This genus includes the species _P. longissimus_, _P. inflatus_, _P. platygnathus_, _P. modicus_, _P. gracilis_, and _P. sehuensis_; _Brontornis_, which has a shorter and wider mandible and smaller but stouter metatarsi, possesses in _B. burmeisteri_ a form as large as _Aepyornis maximus_, while _Opisthodactylus_ and other proposed genera are too imperfectly known to deserve consideration in our limited space.

Besides the above, Dr. Gadow classed with the Stereornithes, _Diatryma_ of New Mexico, known from a metatarsus; _Dasornis_ of the London Clay, described from fragments of a skull; _Remiornis_ from the neighbourhood of Rheims, of which several imperfect bones have been found; and _Gastornis_ of both England and France, of which a fair number of parts have been unearthed. All occur in the Eocene, but the question of their relationship is by no means settled, and some writers consider _Gastornis_ to be nearly allied to the Anseres. This form appears to have been of the size of an Ostrich, with long leg-bones and short weak wings, and was probably flightless. Three species have been propounded, _G. parisiensis_, _G. klaasseni_, and _G. edwardsi_.

* * * * *

(B) With regard to the difficult question of the position in the system of the NEORNITHES ODONTOLCAE, a few introductory words of explanation are necessary. In 1872 Professor Marsh bestowed upon two fossils from the Cretaceous deposits of Kansas the names of _Hesperornis_ and _Ichthyornis_, which he proposed in the following year[45] to comprise in a Sub-class _Odontornithes_, so called from the presence of teeth in the jaws. Subsequently[46] he divided this Sub-class into two Orders, _Odontolcae_ and _Odontotormae_, the former containing _Hesperornis_, with the teeth arranged in grooves, and the latter _Ichthyornis_, where they were placed in distinct sockets. His views have been controverted by many writers, but Mr. Lydekker–an authority of great weight in this connexion–while fully admitting the affinity of the first form to {46}the Divers, and the resemblance of the second to the Gull-tribe, proposed in 1891[47] to retain the term Odontornithes for a series of birds ancestral to the modern series of toothless Carinatae, for which he adopted the title _Euornithes_, used in a narrower sense by Dr. Stejneger. It has, however, been decided to follow Dr. Gadow on this point; while the marks of distinction given below make it seem at least probable that, whereas _Ichthyornis_ may be referred to the Carinate division, _Hesperornis_ should be placed in closer proximity to the Ratite forms. Our Neornithes Odontolcae consequently contain the HESPERORNITHES, the ENALIORNITHES, and _Baptornis_, all of which appear to be nearly related.

[Illustration: FIG. 13.–Restoration of _Hesperornis_. (From Huxley, after Marsh.) × 1/13.]

_Hesperornis regalis_, which stood about three feet high, and _H. crassipes_, of even larger dimensions, had blunt teeth in the {47}grooves of both maxilla and mandible, the number being thirty or more below, but considerably less above, where they did not reach to the anterior extremity. The bill was long and pointed, the rami of the lower jaw being entirely separate; the head was rather small, the neck was long, and the quadrate bone articulated with the skull by one knob only. The sternum was long, broad, and flat, without keel; the furcula was decidedly reduced, the metatarsus was moderate and laterally compressed; there were four toes, all directed forwards and probably webbed; the wing was rudimentary, being little more than a humerus; the tail was fairly long and broad, but had no pygostyle. _Enaliornis barretti_ and _E. sedgwicki_ of the Cambridge Greensand had leg-bones very similar to the above, but being only known from fragmentary remains, their position is uncertain; while the same may be said of _Baptornis_ of the North American Cretaceous strata, which, like the two last-named, is much smaller than _Hesperornis_.

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